NPJ Spr 2001.Final

ommon camas, also known as c small or blue camas, (Camassia quamash (Pursh) Green [Liliaceae]; synonym Camassia esculen- ta [Raf.]) is a stout, robust herbaceous plant with a dense inflorescence (Hitchcock and Cronquist 1973). Camas is a perennial herb, from 30 to 70 cm tall (12 to 28 in), that grows from an edible bulb. Leaves are long and narrow, grass-like, and emerge from the base. The inflorescence is a spike-like cluster borne on a leafless stem that is held above the leaves. Common camas blooms from April through June. Flowers are light to deep blue (rarely white; Figure 1) and more than 3 flowers in an inflorescence may be open at one time. Each flower has 6 tepals, 6 stamens, and 3 stigmas. The fruit is barrel-shaped to three-angled capsule, splitting into 3 parts to release many black, angled seeds. Common camas is distinguished from great camas (Camassia quamash (Pursh) Greene ssp. quamash; synonym Camassia leichtlinii) by the following: the flowers are slightly irregular, with the lowest tepal curving outward away Photo by Steve Northway from the stem; the anthers are bright yellow; the plant is relatively short and stout, with shorter flowers stalks and Ethnobotany, smaller bulb; and there is no waxy powder on the leaves. Common camas occurs in wet prairies and meadows Culture, Management, across much of western Canada and the northwestern US; great camas gen- erally only occurs west of the Cascade and Use Mountains. Other botanical varieties of Common Camas or subspecies have been described for the northwestern US (Hitchcock and others 1969). MICHELLE STEVENS, DALE C DARRIS, AND SCOTT M LAMBERT Warning! Death camas (Zigadenus venenosus Wats. [Liliaceae]) can be confused with edible camas bulbs and ABSTRACT is toxic to humans. Be sure of your identification of camas bulbs before Common camas (Camassia quamash (Pursh) Green [Liliaceae]) is one of the most cul- digging or eating them! turally-significant food plants in the US Pacific Northwest. This perennial herb occurs ADAPTATION in wet prairies and meadows and has been widely used for human food and trade, 47 wildlife food, wetland plantings, and site restoration. We describe ethnobotanical uses Common camas grows in wet mead- SPRING 2001 for camas, methods for propagating it from bulbs and seeds, and management of ows, wet prairies, swales, depressions, existing stands. annual floodplains, moist hillsides, and along streambanks. Camas habitat KEY WORDS: Camassia, container nursery, bareroot nursery, vegetative propagation, bulb is often wet ephemeral, usually drying NOMENCLATURE: (plants) USDA NRCS (1999); (fungi) Farr and others (1989); out by late spring. It naturally occurs (nematodes) ITIS (2000) from southwestern British Columbia

VOLUME 2 • NUMBER 1 Montana, and south to California including the Coast Salish of Vancouver Island, Squamish, Sechelt, Comox, Kwak-waka’wakw, Grand Ronde and Kalapuya (or Callapooya) (Kuhnlein and Turner 1991). The bulb of common camas was a very important food and trading material to the Nez Perce of northeastern Oregon, eastern Washington, and northern Idaho. It was also considered to be one of the most important bulbs to northern California native peoples. Except for choice varieties of dried salmon, no other food item was more widely traded than camas bulbs (Gunther 1973). People traveled great distances to harvest the bulbs and there is some suggestion that plants were dispersed beyond their range by transplanting (Turner and Efrat 1982; Turner and Kuhnlein 1983). To the Nez Perce, camas is still the most important root in trade, and trading is traditionally impossible without camas bulbs (Harbinger 1964). Dried camas is the most expensive form of camas, with baked and then raw camas being less expensive. At marriage trades, the girl’s family gives roots in corn husk bags. At funeral trades, camas roots are given to friends and relatives by the

