Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 1 Green Jobs Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia of the Republic of Case Study Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ISBN 978-608-65506-4-6 Skopje, November 2013 Arkus Design Graphic and Print: design Benjamin Shultz Proof-reading: Pece Nedanovski, PhD Author: Efficiency thefor Energy Sector Housing Project USAID and Habitat for Humanity Macedonia Project: Executive Director Zoran Kostov, PhD For thepublisher: www.habitat.org.mk 1000 Skopje, Macedonia Nikola Parapunov no.41, Makoteks 1floor Habitat for Humanity Macedonia Publisher: Green Jobs: Study Case of Republic the of Macedonia reflect views theof USAID or the United StatesGovernment. contents are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).The This studyis made possible by the support of the American people through 2

Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 3 Author: Author: Skopje, November 2013 November Skopje, Green Jobs Pece Nedanovski, PhD Nedanovski, Pece Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia of the Republic of Case Study Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia COBISS.MK-ID 95011082 -Македонија места а) Зелени -CD-a работни I.Nedanovski, Pece Недановски, види Пеце ISBN 978-608-65506-3-9 Macedonia /Pece Nedanovski 178-181. -Содржи и:Green study jobs:case of Republic the of Текст PDF во формат, -Библиографија: содржи 182стр. стр. ;12см диск ЦД-РОМ - 1Оптичи Македонија /Пеце Недановски. -Скопје -Македонија, :Хабитат 2013. на Република :Случакот извор]] [[Електронски места Зелени работни ПецеНЕДАНОВСКИ, 331.103.1:502.13(497.7)(0.034.44) библиотека “Св.Климент Охридски”,Национална иуниверзитетска Скопје публикација во CIP -Каталогизација 4 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 9 11 19 21 21 24 24 26 29 31 34 36 40 41 42 45 45 46 47 47 50 51 51 52 55 58 58 OLE – THE R ON 5 G AND CREATI ...... ON EFINITI VERNMENT...... tents Con : ...... ON f S D OB N S MEASURI OB RD...... O DUCTI 2.2.2. Designing a Green Jobs Survey...... Jobs 2.2.2. Designing a Green ...... Survey Can Be Data Used How of 2.2.3. Context SurveyUsed in a ...... Jobs Green of and Categories 2.2.4. Definitions ...... Items 2.2.5. Survey Questionnaire ...... Creation Jobs Green 2.5.1. About O F THE GO ...... the New to the Old from needs: Continuity evolving of 1.1. A context ...... Jobs” “Green of the Concept for Challenges 1.2. Contemporary ...... the Economy Greening or Economy 1.3. Green Job...... Green a of Defining Problem 1.4. The ...... Definitions Job 1.5. Green ...... Jobs Green of Definition Measurable to 1.6. Approach ...... in Employment 1.7. Changes ...... Growth Jobs Green for Challenges and 1.8. Potentials Losers...... and 1.9. Winners ...... Jobs Decent as Jobs 1.10. Green ...... Economy Sustainable and Green to 1.11. Transition Survey...... Jobs 2.2. Green Surveys...... Jobs Purposes2.2.1. Principal Green of Information Nationwide of Development for 2.3. Considerations ...... Employment Green-Related on ...... Approaches Empirical Estimating Jobs: Green of Prediction and 2.4. Measurement ...... Creation Jobs Green and 2.5. Government REW ble o able T O FO ...... EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTR 1. GREEN J 2. GREEN J ...... Prediction and Measurement Jobs Green of 2.1. Need Green Jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia of the Republic of Case Study Jobs: Green Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 3.1. International with Green Experience Jobs: Methodological Remarks...... 4. GREENJ 3. GREENJ 3.2. USA...... 4.3.1. Unemployment inMacedonia...... Market4.3. Labor inMacedonia -Trends and Structure...... Strategies, and 4.2. Institutional Framework and Legal -Analysis of Relevant the Documents, 4.1. Business Environment inMacedonia...... 3.4.1. Australia’s Green Jobs Agenda...... 3.4. Australia...... 3.3.2. Italy...... 3.3.1. Spain...... 3.3. European Union...... Regarding Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy RegardingSources Renewable Efficiency and ...... 111 Energy Energy 4.8. Capacities of Macedonian the Construction/Building Sector Analyses of Possibilities the inMacedonian Circumstances...... 107 Efficiency and 4.7. Energy Creating “Green Jobs” in Macedonia: 4.6. Market for Green Jobs or Supply and Demand for Green Jobs...... 102 4.5. Potentials and Prerequisites for Creating New and “Green Jobs”...... 101 3.2.3. Federal Funds for Residential Re-Insulation. 3.2.2. Government’s Role...... 3.2.1. Introduction...... 2.5.4. Creating Green Jobs’ Drivers of Green Jobs ...... 2.5.3. Public Investment Creation or inRenewable Energy: Destruction Role2.5.2. Onthe of Government the ...... 4.4. Potentials for Improvement of Business the Environment...... 100 4.3.3. Institutions and Market Labor ...... Market4.3.2. Labor and Force Labor ...... 3.4.3. Job on Loss Way the to Sustainable Economy?...... Challenge3.4.2. The for Unions ...... 3.3.7. The Netherlands...... 3.3.6. United Kingdom...... 3.3.5. Sweden...... 3.3.4. Denmark...... 3.3.3. Germany...... 3.2.6. The Issue of Just Transition...... 3.2.5. Community Education and Green Jobs ...... 3.2.4. Scientific Approach/Research the of Issue on Green Jobs...... OBS PO OBS INUSA,EUR TENTIAL INMAC ED l aws ...... O P EAN UI ...... 6 ONIA...... ON, ANDAUSTRALIA ...... 67 91 70 69 69 67 61 60 97 97 96 96 91 88 87 85 85 84 83 82 81 79 79 77 75 74 73 72 70 62 92 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia

141 145 117 ...... 132 ...... 122 raining 113 ...... t nstitutions evelopment evelopment i d 123 ...... easures m raining raining nergy t e ...... 129 Macedonia fficiency in e ducation and and ducation ...... 131 119 ...... e ...... 125 isabilities 120 ...... IA ON d rograms/ elevant elevant p ...... 135 . easures nergy r 7 e ector . arriers m ...... 138 easures s b ...... 135 uilding 114 ...... m ocational ocational b v eople with with eople ...... 136 easures olicy 127 ...... p raining raining p m odies and odies and t mployment mployment b e apacity apacity ...... 131 egislation c onstruction onstruction ocuments for for ocuments iscal l ystem of of ystem olicies and and olicies f c s d p nalyses111 ...... bjectives of the Strategy on on the Strategy of bjectives assive assive ramework a 117 ...... arriers 120 ...... arriers 118 ...... arriers p f o b b rt b arket a m ED ES IN MAC ISSU ICY S POL OB CES...... 5.3.3.1. Education and and 5.3.3.1. Education (EEF)...... 136 5.3.3.2. Energy Fund Efficiency 131 ...... System Educational 5.2.3.2. National 5.2.3.3. Accreditation 5.2.3.1. Policy and and 5.2.3.1. Policy 5.2.2.3. Basic ...... 129 Macedonia of in the Republic 5.2.2.2. Strategic 5.2.2.2. Strategic 5.2.2.1. Legal 5.2.1.1. Employment for for 5.2.1.1. Employment 5.3.5. Labor 5.3.4. Economic and and 5.3.4. Economic the number of energy efficiency projects in Macedonia ...... 133 Macedonia projects energy in efficiency of the number and 5.3.3. Institutional 133 ...... measures 5.3.1. Legal regulatory and ...... the purpose increasing of for mechanisms/measures 5.3.2. Support 5.2.3. National educational policy strategy and educational 5.2.3. National education jobs” “green for EE and for ...... 127 jobs” “green creating for EE and for legislation 5.2.2. National 4.8.3. Investments and Labor Force for Introducing EE Requirements Requirements EE Introducing for Labor Force and 4.8.3. Investments in the Construction Sector 4.8.2. Construction Sector’s Development Trends in Regard in Regard Trends Development 4.8.2. Construction Sector’s Energy Energy . to and Efficiency Renewable Sources 5.1.5. Barriers in the 5.1.6. Barriers in the 5.2.1. Active and and 5.2.1. Active 5.1.4. Technical 5.1.4. Technical 5.1.3. Legal-regulatory and 5.1.3. Legal-regulatory and 5.1.2. Financial 5.1.2. Financial ...... 133 Recommendations and Measures 5.3. Possible 4.8.1. State of the of 4.8.1. State 123 ...... Measures 5.2. Policy 117 ...... Draft Solutions 5.1. Barriers and 5.1.1. Organization REFEREN ANNEX: Interview Gjorgjiev with...... Mr Slavco 5. GREEN J Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia Table 4.1.Energy Table 1.4.Green Job Progress To-Date and Future Potential...... Table 1.3.Proposed Green Economic Activity Categories Table 1.2.Alternative Green Definitions...... Table 1.1.Green Jobs Typology...... LIST O Table 5.1.Active Programs of Market Labor the inyear 2009...... Renovating when Existing Stock of Buildings and New Buildings...... Tables 4.6/7.Size of Force Labor the Needed to Introduce EERequirements ...... Table of 4.5.Dynamics Financial Necessary Investments Table 4.4.Investments to Necessary National Reach EEStrategy Targets By 2020...... National Strategy for Improving Efficiency, Energy 2010-2020...... Table 4.3.Investments, Savings, Advantages on Adopted the Based Table 4.2.Annual Break Down ofFinancial Savings...... Sector per for Introduction of Build EEinthe Sector...... 115 F TABLES s avings per s ector ...... 8 ...... 124 115 115 114 110 110 37 32 27 33 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 9 RD O REW In 2011 USAID and Habitat for Humanity Macedonia signed a Cooperative Agreement Agreement signed Cooperative a Macedonia Humanity for Habitat and USAID 2011 In Energy named: project four-component a complex, implement jointly to whose is aim to develop effort innovative and a rare Macedonia, in Sector Housing the for Efficiency apartment in collective living households Macedonian will help activities that a set of time bearing in the same at energy increase, to price their vulnerability reduce buildings raising at also aims the project manner, general a more In issues. change the climate mind way inthat energy efficiency in the residential sector, stakeholders among the awareness eco- energy security, change, climate of global problems today’s resolving to contributing poverty. and uncertainty, nomic including sector, housing in the Macedonian the challenges of Based the assessment on the energy consumption that baseline was project’s energy costs, use of and the patterns ob- While inefficient. and degrading environmentally high, is unaffordable, in Macedonia energyreduced use in a significantly to a high potential provide technologies tainable practices. inefficient and the outdated overcome to the sector actually does little housing, CO2 to emissions housing of the contribution energy usedis necessary, than more Much of the much and available energy “clean” or affordable have do not residents high,is many unexploited. is potential business related - Nedanovs Pece Professor by authored publication, in this presented study Jobs Green The many actually addresses Papantonopoulos, Panos Mr. by stage early in its assisted ki and C: Facilitate in Component the project’s of Being these a subcomponent challenges. of Habitat for Humanity Macedonia FO raises and concepts key introduces EE, it on creation job and entrepreneurship vestment, businesses green the policy from of makers, attention lack that policyMacedonia in issues the to jobs green for demand and thesupply from market, labor to change climate and via jobs green im- of creation lead to could that recommendations and measures possible energy efficiencywithlow-income particular for onthe focus solutions of plementation sector. residential - Habi of work the future to value adds and importance immense of is the study such, As solutions housing affordable and decent simple, providing to dedicated Humanity, for tat positive promoting and their lives transforming subsequently in poverty, those living for in Macedonia. change social economic long-term and Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 10 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - 11 - top highly contested trajectory remain market their labor and jobs reen Industrial - The work is essential to the products and services that improve the and services products improve to the is essential that work - The Industrial activity; economic in green work the job involves and/or environment technology shape and activity to economic green which extent - The Occupational requirements; work and demand occupational equal good wages, provide and the environment improve that - Jobs Normative poverty. of out pathways and opportunity, The idea that the “greening” of the economy may be a better characterization than than characterization be a better may of the economy “greening” the ideaThe that economy.” the “green - polit awakens and opinions different many raises “green jobs” termof usethe The surveys. on bias in response result may so it interests, philosophical ical and • • • • • ics in the labor market literature. Though it is commonly understood that green jobs are are jobs green understood that is commonly it Though literature. market ics in the labor is there the environment, maintaining and protecting, improving, to related way in some jobs, green of the basic characteristics delineate can that framework still upon agreed no and this information capturing methods for establish the work, of the nature determine jobs. green count accurately do jobs green counting, and in defining practical challenges and the conceptual Despite technologies green evolving of the impact they serve can and exist explore a model to as market. labor the green of the dynamics and work of the nature on practices and to helping way in of jobs, each some green definitions three presents the literature Indeed, which These definitions, job. a green as counts what for a particular framework promote follows: as are viewpoints, three include 1. The “weatherization programs” that addressed the need to save/conserve energyneed to in addressed the save/conserve that programs” “weatherization 1. The OPEC during the 1970’s during the NorthAmerica in introduced first were buildings ir has fossil crisis fuel The Conservation”. “Energy of the banner fuelcrisis under fossil of g nature 2. The SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Energy Conservation globalized and about concern increasingly triggered an reversibly II model War post-World the classical under resources natural of scarcity the increasing under clearly now and studied, then, societySince increasingly has growth. economic of be to based an on continue model cannot growth the same that reality, the harsh stands fuel energy. fossil of consumption ever-expanding - con what including the energy environment, taking and on is place a debate Globally, - invest and initiatives time, the same At jobs. green and activity economic green stitutes are sustainability environmental and energy efficiency, greater energy, in renewable ments in employment about information for has been demand increased result The increasing. economy. the “greening” There are several interesting issues related to the above definitions: definitions: above to the related issues several interesting are There Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia identify front-runners.identify Unless paths these of evolution technology are well understood, and reduced, that be costs their it will is difficult to comparealltechnologies these of and is reasonable that to at expect least some of technologies continue these will to evolve long-termtheir cost structure with possible the exception of onshore wind. Although it ing share asmall of market the and lacking sufficient economiesscale to of have achieved finingwhat constitutesgreenjob. a Manygreen technologies are relatively new, represent- However, studies focusing on green jobsfaceadditional challenges, first the which of is de- opportunity for women and men for green jobs. to disaggregating data on basis of the gender inorder to ensure that there is equality of profiles, but far morekinds these of of efforts needed.are Attention be givenneeds to also and unions trade can play as well. part have They auseful and begun jobto do surveys green jobs,but that those are also related inamore indirect manner. Business associations should commission in-depth modeling and econometric efforts to analyze not just direct emerging industries and green employment inestablished sectors. Also, governments categoriesporting that recognize and help capture relevant employment newly inboth order to overcome substantial the data gaps. Governments must establish statistical re- 3. Today of we quantifications, a series need estimates, and projections greenjobsof in compliance, public awareness and training and trading. energy tion; sustainable agriculture and natural resource conservation; education, regulation, and reduction; environmental cleanup and remediation and waste clean up and mitiga- efficiency and pollution,energy conservation; waste and GHG management, prevention in any of green the economic activity categories: renewable and energy alternative fuels; the of use renewable energy, or support environmental sustainability.job The involves work the work essential is to providing products that or services improve efficiency, energy expand Measurabletries. definition greensaysjobof a the following:greenjob A is one in which true with in regard those indirect Thisjobs - files. is supplierespecially so-called to indus- Green jobsspan array awide of educational skills, backgrounds, and occupational pro- and redefined day-to-dayas sets, work skill methods, and profiles are greened. workers,ers, metal electricians, and construction workers) simply will transformed be discontinued; fourth, it would appear that many such existing as plumb jobs(especially - ment -aspackaging when materials are discouraged or banned and production their is fossil fuels to renewables; third, jobs may certain eliminated be without direct replace- production equipment; second, some employment substituted be will - asfrom in shifting created be will -as manufacturing inthe of pollution-control to added existing devices economythe is oriented toward greater sustainability: first,some inadditionalcases, jobs From abroad conceptual employment perspective, affected in be will at least four ways as of support for training core in the of skills occupations green inthe sector. outsourced and company whether restrictions on jobtraining funds are leading to alack that are becoming green. In addition, literature is silent on green jobscould whether be have low to barriers entry, or that there are shortages of workers core inthe industries supply.that short required in skills jobs were jobsthat skilled offered meaningful work opportunities with advancement In terms of dynamics the of green the labor market, suggested evidence the that green • time. Seen in this context, inthis time. Seen “green jobs” is arelative and dynamic highly concept. for improvement, dividing the efficient line between and inefficient mustraise over in mind characteristics the of given the technological progress and urgent the need The notionthat the concept or definition of green can changeBearing time. over But there is little to suggest evidence that green jobs 12 and and Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 13 how many people will be employed by which technology, what skills these what jobs will need, which technology, by will people be employed many how these entry technologies support market of kind what theywill wages pay, kind of what answers, these Without answer. to difficult will remain questions more will many need and will exercises modeling during made assumptions wage and the accuracy price, cost, of questionable. remain - the offi since jobs green be to the estimating best method of appears A survey approach other from workers “green” to differentiate structured not are classifications cial statistical a survey- estab a need is for that there So, occupations. or industries in the same workers within a flexibility needfor a and methodologies, and definitions set of standard a lishes of jobs. green modify to definitions state observation. of the unit the is job economy, in thegreen employment estimating When - be accord can the classified industry),and (i.e., establishments business within exist Jobs the occupation), performed(i.e., service thework type or of theproduct to produced, ing survey methodthe business to estimate best is likely a Therefore, geography. by as well as survey The jobs. green in activity identifyto designed be should trends track green and these to activities. the related jobs and establishments, business by conducted - job cre of in terms investments green of cost the opportunity and statistics creation Job investment similar of impacts economic of Comparison deserve ation special attention. studies lacking. Some often is (energy non-energy) or the economy of segments in other If this recession. or slowdown to economic as a in solution jobs green investment offer could that the economy of sectors other are there be to followed, were approach Keynesian investment. (MKD) of denar the same jobs for more create scheme investment major any of jobs, of creation including impact, economic Estimating con- unintended often are and there overtime change effects can multiplier as difficult is be- coefficients input-output dependable less the horizon, the time longer The sequences. as such further complications are jobs, there green jobs. With future predicting for come new; relatively are of these industries Many intensities. labor assumed and their definition of the estimates such, scale. As in commercial deployed even not are technologies some set, a small which depend data on energy output of per unit or investment jobs per denar tax subsidies, of in the form support Government reliable. them less renders probably complicate thelike and requirements content domestic grants, investment direct breaks, lead often and advantages cost further comparative the these analysis as policies distort All of the economy. of the rest impact that technologies expensive more of adoption to and exercise modeling any in precision of lack the inherent to add theseuncertainties of paths all reasonable cover to analyses sensitivity scenario and additional necessitate development. the jobs; will- create do not governments that understood well is it economists, Among goods for demand consumer with paired their capital, invest to entrepreneurs of ingness riddled eco with - are jobs studies green many view, of services this point and does. From policy not should Economic assumptions. dubious methods, and incorrect errors, nomic des- are benefits and costs of studies Serious economic analysis. be faulty based such on of viewing the creation In proposal. jobs green any of the adoption needed before perately a are Jobs error. a allmake fundamental advocates and studies job green a benefit, jobs as - tech sustainable claim that often job advocates Green production. of in the process cost per labor more will require food production or transport, generation, power nology for not – proposals of their cost major is a methods. This do conventional than output of unit to poverty. is the path productivity as Decreasedclaim. they a benefit labor Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia innovative applied research inSMEs EEand inthe REsectors. ernance initiatives are currently earmarking “green money” to stimulate creation the of novative medium and enterprises small can guarantee. In USFederal fact, and EU Gov- low-term effect jobsupon creationthat theonly establishment and multiplication of in- ployees only. A sustainable GJs initiative should upon focus multiplier the medium- to markets. Green Jobs opportunities, however, should not limited be to workers and em- self-interest for labor