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The Formation of the Border Between Belgium

The Formation of the Border Between Belgium

HISTORY AND CARTOGRAPHY 15

The formation of the border between and in 1830-1839: a story about the importance of being a map lover Caroline De Candt by Caroline De Candt [email protected]

Introduction Maps play an important role in human history. Knowing how to use them can be a major advantage when you are a revolutionary, creating a new state, as we shall see (Fig. 1). The territory concerned here is the southern part of what is called The , or what was known in the 14th-15th century as the , and later as the (Habsburg) Spanish (1556-1715) or Austrian (1715-1795) Netherlands.

The white dotted line shows the current Belgian borders. The bright pink territory is the Zuidelijke Nederlanden, the ; the darker pink parts indicate land that was lost in the Eighty Years War by the Spanish to Fig. 1 : The map of The Low Countries as in 1648 the Dutch. The green territories have never been part of the Netherlands. in the aftermath of the defeat of From 1815 until 1830 the territory that 1830: the birth of Belgium, a , when an eager William of since the was referred to Orange-Nassau proclaimed himself as The Low Countries was reunited, country without frontiers king at the urging of the Congress but without the Grand of In 1830 a country is born that from of 3. The latter had one major Luxembourg, which was ‘given’ to then on will be called Belgium. It is goal: building a buffer around William by the Congress in Personal the result of an uprising, caused by with its dangerous revolutionary ideas, Union: therefore, not formally a part of many different factors, much too long meanwhile restoring the old order in the new state, although it had always to comment on here1 . The facts: the : hence the re-installing of a been part of the Low Countries ( see new Belgium is the southern part of French king and the consecration of a further 4). what is then the of new king for this new state in 1815. the Netherlands2 , a state constructed 4 The former -Bishopric of Liège and Principality of Malmédy-, and the Duchy of - never parts 1 It is impossible to go into the name of ; the word United was added of the Low Countries - were incorporated ‘Belgium’ the rebels chose and its history later by historians to avoid confusion with in the new state: again a story in its here today’s Kingdom of the Netherlands own; finally, it should be mentioned 2 To be precise: Le Royaume des Pays- 3 In fact, the Peace Treaty of of that another reason for annexing the Bas was the term the 1814 (between the reinstated French king ‘Belgian’ to the Dutch ones used, French being the international and the Coalition) decided about this, is compensation for the Cape Colony language of diplomacy at that time; forerunning the decisions of the Vienna and Ceylon (Dutch) that the British held Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Treaty Congress occupied and kept