Photo by Steve Northway widow. The Nez Perce traded camas roots with the Warm Springs, the Umatilla, the Cayuse, the Walla Walla, the Nespelem, the Yakama, the Crows, and the Flatheads. Common camas does not appear to naturally occur in southcentral British Figure 1 • White-flowering Camassia quamash. Columbia and the Okanogan region of Washington State. But the native peo- ple, the Thompsons, used the dried to northern California, east to plantings, and site restoration. bulbs as food. The dried bulbs were Montana, Wyoming, and Utah. It is Cultivars of common camas are obtained from the Coastal Salish found from near sea level to 3300 m available in the flower bulb industry. (Turner and others 1990) or from the (10,800 ft) in the Rocky Mountains Camassia quamash ‘Orion’ has deep Nez Perce (Figure 2). and Sierra Nevada Mountains. blue flowers. The flowers of ‘San Juan Bulbs were usually dug after flow- Common camas inhabits moist form’ are an even deeper, more vibrant ering, in summer, although some peo- meadows, rocky outcrops, bluffs, blue (Brenzel 1995). Another common ples dug them in spring. Harvesting and islands in southwestern British camas variety has a white flower. bulbs traditionally took weeks or 48 Columbia. In eastern Washington ETHNOBOTANIC USES and northern Idaho, it occurs in wet months among the Nez Perce. Each prairies and wet meadows, histori- Historically, camas was an extremely family group “owned” its own camp- cally very common in the Camas important native plant and continues ing and harvesting spot, and these Prairie and the Palouse Prairie. to be one of the most important were passed down in families from Camas has been used for human “root” foods of western North generation to generation. Turf was lift- SPRING 2001 food and trade, wildlife food, American indigenous peoples, from ed out systematically in small sections medicinal purposes, conservation southwestern British Columbia to and then replaced after only larger

NATIVE PLANTS JOURNAL bulbs were removed. Bulbs were dug access to camas bulbs are priorities of (Thoms 1989). Indian women in with a pointed digging stick; bulbs many Indian people. Once, dense Oregon’s Umpqua Valley robbed were broken up and replanted. stands dominated many sites in the camas bulbs from gopher caches Annual controlled burning was used region. According to the journal of (Piper 1916). Phytophagus insects to maintain an open prairie-like habi- Meriwether Lewis on 12 June 1806, also eat camas leaves. tat for optimum camas production. “. . . .the quawmash in now in blume PLANT ESTABLISHMENT Areas were only harvested once every and from the colour of its bloom at a few years. short distance it resembles lakes of fine Common camas can be propagated Traditionally, camas bulbs were clear water, so complete is this desep- from seeds or bulbs. Common camas almost always pit-cooked; within the tion than on first sight I could have generally prefers full sun to partial past 100 y camas bulbs have also been swarn it was water” (Moulton 1983; shade, with bulb depth ranging from cooked by stovetop methods (Turner see Murphey and Van Allen 1959 for a 5 to 20 cm (2 to 8 in) but most com- and Kuhnlein 1983). Bulbs are similar description; Figure 3). monly 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in). Bulbs allowed to cook for 24 to 36 h when Camas stalks and leaves were used of common camas can be substantial- pit-cooked (Turner and Bell 1983). It for making mattresses. It was some- ly smaller in size and occur at shal- is probable that lengthy cooking is times used in place of grass when bak- lower soil depths than great camas. necessary for maximum conversion of ing camas in pits. Camas is used by Bulb depth appears limited by high inulin to fructose. The sweetness of the Nez Perce as a cough medicine. It water tables, anoxic conditions, or cooked camas gave it utility as a sweet- is boiled, and the juice is strained and restrictive layers. Plants require moist ener and enhancer of other foods. mixed with honey. Horticulturally, this soil conditions or irrigation to Before sugar, molasses, and honey plant is used for cut flowers, beds, become established. were introduced by European traders, borders, ground cover, rock gardens, Bulb Collections sweetening agents were in short sup- and prairie restoration. ply among native peoples, and camas Elk, deer, and moose reportedly Common camas is readily established was highly valued in this capacity. graze camas early in the spring by transplanting wild or commercially Sometimes other foods, such as the (Craighead and others 1963). grown bulbs. Wild harvests should be rhizomes of springbank clover Gophers eat camas and move the restricted to salvage sites with appro- (Trifolium wormskioldii Lehm. bulbs to another area where they priate approvals or permits. Due to loss [Fabaceae]) and the roots of Pacific sprout and grow the next year of wetland habitat throughout the US, silverweed (Potentilla anserina ssp. pacifica (TJ Howell) Rousi Photo 38-1062, Historical Photograph Collection, [Rosaceae]) were cooked with the University of Idaho Library, Moscow, Idaho camas bulbs. The Kalapuya of the Willamette Valley in Oregon flavored camas bulbs with tarweed (Madia spp. Molina [Asteraceae]). Camas bulbs store poorly fresh. They were cooked or sun-dried and stored for later use. Sometimes camas bulbs were pressed flat and made into camas cakes the size of biscuits before being dried (Turner and Kuhnlein 1983). Dried bulbs were re-constitut- ed by soaking in water, usually overnight. Many of the traditional camas gathering sites, such as wet prairies of the Palouse Prairie in eastern Washington, Weippe Prairie and Camas Prairie in northern Idaho, and 49 the Willamette Valley in Oregon, have SPRING 2001 been converted to agriculture. The average size of a camas patch needed to feed a 5 person family was 2.7 ha (6.7 ac) (Thoms 1989). Areas produc- ing camas roots are now hard to find. Figure 2 • A Nez Perce woman pounds sun-dried camas bulbs in the Clearwater River Restoration of camas prairies and country of northern Idaho around 1890.