resides priority inthe opening-up of residential the retrofit energy ances that can unbind potential the of BEER-REER the markets. The bulk opportunity and In order for GJsinitiative the to create jobopportunities, it partnerships needs and- alli create EEleadership within neighbors the and communities. consumerenergy of potential the from benefits EE. In addition, it to identify needs and from bottom-up the fashioning inthe and “positioning the inmind” of household the EEretrofitsthe of tomorrow internally, but be above to needs all preemptively involved BEER-REER it not needs only to supply appropriate the to perform necessary green skills Therefore, thatseems it for aGJs Initiative movementbe ableto to mobilize demand for consciousness of savings energy and benefits amongthe households. roots leadership that able be shall to organize housing the communities and to raise the communication and specialists of training the of tomorrow’s trainers, to produce grass it is imperative to inparallel, start ifnot earlier, from preparation the of Green concept control for needed field the retrofits.work Efficiency performed inEnergy Furthermore, packagesperform the of work-breakdown for management, the necessary operations and job descriptions are and necessary elaborated skills inorder for needed specialties the to short-to-medium term,increasingly complex and Green new For Skills. curricula, this, is to become organized for re-training and up-skilling and available be to supply to the quasi-totality of our built environment, today’s urgent for need aGreen movement Labor (BEER) and residential efficiency retrofit energy (REER) potentials that can the embrace examples that to help turn operational and adeep building efficiency wide retrofit energy studiesCase and supported literature from Europe, and America Australia argue with andhistory level of regional integration). of case the Macedonian (size, climate, particularities state of economy, the administrative (EE) efficiency and to energy create GJs; possible, and, whenever upon their relevance to two criteria: ranking their and reputation on performance the of measures to implement icies and practices at State their levels and have onof base Country the selected been member-states), as well as example the of Australia. For examples cases, these all of- pol Government of United the States of European the America, Union (examples of several tives were Consequently, reasonsthe and for need the greening ifnot our responsibility the societies, itself. ofall whom are hopefully conscious and sharing minimum the common understanding of tom-up” level of social formations, such asthose of our communities, states and nation-states, paradigmsing it to GJspolicy could examine concrete practices and results from “bot the with a “top-down” approach from the world and regional-governance levels, go when - while directly influencegreenthejobs (GJs) formation,the analysis of world starts experiences ine voluntary the initiatives and mandatory regulatory binding decisions that address or changes at demanded and needed by speed scale the climate the crisis.In order to exam- bon trading -it appears that apurely market-driven process not able will be to deliver the basis4. On the of current in various experience areas - from vehicle economy fuel to car financed and promoted by three key Western governmental entities: The Federal major systematic GJsinitiatives were examined inmore detail.initia These - 14 - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - 15 aging. Former economic policies and decisions point out that there are numerous oppor numerous are there that out point decisions policies and economic Former aging. at the available are that technologies verified adopting through improvement for tunities of the wide application important, more is What insulation. and controls as such moment, new jobs in a very and period new short time businesses of create can these technologies manner. economical in an and will it energy become and commercial for reserves resources limited of has Macedonia energy practices efficiency can However, energy imports. on dependent more and more - invest the need for reserves postpone and domestic increase this dependence, moderate investments than cheaper are newin energythese Eachoutcomes infrastructure. of ments infrastructure. the existing expand reserves to increase to and arejobless facewho Macedonians many that circumstances difficult under economic Even Traditionally, value. financial and economic be can of energy saving income, no with and energy of effi- application withthe wide together activities in energy efficiency, business and intensity force high with labor characterized are in the sectors, key technologies cient extent, large to a energy ignored where efficiency is currently countries new jobs. In create priority lower are a new Energy jobs. efficiencytrends create to higher is potential there families, and individuals low-income to and unemployed chronically thoseto who are forms necessary is cases it provide such to In investments. of especially a matter if they are at justified economically their energy is of usage social of because the improvement aid level. national Energy an establishing example (for laws current amending or new legislation Creating frame- existing legal the implementing than difficult more much can be Fund) Efficiency new jobs in a period creating or resources and budget the government Allocating work. Therefore, difficult. quite facedrestrictions fiscalcan be is with when the government energy efficiency enables that a new framework of the creation to be given should priority basis. a commercial on improvements appeared during the periodof Macedonia, transition, of in Republic the market labor The higher significantly was During period, the whole supply imbalanced. labor beto pretty period a long for of unemployment high rates resulted imbalance This demand. labor than significant represent force of labor the structure and the flexibility Labor market time. of struc - force labor unsuitable and market The rigid labor climate. aspects the investment of the employment and age education, of the the especially degree perspective of from ture, - environ investment a favorable of on creation the influence a negative have time, waiting ment. 5. The Republic of Macedonia as a full EU membership candidate countryis faced with candidate a as fullMacedonia membership EU of Republic 5. The and social sys- inthe economic reforms serious implementing efficiently of the challenge for the energy areenergy of and crucial efficiency the fields those reforms, Among tems. development. overall country’s implications huge has develops Macedonia in energythe which direction The in sector For standards. living for and protection environmental for growth, economic national for for account food, respectively, energy and bills monthly in Macedonia, households many longer no can in Macedonia Municipalities budget. thefamily of proportion thehighest they also have Now their local covered. costs having the ministry on lean for departments in Industries energy their usage. own managing of responsibility expensive the new and - Eu in industries comparable many than unit energy perproduct more spend Macedonia in exportmarkets. the disadvantage they face a competitive Therefore, rope. technologypromotion. for room leaves which optimal, not are technologies existing The is encour to be hightechnologies have necessary the not fact do The technologies that Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia use the opportunities the use for efficiency. energy barriers These include, but are notlimited to: households, as well as other entities. could Barriers prevent individuals and businesses to titioners, producers and suppliers of building products and makers, technologies, policy extents,to varying construction companies and professionals, vocational education prac- to propose acoherent framework. Many of issues the are overlapping and concern, albeit donia. It is hardly possible tomarket barriers to aspecific assign those policy area or and 6. There are asignificant numbers of barriers related the to creation of jobs ingreen Mace- rate expected the of introduction systems. of specified the andoped introduced training inthe system, with growth rates similar or evenexceeding heat pumps and mini wind turbines). training New schemes should specialized devel- be biomass-firedboilers, photovoltaic solar systems,andthermal systemsgeothermal and quite limited. There is a clear shortage eachof installers in the of studied systems (small newablesystems energy in buildings and level the of qualification the of workforce are otherOn the side, supply the of for specialists installation and maintenance of main re- principles, efficiency energy either on-site training through or specialized programs. (although at different levels) incontinuing vocationaltraining dedicated activities to main mainstream construction practice, it is supposed that nearly workers all would engaged be population.the However, due to stable the penetration of low-energy solutions inthe 20 percent of workers, new preferably young vulnerable people from strata socially of laborthe force. To prepare for that eventuality, to train an additional necessary be it will Approaching year the 2020it is presumed that portion of acertain workers leave will insulationmal installer, water-proofing installer and shuttering-worker, among others. worker, mason, carpenter, plumber, roofer, electrician, of installer window frames, ther workers traditional in the professional suchactivities as concrete worker, reinforcement Concerning expectations the on workforce the dynamics, there is no clear shortage of and 40percent of GDP. the Thecalculations showthat the informal economy in Macedonia comprisesbetween 25 formal economy, including work, seasonal employment part-time and overtime the work. national Bureau of Labor, almost one third of labor the force earns aliving from in- the ket operate Republic inthe of Macedonia. According to some calculations from Inter the institutions contributed that to fact the an informal economy and an informal labor mar mentioned facts the All above give an image of anon-flexiblelabor market. these In fact, arepolicies intended to increase labor market flexibility,whereas theothers do opposite. or less flexible the to changesthat happenthe environment. in Some their activities of and influence performanceits indifferent ways. These institutions labor themake market more institutions create that policies refer special to differentsegments thelabor of market and Unions of Macedonia; and employers the through associations of own. their of All these ment and government institutions; branch the labor unions Association inthe of Labor Threetypes of institutionsperformance influence the final labor the of market: - Govern should put be on active labor market policies. cation, pretty significantthe is role of vocationaleducation. Forthatthe focus purpose from ofstructure, educational aspect especially the attainment. formal the edu- Besides Additional measures by should undertaken Government the be to improve labor the force • • Market/financialbarriers; behavior inthe Barriers and organization barriers; 16 - - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 17 Assistance for establishing companies for energy services for - con (ESCO) companies and establishing for Assistance energy services. of performance tracts for (EEF). Energy Fund an Efficiency establishing base a sound for prepare To in a conceptualized and be justified this EEF should being established Before ac- actssub-legal and framework, operative clear shall provide it that manner tions. for administration public the communal of (PPP) partnerships Public-private im- experience in project capital, energy services private to access shall enable skills and reduction practices, cost management advanced more plementation, servicebetter consumers. focus on and Implementing programs for labor force training. training. force labor for programs Implementing ° ° ° ° Legal-regulatory and policyLegal-regulatory and barriers; barriers, Technical and sector, Barriers in the construction training. and education vocational of Barriers in the system gy efficiency projects in Macedonia. Together with the legal-regulatory measures, withmeasures, the legal-regulatory Together Macedonia. gyprojects in efficiency the and the capacity enhancing for several measures for also is necessity a there break a continuous the purpose guaranteeing all of for development, institutional contain can Thesemeasures various the sectors. energy in of efficiency measures the following: ° ° ° Legal and regulatory measures: changes and amendments of the law on building, building, on the law of amendments and changes measures: Legal regulatory and buildings, energy codes of for preparation and ener of the number the purpose increasing of for mechanisms/measures Support Institutional and capacity building building capacity and Institutional capacity higher education and professional measures: training and Education proposals of all preparation levels; at awareness raising and education building; the employers’, of improvement at aimed framework in the regulatory changes for awareness. institutions’ state and employees’ one fall under generalized, theseIf initiatives being fiscalmeasures. and Economic both of the price of determining rationalized categories: generic the following of on no theor tarifftax well, tax tax and policyas policy - lower energy supplies for fees customs convenient appliances, household and equipment energy efficient in- forming purpose forthe of mobilization capital equipment, energy efficient of usage rational for standards and regulations guarantees, loan funds, vestment this issue. about awareness raising and informing for campaigns energy, forth - in the government Macedonian The measures. policies and Labor market - upgrad policies both towards market period labor the direct active coming should determined target towards as well as new programs, developing the actual and ing following: on the put focusbe should new The jobs. green for groups ° • • • • • • • • • • 7. Possible measures and recommendations that could lead to the creation of green jobs green of lead the creation could to that recommendations and measures 7. Possible onthe withparticularenergy punctuation efficiencies for solutions viaimplementation following: divided in severalas fields sector are residential Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ° ° ° ° ° ° Programs for stimulating employment the of younger persons. Programs that educate shall unemployed the how to for look ajob. self-employment, releases tax for newly-employed individuals etc. ofsidizing newly-employed salaries the the individuals, allocating grants for Programs that stimulate shall employment private inthe sector, such as sub- 18 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 19 ON DUCTI O The “weatherization programs” that addressed the need to save/conserve energybuild- need to in addressed the save/conserve that programs” “weatherization The fossil fuel OPEC during the 1970’s during the NorthAmerica in introduced first were ings irreversibly has fossil crisis fuel The Conservation”. “Energy of the banner crisis under - Energy the increas Conservationglobalized and about concern increasingly triggered an - econom II model of War post-World the classical under resources natural of scarcity ing the understands clearly now and studied, then, society Since increasingly has ic growth. - be ever-expand to based an on continue model cannot growth the same that reality, harsh fuel energy. fossil of consumption ing further policy, a new energy consumption towards been progress has some there While yet anything than equitable more altogether global, and more be faster, should progress governments, will require change comprehensive and a rapid Such history. seen in human A new balance between civil societies roles. and their rethink traditional to businesses, - objec and targets established be needs commonly to struck so that interests competing be can pursued. tives - con what including the energy environment, taking on and is place a debate Globally, - invest and initiatives time, the same At jobs. green and activity economic green stitutes are sustainability environmental and energy efficiency, greater energy, in renewable ments in employment about information for has been demand increased result The increasing. economy. the “greening” willreport bewill jobs. This green discuss transformation the next of feature A central for the potential here, On the evidence presented emerging. already jobs are green how alsothat is clear it However, unlimited. almost jobs is green of in the numbers increase an becan describedtoday being performed in the world the work a very of portion only tiny green. as - consid be might of growth job green the pace circumstances, historical different Under de- three or two in just However, respects impressive. even in some and satisfactory, ered and being low-carbon to will the way be need on to well global economy cades the entire be taken measures bold that demand therefore circumstances historical The sustainable. pace- in the devel faster a much jobs at green grow and economy the green both expand to countries. in developing begins in earnest process the same that ensure to and oped world, - tran equitable an of the notion should as negotiable, be non should sustainability Today, and practices, business policy, guiding principles the become main to these were If sition. be can expected to work decent jobs and then green individuals, of time the behavior over in hand. hand and both exponentially grow INTR Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 20 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - which are linked not to the sphere of human human of the sphere to linked not which are 21 ON eeds: Continuity n ew EFINITI volving volving e S D OB ld to the N ld to factor is the product of the ever growing human human the growing ever of the product is factor energy security and energy imports from the O from Aggregate societal needs are usually first expressed as a demand in marketplaces seeking marketplaces in as a demand expressed societal first usually needs are Aggregate are and up build often needsthese and growing, if Then, persistent solution. supply-side a norms collective of the establishment for concerns organized civil society’s to transformed practices. and measures plus regulation and in an growing and living need for the human useful that in mind keep to therefore is It – conditions climatic uncomfortable perceived from protected environment”, “ambient need for or concept any a basic need as of perhaps - preexists heat or cold of being that or for energy, efficiency energy conservation 1.1. A context of of 1.1. A context J 1. GREEN growth. and development human of that to rather but existence - envi ambient “climatically of and the services-supply needs-demand both the Therefore, the fuel of crisis the fossil of the appearance been before well a practice have ronments” these of regulation and the promotion for actions society’s organized particular, 1970s. In time. some quite be for place in have measures mandatory or voluntary through markets the to relative and on dependent is conditions climatic the vis-a-vis diverse good” “Feeling economic and technological the material, on and living of conditions geographical natural means market that natural only is It society. a specifichuman period at of available means measures, administrative to been translated have been and developed have measures and - coun and Scandinavian Canada countries. high-latitude developed, in economically first observe the to casesbest accumulated and offer paradigms therefore, tries Sweden, like energy-efficiency experience retrofit on regulative and socially imposed administrative practices retrofit buildings of version even “deep-green” and “weatherization” its under measures. and of energy the era and fully during defined security fossil imports first was fuel needfor The During which is this time, economies. their protectionist and nation-states independent between ener the view” interplay of “innovative aspects today’s of the economic ongoing, formulated. gy energy were use conservation/efficiency and - out to factors contributing were markets materials securing raw energyIndeed, and of these both factors of in that II (WWII) War World (WWI) and I War World of breaks production industrial bound nationally crucialfor specificand therefore location were economies. and The has also factor EE. The of in the subject interest the contemporary prompted has need that energy energy practices of conservation, effi- the birth socialized and to given concepts These jobs. green concepts and business green growth, green energies, renewable ciency, that countries which developed crisis, during the 1973 oil to their development all owe tackleto measures take urgent to forced were fuels fossil imported depended upon heavily Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ize” our buildings to satisfaction the of for our need primary an ambient living home envi- As aconsequence, today we must become conscious that we continue while to “weather faster likelywill than occur initially thought. climate to astate that endangers sustainable the existence of human the race and that this expanding consumption of continues fossil energy fuel unabated, drive it Earth’s the will Since numerous then, studies have shown that same ifthe growth on an based model ever of economic growth. tion and increasing the scarcity of natural resources under model classical the post-WWII has an triggered irreversible and increasingly concern- about globalized conserva energy fossil crisis under fuel banner the of “energy conservation.” Since fossil the then, crisis fuel buildings were first introduced in America North theduring 1970s followingthe OPEC Thus, “weatherization programs” addressing savethe to need in energy and conserve at home”money Conservation engineeringthe community and community authorities. the Likewise, Guidelines Audit Energy “Community widely distributed illustrated manuals on “Conservation of Energy in Housing”, detailed 1975and Mortgage Central 1977,the Between and Housing Corporation of Canada Actes Colloques, de France 1979). the life-cycleefficiency and costs the of buildings (Conception et Cout Global de l’ Habitat: vironment various1979), while monographs technical attempted with built the to energy link en- buildings cial with technological options for improving conservation energy in residential and commer lic Policy Tool “energy analysis” to generate begun agreat of deal interest (Energy Analysis: A New Pub- Tools for evaluating and comparing alternative gathered policies energy under title of the 1976). legislation infavor of conservation (Energy energy Conservation and Production Act,USA, second of the half During 1970s,countries the under threat took first their steps to enact Era, 1974). communitylearned (S.Udall: The Balloon, Energy 1974–S.D. Freeman: Energy TheNew graphs written by statesmen experienced attracted interest wide the of international the tional Petroleum Council: mono Report on USEnergy Future, authoritative 1971)and at the Turning Point, 1974).Particularly of government USA,aseries inthe reports (Na resources and more on particularly our wasteful patterns of growth (Mesarovic: Mankind of Growth, 1972). This realization gave impetus to systematic researchEarth’s on limited scarcity first shook candidour confidence in “unlimited growth” (Meadows: The Limits during late the 1960s.But it was only early inthe 1970sthat prospects the for afossil fuel with environment,deal landscape the and our against cities struggling urban poverty Visionary urban economists and planners launched first the warnings aboutthe way we wasteful growth and to need protect the nature and human-built the environment. ous one is that of an increasing consciousness of intrinsic the limitless between and links A third human factor needs that has grown only inparallel to converge with previ the - problemthe of steeply rising fossil prices. fuel R. G.Stein:(R. Architecture and Energy,