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After the September 1830 rebellion, Also, Luxembourg will remain a sep- with the Treaty of the . a Parliament, the Congrès National, arate Grand-Duchy under the House This was the price the king of is formed in no time and a — for the of Nassau and part of the German (the Low Countries were his then) time — very modern Constitution is Confederation. payed for marrying his oldest daughter written. It is decided the new country Borderlines to Louis XIV, at the same time ending will be a monarchy and so the search one of these interminable wars for a is on ... Also, vital To become a ‘country’, in the sense between Spain and France. ingredients of national pride are at of a state, recognized as such by the hand: a national hymn is composed rest of the world, two ingredients So, why was it ‘given’ to King and some industrious lady has sewn are necessary: people9 and land, a William in 1815 and not simply together what will henceforth be the territory. And who says territory says incorporated in the new Kingdom? national flag. Only one thing is lacking: physical borders. Now this is a bit of a For different reasons: first, as a a country. problem: how do you split up a state, kind of compensation for his loss of formed by several units? One would hereditary land in (from the The problem is: how to convince the think by simply de-assembling the Nassau family) to . Secondly, contemporary Major Powers 5 to accept parts with which the United Kingdom the Prussians knew the value of the this new state, as they are not amused of the Netherlands had been formed formidable fortress Luxembourg , by this breaking up of the buffer in the first place. This may sound so Luxembourg was made part of the around France and the precious new relatively straightforward but in (Prussian balance they had installed in Europe reality, it isn’t, because: what does troops in the fortress could watch over in 1815 ... ‘several units’ mean, exactly? Does the French border). In this movement, it mean three units: ‘’ in the the so-called second partition, a part A delegation is dispatched to London north and in the south ‘Belgium’ but of the Luxembourg territory was 6 to advocate the good cause. The without Luxembourg? Or does it mean lost to the Prussians who annexed so-called London Conference of two: ‘Holland’ in the north and in the everything east of the rivers Mosel, December 1830 confirms, one could say south Belgium and Luxembourg, the /Sûre and 11, to secure what grants, the Belgian independence7 as former south part of the Austrian was now the border between the a neutral state. The official protocols Netherlands? From the start it is Kingdom of the Netherlands and the from 20 and 27 january 1831, the Bases clear the Major Powers share the first German Confederation 12. After all, de Séparation, state that the borders view, as does King William, while the didn’t the German Confederation give ‘from before 1790’8 will be restored. Belgian rebels take the second: after up the Prince-Bishopric Liège, since all, hadn’t it always been part of the time immemorial part of the Holy 5 On 20 november 1815 the Quadruple Alliance was formed between , Low Countries? Hadn’t its civilians , to be added to the new Britain, Prussia and ; the aim was supported the rebellion? kingdom? to have regular diplomatic contact, as There are other problems still in this Another border that needed to be mutual watch-dogs geopolitical imbroglio, for example defined in 1815 was that between 6 Since 4 november 1830 the – key strategic town on Luxembourg (part of the German Quadruple Alliance Members were the river and ‘capital’ of the Confederation) and the Kingdom of the already conveying in London, for this of – where both Netherlands. In reality, it was a kind occasion joined by France, in the form of ambassador Talleyrand ‘Holland’ and the Prince-Bishop of of interior border, since King William Liège held powers.10 So, who is to get simply added Luxembourg to his new 7 One could say surprisingly swift: an armed interference from the Major Maastricht? kingdom and governed it like the rest. Powers would certainly not have been The Duchy of Luxembourg Of course, when in 1830 rebellion impossible, but due to several factors breaks loose in Belgium, this border in the advantage of the , the Since the 14th century, this territory becomes important again13 (Fig. 2). was approved. has always been part of the Low Countries. Once a much bigger entity, 8 It is nowhere clearly explained why this date was chosen and not for example the Duchy first lost territory in 1659 11 Among others: Cantons , 1795 when the Republic of the Seven Kronenburg, Malmédy, Sankt-Vith, Provinces was formally ended; my guess territory Schleiden and part of is that from 1790 on many upheavals 9 Again, we cannot go into the feelings 12 As a form of compensation, part of started both in the Republic and the and opinions about the upheaval of the the Prince-Bishopric Liège and Duchy as a consequence people concerned; let’s just say they Bouillon were added to Luxembourg. of the , like the were very diverse, in as far they were ever formation of the Etats belgiques unis and 13 It runs from Pussemange (in today polled. the Powers didn’t want any reference to Vresse-sur- in Belgium) in the those events and play safe: in 1790, when 10 Recognized by the parties in a treaty south to Deiffelt (in today in Joseph II died, there was (still) a stable of 1679. Belgium).

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Fig. 2 : The map of Belgium as in 1839

Enters ... Jean-Baptiste Nothomb German Confederation, as we shall see. cartography. How much he valued So, when in June 1831 Jean-Baptiste cartographical knowledge is proven It will come as no surprise that Nothomb14 is sent to London after the by this sentence: 'How many mistakes none of the gentlemen in London Bases de Séparation have been decided would be avoided, if diplomats only who had decided on this matter on by the Great Powers, but before knew geography! In the negotiations was particularly bothered by any they are put into what would become with lords Grey and Palmerston about geographical notion and certainly not the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles, he is the borders of Belgium, my strength by any insight in the long and complex really the man who saves the day. was that I perfectly knew the historical history of what was called The Low geography of my country and they Countries. The Austrians who had last Born in 1805 in Messancy15 , he didn’t' .’17 ruled the before the French has studied law at the University He has a plan to solve the geographical Revolution probably weren’t paying of Liège16. He is a supporter of the difficulties. In favour of Belgium, attention in class when the subject Belgian Rebellion from the start and of course. Article 1 of the Bases de was treated, the Prussians were only in 1830 is elected as member of the Séparation assigned to Belgium all interested in the military potential Congrès National as representative territories that in 1790 were NOT in the of Luxembourg fortress, the British for . From early on, Nothomb possession of The United Provinces. were mainly interested in the port of is very interested in historical Well, Nothomb argues, at that moment (in French hands a military many enclaves there were owned threat and in Dutch a commercial 14 Together with Devaux; there were one) and the Russians couldn’t care other delegations sent by the Belgian 17 Original text :'Wie viele Fehler würden less. Only sly Talleyrand was as rebels before and after and even in der Politik vermieden, wenn die simultaneously, which didn’t add to the Diplomaten die Geographie kennten! usual well informed. His partition clarity of the situation; for the sake of this Bei den Verhandlungen mit Lord Grey plan was rejected but he managed clarity we focus on Nothomb here. und Lord Palmerston über die Grenzen Belgiens war meine Starke, dass ich die to eventually secure Bouillon, ‘the 15 Then in the French Département historische Geographie meines Landes key to the ’ as Vauban des Forêts, formerly the Grand-Duchy of genau kannte und sie nicht.’; Watelet, called it, as part of Belgium and not Luxembourg and today Belgium. Marcel, Cartografie en politiek in het of Luxembourg, that member of the 16 Ironically enough founded by William I België van de 19de eeuw, , 1987, p. in 1817. 71