VOLUME 2 • NUMBER 1 Photo by Frederic D Johnson

Figure 3 • Camas blooming in an Idaho meadow.

harvesting plants from the wild is rarely medium such as dry peat moss, similar bulbs must be 3- to 5-y-old and have 3 appropriate or legal except under sal- to recommendations for fall planted or to 4 bulb leaves or scales (Thoms vage situations. Use of bulbs or seeds spring flowering bulbs (such as daffodils 1989). Bulb leaves are laminate concen- from local nurseries or greenhouses is and tulips). Keep bulbs from completely tric layers that comprise much of the strongly recommended. drying out and transport or store at 17 bulb, reminiscent of an onion. Bulbs The best time to excavate bulbs is to 20 ˚C (63 to 68 ˚F) (De Hertogh with just 2 bulb leaves never flower, from early summer through mid-fall. and others 1990). Common camas those with 3 routinely flower, and those This is the “quiescent” period that fol- reproduces vegetatively by offset bul- with 4 almost always flower. Older lows seed maturation, foliar senescence, blets (De Hertogh and others 1993). bulbs will be found deeper in the and development of the daughter bulb. However, much less than 1% of a wild ground, and bulbs that flower will However, commercial bulb harvest takes population may produce offsets and probably be at least 1.5 to 2.0 cm (0.6 place when leaves are still green and bulbs may be stimulated to do so only to 0.8 in) wide (Thoms 1989). In the must be done carefully to avoid dam- as the result of a wound (Thoms 1989). commercial bulb trade the minimum age. The bulb tunic or covering is very Plant camas outdoors in the fall or size for export and thus flowering is a thin (De Hertogh and Le Nard 1993). early winter when soils are moist circumference of 6.0 cm (2.4 in) (De Given that camas commonly occupies enough to dig and prevailing soil tem- Hertogh and Le Nard 1993), roughly 50 sites high in silt and clay that dry out in peratures are cool; this is generally equivalent to a diameter of 2.0 cm summer, windows for digging are often below 16 ˚C (60 ˚F). Fall planting (0.75 in) and about one-half the diam- narrow. There is a brief period to har- allows for better root development and eter and circumference of great camas. vest bulbs when soils are moist after fulfillment of any chilling requirement The larger the bulb the greater the flowering in the spring; the next time to for flowering (De Hertogh and others planting depth. Planting depth (as harvest is in fall after the rains begin. 1993). Bulbs, bulblets, and offsets can measured to the base of the bulb) SPRING 2001 Store camas bulbs in a dry, dark, be used (Figure 4). However, if flower- ranges from 1.2 to 2.5 cm (0.5 to 1 cool, well ventilated place in a potting ing is desired the following spring, in) for 1- to 2-y-old bulblets up to 10

NATIVE PLANTS JOURNAL to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) for mature bulbs. essary to bury bulbs with a protective mancy. Germination itself also requires Larger bulbs (4 cm (1.5 in) diameter wire mesh to prevent herbivore damage; cool conditions and can occur in the or greater) can be planted deeper the mesh needs to be coarse enough to dark (Northway 1998). An alternative (20 to 25 cm [8 to 10 in]) if drainage allow shoots to grow through (De is to plant seed outdoors in the fall is appropriate. Hertogh and others 1993). (September to October). One-leafed, Commercial production involves grass-like seedlings will emerge in Seed Collections transplanting immature bulbs from February or March under suitable con- October to November in well-drained Common camas propagates easily from ditions where winters are comparative- soil, pH 6 to 7, with at least 2% organ- seeds. It can be collected as soon as the ly mild. Germination occurs in early ic matter. Seed is not commonly used. pods mature (turn light brown) or split May in Montana or at 4 ˚C (40 ˚F) Bulbs are covered with at least 7.5 cm open to reveal the mature black seeds. (Wick and Evans 2000). Seedlings (3 in) of soil above the bulb’s top end, Pods ripen from late May to July require moisture through the spring followed by 6 cm (2 in) of straw mulch. depending on latitude, longitude, mois- growing period to survive. Warm tem- Four weeks after planting a ture conditions, and elevation. Dry peratures during seedling development