distributed informative illustrated manuals on “100ways to save and energy (J. Sawhill: Energy Conservation and Public Policy, The American Assembly, , 1978).By end the of public decade, the explicitly dealing started policies and on “How to save and energy money by wasting less” households. to ” and even“Green Roof Decks Design Guidelines” to 22 1977), investigating role the of energy Office of Energy - - - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia as a 1940s) as early - USA 23 signature considerably (win-win). considerably signature 2 In order to produce and consume smaller amounts of energy more efficiently (EE) efficiently energy more of smaller amounts consume and produce to order In CO2 signal. our reduce so to as the for energies non-polluting renewable of amounts increasing producing By reason. same global as humanity all of for a danger constitutes threat change Because the climate The no boundaries. floodinghave and hurricanes drought, protracted warming, fuel rising and fuels fossil depleting of that to contrary is threat change climate - devel dependent penalizing import as be which could conceived both of prices, ex- the even benefitting or impact minimal negative while having oped countries porter countries. under the spectrum of climate change, it seems clear seems clear it change, the spectrum under climate of “green” economy the turning • • • ronment, this time we must perform such an operation not only in a way to attain energy attain to in a way only not operation an perform such must this time we ronment, energy) less but: consume to energy (i.e. of conserving in the sense the of quantity savings REER and BEER are uniform, sizable and labor-intensive sectors with the best potential to to the best with potential sectors labor-intensive and sizable uniform, are BEER REER and - work semi-skilled, skilled existing unskilled a balanced mix of and unemployed employ pathways apprentice step-by-step through absorbing continue to and technicians, and ers clearly give give clearly energy conservation for concerns previous new in context, this last Therefore, global. are concerns the however, energy . This efficiency time, for concerns to way - still 1970s, America was attempt in the back late that noticing worth perhaps is Last, it unparalleled and massive a through rights minority and deal poverty to urban with ing for federal based subsidies upon movement participatory neighborhood and community begun had this under economists analysis’ ‘energy early time, the same At renewal. urban en- linking employment energy and between the interplay to attention due pay to context Impacts Employment and article “Energy his In policies. employment ergy with efficiency are energy resources when conventional that said Bullard (1978), Alternatives” Policy of to important is it practical reasons high, is for unemployment and scarce quite becoming special this sense, of In policy of decisions. impacts employment the energy and consider problems. alleviating unemployment energy those or at policies directed are concern de- and be to refined continues is relation while the energy-to-employment the rest, For be - of the level attained have jobs initiatives green academics, today’s labor among bated survival costly perspectives increasingly global our the need policies linked to of coming Earth.on Since (REER) sector residential sector and (BEER) retrofits energy efficiency the building that job creation. for tool a fast-track as be regarded widely must - retrofit of imperative with the to be combined are jobs green for opportunities Therefore, the favorite been among always has construction Residential environment. built our ting (Kuznets formation calculatingcapital fixed economists of tools - urban linked with was it as years II all thepost-War for growth future of indicator strong had It economy. goods in a developing basic housing for growth industrial and ization crises. during employment generating for tool Keynesian also been proven a powerful and in and maturing capital fixed urban our of most with a crisis and in the middle of Today, - retrofit and particularly a deep green buildings, of retrofitting green renovation, need of values raise serve can causes, all previous appliances, energy-consuming touching ting CO our lower and Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ciently fast. governmentboth action and private investment, change needed not will happen suffi- But changes these not will happen automatically. Without initiative and impulse from transformationical of economy. the inevitableseem and perhaps irreversible. These changes amount fundamentalto a ecolog - toration and mitigation efforts. also requirewill It adaptation those changesto that now of lifestyle and consumption choices, as well as economic structures, environmental res- which and energy with efficiency raw materials critical beingused, a reassessmentare ing For policies. example, development the of more technologies, inthe aboost benign Addressing environmental the and climate challenge require will arange of far-reach- more, serious programs donot always back up green jobs rhetoric. knowledge and available to developing the pertain as they data, especially world. Further green jobs - but few present This is specifics. no accident. Therestill are huge gaps in our Many studies that lay out pathways toward asustainable economy proclaim afuture of for of Challenges theConcept Green Jobs1.2. Contemporary for larger projects on greening economy the and lifestyles. tions, and academia schools, technical to work out EEand together GJschemata deeper administrations,local user/owner associations, construction businesses, labor organiza - and implementpose higher-order and complexity with benefit innovativethose socio-organizational nance and law, risk-assessment and green real estate value appraisal. In addition, it can and software,assessments, efficiency energy creative banking,greengreen mortgage fi- ideas carriers for university graduates with frontier-breaking, innovative techno-entrepreneurial a chronically unemployed youth. In addition, it can produce employment and business 1 ly diverging assumptions and variables, methodologies, years, scenarios, base and future scope The of available studies varies considerably. Individual analyses arewide- based on marked low by pay, very dangerous work conditions, and alack of insurance. health Particularly in developing countries, many people work informally, in situations typically one dollar-a-day some line of 1.3 billion extreme less earn than poverty; two dollars aday. employment situations. About 487million workers donot enough earn above to rise the among world’s the three billion jobholders aged 15 or older, many confront vulnerable employment stands at roughly sixpercent, affectingsome people. 190million Buteven Meanwhile, world the challenging facesequally employment problems. Outright un- rapid change. practices appear sustainable to be and profitable - remainfundamental barriers to more “externalization” of severe environmental costs -and that therefore make unsustainable electric utilities. electric utilities to produce more of power their from renewable sources, to carbon taxes and acap-and-trade system for to reduce -from greenhouse gases regulatory mandates, such as raising vehicle economy fuel or requiring electric to promote projects ecofriendly and green businesses. Even US.Congress the is considering arange of measures environmental initiatives. Rich countries such Japan, as Canada, and South Korea are obliging, spending billions New Deal” to create a“low-carbon recovery.” The United Nations wants percentonefull a GDP global of to go to November 2009.At that time, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown for similarly an called international “Green out of economic this crisis by generating green jobs that 5 new million pay well and can’t outsourced,” be he said in big promises about his environmental agenda. “It help also us transform will our industries and steer our country Vowing to pump $150billion into over green technology US.President next the decade, Barack Obama has made inenergy-related including technologies and integrated services, ICT automations 1 Subsidies, structures, tax and accounting that methods continued the permit 24 partnerships and alliances partnerships entrepreneurship can who pro skills - between the the between - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia

- conomy conomy 25 conomy or Greening the E Greening or conomy 1.3. Green E 1.3. Green - transforma economic and the needed scope change of technological the broad Given the economy. greening to dimensions aspects and many are there restructuring, and tion According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), (OECD), Development and Co-operation Economic for the Organisation to According or minimize, limit, prevent, measure, activities to of consists protection “environmental waste, to related problems as well as soil, and air, water, to damage environmental correct and ser products, technologies, cleaner activities, includes This ecosystems. and noise, use.” resource and minimize pollution and risk environmental reduce vices that hu- and servicesreduce products and that processes, work technologies, many are There Given sustainable. more become the economy making footprint, environmental manity’s be very must these improvements however, crisis, the environmental of nature the urgent - a com be overwhelmed by simply may and inadequate are changes Marginal substantial. numbers. human rising and consumption per-capita growing of bination or waste pollution generate doesnot one that is a economy green affairs, of ideal an state In as utopia green this Using materials. and water, energy, of its use in hyper-efficient is and realistic, jobs. A more green if any, few, are there currently that mean would a yardstick end elusive an idealyet on fixated than rather process-oriented is approach pragmatic or maintaining to appreciably contribute those that jobs are green words, other In state. ecosystems. the Earth’s to damage future avoiding and quality environmental restoring these further complicates economy sustainable more a toward move need to urgent The communities, companies, governments, for challenge poses once a profound at It issues. Indeed, the opportunities. employment and business vast also offers but individuals, and sets the world as century, thein 21st driver willjobs green be of economic key a pursuit - Green global economy. a low-carbon achieving territory of uncharted the largely into out equipment, in new technologies, investment large-scale involve should the economy ing - em much-needed for stimulus be a major thus could and infrastructure, and buildings, ployment. - waste-avoid and efficient as well as materials, raw energy and renewable Developing services and to products, crucially is processes, important production technologies, ing - environ is scrap recycled from aluminum producing example, For the economy. greening equally But energy-intensive. less far is because it virgin production to preferable mentally To economy. an characterize that arrangements spatial and the structures are important between stores their suppliers, and – between industries distances great that the extent a built- is there economy, an of a feature – are workplaces and between homes homes, and services.more by need met can be transportation That motorized large-scale in need for transit public for allows onethat than optimalsolution is a less it but vehicles, fuel-efficient transportation. such minimizes the needfor that one or en- of the subject on literature growing a rapidly is there Especially countries, in OECD does reports not and studies of the proliferation However, employment. and vironment a of the lack is reason key One results. of aggregation permit a straightforward necessarily energy, renewable of - the boundaries “green” of definition consistent accepted, commonly - certain allow conclu studies available While forecasts. and estimates for timehorizons more is result The or extrapolated. aggregated be cannot their findings be to drawn, sions figures. job set of a precise than picture impressionistic an of Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia However, are: scene realities the energy of global the contentas tariffs or local requirements and others. implementationglobal of similar green adoption policies, of protectionist measures such continuous and fast technological innovation, rapid progression of economies of scale, of time, but period arecertain on these aggressive based and unrealistic assumptions of els developed to can analyze be alternative that scenarios can show net jobgains over a “net jobs” cannot defended be as another benefit of investing these technologies. in - Mod security,ergy albeit at different levels for differenttechnologies or approaches. But adding mentally programs friendly have benefits rangingfrom lower emissions to enhanced en- Alternative technologies, efficiency and energy energy conservation andother environ- now hold jobsincarbon-intensive and polluting industries. making economy the more sustainable require also will ajust transition for who those In requires this part, agreening of education, building, skill and on-the-job training. But efficiency,energy cleantechnology, sustainable transport, organicagriculture, so and on. 2 are sustainable’. (ecologically) However, sustainability notion the of ecological environmentalthe impact of enterprises and economic sectors, ultimately to levels that ternational Organisation Labor (ILO)green definesjob a as whichone simply ‘reduce(s) relationsabout of type social the green inwhich jobsare achievable. For example, In the - understanding of term or the measures to ensure claims of ‘greenness’. Nor is there clarity One of issues critical the surrounding discussion the of green jobsis that there is no agreed 1.4. The Problem Definingof a Green Job • • • • • say and inpolls what do. they it comes to buying green equipment or changing consumption their habits and there are gaps what between they efficiency,energy gridbecause and similartechnologies smart consumers do not always behavewhen asexpected Consumer behavior is an interesting area of research and one that attracts alot of attention from promoters of decision making. consumptionenergy behavior, is which often based on habit ratherthan conscious current technologies and evenmore reluctant it when comes to changing their technologies are get ifthey from same the will benefits notthose they as certain Consumers, at especially residential the level, are often reluctant to adopt new other or technical power market economics constraints. ogy, scalability limits, inability to communicate with existing infrastructure, and faceintegrationThey problems due their intermittency,to immaturity of technol- others). subsidies, incentivesneed tax and mandates to gain market share (some more than These technologies are more expensivethan conventional technologies and hence development path that included can be in modeling exercises. ments and intechnology cost structure future, inthe it is difficult to the predict ventional fuels inasignificant way.Although it is reasonable improve to expect - Most green technologies are far away that from to replace scale is the needed con- negatively impacting purchasing power, employment and GDP. possible, cost large will sums of money and increase cost of to will society, energy Pushing aggressively to increase share the of technologies, these though clearly 2

26 is highly is highly Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ight Green L Reactive Term Short Conforming Growth Enhance Accommodationist Development Sustainable EcologicalRemedying Decline Mid Green Mid Green Integrative Term Intermediate Reforming Growth ‘Ecologize’ Reinventionist Ecological Modernity Industry Greening 27 - a frame This typologyprovides usefulis it as 3 Deep Green Proactive Term Long Transforming Growth Redefine Rejectionist Ecological Sustainability Preserving Nature ‘Deep green jobs’ such as the construction of energy efficient homes homes energy efficient of the construction as such jobs’ green ‘Deep rehabilitation. in land involved workers mining as such jobs’ green ‘Light - ecological sustain long-term to contributes a job which actively Transformational, ability ecological footprint our reduces that a job Low-impact, ecological damage which a job repairs Remediation, environment the natural to access improves that a job appreciation, Natural en- thereduce need to about others informs a job that education, Environmental impacts vironmental . Determining what is ultimately sustainable has become highly contested, resulting resulting highly become contested, has sustainable ultimately is what . Determining Crowley, K. (1999): “Jobs and environment: the “double dividend” of ecological modernization?” International ecological of modernization?” International dividend” the “double environment: and K. (1999): “Jobs Crowley, 1013-1026. 26, pp. Social of No. Economics, Journal • • • • • • • peration ature ature Mode Scope N Objective O Aim Jobs - com are development’ ‘sustainable of aim its jobs and green light of category Crowley’s 3 Table 1.1. Green Jobs Typology Jobs 1.1. Green Table in the ‘green’ label being applied to a wide range of occupations. This ambiguity is best ambiguity This occupations. of wide a range to being label applied in the ‘green’ industry jobs in the steel that claim (AWU) Union’s Workers the Australian by illustrated of component essential an is and recyclable is steel as be green, because classified should turbines. wind as such energy technologies renewable at- in resulted has as a job characterized green can be what concerning ambiguity The Con- the Australian example, For work. green of ‘shades’ or ‘classes’ distinguish to tempts streams: two into jobs green divides servation Foundation problematic. It has been conceptualized, particularly by corporate and political interests, political interests, and corporate particularly by been has conceptualized, It problematic. based en- market technology and through growth economic the sustainable represent to of vision comprehensive A more schemes. trading emission as such solutions vironmental - eco ensuring biodiversity, of maintenance the requiring sees as it ecological sustainability intergenerational for providing and capital natural of stock the maintaining integrity, logical equity Source: Crowley, K. ibid. K. ibid. Crowley, Source: work within which the green credentials of occupations can be evaluated. be can evaluated. occupations of credentials which the green within work ‘classes’: five highlights Institute Australia The From the other side, Kate Crowley divides green jobs into three categories: deep, mid and mid and deep, categories: three jobs into green divides Crowley Kate side, the other From 1.1. below. in Table shown as green, light Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia that employment when arises is relocated innations where standards of environmental in some of campaign this material, responding to problem the of race-to-the-bottom the union power strong. is still Economic nationalist and protectionist tendencies are evident work trades-based ofcalized, kindtypically the considered blue-collar, where traditional ing shift the towards off-shoring of jobs, emphasizing the desirability of maintaining lo- Some studies from US labor sources posit green-collar also work as a means of counter bicycle repair.” construction work on green buildings, organic farming, solar panel manufacturing, and is about environmental dividends.green-collar The economy includes all jobs’‘green like much about economic recovery for and (environmental social justice) communities as it Professor Maxine Burkett wisely notes that “the campaign for green-collar jobs is just as with future their cerned direction inachanging environment. University of Colorado Law thatfact much of literature this emanates from labor and progressive organizations con- growth that are well paid skilled, and sustainable. This preoccupation clearly the reflects cies is thereby given abroad working class emphasizing perspective, areas of employment tance of integrating and economic ethical the of climate aspects change mitigation- poli just as well sustainablesocially as ecologically inother is echoed publications. The impor industries transitioning to sustainability al et (Bill producing alist of what regard they government as necessary supports for workers and designating jobsas necessarily well-paid secure, these and environmentally-friendly and The Newcastle criteria their interpretationto researcherssocial add also greenjobs,of reduces negative the impact made on environment, the relative quo to status the sider that, giventensions, these simplest the definition greenjobof a maybe whichone instances,particular e.g. inarecycling plant that produces emissions. These authors con- cific sustainability measures. They note the tensions indesignating what are jobs in green reducing impact the industries of dirty to jobsthat are developed primarily to address- spe from Annandale across innovationsgreen (2004)definesoccurring jobs a as spectrum, electronics and appliances, and on. so such as vehicle manufacturing, construction, lighting, heating and cooling equipment, of relevant the forms of employment are inabroad embedded range of existing industries itsector can said that is defining the a vexing efficiency the energy of problem, since most icies, such as increased energy-efficiency. However, according the to Worldwatch Institute, an implicit assumption that it is any job that results from implementation the of green- pol a green-collar jobremains contentious. In much of available the research there tends to be igation and other environmental However, policies. interpretation the of what constitutes to emphasizecerned opportunities, rather than threats, arising from climate change mit- ofuse terms the green jobsor green-collar jobs has obvious appeal are who to those con - an alternative relations to existing the social and character.The its destructive ecologically green jobsaimdeep of ‘ecological sustainability’ ultimately requires development the of transformative,and socially by confronting capitalism’s essential drive for growth. The proactive, such as through and design the manufacture of renewable technologies, energy relations. social the By contrast, green on job category deep the both being is focused development, but midgreen the jobaim of ‘ecological is modernity’ achievable within opment of market mechanisms and technologies to ‘ecologically reform’ economic the dustries, for example greening the of auto the industry. Mid green jobsrequire devel the - category on pragmatic focuses the integration of environmental concern into existing in- patible with a‘business as usual’ approach sustainability. to ecological green Thejob mid 4 Maxine Burkett, Just Solutions to Climate Change, 56Buff. L.Rev. 169,225–26(2008), p. 225. 4