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Fig. 3 : A map of the Austrian possessions in the Netherlands or Low Countries, .... published by William Faden , Geographer to His Majesty, Jany. 1st, 1789.

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Fig. 3 : A map of the Austrian possessions in the Netherlands or Low Countries, .... published by William Faden , Geographer to His Majesty, Jany. 1st, 1789.

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by either the Spanish king or by a Which maps did Nothomb, the ‘The five Powers offer their good 18 German . So strictly speaking British ministers and the Powers offices to keep the status quo (my these enclaves would have to become in London use? own underlining) in the Duchy of Belgian. But of course, being in Luxembourg for as long as the separate ‘Holland’, Belgium would be happy A key to the answer lies in a secret negotiations will take .’ 23 So, although to trade them for Dutch enclaves in protocol from 17 November 1830, issued the Powers confirm Luxembourg will Limburg (thus making the whole by the Powers, explaining why they remain a separate country 24, the tone province Belgian). Moreover, the wouldn’t give in to the Belgian territo- in the second document is much less ‘Belgians’ as successors of the Prince- rial claims: they would give prevalence definite and much seems to be left Bishop of Liège, could put their rights to those of King William I. . open for negotiation. over Maastricht all in the ‘bargain’. The More important for our question: two aim is clear: obtaining both Limburg maps were added to this protocol. The ‘statu quo’? and hopefully Luxembourg ... They were made in 1789 by the geogra- In 1831, the situation in the Duchy pher Faden and attributed Zeelandic is as follows: the Belgian rebels are So there he is in London, a man with and Maastricht (in as far as dominating and administrating the a mission. On 9 June he is received the sovereignty of the States General country but the fortress itself remains 22 by Lord Palmerston, the new Whig stretched) to the United Provinces. in Prussian hands. The Prussians, who Foreign Secretary. ‘The noble lord, The maps to which is referred must are after all sitting at the conference who at first had been talking about be A map of the Austrian possessions table in London, are very confident the protocols with utmost stiffness, in the Netherlands or Low Countries, the Duchy will remain in the German seemed more inclined to appreciate with the principalities of Liege and Confederation. Besides, who would what we were saying by the end of Stavelo (sic), &ca. Reduced from the be able to defy their military power? the conversation .’ 19 The next day trigonometric survey made by order of Surely not a bunch of Brussels Lord Grey, Prime Minister, grants H.R.H. the Prince Charles of . hooligans? him an interview. ‘At first, he seemed London, published by William Faden, As for the province of Limburg, here to regard the whole thing as a Geographer to His Majesty, Jany. 1st, also the Belgian rebels are in control, phantasm. I used an atlas. The map of 1789. (see Fig. 3- centrefold) except for the city of Maastricht, held the Low Countries was open while I They were inserted in his World Atlas by the Dutch. explained the issue of and from 1811. If the previous quotation the enclaves. He ended up admitting is referring to two maps, I think we All hell breaks loose! that the conference hadn’t grasped are only talking about one map here: It is clear King William cannot accept the full extent of the principles it had indeed, Faden’s map consists of two the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles: he proclaimed. Things have been decided, pages and each page ‘addresses’ a wants to keep both Luxembourg and he said, just stick to them. Nothomb problem Belgium was facing: the Limburg. In August 1831 a Dutch army didn’t ask any better. 20 attribution of Zeelandic Flanders on invades Belgium: it is the start of Later Nothomb will write about his the one hand, the issue of Limburg and the Ten Days Campaign. The Belgian stay in London he didn’t notice the city, Luxembourg on the other. army lacks unity in command due to nor the weather: ‘J’étais comme un So, since the Powers were using Faden political and military discord and is amoureux’.21 He is then 25. a couple of months earlier, it isn’t soon in a state of complete confusion. illogical to think the Atlas Nothomb The brand new Belgian king Leopold 18 Too much to enumerate here was referring to in Grey’s cabinet was I sees no other option than to call 19 Original text :‘ Le noble lord qui avait also Faden’s World Atlas. But that is in the help of the French. French d’abord parlé des protocols avec je ne speculation. We will probably never troops arrive and on 12 August 1831 an sais quelle raideur, paraissait vers la fin de la conversation mieux apprécier ce que know. armistice is signed. nous lui disions’. Passing on the hot potato The reaction in London 20 Original text: ‘Il parut d’abord traiter So Nothomb has made quite an The Major Powers are not amused: la chose de chimère. J’ai eu recours à un impression in London, one could atlas. La carte des Pays-Bas était ouverte they see the French intervention as devant nous tandis que j’expliquais la say. On 26 June 1831 the Treaty of the proof of the incapacity of the new state question du Limbourg et des enclaves. Eighteen Articles is issued, intended Il finit par convenir que la conference to be the legal translation of the Bases 23 Original text ‘Les cinq puissances n’avait pas envisagé toute la portée des de Séparation (protocols of 20 and 27 emploieront leurs bons offices pour que prémisses qu’elle avait posées dans son le statu quo (my own underlining) dans January 1831). Although, not quite so ... texte. La chose est faite, conclut-il, tenez- le Duché de Luxembourg soit maintenu vous-y.’ Nothomb ne demandait pas autre pendant le cours de la negotiation chose; Ruzette, Jacques, J.-B. Nothomb, séparée...’ Brussels, (La du Livre, coll. 56 24 On the other hand, the question of ‘Notre Passé’), 1946; p. 53 22 Trévire et Nervien, Les traités de 1831 et the joined rights of both parties over 21 ‘I felt like I was in love’; Ruzette, o.c., p. 1839, Bruxelles et Paris, 1918, p. 40, n. 2 Maastricht is confirmed in the Treaty..