7N:14P2O5:28K2O fertilizer is applied seeds can be stored frozen or in a cool, can be lethal. (presumably top-dressed). The camas dry place prior to planting (Watson Suggested site preparation methods bed is kept damp, but once plants 1988). We estimate 287,000 (± 66,000) and seeding rates for wetland revegeta- become senescent after flowering, water- seeds per kg (130,000 ± 30,000/lb) for tion are not well known, but in at least ing is discontinued. By this time, seeds Camassia quamash ssp. breviflora Gould. 1 unpublished study an estimated seed- have formed and bulbs are curing. Camas seed requires 42 to 100 d of ing rate was determined (Darris, Camas bulbs are harvested in late July cold, moist stratification (1 to 4 ˚C unpublished data). At the Corvallis (De Hertogh and others 1990). No seri- [34 to 40 ˚F]) for maximum germina- Plant Materials Center in Oregon, ous insect pests are reported, but dis- tion (90% to 100%) (Emery 1988; Darris used a broadcast rate of 210 live eases include the fungus Rhizoctonia Thoms 1989; Deno 1993; Guerrant seeds per m2 (20/ft2) for both Camassia tuliparum (Kleb.) Whetzel & J.M. and Raven 1995; Northway 1998). subspecies and found poor to good Arthur and nematodes in the genus “Moist stratification” means placement seedling counts the following spring Ditylenchus Filipjev (Anguinidae)(De of dry seeds in layers of a moist medi- (0 to > 105 per m2 [0 to > 10/ft2]). Hertogh and others 1990). Some pest um at cool temperatures to allow for Seedling success was dependent on control is done by immersion of bulbs moisture uptake and to break seed dor- weed competition, hydrology, type of in a hot water treat- ment for 4 h at 43.5 to 45 ˚C (110 to 113 ˚F). Another pest is a mosaic virus (De Hertogh and Le Nard 1993). Suggested spac- ing for bulbs in flower beds and nat- uralized landscapes varies from 7.5 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) apart (85 to 105/m2 [8 to 10/ft2]) to 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) apart (Bryan 1989). Others recommend 6 to 8 bulbs every 30 cm (12 in) for outdoor gardens 51 SPRING 2001 (Brenzel 1995; Photo by Kas Dumroese Kruckeberg 1996). A dense “natural” stand may have 100 plants per m2 (9/ft2) or more (Thoms 1989). It may be nec- Figure 4 • Camas bulbs beginning to grow in late fall.

VOLUME 2 • NUMBER 1 disturbance, mulch, erosion, or other MANAGEMENT “better” bulbs to camas areas; 8) sus- factors. Camas seedling establishment tainable harvest techniques using dig- appeared inhibited by dense stands of Traditional resource management of ging sticks or other implements; digging perennial ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum common camas was often intensive, to techniques included partial, selective Lam. [Festuceae]) but benefited from a the point of being considered “semi- harvesting, and incidental or planned thin mulch (straw) of tufted hairgrass agricultural” by some authors. Cultural promotion of camas colonization and (Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv. management of common camas was reproduction; 9) removal of death [Festuceae]) and less plant competition, used by Native Americans to maintain, camas bulbs from growing areas so they at least on well-drained, stable, slightly increase, and enhance their camas areas. would not accidentally be mistaken for higher ground. According to Turner and others (1990), the edible camas bulbs. In areas with wet, mild winters, soil traditional resource management Camas is favored as forage by deer scarification for shallow seed coverage or included: 1) ownership, demarcation, and other wildlife species, so fencing or just constant moisture from irrigation or and inheritance of beds or patches that repellents may be a useful tool, especial- winter rains can result in good germina- were maintained by individuals or fami- ly important during the first growing tion. At least 1 western Oregon grower lies; 2) clearing camas areas of rock, season. Consistent soil moisture is sows seeds directly on the soil surface in brush, and weedy vegetation for required every spring, but the soil can fall (Robinson 1999). However, growers improved bulb production and easier be allowed to dry out soon after the in Idaho have found that a 2.5- to 5-cm harvest; 3) harvesting bulbs after seeds pods mature or the leaves senesce (dry (1- to 2-in) covering of organic mulch is were set; 4) periodically burning camas up and turn brown) in early summer. required during the first growing season fields in summer after bulb harvest; 5) Moderate soil nutrient levels are benefi- to protect the tiny bulblet from exposure sometimes removing or lifting overlying cial. In natural settings, minor soil dis- to dry soil, surface cracking, and extreme sod where camas grew with other herba- turbance (loosening, surface scarifica- temperatures. Sawdust or a chemically ceous plants so bulbs could be harvest- tion) adjacent to existing specimens killed dense stand of grass works well ed; after harvesting the sod was may enhance natural regeneration by (Watson 1999). Seeds buried deeper replaced; 6) digging or “cultivation” of seeds. Late summer field burning than 1 to 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 in) will not the camas area to keep the soil loose; 7) (where and when permitted) may germinate successfully (Watson 1988). “selective breeding” by transplanting improve stand vigor, reduce competi-