28 . 2008). This theme. 2008).This greenjobsof as . - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 29 It has to be part of a real career path, with upward upward with path, be career a real to part has of It 5 Whether the job is environmentally sustainable sustainable environmentally the job is Whether secure and being well-paid job in thesense of quality a is it Whether - commu in the same located is whether it job, non-green another, replaces it When worker the same to targeted and nity The Apollo Alliance was formed in 2004 by a group of business, environmental, labor and community groups and and groups community and labor environmental, business, of a by group 2004 in formed Apollo was Alliance The Apollo was term The jobs’. energy ‘green-collar clean and promote policies to for beenhas campaigning actively in the space program Apollo the earlier of that to challenge technological and a similar vision selected indicate to USA: www.apolloalliance.org/about.php. • • • 5 1.5. Green Job Definitions Job 1.5. Green the subject become startedto has decade the the second concept GJs since entering While the over the debates the Atlantic, both sides of on laws policies and initiatives, targeted of debated. hotly is still spectrum and qualifications of job green definition notices progress jobs green Bank (WB) review of the World article, recent the most In workable and been in the USA has initiated Act Job Green the Federal that provocatively defi- of in the absence been implemented have GJs creation for initiatives State pragmatic nitions. Despite literature. market in labor the stillis of job highlygreen contested topic The to related way some in jobs are green that understanding common is there the fact that still upon is agreed no there the environment, maintaining and protecting, improving, jobs. green of the basic characteristics delineate can that framework jobs, green green counting and in defining practical challenges and the conceptual Despite - tech green evolving of the impact they serve can and jobs do exist explore a model to as market. labor the green of the dynamics and work of the nature on practices and nologies fundamental reviewneededis it to larger, of jobs, green focus a definition adequately To highlighted be- are objectives previous to suited seem that Definitions green. of concepts low. the long-term to contribute that practices SustainabilityEnvironmental - maintaining a wide range includes that definition this a generic is (Note: the environment. of quality and labor regulations are relatively lax. In Australia the proposal to introduce green tariffs green introduce to the proposal Australia lax. In relatively are regulations labor and an unreasonable have goods not do imported that to ensure concern a similar reflects to have do not producers where in countries because they originate advantage market costs. meet the full environmental a within jobs social of green-collar growth prospective the to position attempts These the PhilAngelides, As movement. of labor the concerns broader reflect the agenda justice wages decent pay to job has a green-collar argues, Alliance, the US-basedheadof Apollo a family. support can that benefits and - Howev environment. the benefit and pollution and waste reduce needs to it And mobility. both with sustainability concerned understandably is while movement the trade union er, obviously are security conditions wages, with and concerns jobs, those latter of quality and be principles: useful three think may of to in terms jobs. It collar green to restricted not Where these concerns with environmental issues, job characteristics and location come come location and job characteristics issues, environmental with these concerns Where transitions. aspects managing of in the strategic is together Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia industrial, mote framework a particular for what counts as a green job. definitions, These include the The literature presentsthree definitions each of jobs, in somegreen way helping to pro- air-conditioningthe unit; mechanic another for or might installer the unit. the service be In example, this it agreen might jobas one seen that is essential to manufacturing the of sions is generated electricity (ifthe by fossil fuels) relative to the older, less efficient unit. unitthe contributes efficiency) and toreduced (energy reduced use carbon emis- energy is more efficient and will time over lower monthly A bills. green-related outcome that is replace an existing unit is to ahome. cool outcome Asecondary may that be unit new the of aconsumerple, purpose primary the purchasing central anew air conditioning unit to connection may of astep For aproduct purpose be beyond primary the or exam service. - cept of agreen jobnecessarily requires to alink agreen economic activity. Moreover, that jobs. The above definitions provide a larger conceptual framework for understanding green regardless of establishment the whether produces green products. activity supports production the of or green products “greener” and services, processes Green-Related Occupations -occupations that are likely to include jobswhere work the ofer use renewable energy, efficiency, increased energy or environmental sustainability. Green Economic Activity Category -acategory of that activities impacts positively on great- produce that products are or related services to green the economy. Green-Related Industry that sector -an industry is likely to include establishments that newable sources of (Dierdorff, energy” al., et. 2009). usage, ing efficiency of the energy recycling materials,developing and and adopting re- ducing of use the fossil fuels, decreasing pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, increas - Green Economygreeneconomy -“The encompasseseconomicthe activity related to re- naturaldisposal, resource management, etc.) of factors such as environmental preservation and conservation, pollution control, waste 8 7 6 In literature, the few employers pretend having created have they totally jobswhile new work. by existing which jobsare retrofitted take to green-relatedskills with on specialty new new related industries, tosolar specific the like industry. as a processGreen described also was and normative, the are operative. all For example, green jobswere about talked as being threeThe definitions of jobs, includinggreen the occupationalindustrial, the /process, • • • cil green jobs studycil group final report. Washington,DepartmentLabor,DC: US. of BureauLabor of Statistics. Woods, J. (2009). Measurement and analysis of employment green economy: in the Workforce information coun- ington, USDepartment of Labor. DC: work: Implications for O’NET-SOC and and new emerging occupations (O*NET Research &Tech. Reps.)Wash- Dierdoff, E.C, Norton, J. J., Drewes, D. W., Kroustalis, Rivkin, C.M., Lewis, D., & P. (2009). Greeningthe world of development of agreen-collar workforce”, Journal of Technical Education and Training, 2(1),123-135. Gregson, J. A.(2010). “A conceptual framework for green career and education: technical Sustainability and the Perhaps the most significant of these,is thegreen economic activity category. The con- vironment and/or jobinvolves the work ingreen economic activity. Industrial: The workthat is essential the to improveproducts services and the en- occupational demand and work requirements. Occupational: The extentwhich greeneconomic to activity andshape technology portunity, and pathways out of poverty. Normative: Jobs that improve environment the and provide wages, good op equal - the occupational the , and normative the points of view: 30 8

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Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 31 Involved in producing green products; products; green in producing Involved or processes; production in greening Involved services. the and and products green Methods produce to chain the supply In still question to open are be can measured the above which each of to degree further development. require and ° ° ° Concepts and definitions must tie directly to green economic activities. The defini- activities. to economic green tie directly must definitions and Concepts related jobs then identifies and activity economic an job starts with a green of tion the activity. to purpose collection of the data the for must be actionable definitions Green-related to be undertaken. effort measurement. employment occupational observationfor of is unit the The job oc - service by or and industry (product by produced) be categorized should Data systems. statistical/classification official performed) using work (type of cupation recog- conceptually should measurement for statistical greenjobs of definition The are: jobs that elements; nize three ° ° ° • • • • • vices, and business practices, with their incumbent effect on employment and the need and the on employment effect theirincumbent with practices, business vices,and green analyze and measure that studies useful is undertake it to rigorous workers, for greenjobs of is a definition analysis such for foundation jobs. The activities and economic developing for principles Some use measurement. in for enough clear specificand is that include: of jobs green definition a measurable 1.6. Approach to Measurable Definition of Green Jobs Jobs Green of Definition Measurable to 1.6. Approach ser products, environmental in energyand changes of the significance understand To the need for enhanced specialty skills to be added to the core functions of existing jobs and jobs and existing of functions specialty enhanced skillsbe to the core added the to need for ad- on collaborating scientists and energy (RE) employers renewable Even occupations. certifica and - training technicians’ the repair that admitting were new blades wind vanced trade skills that and mechanical set of core a required occupation this new Green for tion affirmedalso were definition the normative Aspects of market. in the labor existed already the social everyone talksalmost as of about value thein literature being instrumental as attracts and workers incumbent energizes work green of theimage how jobs and green that agree definitions normative of Whileproponents all technical fields. to new recruits theworking that acknowledge some meaningful work, for opportunity jobs provide green with keepthe cost to pace enough always not is pay the andthat difficult are conditions of some The nature seasonal view. of this point from job” qualify to “good as and living of good whetherare jobs green about questions raise insecurities that the jobs alsoof creates development workforce green industry the green and on literature in general, jobs. But greenjobs. ofthe features ofthe above many affirms evidence that in both cases suggested market, labor the green of the dynamics of terms In - opportuni advancement with work meaningful offered skilled jobs that jobs were green green that suggest evidence to little is there But supply. skills short in required that tiesand industries in the core workers of shortages are there that or entry, barriers to low jobs have be whether jobs could green on silent is literature addition In green. becoming are that a lack to leading are funds training job on restrictions whether company and outsourced sector. in the green occupations skills of in the core training for support of Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ultimately green-related occupational employment. gories. The suggested definition is intended as a definition for measuringgreen jobs and byuse countries or governments in conjunction with green the economic activity cate- nitions currently insome studies, used and fourth the is aworking definition forpossible Table 1.2.presents four alternative definitions greenjobs.of The first three basic defi- are noted definitions when greentheeconomy of are considered. clean up, of use alternative energy, and efficiency. energy These common elementsalso are most common terms reference environmental and issues energy including: conservation, of relateddelivery green products or to services green economic activity categories. The Generally, green jobsare work the jobsinwhich relates directly to production the or Table 1.2.Alternative Green Definitions measuring green jobs. ity categories, and instrument instructions on that survey the provide context full the for of what we can measure. It is combination the of definition, the greentheeconomic - activ The definition alone of jobs green is insufficient to the determine parameteror the extent Source: Workforce Information Council –Green Jobs Study Group, Final Report (2009):Measurement and Source Generic Generic WA state definition Variation of early world able, carbon low work inasustain- Jobs: Towards decent Green UNEP Report: sure jobs green to- mea tion Council Workforce Informa- from the structed Con Definition • • Analysis of Employment in the Green Economy, October, p. 19. In definition: the work essential. is It implies that there is some level of importance such as wages, or benefits. The definition solely based be economicshould on activity and not include factors - Definition categories. in any of green the economic activity A green jobprovides products or services green economic activity categories. protection and inone clean energy of the Jobs that directly support environmental environmental quality. substantially or to preserving restoring that activities service-related contribute tific and administrative,technical, and tion, and maintenance, as well- as scien manufacturing, construction,- installa Green jobs: positions inagriculture, ity categories. work inany of green the economic- activ ronmental sustainability.job The involves ofuse renewable energy, or support envi - improve efficiency, energy expand the is essential that to products or services A green jobis one work the inwhich 32 Comment surement. outspelled for- inmea use practical level conceptA high that must be reference. and could stand alone without the referencethe to categories, the mation definition inthe before itself This variant providessome infor ed toed “good jobs.” report adds additional criteria relat- of waste and pollution.” The UNEP economy, and forms minimize…all consumption… de-carbonize the reduce energy, materials, and water restore ecosystems and biodiversity, limited to) jobsthat “protect and definitionthe including (but is not The UNEPdocument elaborates on contribute to environmental quality. of types positions thatspecifying Definition stands by itself by degree of relationship). the it provide does some notion of the is this subjective,is essential (while The definitionspecifies work that - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia , 2 - 33 other greenhouse gases, waste water, and other pollutants. pollutants. other and water, gases, waste greenhouse other pollution, disposal of and the cleanup including remediation Environmental - land and redevelopment; Superfund/Brownfield materials; hazardous and waste, restoration. fill resources natural improve services and and Products conserve, maintain, to water management, land agriculture, carbon low including environment, and conser environmental and restoration, wetlands conservation, and management vation. Activities to educate the public, business, and government on energy efficiency, energy efficiency, on government and business, the public, educate to Activities energy efficient more and certifications, systems energy rating energy, renewable compliance enforcing parties about appropriate Also informing consumption. and plans, and energy standards state promoting regulations, and requirements In theory, processes. and products related of energyuse effective on training en- to related fuels or power selling of and buying energy include could trading control to and trade activity cap energywell as as ergy renewable and efficiency pollution. Activities Included (but not limited to) limited not Included (but Activities operation, delivery, design, research, construction, production, Manufacturing, - transporta alternative hydro, biomass, solar, wind, of maintenance and storage a fuel source. as incineration waste and ocean, methane, geothermal, fuels, tion prod- energy efficient of production installation, construction, Manufacturing, ucts, retrofitting/efficiency, energy efficiency building services, weatherization, (smart improvements processes,energy distribution production energy efficient - improve storage and development battery and technology, grid), transportation ment. industrial and transportation, commercial, controlling to related Activities product waste operations, recycling treatment, water pollution; and emissions CO of emissions reducing and controlling Includes treatment. and management - - - atural atural nergy - defi the than measurement support to specific information more provide They alone. nition meet determine whether the jobs better survey respondents help categories The green andactivi - of definition by combination specified criteria the the green ties. collecting data. for at a level usedbe may categories The fficiency conomic conomic ° ° ° and relevance of the work to a green-related activity, and that without the work, the work, without that and activity, a green-related to the work of relevance and it standpoint a measurement From service be or provided. not the product would whether qualified job a determining in ‘essential’ of the interpretation important is “green.” as are categories activity economic the- green Categories Activity Economic Green jobs in several green respects: analyzing and in measuring important ° ° ° Analysis of Employment in the Green Economy, October, p. 17. p. October, Economy, Green the in Employment of Analysis • ducation, Regula nvironmental nvironmental nergy Trading nergy Trading nergy E E Cleanup and Reme Waste and diation Clean-up- Miti and gation - Agri Sustainable N and culture vation Resource ConserResource E Compliance, tion, Public Awareness and Training, and E and Conservationand Activity Renewable E E and Waste, Pollution, Management, GHG - Re and Prevention, duction Green E Green Fuels Alternative and Source: Workforce Information Council – Green Jobs Study Group, Final Report (2009): Measurement and and (2009): Measurement Report Final Group, Study Jobs – Green Council Information Workforce Source: This is a working framework of green economic activities. One may prefer to varyof some prefer may activities. One of economic green framework working is a This Table 1.3. Proposed Green Economic Activity Categories Activity Economic Green 1.3. Proposed Table - activity catego of economic green list proposed a definitions, various of the analysis From follows: as beries could presented Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ment inmeasuring both and would useful interpreting be empirical results. wind turbines. Further research on supply chain relationships and of methods measure- ers of bolts indicated that bolts were agreen product were they inbuilding because used chain products included be as green. For example, it would problematic be if manufactur as green. However,uct definition the not does adequately address how faralong a supply to manufacturing of wind turbines may counted be respondent ifthe considers prod the - Some degree of supply jobsinthe chain For collected. could be also example, jobsrelated ulation, compliance, public awareness and training and trading. energy and mitigation; sustainable agriculture and natural resource conservation; education, reg- prevention and reduction; environmental cleanup and remediation and waste clean-up native efficiency and pollution, fuels; energy conservation; waste and GHG management, volves work inany of green the economic activity categories: renewable and energy alter expand the of use renewable energy, or support environmental sustainabilityjob. The- in which the work essential is to providing products that or services improve efficiency, energy Finally, as ameasurable definitionbe couldthe proposed following: Agreen job one is in mation including: A measurable definition greenjobsof includes componentsseveral and supporting infor to defining a measurable definition of jobs. green ment estimates. With green economic activity concepts inhand, attention is turned back documented to facilitate any sharing or comparison of studies and green-related employ- provides abasis from one which might and start against differences specific which be can categoriesthe to more focus on important specifically sectorseconomy.the in aboveThe the economythe is oriented toward greater sustainability: From abroad conceptual employment perspective, affected in be will at least four ways as 1.7. ChangesinE • • • • • • ° ° A direct relationship to green economic activity area categories. my. A general one or two sentence description relating jobto the greening the econo- metal workers,metal and construction workers) simply will redefined day-to-day be as Fourth, it would appear that many plumbers, existing jobs(especially electricians, aging materials are discouraged or banned and production their is discontinued. Third,jobs may certain be eliminated without direct replacementpackwhen - - as renewables, or from landfilling and waste incineration to recycling. Second, some employment substituted be will -asfrom inshifting fuelsfossil to lution control to added existing devices production equipment. First, insomeadditional cases, created, jobscan be as manufacturing inthe of- pol ° ° relationship. This relationship basic definition.the in canbe specified ity is essential to work, the or function, characterized aprimary by apercentage should indicated. be For example, work the related to green the economic- activ A degree of relationship of work the to green the economic activity categories Thecategories scope thewhat set of green is whatand is not. mployment 34 - - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 35 skill sets, work methods, and profiles are greened. It goes without saying that this that saying goesIt without greened. are profiles methods, and skillsets, work which for the hardest and analyze, and document to the hardest far aspectlast by is the full implications. foresee to One concerns wage levels: better-paid jobs translate into greater purchasing power power purchasing greater into translate jobs better-paid levels: wage concerns One employment. induced more thus and food,clothing, of purchases of to composition the relates distinction The second what to words, in other these services goods where and produced; and etc., were into out “leaks” or economy in the local regional or circulates spent money extent economy. world the broader • • - ven business and of green policies impacts of employment findings aggregated Highly firms, utility: limited the different necessarily vary effects job somewhat for of are tures countries and regions, industries, countries or regions, specificcommunities, extent to of what is question also the There extent to of what questions In to part, is linked the this employment. green benefit from local by captured is revenues of share what need be to