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to aptly defend itself. Great-Britain fears the absorption of Belgium by France, Prussia doesn’t want to see Holland weakened, so doesn’t want to see Maastricht in Belgian hands and the German Confederation leaves it to the London Conference to decide about Luxembourg. All territorial hopes for Belgium are lost, which is what Nothomb learns when he is sent to London again for a very short visit. And this is what reflects in a new treaty: the Treaty of the XXIV articles 25. Gone are the open endings that ‘parties will negotiate...’, gone are the vague terms. It is a package deal with a Judgement of Solomon: Belgium gets part of Luxembourg, meaning King William loses it. To compensate this, William gets the right bank of the river Fig. 4. Carte de la province de Luxembourg: annexe à l’article 2 des traités signés Meuse and Maastricht. à Londres le 19 avril 1839 entre la Belgique d’une part et les Pays-Bas de l’autre part, et l’Autriche, la France, la Grande-Bretagne, la Prusse et la Russie de The third partition of Luxembourg l’autre part/lithographiée et publiée par Konen, How was this part of Luxembourg Source: Musée Dräi Eechelen,Luxembourg, outlined? In fact, the idea comes from The map being used is the Carte de the French (remember Talleyrand, Succession of events la province de Luxembourg annexed though his initial partition plan for to article 2 of the treaties signed in Belgium was never accepted) who • September 1830: troubles and London on 19 April 1839 between saw the whole buffer theory the other fighting with Dutch troops Belgium and The Low Countries, way around, of course, and who • 4 October 1830: the Gouver- and between Austria, France, wanted a buffer against the German nement Provisoire (formed by Great-Britain, Prussia and Russia/ Confederation. Also, they wanted to nine leaders of the rebellion) lithographed and published by Konen. secure their economic interests in the declares independence of the (Fig. 4) region: Liège was very much a market new state Belgium for French produce, so the roads • 4 November 1830: a ceasefire Jean-Jacques Konen, a Brussels connecting it to that part of France, via is proposed to the belligerent engraver, printer and publisher Arlon, were very important. And the parties by London made the original map on which the French city of Sedan would be better • 17 November 1830: a secret pro- borderline was drawn; it was then re- ‘protected’ in their view by adding the lithographed with the colours showing 26 tocol is made with two maps by Bouillon area to Belgium instead of Faden which parts went to which party by leaving it to Luxembourg. James Wyld (Geographer to Queen • 20 & 27 January 1831: Protocol Victoria), London; in all the different So, Luxembourg is split up again, along with the Bases de Séparation a line that is roughly described in the versions one can find in the different Treaty and sketched on a map. To the • 26 June 1831: Treaty of the Eigh- national archives, the signatures east of the line the territory would teen Articles, confirming the differ: sometimes Talleyrand’s is remain Luxembourgian, to the west it Bases de Séparation on it, sometimes the Dutch one is would become Belgian: the province of • 21 July 1831: King Leopold I is missing (versions from before 1839, no Luxembourg 27. sworn in doubt), sometimes the Belgian one is • 2 August 1831 start of the Ten missing; and the copy in 25 aka the of 1839, Days Campaign is a different map altogether: ‘réduite also called the First Treaty of London, sur la carte officielle’ and published by • 12 August 1831: Armistice the Convention of 1839, the Treaty of Mary-Muller et Cie, Bruxelles. Separation, the Quintuple Treaty of 1839. • 4 October 1831: Treaty of the Nothomb, no longer present in London, 26 This is the city of Bouillon and the XXIV Articles canton . is heartbroken. When he learns the • 8 June 1839: ratification of the- border will be drawn in Rodange, he 27 The road Arlon (B) - (F) Treaty of the XXIV Articles writes to Le Hon: ‘You cut me in half. and Arlon – (B) is explicitly mentioned as important guideline, as is the river Sûre and the borders of the arrondissement (L).