IslandPress the environmental publisher

Comprehensive state-by-state Roadside Use listings feature: • Color maps for each state with natural vegetation of Native Plants zones clearly marked Edited by Bonnie L. Harper-Lore • Comprehensive lists of and Maggie Wilson native plants, organized by U.S. Department of Transportation type of plant and including Federal Highway Administration both scientific and common names his unique handbook provides road- ence whose utility extends far beyond • Current information on Tside and adjacent land managers the roadside, offering a toolbox for a invasive and noxious with the information and background new aesthetic that can be applied to all species to be avoided they need to begin making site-specific kinds of public and private land. Includes • Resources for more infor- 52 decisions about what kinds of native essays on ecological restoration and mation, including contact plants to use, and addresses basic tech- management from experts in the field. names and addresses for niques and misconceptions about using 5.5 x 8.5 • 665 pages • Color maps, appendixes local experts in each state native plants. It is a one-of-a-kind refer- Paperback: $25.00 ISBN: 1-55963-837-0

SPRING 2001 Island Press •Box 7-UID • Covelo CA 95428 • 707-983-6432 outside U.S. • www.islandpress.org • Call 1-800-828-1302

NATIVE PLANTS JOURNAL tion from brush and certain weeds, and Kuhnlein HV, Turner NJ. 1991. Traditional plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples. aid in regeneration. For optimal bulb Nutrition, botany, and use. Vancouver (BC): development, avoid mowing or grazing Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. 633 p. more than lightly, if at all, even during Moulton GE, editor. 1983. The journals of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Volume 8, June 10 foliar senescence. Individual plants may - September 26, 1806. Lincoln (NE): University live 15 to 20 y. of Nebraska Press. Murphey E, Van Allen V. 1959. Indian uses of REFERENCES native plants. Ukiah (CA): Mendocino County Historical Brenzel KN, editor. 1995. Sunset western garden Society. 81 p. OTHER CAMAS REFERENCES book. Menlo Park (CA): Sunset Publishing Northway S. 1998. Personal commu- Corporation. 512 p. nication. Corvallis (OR): Oregon Bryan J. 1989. Bulbs. Portland (OR): Timber Press. Native Plant Society. Guard JB. 1995. Wetland plants of 430 p. Piper CV. 1916. Notes on Quamasia Oregon and Washington. Redmond Craighead JJ, Craighead FC, Davis RJ. 1963. A field with a description of a new (WA): Lone Pine Publishing. 239 p. guide to Rocky Mountain wildflowers. Boston species. Proceedings of the (MA): Houghton Mifflin Company. Biological Society of Washington Pojar J, MacKinnon A. 1994. Plants of Deno NC. 1993. Seed germination theory and 24:77. the Pacific Northwest coast: practice. State College (PA): self-published and Robinson R. 1999. Personal commu- Washington, Oregon, British self-distributed. p 110. nication. Lorane (OR): Balance Columbia and Alaska. Redmond De Hertogh AA, Le Nard M. 1993. Chapter 37, Restoration Nursery. (WA): Lone Pine Publishing and the general chapter on spring flowering bulbs. In: Thoms A. 1989. The northern roots British Columbia Ministry of Forests DeHertogh AA, Le Nard, editors. The physiolo- of hunter-gatherer intensifica- 527 p. gy of flower bulbs. New York (NY): Elsevier tion: camas and the Pacific Science Publishing Co. 734 p. Northwest [dissertation]. Pullman De Hertogh AA, Noone C, Lutman A. 1990. (WA): Washington State Camassia. In: Geophyte, Version 2.2. Raleigh University. 