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The Socio-Economic Implications of Converion from Commercial

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The Socio-Economic Implications of Converion from Commercial UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF CONVERSION FROM COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE TO PRIVATE GAME FARMING The case study of Cradock, a small town in the iNxuba Yethemba Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa VINCENT MDUDUZI ZUNGU ty of Cape Town ZNGVIN001 Supervisor: Professor Lungisile Ntsebeza Universi Thesis presented for the fulfilment of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Sociology March 2017 The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town DECLARATION This work has not been previously submitted in whole, or in part, for the award of any degree by anyone. It is my own work. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in this dissertation from the work, or works, of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. Student’ Name: Vincent Mduduzi Zungu Student Number: ZNGVIN001 Signature: ________________ i ABSTRACT This thesis sets out to investigate the socio-economic consequences or implications on the township people in Cradock (a town located in iNxuba Yethemba Municipality, Eastern Cape Province of South Africa) of the recent conversions from commercial agriculture to private game farming (PGF). The study draws primarily on research conducted in the town, the history of which is rooted in the development and expansion of commercial agriculture that took place in the early 1800s. It is specifically concerned with the effects of the conversion of agricultural land to game farming on the socio-economic conditions of black African1 and coloured2 township people, who have directly or indirectly depended on commercial agricultural production for many decades past. These people have, over the last 200 years, benefited from commercial agriculture through employment, material resource supplies and off-farm activities. These three kinds of socio-economic mechanisms played a crucial role in sustaining the socio-economic conditions of the Eastern Cape’s semi-arid towns, such as Cradock, in particular, of those citizens who reside in the townships. By using the de-agrarianisation thesis as a theoretical framework, the study argues that the agrarian change in the form of conversion towards private game farming industry is a form of the de-agrarianisation process, not the proliferation of off-farm activities or off-farm employment, as postulated by Bryceson and Jamal (1997). The study addresses the current debate about the implications of agrarian change emerging in the semi-arid area of the Eastern Cape and in South Africa. At an empirical level, the study seeks to test the proponents of private game farming who argue that game farming in formerly agrarian areas generates national revenue and provides multiple socio-economic benefits to the poor and marginalised people. Part of the context in which the discussion in this study takes place is the role that the development of agricultural land aims to play in improving the socio- economic status or livelihoods of marginalised rural people. Rural people still need to be 1 Black African refers to the South African major ethnic groups which include the Zulu, Xhosa, Basotho (South Sotho), Bapedi (North Sotho), Venda, Tswana, Tsonga, Swazi and Ndebele, all of whose people speak their own indigenous languages. 2 Coloured people come from a combination of ethnic backgrounds including black, white, Khoi, San, Griqua, Chinese and Malay. ii incorporated into the mainstream economic development promised as part of the ‘developmental agenda ‘of the ‘new South Africa’ (Nel & Hill, 2008). The study uses the economic history of agrarian economy in the Karoo and its production in relation to black Africans as an approach to analyse the effects of conversion. It critically examines the dynamics related to the contribution of private game farming in Cradock, an area historically known as an agricultural stronghold. The study thus argues that the recent introduction of private game farming in the formerly agrarian areas has established an elitist economy that is virtually inaccessible to the people of the area, especially the poor and previously marginalised people residing in the townships of Cradock. The study uses qualitative research design and various qualitative data collection methods such as interviews, household interviews, focus group interviews and qualitative observation, to unpack the socio-economic implications of conversions from the perspective of the township residents. The findings of the study indicate that while the introduction of private game farming industry in Cradock has generated employment for some township people, the industry has negatively affected the socio-economic livelihoods of these people. Although they receive a wage higher than what they received in the former commercial agriculture, the study reveals that their livelihoods are severely and negatively affected by the conversion, as they now have restrained access to the material resource supplies they used to access when the land was used for commercial agriculture. This, in turn, has resulted into the decline of off-farm activities such as butcheries, informal trades, and the trade in and selling of agricultural implements that were an integral part of the former agrarian economy of the town. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Initially, it is crucial to mention that the study benefited immensely from the people of Cradock, especially those residing in Lingelihle and Michuasdal townships. They were willing to participate in the research in order to share their experiences and knowledge related to the socio-economic implications of the conversion from commercial land to private game farming in Cradock. In addition, the people from the town, including the owner (Ricky) of the Albert B&B and the owners of Victoria Hotel in Cradock (Michael and Sandra Anthrobus) have also provided valuable information to the study. To all of them, as well as to those I have not mentioned, I extend my sincere gratitude. During the tenure of my study I was very fortunate to be part of the weekly seminars of the Land Reform and Democracy in South Africa, National Research Foundation (NRF) Research Chair in the University of Cape Town’s Sociology Department since 2009 (this was later relocated to the University’s Centre for African Studies. My involvement in these research seminars ignited my confidence in my abilities as a researcher. The forum was instrumental in shaping the conceptual aspect of my study. The Research Chair under the leadership of Prof. Lungisile Ntsebeza has certainly made a huge contribution to the development of young black intellectuals or scholars in South Africa. I thank the Chair for offering me financial aid for 2009’ year of my Ph.D study. I also thank the Ford Foundation International Scholarship for funding my Ph.D. for the period of three years. My heartfelt gratitude goes to Prof. Lungisile Ntsebeza for his unreservedly willingness to supervise my Ph.D. research. I was so much touched when he spent almost two days with me in the field to provide guidance and supports during data collection. For all the help he has offered me, including his contribution in terms of shaping my style of writing, I express my deepest thanks. Of all the members of the research forum, I would specifically like to express my gratitude to the following persons: Dr Femke Brandt, whose assistance in reviewing my chapters and encouraging me during a difficult time, is highly appreciated with profound gratitude. iv Ms Moonde Kabinga, whose encouragement and practical assistance in terms of formatting my thesis for final submission is highly acknowledged with deepest thanks. Clemence Rusenga, whose moral support and selfless sharing of knowledge and information during the term of my Ph.D. is highly appreciated. In 7 September 2006, Prof. Shirley Brooks, my supervisor for my Master’s degree in Geography and Environmental Sciences, invited me to the research forum. The forum was hosted by Association for Rural Advancement (AFRA) and chaired by Prof. Alan Brimer who was representing the South African Netherlands Partnership on Alternative Development (SANPAD). It was in this forum that Prof. Shirley Brooks persuaded me to pursue Ph.D. research on the effect of game farming in any rural locality of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). I thus extend my gratitude to Prof. Shirley Brooks for her continued moral support. I would also like to thank Prof. Alan Brimer for his selfless efforts in editing this thesis. My profound expression of gratitude goes to my wife, Mabatho Zungu, for her relentless support in times of difficulties during the journey of this Ph.D. She is the reason why I managed to survive the many challenges I faced during course of my Ph.D. study. In addition, I also extend my thanks to my two sons, Keagilwe Zungu and Rebaona Zungu, for their continued supports through words of comfort and prayers. I always feel honoured to have as my mother, Ms Nomusa Zungu, who has always believed in me during the difficult times of my life. The support she gave me from the day I was born to the present will always be in my memory, and for that, I express my sincere gratitude for her continued motherly support during the tenure of my PhD. I also thank Dr Nompumelelo Zungu for her encouragement and support of me to continue to maintain a high degree of dedication and focus during my Ph.D. experience. Last, but not least, I would like to extend my deepest thanks to Mr Julius Iren and Dr Bridget Irene for their immense motivation and prayers they offered to ensure I complete my Ph.D.
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