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Fig. 5. Carte de la province de Luxembourg, Bruxelles, Etablissement géographique de Bruxelles fondé par Ph. Vandermaelen en 1830, in Atlas de la Belgique en 10 feuilles: comprenant la carte générale du royaume et chacune des provinces ou se trouvent toutes les communes, les routes, rivières et canaux, 1834. Philippe Vandermaelen was arguably Belgium’s greatest geographer and cartographer of the 19th century. He is best known for his Atlas Universel (1825-1827), the first world atlas with all maps made on the same scale and using lithography. He also made the first topographic map of the new country, using the carte marchande by Ferraris.

Your line drawn on Rodange crosses for its two ‘capitals’, Maastricht and And so, thirteen years after the my commune... But let's leave aside . And all is peace and 1830 Belgian Rebellion, a country personal interests, it is necessary quiet for eight long years. was finally formed, with official that the line is drawn so that it meets borderlines and with a territory the between Longwy and 1839 that could have been very different, Halanzy.’28 (which it will not). To On 14 1838, after a lot of pres- possibly not containing a province of which a fretful Le Hon responds: ‘Why sion, King William informs London he Luxembourg ... (Fig. 5). is your family going astray beyond will sign the Treaty. Political Belgium Rodange?’’29 is flabbergasted. There’s Belgian As in all Solomonian Judgements this flags and manifestations everywhere: Treaty has the characteristic that Limburg and Luxembourg simply be- none of the parties is really happy long to Belgium now! with it. And indeed, the Belgian During the debate in the Chamber a Congrès National has great difficulty delegate gets a stroke and dies. There with it but finally accepts it (on strong is even a negotiation with the House instigation of Nothomb, among others). of Rothschild in Paris for a loan, to King William however refuses to sign buy the territory Belgium will lose. and will continue refusing until 1839. To no avail, the Powers are adamant: And all that time the statu quo we saw the Treaty will be executed. It is earlier will remain: Belgium holds ratified on 8 June 1839. In accordance Limburg and Luxembourg, except with art. 6 a mixed Belgian-Dutch commission is appointed to implement 28 Original text : ‘Vous me coupez en the borderline. On 7 and 8 August deux. Votre ligne tirée sur Rodange traverse ma commune... Mais laissons de 1843 (sic!) an agreement is signed in cartes et plans, cartographie historique côté les intérets personnels, il faut que Maastricht and a map is attached, de l’espace luxembourgois XVe- la ligne soit tracée de manière qu’elle showing the borderline between the XIX siècle, Tielt, Lannoo, 1989, p. 51; recontre la Chiers entre Longwy et Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg and unfortunately, Watelet doesn’t mention Halanzy..’ Belgium in gold,signed by the different the whereabouts of this map; During our 29 ‘Pourquoi aussi votre famille va-t-elle commissaries30. excursion to Luxembourg in May (see s’égarer par delà Rodange?’; Ruzette, o.c., elsewhere in this magazine) efforts will be p. 64 30 Watelet, Marcel, Luxembourg en made to see this map too.

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