imported, materials energy and whetherthe and companies, globally-operating middlemen and to opposed as producers in a particular exist infrastructure, as base, well as necessary knowledge and industrial locality. other or region, country, services, products, in green leaders become technology development and that Countries serving to in addition their own export markets capture and their advantage press to want a key as see the environment Japan and Germany like countries Indeed, markets. domestic business of bulkgreen the that implies This strategy. economic their future of dimension operations manufacturing (R&D) and development and in research jobs and revenues By up. catch countries other until least at countries, of small group accrues relatively a to the location near or in be to created tend maintenance and jobs in operations contrast, installed and used;are theycan- etc. windows, efficient panels, solar turbines, wind where be easily outsourced. not activi- economic in environment-friendly investment activity, economic other Like any - mainte operations, jobs (design, direct construction, of a certain number ties - generates however, figures, employment Aggregate industries). jobs (in supplier indirect and nance) will jobs - where jobs of distribution the spatial as such dimensions hide important can on the depends this extent, To a large willmost? benefit which regions and be created, in Particularly region. country or a given base of manufacturing skill, and technology, where is question a key the economy, of agricultural sectors and extractive, the energy, - op such from the “value-added” where thus and takes place, materials raw of processing accrued. is erations by the everyday supported are These jobs science also jobs.” speaks “induced Economic of - sector in the econ any jobs. Of course, indirect those and in direct of spending consumer jobs whether induced question might one and employment, induced such entails omy distinctions: important two are there However, here. be even considered should Some green jobs are easily identifiable - such as people employed in installing a solar panel a panel in installing solar employed as such people - easily identifiable jobs are green Some be less far may industries, Others, particularly in supplier turbine. a wind operating or a wind be used manufacture to may specialty a particular steel of piece instance, For so. fact. Thus, that of even being aware employees company the steel without tower turbine the of sectors - in traditional others whereas badge,” “green a clear with jobs come some Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia portant: Having of inmind all previous, the it is worthy to notice two concepts that are im- very waste generating industries. In other words, are more they or less labor-intensive? support more, or fewer, unit jobs per of spending than expenditures in more polluting and questionA crucial investments is whether inenvironment-friendly economic activities economy, may not have an obvious green and look feel. (Construction); that(Construction); is, extent the to environmental their which impacts reduced. can be greening potential of differentsectors economythe of with a attentionspecial to buildings ing measures is unknown, but obviously enormous. Table 1.4. offers a broad look the at The numbers of additionalgreenthatjobs be couldgenerated through suchpath break- conditioning summer inthe and expensive heating winter. inthe - thatogies provided is, they funds to retrofit they no longerso buildings require heavy air around world the were aimed at truly spawning arevolution ininnovative green technol- Imagine ifeconomic stimulus packages and other government and business programs buildings. green created jobs can be through extensive weatherization and retrofitting of existing standards, efficiency it wouldrevolutionize the construction industry. Many additional next Ifthe two decades. most buildings or new all were constructed according to higher continued expansion, and may generate many million jobs inwind and solar alone over potentialThe green jobgrowth forfurther tremendous. is poised Renewableis for energy 1.8. Potentials for and Challenges Green Jobs Growth • • ables, there is afar greater realm of sustainable employment. numbers of green jobsthat quantified cansectors, be in suchspecific as- renew ofuse toxic materials, reducing waste, and on. so But it imply does that beyond the obviate for need the additional environmental measures, such as phasing out the help green jobs of workthe who those Nonetheless, in them. such do effects not are byportation implicationservices greener. also Green buildings to an extent cleaner fuels and are more efficient)means that the manymillions trans of jobs in - greening vehiclesLikewise, (that is, producing cars, and trucks, buses that on run than today, fuels and when are electricity produced still largely from sources. dirty suppliesgy means that any economic activity has far less environmental impact surately large of sections total the workforce. For instance, providing clean ener potential to “radiate” across large swaths of economy, the thus greening commen- Second, creation the of green employment of inkey parts economy the has the are permitted. to hazards), and on degree the to unionwhich organizing and collective bargaining (that aspects technical is, extent the of types to work certain which workers expose and worker rights. Green jobs, but good jobscan to be depends this some extent on and wagespects, among green jobs. And there is a panoply of working conditions enormous range interms of requirements, skill occupational profiles,career pros- folds with regard to question the of green jobs are whether decent jobs.There is an others. Pollution avoidance is better than pollution control. Asimilar picture un- green” to indicate that yield greater some will policies environmental benefitsthan First, not green jobsare all green. equally One could employ term“shades the of 36 - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ong-term green ong-term Excellent Good excellent to Good Unknown Good excellent to Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Limited Excellent Excellent Good Excellent Good Fair Fair Fair Unknown Excellent L potential jobs Good Limited Limited Limited Limited Negative Fair Good Limited Limited Limited Negative Limited Limited Good Fair Fair Fair Fair None Good Green jobs jobs Green progress to-date - 37 Excellent Good- excel to lent Good Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Limited Excellent Excellent Fair to good to Fair Excellent Good Fair Good Good Fair Excellent tential Greening po , buildings are responsible for between 30 to 40 percent between 40 percent 30 to for responsible are , buildings - man forestry Sustainable agement Agroforestry Reforestation/afforestation Reforestation/afforestation Environmental services Environmental Organic farming farming Organic Small-scale sustainable Small-scale sustainable farming Efficient equipment and equipment Efficient appliances Lighting Lighting Retrofitting Retrofitting Green buildings buildings Green Aviation Aviation Rail Mass transit transit Mass Fuel-efficient cars cars Fuel-efficient Recycling Pulp and paper paper and Pulp Cement Cement Aluminium Aluminium Steel CCS Renewables Renewables - Worldwatch Institute with technical assistance by the Cornell University Labor Institute, for the United United the for Institute, Labor University Cornell the by assistance technical with Institute Worldwatch 301. p. (UNEP), Nairobi, Program Environmental Nations uildings/ nergy Forestry Forestry Agriculture Agriculture B Construc tion - Transporta tion Industry E Source: Worldwatch Institute (2008) Green Jobs: Towards Decent Work in a Sustainable, Low-CarbonWorld, Low-CarbonWorld, a Sustainable, in Work Decent Towards Jobs: (2008) Green Institute Worldwatch Source: of all primary energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and waste generation at the global at generation waste and all primaryof emissions, energy gas greenhouse use, the capability and footprint environmental scale.the- large Because these realities two of climate for area a criticalas emerged have buildings – emissions reduce significantly to sustainability. environmental toward the move and mitigation change practic- building conventional in the shift from required the changes of most Fortunately, withtechnology with existing primarily done can be buildings energy-efficient es toward policymak and - individuals, businesses, for importantly more Perhaps cost. net no or little net cost negative a having of potential the have buildings in measures energy-efficient ers, be can a period reinvested time and of over back pays the initial investment as time, over the community. into back effects energy-efficiencyhave positive agree that studies will “most reportstates: IPCC The RegardingBuildings/Construction Table 1.4. Green Job Progress To-Date and Future Potential Potential Future and To-Date Progress Job 1.4. Green Table - orders-of-magni offers and to-date thesein areas growth job green also characterizes It the wide variety demonstrates it so, doing In growth. job green future of estimates tude been so has far which this potential to degree thediverging and potential, greening of reality. into translated Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia Since right direction, but only represent of fraction potential the asmall sector. inthis jobs. But remain they New underutilized. green building initiatives are astep also inthe and lighting), have great potential to reduce both greenhouse gas emissions and create office equipment, electronic appliances,heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems, building components (including water heaters, cooking equipment, domestic appliances, measuressector the in Thebuilding energy-efficiency - green building, retrofitting, and ment. manufactured and are is used, energy likely to affectjob numbers andtypes ofemploy- how buildings are designed, built, and operated, along with how building components are or approximately five percentto ten of total employment the level. country Changesat in The building and constructionsector employs morethanpeople 111million worldwide, are created also inmanufacturing, administration, and consulting. community. Not only are jobscreated inbuilding operations and construction, but they as money that would have previously spent up been on is freed and energy re-spent inthe Indirect jobsare created mainly manufacturing inthe sector, and induced jobsare created are mainly directly performed at development the site, and therefore are typically local. like energy, banking and investment, and retail.jobs The createdthe in sectorbuilding are sector the incomparison small to leading the multinationals inother major industries inmicrofirms occurs still that have ten or less employees. Eventhelargest companies in tor is comprised of and small medium-sized enterprises: 90 percent of construction global Jobs are created directly building in the sector. This is significantbecause mostsec- the of Energy-efficientmeasures thesector in lead building todirect, indirect, and induced jobs. measures es from efficiency is known energy the as double dividend. improvements to building’s the shell -sometimes referred to as its envelope –and other projects, buildingsOther insmaller particularly and homes, may on focus repairs and larger buildings, involve replacing, rebuilding, or installing systems.energy-using new building upgrades -retrofitsfrom –vary project to project. Many in projects, especially or “audit,” of building’s the use. Measures energy implemented comprehensive in these cy. Building owners often implement multiple measuresupgrade following an analysis, Many techniques and technologies help improve an existing building’s efficien- energy efficient building operations, management.energy and opportunities and to barriers growing jobsinthree major areas: efficiency energy upgrades, The greenthetypes of following collarthejobs, skills required,sections describe theand staff, and IT(information specialists. technology) ers, buildings and trades construction professionals, building maintenance and operations isting buildings involves some or of all following the of types workers: engineers,- design efficiency Energy projects and jobs are diverse, but in general, increasing inex- efficiency “end-use solutions” -reducing at use energy site the of consumption. cializations. Jobs efficiency also,are inenergy necessity, by deal with jobs, since they local not have improved, been it creates jobopportunities, new along with entirely- spe new ways.” economicthe multiplier effects of thespending moneysaved costs in on energy other on employment, directly by creating business new opportunities and indirectly through 9 IPCC (2007):MitigationIPCC of Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UKand New York, p. 417. energy efficiency energy work on generally focuses existing buildings would that otherwise 9 The positive The result both environmentalof improvements and employment increas - 38 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 39 Replacing boilers Replacing chillers air-conditioning Installing fans) and blowers, work, duct (including systems circulation air indoor Improving thermostat and sensors light installing electrical (including systems Improving controls) solar power, photovoltaic solar (including energy systems renewable Installing systems) geothermal and heating, cool roofs) or roofs green (including new roofs Installing fixtures lighting Replacing pipes) insulating (including insulation replacing or Adding glass insulated with windows Replacing appliances energy with efficient appliances Replacing windows around Caulking fluorescents) compact with incandescent (replacing bulbs light Replacing cooling and minimize heating to doors under sweeps adding and doors Replacing loss Green jobs are expanding, but are not yet growing rapidly enough - especially enough rapidly growing yet not are but expanding, jobs are Green tens some by expanding is the global market the factlabor that considers when one lagging behind generally are levels employment Moreover, every millions of year. (ILO) Labor Organization the2006, International In newworkers. of thesupply million. 195.2 - levels record at is people unemployed of the number that reported - suf earning without hard (working underemployed and the unemployed Together, has Unemployment workers. world’s of the in one three to amount income) ficient - repre people young 86.3 million with 15-24) the hardest, (aged people young hit in 2006. unemployed total the world’s of 44 percent senting in the world; developed foothold important an gained has employment Green these same Yet countries. developing most in exceptional stillis quite it however, Brazil China and workforce. the world’s of 80 percent some for account countries to be needs to done more much but in this regard, be to progress making appear a truly becomes global phenomenon. employment green that ensure challenge major a constitutes in the global economy of informality level The rising • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • basic measures. In general, upgrades can include: include: can upgrades general, In basic measures. - pro three-stage a energy usually is upgrade building a scope, or size project of Regardless 3: Construction. Stage and 2: Pre-Construction, Stage 1: Auditing/Assessment, Stage cess: construction trade and professionals of skilled number a involve upgradesEfficiency general They require jobs. to existing similar are newof created jobs majority The workers. building contrast, skills. In additional some plus knowledge, engineering or construction pathways. career and qualifications, titles, emerging new with field relatively a is auditing however, must, job growth green future for the potential of assessment optimistic Finally, These include: realities. unavoidable and pressing some of the backdrop be seen against Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia losing market share, have they announced heavy layoffs in recent years. long reluctant been to pursue (and technology this efficiency fuel more generally). Now industry, for example, Toyota inhybrid aleader has technology. been US.automakers have gards, however, may well substantial incur business and In job penalties. automotive the translate into tremendous market and opportunities export for early the actors. Thelag - developmenttechnology are more likely to retain and create green jobs.Thiswill new Companies, countries, and regions that become leadersin green innovation, and design, more local. buildings and retrofitting of industrialequipment, arethat activities are by definition far ing installation the activities, of solar panels and wind turbines, or weatherization the of development and training required the labor. skilled However, incontrast to manufactur (i.e., where resources extractable are located) than by insupport policies of technological developmentthe of renewable sources energy are less determined by natural endowment Unlike conventional the industries energy of oil, coal, and natural gas, winners the in and other measures. change and to direct economies toward greater sustainability through accounting full-cost advantages loom larger will as governments move more aggressively to counter climate operating costs, and inavoided and waste, expenses, associated disposal liabilities. Such production process offer substantialsavings in outlays for and energy raw materials, in rather than putting at them adisadvantage. Smart innovations and modifications the to more products benign and production processes -that give companies acompetitive edge Environmental regulations can have “technology-forcing” - effects stimulatingsafer and sustainability and greener employment well to needs planned. be challenge is not distinctions to letthese become permanent features.transition The to polluting industries, and regions where many on livelihoods depend policy The them. clude employees of companies that are slow to environmental to the rise challenge, heavily Not awinner. could everyone be - be losers also Thereat least temporarily.will in- These benefitthe domestic economy or companies and communities in countries.other tions; governments and unions could watch closely green development whether could nities and regions could want to ensure that green jobs are created within- jurisdic their may hideimportant distinctions, exceptions, and disparities. For instance, commu local - growing numbers created. of be green jobswill Overly aggregated jobnumbers, however, As move the toward alow-carbon and more sustainable economy gathers momentum, 1.9. Winners and L • edge, impede action. costs. And surprisingly often, market failures, coupledwith lack greenknowlof - mand consumer loyalty through low prices achieved on back of the “externalized” practices have to contend with companies -manufacturers and retailers -that com- financial markets are noteasily overcome. The early adopters of green business able than green ways of doing business. Short-term pressures of shareholders and Unsustainable business practices are prevalent still and often remain more profit- across developing the world inparticular. cent work and pro-poor sustainable development to is building critical green jobs within and countries between are amajor impediment. The effort to advance de- to green job growth. Moreover, chronic the and worsening levels of inequality both osers osers 40 - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - empha study ASES The 10 41 Bezdek Roger, Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency: Economic Drivers for the 21st Century, Boulder, CO: Boulder, Energy Energy Renewable for and the 21st Efficiency: Century, Drivers Bezdek Economic Roger, 5, 21. 2007, pp. Solar EnergyAmerican Society, sizes that renewables and efficiency-related parts of the economy employ workers at all workers employ ofparts the economy efficiency-related and renewables sizes that skill levels. and educational - How of a job. credentials on the green focus solely may of jobs green definition A narrow low and efficiency like concerns jobs also green - pairing jobs be need to decent ever, job security, prospects, career wages, including concerns labor traditional with emissions Of rights. worker and conditions, working other as well as safety health and occupational While enormously. varies the planet jobs across of quality and nature the precise course, ac- even But future. the foreseeable for will there be globalsingle no standard desirable, 10 - pro occupational and backgrounds, skills, educational of a wide array jobs span Green and engineering as such fields professional and development; files.They research occur in - re marketing, administration, auditing; management; and planning project architecture; or plumbing as such areas blue-collar traditional services; customer in many and and tail, also in government but business, in private just not electrical exist jobs green wiring. Also, support and enforcement, monitoring setting, rule-making, permitting, (standard offices - civil society and organi associations, academia, professional science and etc.), programs, etc.). organizations, community groups, watchdog (advocacy and zations important will literacy green increasingly become applied and awareness Environmental in that likely is fact,in it and beall can jobs new green ones, not But professions. many in - methods will practices and predom work in day-to-day changes low-key workplaces most workers. green-collar into be transformed quietly fairly may workers Blue-collar inate. Solar Energy the American Society by (ASES) published 2007 report a November Indeed, energy energyand efficiencyrenewable by of created the jobs majority “the vast that, finds factory clerks, analysts, computer engineers, accountants, jobs for standard (RE&EE) are in these jobs employed the workers of fact, most In etc. mechanics, truck drivers, workers, RE&EE.” their to livelihood they owe that realize even not may 1.10. Green Jobs as Decent Jobs as Decent Jobs Jobs 1.10. Green Public policy can and should seek to minimize disparities among putative winners and and winners putative among seek disparities minimize to should policyPublic and can the regard losers, with Although economy. a green to arise in the transition losers that - un can workers some the winners, by be outnumbered to far likely are employment, to those - primarily sustainability toward restructuring in the be economic hurt doubtedly the of many, perhaps some, least At industries. smokestack and fuels, fossil in mining, retraining. the new jobs without skills for the requisite have will not individuals displaced new green Also, panels. to a installing solar job switch easily coal cannot miner A laid-off - indus jobs in polluting those than shedding other in locations arise primarily jobs may can industries polluting extractive and on depend heavily that countries and tries. Regions their economies. diversify to challenge a substantial confront impact the greatest feel to likely are industries polluting heavily extraction and Resource jobs save not would action environmental blocking But sustainability. toward moving of em- that means depletion resource and automation of pace rapid The in these industries. fact, in In grows. still is output these shrinking as even industries of many in ployment low are standards environmental where risk be to at likely more are jobs industries many of the urgency as lagging. is And technologies cleaner of in favor innovation where and that strategy a do-nothing so of time, do the costs rises practices over sustainable more in disruptive less thus are be can phased in and that action early for misses opportunities impact. Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ment programs and excessive liberalization insome developing countries as well as inthe deindustrializationdecades, developed in worldthe and impact the of adjust structural - throughout is history replete with countless examples of oftenserious hardships. In recent happened often inhistory. impacts economic thesocial of the story of In fact, change ic progress for society, to note it necessary that is also fair and just transitions have not While major economic transitions past inthe have to led significanteconomand social - a long way to go before norm. it becomes apolicy here taken being and there to turn just the transition approach into reality, but there is still widely across society. The is to goal this generalize principle the levelat policy.of Steps are principle However, it is aframework that structured around has been aprinciple and agoal. The governments, andal local businesses and industries, and community-based organizations. of jobchallenges, andthe is reflected in ongoing work the ILO,of trade unions,the nation - munities.framework This grounded is some in the face in well-establishedpractices social levels, level rangingdownseveral to workplacesfrom global-societal the com and- local There appearsbe to anemergingframework that allows for a justtransition to operate on communities. opportunities created are shared bygroups specific of workers, constituencies,social and transition) whereby harmed by those changes the are adequately assisted, and new the sectors. Faced withscenario, this are calls emerging for a“fair and just transition,” (or just es and jeopardized regions, livelihoods incertain communities, industries, and economic green jobs andnew greening the of some existing jobs.However, it results also injobloss- transitionThe involves businesses, workers, communities, and movements. It produces of –all arepolicies which products interactions of social and negotiations. innovations,nological shifts in business and investment strategies, set as well as a of new transitionThe to a sustainable, low-carboneconomy process.social is a It involves tech- 1.11. Transition to Green and Sustainable E have arole to play inensuring outcome. asatisfactory sustainable development. Governments, communities, businesses, and labor unions all integral of future aspect and policies strategies. of fair Only can speak then we and truly erations such as wages, working conditions, and workers’ have rights will to become an of jobsthan about quality. their But to make term“green the jobs” meaningful, consid - concerns to advocates for labor. Today, far more information is available about quantities conditions as to important need be to advocates for environment the as environmental workersposing to hazardous substances that endanger and health their lives. Decent work instance - but day-to-day whose reality is characterized by extremely practices, ex- poor in support of environmental goals -such as electronics the recycling inAsia, industry for andneeds, rights. However, there are today millions of jobsinsectors that are nominally and protective not only of natural the environment, but of also workers’ human health, Ideally, future the of employment increasingly will marked be by jobsthat are respectful poverty) can hardly green. called be job that is harmful, or fails to pay aliving wage (or worse, condemns workers to alife of towith jobs;jobsneed provide their hope equal for environment the and jobholder. the A upheld. toneed be People’s livelihoods, rights, and of sense dignity are bound up tightly cepting inevitability the of differentialspay in and other characteristics, standards certain holds that costs the and benefits transitionof a to sustainability shouldbe shared 42 conomy Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 43 post-socialist countries, there are examples of these poorly managed transitions. Overall, transitions. these managed poorly of examples are post-socialistthere countries, modernstruggled has societywith thetriggered to deal often social effectively negatives shoulders on the heavily weighs history This change. and turbulence economic major by a to the - transition transition economic great the next that those ensure to whoof hope script. discouraging will - this often depart from economy sustainable and green of- More choices. political storyalsoabout a however, is, change of storyeconomic The the the needs of before wealth of the accumulation put have these choices not, than ten economic to let accommodations to a propensity also shown have Policymakers majority. oc- are transitions especiallyeconomic factthe that given forces, market beto left change How- beneficial. socially and economically often are changes curringsuch all the timeand em- green of expansion the qualitative and economy a sustainable to the transition ever, that a transition is It history. in human transition other no resemble to likely is ployment against willpush forces market other but extent, some to forces market will by be assisted proceed needsto it be should and global of the transition The scope the needed changes. or two just In social and history. economic in unprecedented less or more pacea that’s at a to thewill road be on need to well global economy the entire decades, three probably neither and alone, the transition drive cannot Markets future. sustainable and low-carbon create. will inevitably the transition that deal to the problems with theycan upon be relied willalso in- economy sustainable and green to a a to expedite transition effort the Thus, economy world need to the The green policy and options. a new approaches set of volve - intrinsi nothing is there but policy the right make to decisions, opportunity an presents be - this must result the end or green becoming of the process either about just or cally fair the whereby development sustainable paradigm of the overall politically within pursued environmental and the economic into integrated equitably fullysocial is and dimension dimensions. tradi- long the from encouragement draw can a transition to create the effort Fortunately, to disadvantaged, the poor and protect to in place put social legislation labor of tion and socially embed social to of and necessary solidarity the work, creation enable and facilitate a of the potential understanding the to key perhaps But life. economic of in the fabric bring to a means as but net, safety kind of some as simply view to it not is transition just in meaningful grounded one framework, sustainable and a democratic into life economic issue, social The and priorities. economic shared broadly social by driven dialogue and - the goal the transition follows what but itself, the transition about simply not then, is social inclusion, greater for allows that consumption and production being a new mode of opportunity. and equity, are capacities manufacturing and (R&D), engineering, development and Solid research in the occupations some jobs. Indeed, and industries green the critical aspect building of special- quite andeven educated highly in energy sector efficiency or require renewables the skilled and trades. At engineers, technicians, a variety of including ized personnel, instance, PV design, solar for or turbine wind for technology development of edge cutting offering consider need to universities where the point to progressed has specialization to high-end limited not is Still, employment green majors. and fields new study entirely skill experienceof and levels, array broad a demand that positions many are skills. There maintenance. and operations, especially in installation, some what need for increasing is there countries, industrialized and both developing In besides high the- most occupations of range in a broad training collar” termed “green have Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia education to for need emphasize also green jobs will gender equality. of “high-road jobs” -decent pay and benefits safeand working conditions. Training and provided to companies with jobquality and training standards, to ensure creation the In countries, all it is important to green subsidies, link breaks, tax and other incentives role insetting up centers green training and expertise indeveloping countries. junction with business, unions, trade and community organizations, could play acritical U.N. and other international agencies such as UNEP, ILO, etc, working UNIDO incon- Promoting such jobtraining is important equally indeveloping countries. Avarietyof of poverty and equity. connecting green jobs with social commitment to people inpoorer and disadvantaged communities -providing out aladder workplaces donot faceashortage of adequately trained workers. It important is also as a for requirements skill the inherent in green jobs and to ensure that green industries and ly educated positions. This is importantboth to preparethe workforce/labor force, largeat 44 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ON 45 EATI G AND CR ENT VERNM GO F THE N S MEASURI OB O OLE eed of Green Jobs Measurement and Prediction Prediction and Measurement eed Jobs Green of 2.1. N an come has interest With this levels. reached extraordinary has in jobs green interest The a sense, the green In employment. green of the potential regarding optimism infectious a and economy sustainable botha new and for emblem an of something become job has society. just more green em- of growth The justified. is jobs green around optimism the present of Much quantifications, are of series There very already is significant. countries in many ployment and anecdotal to in addition the world, jobs around green of projections and estimates, potential. and jobs growth green evidenceof circumstantial statistical establish must Governments gaps. data remaining many of course, are, There in both newly employment relevant capture help and recognize that categories reporting should Governments sectors. in established employment green and industries emerging direct just not analyze to efforts econometric and modeling in-depth also commission associations Business manner. indirect in a more related also are those that jobs but green begun do job surveys to a useful and have Some part well. as play can trade unions and also toneeds given be Attention are needed. efforts of of these kinds more far but profiles, of equality is there that ensure to in order gender the of basis on data disaggregating to is chains supply of scrutiny greater jobs. And green for men and women for opportunity occupa- and businesses traditional many much how just understand better to warranted, of the economy. by the greening reinvigorated and affected positively are tions By statistics. other and in government be captured to well tend industries Conventional - activities, employ economic green be as can characterized what of the totality of contrast, where Even countries). or (industries certain segments for only available are data ment be timeseries,to es- than and rather beto they snapshots tend available, are data such renewable asthe such - industries New firm than figures. more projections and timates that changes other But easily. relatively be - can identified energy energy sector or auditing new- tech instance, for capture: and define to harder much are the economy green help improved yield that and occupations professions in shifts practices, and business nologies, or min- avoid help efficiency;that water techniques and and methods materials, energy, make generally infrastructures that and new structures or waste; of theimize generation will occur these existing in changes of Many inputs. material on reliant less economy an out. to difficult separate are but industries, and companies dam- environmentally less is that an economy of requirement core efficiency a is Greater material less far with wellbeing) of level (and output economic the same - achieving aging agreed no easily is There concept. and highly dynamic relative efficiency is a But input. more efficient much How inefficient. and efficient separates that point cutoff or threshold en- minimize to need andever-present the progress technological given And, sufficient? is yesterday’s can consumption, materials energy with associated and impacts vironmental J 2. GREEN E R - TH Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia impact positive is asmall change intotal employment. positive assumptions yield upbeat will results. Most studies agree, however, that likely the environmental measures likely will produce studies that predict just joblosses, as more findings. Thus, skeptical assumptionsabout reducing greenhouse gas emissions orother The nature these andof other assumptions inevitably colorsthe general nature the of tive fashion or resist such change? companies adapt, and to what extent attempt dothey to green operations their inaproac- far-sighted or as aconsequence policy of unforeseen and unwanted shocks? How well do measures. But how change prices and this fast rise, will of will as part adeliberate, occur and materials have will inorder to rise to stimulate greater conservation and efficiency sumption among environmentalists and economists ecological is that prices for energy Forthem. instance, how costs the ofand will energy material inputs evolve? as Abasic - The results of such analyses are heavily influenced basicthe by assumptions that go into may altered be by regulations new and standards, etc. ways production inwhich costs may change, how demand for products and technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or other environmental impacts. the They on focus but to determine likely seek the overall effect economythe on fromarising policies aiming studies, onOther macro-economic based calculations, donot on focus green industries approaches result infindingsthat cannot simplybe aggregated or extrapolated. amount of money, or implementing tool (such as different apolicy acarbon These tax). portion of supplies energy from clean sources by agiven target year), spending agiven underlying assumption, (for goal suchpolicy as instance, meeting a specific generating a estimate net employment impacts). (such as input-output models that to capture seek direct and indirect employment and pacity or installed, unit jobsper of investment spending), or from macroeconomic models employment coefficient estimates (such perunit as jobs of production or production ca- timates may alternatively from derived analyses from that be surveys, industry generate For emerging newly “green” sectors of economy, the such as renewables, employment es- of agreen jobmay stay same, the its essence keeps changing over time. be regardedlevel ofstill efficiency asadequate tomorrow? basicdefinition the while Thus, 11 state definitions to modify greenjobs.of lishes a standard of set definitions and methodologies, and a forneed flexibility a within workers same inthe industries or occupations. So, there that for is aneed estab- asurvey statisticalcial classifications are not structured to differentiate“green” workers fromother approachA survey appears of method best estimating the to be green jobssince offi the - 2.2. Green Jobs Survey cost energy which would which cost change energy relative the price ratio inputs of energy to other inputs! assumptionsthese assume since they improve alternative will technology energy and assume they amove to higher requiring price the ratios of various the inputs to remain constant. Yet green jobs proposals clearly violate of both put-output analysis assumes not that does change technology to enable some inputs to produce more output while No one can omit warning the that input-output analysis inappropriate could be for green jobs proposals. In- 11 The modeling exercises are based on a usually key 46 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 47 framework for for survey framework of a the basic to establish is purpose context The and Planning - developing the scope of the study. the study. the scope of - developing Planning mode(s) - response and survey modes - determining Response implementation a combination. or Internet, phone, mail, the survey instrument. developing - designing, Survey instrument the survey instrument. Testing to establishments of the sample drawing and the sample - determining Sampling be surveyed. rate. response desired obtain to procedures Follow-up classification assigning and responses - processing capture data and editing Data codes. Estimation. dissemination. and presentation analysis, Data Is the survey intended to measure the number of green jobs? If so, is it intended to to intended it is so, jobs? If green of the number measure the to surveyIs intended categories? activity economic green by jobs green of the number measure - the num of instead or to in addition items other measure the survey to Is intended business green requirements, training demographics, wages, (e.g., jobs green ber of practices)? will green geography and classification occupational industry and of level what At be grouped? job data be considered might that segments or the survey economy Is focused the entire on to energy or renewable to related employment (e.g., economy the green partof abatement)? pollution Clearly define goals and purposes. and goals define Clearly be to measured. is what Identify activity). jobs, green (e.g. green terms of definitions Develop other aspects and project, review the definition the plan to time in sufficient Build 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. • • • • • • • • 2.2.2. Designing a Green Jobs Survey Jobs a Green 2.2.2. Designing in undertaking a survey the ex- learn from can interested government or institution One de- and the process when planning the following consider should and others perience of the effort: for the timeline veloping There are many ways and levels at which green-related employment can be examined. As can be examined. employment at green-related which levels and ways many are There survey effective to design.The the purpose the survey of paramount establishing is such, when clarifying the purpose the survey: be of considered may questions following 2.2.1. Principal Purposes of Green Jobs Surveys Purposes2.2.1. Principal Jobs Green of 1. Planning. Planning. 1. be to collected the information type determine of be to collected. To data the green-related or (requesting customers of knowledge necessary a thorough is it develop to analyzed, and be could the following: consider to their needs. Steps and the output) using Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia notice following: the 2. Response Modes. Obviously, there are avariety of response but modes, it is important to Scope decisions:Scope planning inthe phase, it is important to consider survey: the whether must considered: be Planning should include key stakeholders process. inthe potential The scope creepof traditional measurement and analysis of occupations and industries. It is important to state that measuring and analyzing green jobsare differentfrom the • • • • • • • • • • • • • • what lower response rate. of response contact initial inthe methods or mailing package can to lead asome- may reduce non-response, some studies have shown that offeringlarger a number Although it is often assumedthat giving a respondent a choice of response mode Web-based online response capability should considered. be Includes private the and/or sector public the sector. onlyFocuses on pre-identifiedcandidate green-related industries; and Excludes industries not deemed likely to include green jobs; Includes industries; all The study be mustobjective. consensusnal group with asmaller using input from broader the range of partners. One approach is to definitions review through large a constituency, but pursue fi- Therebalance definitions between is afine reviewing and reaching consensus. riskThe multiple serving of masterscanbecome andreal overburden a study. in those activities. activities. in those of over green products could time and impact counts services of workers involved more efficient thatproducts developed? be may By implication, shifting definitions that efficient is efficient energy today energy still five years from nowrelative to The concept or definition of green can change time.over For example, isa product green jobs or overemphasize questionnaire. term inthe the simply jobsby classify economic the categories impact and they not term the use of response bias, careful and so design testing is important. It to might useful be The term jobs”“green raises many different opinions significant poses and risks tions. Green activity is crosscutting and involves jobs inmany industries and- occupa survey sponsors.survey tions are understood as intended, and that responses requirements the meet of process are removed. The cognitive ensures review that instructions are clear, ques- cognitive is conducted to review be hurdles that so unnecessary response in the on entire the - administration survey process or solely on questionnaire. the A Include acognitive review. As an evaluative approach, cognitive can review focus plement, and follow-up with respondents. of plan, the develop and pretest instrument, the acognitive undertake review, im- 48 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 49 - respons deter can questions worded poorly or Unclear - microanal do internal to possible it makes jobs” “green on Collectinginformation information publish and analyze jobs, and green have that establishments of ysis industries. green-related and occupations green-related on level. occupational the industry and at be can jobs aggregated green of Estimates the most to be done should establishments jobs within of estimations Optimally, detailed possible. level Link definition to defined green economic activity categories; categories; activity greento defined economic Link definition the activity); to essential is the work as (such relationship of a degree Establish and a year); or time a period a quarter as Reference (such a under green be included not should and should of what specific examples Include category. activity economic Are the questions clear and effective? effective? and clear the questions Are information? the requested provide Can the respondent well-designed? the instrument Is • • • • • • • • • • Understanding that a job is the unit of analysis it seems critical to it analysis of the unit a job is that Understanding Instrument. 