521 p. (NC): North Carolina State University, Turner NJ, Bell MAM. 1983. The eth- Department of Horticultural Science. 8 p. nobotany of the southern Kwakiutl Indians of De Hertogh AA, Gallitano LB, Pemberton GH, British Columbia. Econonomic Botany Traer ME. 1993. Guidelines for the utilization of 27:257–310. flowering bulbs as perennial (naturalized) Turner NJ, Efrat BS. 1982. The eth- plants in North American landscapes and gar- nobotany of the Hesquiat Indians dens. Hillegom, Netherlands: Holland flower of Vancouver Island. Victoria (BC): bulb technical services, Netherlands Flower British Columbia Provincial Bulb Center (IBC). Bulletin No. 37. Museum. Cultural Recovery Paper AUTHOR INFORMATION Emery DE. 1988. Seed propagation of native No. 2. California plants. Santa Barbara (CA): Santa Turner NJ, Kuhnlein HV. 1983. Camas Michelle Stevens Barbara Botanic Garden. (Camassia spp.) and riceroot Jones & Stokes Farr DF, Bills GF, Chamursi GP, Rossman AY. 1989. (Fritillaria spp.): two Liliaceous Environmental Consultants Fungi on plants and plant products in the “root” foods of the Northwest Sacramento, CA United States. St Paul (MN): The American Coast Indians. Ecology of Food Phytopathological Society Press. 1252 p. and Nutrition 13:199–219. Dale C Darris Guerrant EO Jr, Raven A. 1995. Seed germination Turner NJ, Thompson LC, Thompson USDA Natural Resources and storability studies of 69 plant taxa native MT, York AZ. 1990. Thompson Conservation Service ethnobotany: knowledge and to the Willamette Valley wet prairie. Portland Corvallis Plant Materials Center (OR): The Berry Botanic Garden. 65 p. usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of British Columbia. 3415 NE Granger Avenue Gunther E. 1973. Ethnobotany of western Victoria (BC): Royal British Corvallis, OR 97330 Washington. Seattle (WA): University of Columbia Museum. Memoir No. [email protected] Washington Press. Seattle University of 3. 335 p. Washington Publications in Anthropology 10(1). USDA NRCS. 1999. The PLANTS data- Scott M Lambert base, Version 3.0. URL: USDA Natural Resources Harbinger LJ. 1964. The importance of food plants http://plants. usda.gov/plants in the maintenance of Nez Perce cultural iden- (accessed 30 Oct 2000). Baton Conservation Service tity [MSc thesis]. Pullman (WA): Washington Rouge (LA): National Plant Data Washington State University State University. 82 p. Center. PO Box 646410 Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A. 1973. Flora of the Watson RD. 1999. Personal commu- Pullman, WA 99164-6410 Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual. nication. Moscow, Idaho. [email protected] Seattle (WA): University of Washington Press. 730 p. Wick D, Evans J. 2000. Propagation protocol for container Camassia Hitchcock CL, Cronquist A, Ownbey M, Thompson quamash (Pursh) Greene ssp. qua- JW. 1969. Vascular plants of the Pacific mash plants (164 ml (10in3) Leach Cone-tainers); Northwest: part 1. Seattle (WA): University of Glacier National Park, West Glacier, Montana. Washington Press. 914 p. In: Native Plant Network. URL: http://native- [ITIS] Integrated Taxonomic Information System. plants.for. uidaho.edu (accessed 30 Oct 2000). 2000. Biological names. Version 4.0 [on-line Moscow (ID): University of Idaho, College of 53

database]. URL: http://www.itis.usda.gov/plant- Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. SPRING 2001 proj/itis/itis-query.html (accessed 7 Nov 2000). Kruckeberg AR. 1996. Gardening with native plants of the Pacific Northwest, 2nd edition. Vancouver (BC): Greystone Books/Douglas and McIntyre and University of Washington Press. 282 p.

VOLUME 2 • NUMBER 1