3. Survey purposes designing the and employment occupational for employment green defining instrument. surveyand process should: and on instrument the be included should definitions Green 4. Testing of the Survey Instrument. Instrument. Survey the of Testing 4. The initial screening question on whether the respondent needs to continue the survey the needsto continue respondent on whether the question initial The screening survey the be clarified that should will if establishment returned the even be critical.It is bias response these returns, Without the activities types being studied. of have does not green produce not do firms that of employment the total useful is obtain to It a danger. is minimize design to the to survey questions services. important is and it products Also, identify whether help may pre-testing review and Cognitive at establishment. the handoffs them. avoid to changes design suggest may and likely are handoffs The the response. provide the can survey person be one designed should so that Ideally, - im may the all questions to of respond accurately can respondent which a single to extent be the survey part of may this sense, instrument the instructions In rates. response prove enclosure. an as included or activities and economic greenjobs of definitions clear include should instrument The sur The each category. under excluded or be to included elements of examples with along surveys Some endorsements. including enclosures be with can associated vey instrument the not whether or establishment an within processes green to jobs related up pick may output. green produces establishment be to intended was what not is that information produce or biasedresponses, elicit es, response improve to recommended are pre-tests review and cognitive Formal studied. bias. response reduce to and rates include: in testing consider to items of Examples Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia starting point for development the and of study. asurvey lessonsThese learned provide an invaluablelaboratory that of experience as a mayserve 9. Data Analysis, Presentation, and Dissemination. occupation. to scope computecluded survey inthe estimates of green the jobs by and industry by 8. Estimation. study the Generally should results weigh the to represent industries all in- clude features that allow respondents to save responses partial for subsequent completion. tools officialOnlinestatistical for practice/experience. entry Web responses should in- most relativelyGenerally jobs should coded be to easily appropriate categories on based 7. Data Editing, Data Capture, Processing Responses, and Assigning ClassificationCodes. lowing up with non-respondents. survey. Training phone proved interviewers important data incollecting by phone or fol- rates. The significant non-response prompting ona needed, isespecially one or first-time as green or not. require Ad-hoc surveys extensive follow-up to get acceptable response that phone donot interviewers provide direct advice on to whether categorize any item 6. Follow-up Procedures. If respondents green jobs,it self-identify is important to ensure 5. Sampling. In developing Sampling. asample,5. one may to need explore options: needs affect design of the survey and affect needs design thequestionnaire of survey including, but not limited to: an estimate of green jobsof some but type, key differencesthe in researcher’s interest and andcollected way the vary. it inwhich data will is collects to used develop survey Each While there is much incommon among presented, surveys the it is clear that data the jobs directly, would which require different questions design. and survey - instead using official wage the in data analysis. Another might wage collect data for green ample, to might designed estimate one be survey green jobsbut not wage to collect data other to data facilitate and survey to the of design use its result with other data. For ex- It is important equally to in conjunction establish used be data how will survey the with 2.2.3. Context of Data B How Can Survey • • • • • • • Exploring other business dynamics. have inbusiness been and to compare green to non-green businesses; Examining companies that responded have ifthey how green jobsto see long they somevide linkages to other things like venture capital and patents; atLooking how much growth comes from existing firms versus -mightbirths pro- green industries, while still surveying all industries? all surveying green industries, still while Is there value inover-sampling industries that have pre-identified been potential as Assigning sampling weights for inestimation. use What sampling used? be will method What stratification (e.g., shouldbe used by establishment size, industry, area)? 50 e Used Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - The magnitude of green jobs estimates will estimates of jobs green magnitude The 12 51 The range of jobs to be included. to of be included. jobs range The jobs survey. thegreen-related through data Collectionwage of needs via the survey. training or education on information Obtaining practices. business green key Identifying Each survey includes a basic screening question Each question survey a basic screening includes Question: Screening or Qualifying certainsurvey just or entire the out fills whether determines the respondent that sur be future to instructive may questions, screening among Variations questions. vey design. ques- the screening Primarily, in several ways. is important question The screening whether determine his/her the respondent helps that information provides tion basic or In addition, services meet products criteria. the green that provides firm not do firms that from type business, of and employment total as such information, provides if a firm asking a minimum, At valuable. is output green-related produce responding many how of comparison of services or a point products green offers When not. do services many and how products green and produce establishments to as analysis in any ratio important this an becomes level, appropriate coded an to “green” produce classification official an within the establishments of percent what be can detailed than level a more at analysis internal allow also may It output. Remember that one can define green jobs as positions in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, installation, installation, construction, manufacturing, agriculture, in as define jobs positions green can one that Remember contribute and service-related activities that technical, administrative, and scientific as well as maintenance, and jobs includes this exclusively, not but Specifically, quality. environmental preserving restoring to or substantially consumption water and materials, energy, biodiversity; reduce and ecosystems restore and protect to help that avoid altogether or and minimize de-carbonizethe economy; strategies; avoidance high-efficiencythrough and alsojobs, green need beto meet longstanding good But that jobs pollution. and waste of all of forms generation in- rights, worker and conditions, working safe wages, adequate i.e., movement, the labor goals of and demands unions. labor organize to the right cluding • • • • 1. 12 Questionnaire design flows directly from fundamental decisions about purpose, and use, about decisions fundamental directly from design flows Questionnaire on mode. collection the decisions as well from as keyterminology, of definitions 2.2.5. Survey Questionnaire Items 2.2.5. Survey Items Questionnaire As discussed earlier, clear definitions of green jobs linked to defined green economic ac- green definedto economic linked of jobs green definitions clear discussedAs earlier, study. necessary any to are categories tivity 2.2.4. Definitions and Categories of Green Jobs UsedSurvey in a Jobs Green of and Categories 2.2.4. Definitions depend, to a significant degree, on the definitions used. The definition, purpose, and con- and purpose, The definition, used. on definitions the degree, a significant to depend, to surveyed, be the population the surveysurvey, of use the of the of scope text influence greenand eco- greenjobs of methods. definitions The sampling design, and questionnaire also guide respondents design, but the direct questionnaire only not categories nomic green. as include which jobs to determining for a basis providing the survey, completing These differences demonstrate the variation in how a researcher customizes surveys to customizes researcher how a in variation the demonstrate These differences and en- surveyfuture initiatives can inform specificneeds.meetvariations his/her These surveysother without from findings apply possibly and learn from to a researcher able - establish clearly of importance the They also illustrate collecting information. identical collecting for framework a broad the survey of provide to the purpose context ing and data. green-related Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia from reports produced by associations, business web sites, and public agencies. clude analysis the of existing labor market information data combined with information study to determine what Alternative collected. to need be data will research in- methods to existing review labor market information and of and to scope the their identify purpose green employment. However, it before is important asurvey undertaking for researchers earlier,As discussed are likely surveys to estimate method best the and track trends in and individuals. The challenge now is fromto build earlythe experience of foreign efforts to support used be planning development and policy by private and public organizations are to provide expected information and analysis on green economic that activities can creasing. State labor market information (LMI) units and Bureau of Statistics Labor (BLS) The demand forlabor market information to measuregreeneconomic ever-in activity is - Information on Green-Related E 2.3. Considerations for Development of N 4. 3. 2. discussion above, useful. could be establishing some information baseline for future study, similar to unique the skills mation can or through indetail should collected an be ongoing green jobssurvey, but manyskills, require some OJT or training. modest skills It is unlikely that such infor dicate that majority the of green-related jobsdonot require significantly different is of great interest to education, business, and government. While many studies in- : Informationcerns on current and anticipated education and training requirements Survey Items Related to Education Requirements, Training Needs, and Hiring Con - some additional information related to green jobs. Survey Items Related to Green Job Duties, Skills, or Wages usually collects : each survey • • • • • should: survey the Survey Items on Number Employed inGreen Jobs: Although slight variations exist, answerwho “no” to screening the question to return survey. the green economy. The questionnaire must clearly ask and encourage respondents published to of better determine type establishment which is most engaged inthe distinctions by core the area. economic This activities. level also of detail requiresthe respondent to make at level this provides on aperspective relationships the of occupations to green ployment green by economic particular the activity categories. data Collecting informationCollect on number the of employees by green job titles and em- Use green jobsas unit the of observation. Focus on on detail collecting direct green jobs. green. Distinguish how strongly work the relates to agreen included activity to be as measure for analysis. since percentage the of green jobsinan establishment or is abasic industry total the number ofCollect employees establishment. inthe This is important 52 mployment ationwide - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - 53 and new green jobs. Some thought might be given to to be given might thought new jobs. Some green and - a na be through developed would jobs estimates green . Ideally occupation and industry relationships. Developing information on on information Developing industry relationships. and occupation - prede sampling whether is over be considered might that issues Among ing year-to-year changes. Until some nationwide survey results are available, it will it available, are survey results nationwide some Until changes. year-to-year ing in changes year-to-year up surveys pick annual degree can what to as beclear not jobs (without green of industry-based annual estimate an jobs. However, green to system a nationwide of seem feature essential detail) an would occupational survey to A national several years. over trends and changes year-to-year measure or two be collected modeled detail over data might with occupational generate oc- sufficient ensure to estimates occupational green-related develop to years three detail. cupational/industry tionwide survey with data produced at the state/country level. level. the state/country at survey produced data with tionwide in a are instructions and the definitions tight how matter No survey. of Frequency measur impact that bias based response on be variations some may there survey, Sampling. jobs. green on useful is data maximize to industries/sectors terminedgreen-related survey initial national any for seemA survey appropriate would all industries of considered. be might sampling over or stratification effort. Some Desirable outcomes Understanding - sup activities, including economic green in key relationships industry-occupation large services, of impacts and potential products green and relationships, ply-chain surveyof analysis inform help may employment, on initiatives private or public - also illus between will industries/sectors help relationships Understanding data. whether more and is growth in employment magnitude the potential what trate - up establish help also may It industries. some be neededdetailed for coding may survey are data be Until expected realistic. might is or growth what on perbounds industry-occupation a green developing to be given might consideration available, would be a This industry worksheets. and the occupation combining by matrix and occupations only including matrix, industry-occupation the national of subset sur state the completed by - informed been pre-determined have that industries candidates. green likely veys - as green businessesTracking • • • • • to measure green jobs to conceptualize and plan how a nationwide employment statistics statistics employment nationwide a how plan and conceptualize to jobs green measure to output. its part as of employment green measure and incorporate can system how thinking on rigorous and clear requires employment green track and measure To green analyze and measure to system nationwide used. Any collected is and information aspect of one simply is green LMI system; be the viewed overall a part as of jobs must among crosscutting is because it however, special attention, requires It system. thelarger services, and industries. products and jobs, - track subsequent and job employment green of foundation or a benchmark Establishing Statistical survey-based survey State with will rests ing a national Design require data. of inconsider the to items however, are, There (SSO). Macedonia of ofthe Republic Office survey jobs. green of any of planning Several other efforts and issues might be considered for future study. study. future for be considered might issues and Several efforts other Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia Goal 1-Define “green jobs” and describe what needs to be measured about them. realized: be economy. There are no hard and fastsolutions, but for surethere aretwo that goals should forneed information basic to help us define and measuregreenthejobs in Macedonian a significant work forthe nationwidelabor market system to respondfundamental the to SSO is facing some major issues with greening the of Macedonian the economy. They need toward conceptualizing and incorporating green designations into to existing the system. Theof introducing purpose these elements is to encourage dialogue and action further nationwide employment statistics includes green employment measurements. considerationsThese outline possibleonlythat a ideas few mightbe considered the as • • • • • • 2. 1. • cifically cifically for jobs”?“green ofilar to those non-green jobs?Are certifications certain or licenses required- spe What are educational the and training requirements of “green jobs”? Are sim- they measured?be When are portions of industries jobs incertain or occupations “green”? Canthis tifiablewithin existing classification systems? Are entire industries or occupations “green”? If so, what are and they are iden- they ones?which Are “green jobs” concentrated or industry occupational incertain groups? If so, come operational for of measurement? purposes analysis andpolicy workforce and economic development? definition Can this be- What is definition the (oralternative definitions) of“green jobs” of for purposes “green jobs”? What questions answered? to need be What kind of data and information and do policymakers public the about need of issues and questions: “green jobs”, drawing on work the mentioned above. The following is listan initial Identify and examine issues the and questions surrounding measurement the surement. Develop an understanding of issue the and various the existing attempts at- mea useful. useful. jor private or public certifications related greeneconomicto activity areas is also arenas for possible impact on future employment Keeping needs. informed on ma- ments, major policy, and public initiatives and energy clean inthe environment Monitoring major developments. Efforts shouldbe made to monitor private invest- ation. maythese become significantsources job (andof new emergingoccupations) cre- valuable.be It companies to new identify would useful be products, with new as occupations. and deriving data Collecting on green-related company births would employment listings to monitor job titles, emerging new and skills, possible new eration should given be to aconcerted effort to investigate the use of job online and world identifiedgreenjobs new suggestive emergingof a occupation.new Consid - track potential occupations. new None of studies the completed far so around the related to green the economy. It for useful would anationwide be also system to identifying and tracking asample of green businesses -businesses that are strongly 54 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 55

13 mpirical Approaches mpirical Approaches Identifying what would be measured: the outputs or products. products. or the outputs be measured: would what Identifying - measure be could used. Different methods that the measurement Identifying products. or outputs different be neededmethods for may ment trends? measure to be conducted measurement should frequently How methods? be the measurement used should criteria in evaluating What collection the data for timerequirements and costs theapproximate Estimating activities. analysis and What are the wages paid by “green jobs”? jobs”? “green by paid the wages are What these or to similar are how and jobs” “green by required skills are of kinds What - rela through skillsthese obtained Are other jobs? by required skills from different theydo or occupations, related or existing in workers of training short-term tively specific training? longer require types of what so, the country?If of in certain areas concentrated jobs” “green Are areas? what in concentrated jobs are Develop proposals for providing the data and information policymakers and the policymakers and information and the data providing for proposals Develop include: should proposals These jobs.” “green need about public • • • • • Global Insight (October 2008. US. Metro Economies: Current and Potential Green Jobs in the US. Economy, for for in the US. Economy, Jobs Green Potential and Current Economies: (October Metro 2008. US. Global Insight industrynuclear jobs, counts Center) Protection Climate Mayors and the Mayors of Conference States United The green as administration in environmental jobs government and plants ethanol to corn agricultural supplying jobs • • • 1. stimating E stimating 13 Estimating economic impact, including creation of jobs, of any major investment scheme scheme investment major any of jobs, of creation including impact, economic Estimating conse- unintended often are and there overtime change effects can multiplier as difficult is coefficients do input-output dependable is, less it the horizon the time longer The quences. such further complications are jobs, there green jobs. With future predicting for become relatively are of these industries Many intensities. labor assumed and their definition as the esti- such, scale. As the commercial at deployed even not new;are technologies some sets, small data depend on energy output of per unit or investment jobs per denar of mates subsidies, of in the form support Government reliable. them less render which probably - compli the like and requirements content domestic grants, investment direct tax breaks, often and advantages cost further comparative these the as analysis policies distort cate can the economy; of the rest impact that technologies expensive more of lead adoption to All time. over change can and technologies; be transitory; different to be can redirected and exercise modeling any in precision of lack the inherent to add these uncertainties of of paths all reasonable cover to analyses sensitivity scenario and additional necessitate development. ben- another be as defended cannot jobs” “net adding that beOverall, can concluded it energy energytechnologies, and efficiency energy in green (alternative of investing efit diversified more and a emissions lower as such benefits offers Each option conservation). levels. different at albeit portfolio, 2.4. Measurement and Prediction of Green Jobs: Jobs: Green of Prediction and 2.4. Measurement E - mea of costs estimating including jobs”, “green measuring for alternatives 2 - Develop Goal surement. Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 15 14 sistencies identified. could be Despite different approacheswide range ina of studies,some common issues and incon- remain questionable. of cost, price, accuracy the and wage assumptions made during modeling exercises will and many more questions remain will difficult to answer. And without these answers, of pay, wages will they what kind of market support technologies need entry these will employed be people will by technology,which need, what jobs whatwill kind these skills front-runners. Unless paths these of evolution technology are well understood, how many reduced, be coststheir it will is difficult to comparealltechnologies these of and identify sonable that to at expect least some of technologiescontinue these will to evolve and that long-term cost structure with possible the exception of onshore wind. Although it is rea- sharea small of market the and lacking sufficient economiesscale to of have their achieved ing what constitutes agreen job. Many green technologies are relatively new, representing However, studies focusing on green jobsfaceadditional challenges, first which of is defin- • • will be constant be will or increasing even level of construction. new Counting construction jobs going forward introduces an upward on bias an based implicit assumption that there analysis would inflatethe results. such, ifone was focusing on impact the of renewable technologies, counting energy of categories all these intheir green includes jobs, which recycling, pollution reduction, organic farming, and As non-energyactivities. similar involved“jobs ineconomic that activities help protect or restore environment the natural or conserve resources” as community, various studiesthe define differently.”term In its effort to standardize thedefinition, BLS classifies standard definition of ‘‘greenjobs.’’ this topicWhile is of interest across government, the academia, and business The BureauLabor of Statistics in thisstating fact the (BLS) “There US. in that,recognizes widely is no accepted emissions for corn-ethanol worse can be than conventional fuels inalife-cycle basis. and combustion of biomass is not of free emissions, and hence of opposition, either. Thebalance net and of energy largercially dams, due to negative their around impact on ecology the and reservoirs their flow paths.Collection green. Also, hydro and biomass are counted as green alternatives. But, there is opposition to hydro- facilities, espe jobs. As authors the acknowledge, many environmental in the community would not accept nuclear as technology ° Often,there is no analysis job of losses. ies’ results. studies demonstrate clearly fundamental the problem of comparing various stud - Perhaps most importantly, different the definitions of“green” usedjobs bydifferent ° ° ° ° ° ° ° with current technology. With economies and of more scale R&D, many of technologies generate more expensive or electricity yield more expensive fuels into other sectors. inthese joblosses As some of studies the recognize, green givention same the on budget, translate other and will goods which services Increased cost of to businesses energy and households reduce will consump - temporary, and operation are jobs,which long-term. Jobs created are not always separated construction between are jobs,which industries as well. people may doing be green work continuing while to work inconventional fuel “new” doubles chance the of amiscount. Arelated complication is that some work. Given challenge the ofjobs, counting definingthese an existingjob as Jobs may not “new” be inthat already employed doing be people “green” will site pay will more than asimilar position at another power plant site. there is no apriori ageneric reason construction to jobat expect awind farm at of types jobsand levels, is assertion hard this skill to justify. For example, jobsor industry averageenergy wage; but absence inthe of more granular look Some studies assume paying higher that be than green conventional jobswill 14

56 15

Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 57 these technologies will have lower costs in the future but there is no agreement agreement no is there but the in future costs lower willthese have technologies much. how by and time frame in what for demand willreplace technologies industry Green jobs. traditional Lossof in lay-offs lead to which will technologies, undoubtedly and fuels conventional these industries. ° ° Some macroeconomic benefits such as increased productivity, higher disposable higherdisposable productivity, as increased such benefits macroeconomic Some evidence and any by up backed not are business doing of cost lower and income, For energy markets. and technologies green of the realities with inconsistent are - ex rapid from result higher energy that and costs intensity higher labor example, - dis reduce and business doing will of cost increase technologies green of pansion paribus. ceteris posable income for assumptions growth very depend on aggressive studies these of kinds Usually, forecasts. government official above far power, renewable in- capital of both in terms cost would it much how address do not studies Most transportation electricity and of end-user prices importantly, more and, vestment not are they but studies in some assumptions stimulus lump-sum are There fuels. - assump time frame and requirements Investment investment. to related directly also differ estimates job creation vary Resulting betweentions widely the studies. significantly. an is there that is studies in many assumption explicit, sometimes and implicit, An openings. willAlthough fill to bejob that green ready labor of supply unlimited skilled some temporary, jobs, which be are unskilled true construction this may for for wind, programs training many of existence fill.The easy to be that not jobs may nec- is skill development additional some that indicate industries biofuels and solar such positions. for attractemployees experienced to difficult be more may It essary. re- localon imports, content policies (tariffs protectionist on count studies Many - the indus But, industries. domestic of the cultivation support to etc.) quirements, compete companies Korean Chinese, Indian, try globally already competitive; is other and solar thewind, in US. and Europe from companies established with willpolicies to higher lead Protectionist advantages. cost offer and technologies on technologies green of the impact higher cost amplifying hence products, cost businesses. and consumers of terms in investments green of cost the opportunity and statistics creation Job simi- of impacts economic of Comparison deserve specialjob creation attention. often is non-energy) (energy or the economy of segments in other investment lar to economic as a in jobs solution green investment offer studies Some lacking. are there be to followed, were approach this Keynesian If recession. or slowdown of denar the same jobs for more create could that the economy of sectors other investment. • • • • • • To conclude, there is a high level of uncertainty surrounding the jobs estimates of these of the estimates jobs surrounding uncertainty a high is of level there conclude, To in estimates Butthe greenjob. of a definitions partly because theystudies, use different cases most in studies different use also the significantly because differ studies separate to is little there Also, scenarios. investment different and job creation estimate to models of job impacts negative with potential impacts positive to balance the potential effort no analyses without cost-benefit are studies a sense, many higherenergy In lossesand costs. considerations. cost adequate Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 2.5. Government and Green Jobs Creation job creation of green aspect technologies may undermine expansion. their infact consistently over years the have inflation experiencing been in recent years. Promotingthe that tend more to be labor intensive. Even wind generation the costs that have declined biofuels that industry on depends agricultural, the animal farming and forestry sectors main permanent. The enduring costthecase higher seems be structure to at least forthe are more also labor-intensive and likely will remain so, cost their disadvantage may re- on environmental and diversificationbenefits technologiesgreen may provide; they but if mitigation of some of cost this disadvantage incentive via programs may justifiedbased be duegies to lack of economies and of costs their scale; may decline with expansion. Also, Some alternative technologies may more be inpart expensive than established technolo- businesses market. global inthe cost of production, with its negative impact on consumer budget and competitiveness of economically problematic as it implies lower productive efficiency and hence higher labor dollarlabor (denar) per than conventional technologies replace. they This argument is than investment industries, only inother require energy would which ifthey true be more economy. Such studies claim that investment technologies in these would create more jobs aftersioneconomicthe (especially collapse in2008) pathand a into a sustainablegrowth technologies. and energy Some it take offerthese further greenjobs as away out of - reces However, often creating jobsalso is offered benefit asa associated with investment in money. This would shiftreal resources away people’sfrom preferred consumption bundle from somewhere. The government would either have tax to borrow,others, or printthe Such a program would obviously have to pay hole-diggers the but pay this must come on leisure. their At would aminimum, have society lost value the that of all diggers the would have placed would no benefit be forsociety. Nothing be creatednew would for anyone to consume. back in.Millionsthem of jobswould created be but it should obvious be that to all there a day and other the of half unemployed all people to follow around first the half fill and could create aprogram to hire of half unemployed all people to digholes for eight hours An alternative jobcreation proposal might make point this more clear. The government ployers pay employees and not versa! vice benefitthe work provides. People generally prefer leisure to workthat’s –infact why em- of work. the The workthat jobthe entails is a cost we must endure in order to receivethe and products that are provided workers when performajob–not performing actual the Many reports are mistakenly arguing that acost is abenefit. actually services We valuethe misunderstanding. that we benefit by minimizing. The jobs green literature fundamental this with riddled is benefit,a benefit. the is The itself theenergy work goesthat intocreating isa cost energy opposite, that it more takes work to provide same the amount of energy, is often argued as job produces for consumers is greater than cost the of performing job. the In the fact where economy. inthe If green the jobis anet benefit becausethe valuetheit hasbe to The creation greenjobof a makes work forsomeone and it diverts resourcesfrom - else 2.5.1. About Green Jobs Creation 58 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - due to to due 59 - be out the desired should workers) fewer with more (doing the cost Minimizing 16 If creating green jobs by forcing the consumption of more expensive forms of power is pursued one would have to to have would one pursued is power of forms expensive more of the consumption forcing by jobs green creating If industries. in other growth will prices increased slow power how investigate 16 and towards hole digging. In the process some jobs that were providing services- consum providing were jobs that some the process digging. In hole towards and because the economy bad is for jobs program be A “hole-digging” lost. would valued ers and leisure lost of in terms resources takes real it and value people that nothing creates it goods. consumer lost other they benefits, as themselves jobs” “green of the creation accept jobs studies green When of a job gives green creation The fallacy. the “hole-digging” committing essentially are the in elsewhere economy. gone have would that resources allocating by work someone is produce the jobs value the factthe bethat to beneficialit derives from jobs are green If argued often is fact, the opposite the do jobs. In to workers hiring of the costs than greater of amount the same provide to jobs) green more (or work more it takes that a benefit: as energy. come. But green job studies desire more jobs in the production of less energy. energy. less of jobs in the production more desire job studies green But come. jobs in green ignored always almost is investment “green” of cost the opportunity Also, - avail not is dollar the same technologies, in alternative invested is a dollar When studies. ex- to tax breaks or grants, subsidies, provide governments When sectors. other for able need shift to resources nuclear, or renewables be it technologies, expensive more pand there jobs, create to is the purpose investing If of thein economy. sectors other from away the to compared As productively. more be could spent the money where sectors other are job lead to in energy projects investment in particular, sectors some and economy overall in activity each incentives with created between jobs the difference is jobs” losses. “Net lost are that but per invested $1 million created normally jobs of estimates minus diverted investment. diverted human of the in vast segments resulted has that development of economic process The ex- its of most experienced for humanity that poverty the wretched escaping population in the Third many Unfortunately productivity. labor increasing of result direct a is istence - produc labor increasing and growth of fully in the process participated not have World - produc labor limit policies to designing Intentionally freedom. economic by driven tivity developed the more that the increases limits and poverty future themto condemns tivity well. as enjoy could world of no fixedis pool There in unemployment. result does not productivity labor Increased - tech by those unemployed put we productive more get we As be to accomplished. work jobs. other doing nology work to goods and services for find willand desires always limitless have humans is reality that The If enhancements. productivity by displaced those jobs are whose current employ to ways - to be has environmen it the jobs of environmental creation the for a justification is there work to humans forces it fact that simple the not – humans to provides it tal that benefits less. get to more energyadditional benefit as an efficiency”“self-financing the for subsidy for issue The ener lower itself energy through for efficiency on pay will now spent money that claiming - true. How cases doubt no some this is In one. a controversial term is the long gy over bills since subsidies both government no require truly self-financing are that investments ever, these energy seekimprovements. efficiency out would consumers and businesses private mar with presented When maximizers. profit long-term generally are businesses Private energy more businesses making by their their profits they increase can incentives, ket Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia unseen costsunseen of such efforts.Bastiat explained it in terms the of brokenwindow fallacy. In that 1850,Bastiat underlies explained such inan fallacy the thinking essay about the manufacture and deploy solar panels, biofuel harvest feedstock and on. so economic growth, as millions of workers hired to be build thousands will of windmills, mitigate threat the of warming but global asignificant that be source also it will jobsof and sourcesergy and toward renewable sources. The thathope is transitionthis notwill only urgent warming of -because need threat global the -to move away from traditional en- who supportThose aggressivegreenjobs initiatives themake argumentthat there is an clean energy, additional the jobscreated industries inthose as are green jobs. described industry.the When inquestion industry the is involved production inthe of renewable or to expand, industry in the and that additional we be can there expect hiring within will Whenever one Government heavily subsidizes an industry, it makes it profitable for firms 2.5.2. OntheRole of theGovernment made anyway. self-financing – the or program needlessly subsidizes investmentsthat would have been investmentsthe anyway and such subsidies are awaste. savings Either energy the is not cost the which savingsthe offset improvement does cost, businesses would have made costs wouldergy cost not true thethe offset improvement. actually of In in cases, other “improvements” efficiency energy thatthen isastrong indication that en- decreased the efficient. Ifprivate businessesneed such subsidies in order to induce them to undertake 19 18 17 market-created jobsare. This means they are lesseconomically productivethanjobs the “created”subsidized jobsthat be will are, by definition, less efficient uses of capital than to green companies new taxpayer that use dollars will to undercut competition. the The sector,ergy and most likely inother industrial sectors, through taxes and subsidies given costs for others. In green governments the case, destroy will conventional jobsinthe en- that All governments does. and services can dois subsidize some industries raising while ingness of entrepreneurs to invest capital, their paired with consumer demand for goods Among economists, it is well understood that governments donot create- will jobs;the ulations To of understand governments fallacy the creating green jobsthrough subsidies and reg - candles instead of that producing would increase our and other wealth. goods services precisely by not able being to profitfrom the sun’s light we be wastingscarcewould resourcesthe in production of providing light, numerous jobs would created be candle manufacturing inthe industry. Obviously, is this not so: sun, was which competing with unfairly them providing when light. In opinion, their sun if the was barred from tions of protectionist entrepreneurs by comparing to them candle-makers clamoring for state the to crowd-out the thereby creating a job. Similar to Bastiat this, in his famous “Petition by candle-makers”, the inten the he- ridiculed buy more clothes, benefitingtailor.the If enoughwindows are broken,glassmakerthe might even hire an assistant, createAfterthey all, work forglassmaker,the whobe might thenable to buy morebenefiting or the grocer; food, child. People sympathize withshopkeepers the until someone claims that broken the windows are not that bad. asHe follows: explained Imagine fallacy the some shopkeepers have windows their broken by arock-throwing areas.sidized of green jobs. The study foundthat four jobs for createdevery greenby subsidies,jobs nine were lost in non-sub- Carlos, March) evaluates Spain’s recent initiative to create green jobs. Spain at has been forefront the of creation the Rallo, 2009:Study of effects the on employment of public aid sources,to renewable energy Universidad Rey Juan A study by Universidad the Juan Rey Carlos (Alvarez Gabriel, Calzada Jara Merino Raquel, and Julián Juan Ramón his plan for create actually green jobs will fivegreenjobs. million new States could create jobs 1.7million inthat country. President Barack Obama is more even ambitious, claiming that Former US. Vice-president Al Gore has approvingly cited a study claiming that a green jobs strategy United in the Gordon Brown claimed that his green job plan was going to create 400,000green jobs over next the eight years. Politicians across world the have touting been green jobs plans for many years. Former British Prime minister 18 , we have to reach back to writing the of French economist Frédéric Bastiat. 60 17

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Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - nergy: 61 First, comparing the average amount of capital destruction part (the subsidized capital of amount the average comparing First, of amount the average against job green a necessary create to the investment) of sector; in theprivate a job requires that capital green each to the subsidy that productivity annual the average comparing Second, a in such been consumed not it had the economy to contributed have job would al- sector that in the private labor of productivity the average with compares way, employed. remain to workers lows • • Public investment in renewable energy has job creation as one of its explicit goals, which, goals, explicit its of one as energy job creation has in renewable investment Public with recovery seeding a future of intention an crisis, suggests economic the current given “green used to create resources the is that plan this with problem The subsidies. job” “green of this typepolicy Therefore, in the elsewhere economy. from be obtained must jobs” insofar of alsonet destructioncapital a but effect a crowding-out just not create to tends by this carried is out and extent great a be to necessary subsidized must the investment as the economy. of the rest from capital destroying or absorbing - be con “green jobs”, to committed once cannot, government by the spent money The such depend on would the that jobs therefore parties and private by invested or sumed be created. not or will disappear investment and consumption sector is the public if the expense by convenient prove jobs will in green only Investment only if be possible would This sector. private the wealththan generating at efficient more i.e., subsidies, resortto to having without be to self-financing able were investment public support to in order the economy of the rest by generated wealth absorb to needing without costs. and incurred incomes the be through justified cannot that a production each one for job program a green by destroyed are jobs net many how know to order In used: methodswere different two create, to intended is it that 2.5.3. Public Investment in Renewable E 2.5.3. Public Investment Creation or Destruction of Green Jobs Jobs Green Destruction of or Creation - gov by the good produced Finally, growth. economic to less contribute and they displace in- be to maintained has good that a non-economic inherently jobs is ernment-favored rail systems, roads, of inas case the model, revenue an economic without often definitely, etc. installations, windmills, powered solar probably and transit, mass In order to obtain the annual public consumption of resources devoted to renewable ener renewable to devoted resources of consumption public the annual obtain to order In gy one can calculate the average annuity value during the next 25 years of subsidies. Now, Now, subsidies. of 25 years the next during value annuity thegy average calculate can one enterprise, private a In the annuities? discount can whichone at be the rate should what additional of assets) because this the rate is on (return be the ROA would rate the adequate the sector, in the private allocated, had if one a year over be obtained would it that return renewables. of cost annual between the annual the relationship is a ROA to thing the closest economy, entire an For the annual of ratio a is, that thein economy, capital of the stock and capital of income capital. of stock that on return rest inthe worker productivity per average annual withthe compared must be figure This in the of labor total income the by dividing obtained can be This data the economy. of workers. of the number by economy Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia tro three groups: rates, increases inenergy increase intaxes or an increase inpublic debt. financesthe subsidies to renewable energy.separate Onecan basically the approaches in- Obviously, specific the productivesectors depend will on affected thehow government Finally, it is worth considering distribution the of destroyed the jobsacross economy. the economy. the megawattper of capacity installed and thus not does destroy as many rest jobsinthe of impact coercively when introduced through state intervention, wastes far fewer resources in other of parts economy. the Inversely, wind power, noxious still while in its economic consumption of great amounts of capital that would have instead created many more jobs (essentially plant’s inthe construction), reality the is that for plant the to work, it requires able source. energy Although may solar energy on paper appear to employ many workers it obtained can be number the of jobslost as aresult of eachkindof subsidized renew- putting megawatt per the subsidy data inrelation to mean the amount of capital resources, amountthan the twice production of subsidy megawatt per compared to wind energy. By For instance, is significantly solar the energy less competitivegiven that it requires more taining alevel playing field for actors.all policies include: Key thatinfrastructure private enterprises cannot ornot will create; and creating and main- and standard-setting beyond horizons time the business typical inthe world; providing indispensable. They are important for providingfunding greenof projects; overall goal- urgencies. So, despite of all previous, the forward-thinking government remain policies into reality as rapidly inlight as is needed of climate change and other environmental Market forces and voluntary means not alone enough will to be translate green potential operations “carbon neutral.” number have announced ambitious goals to reduce carbon their footprint or make their have barely progressed past green sloganeering -or worse, “green washing” -agrowing at cutting the edge, retaining existing jobsand creating ones. new While some companies What are key driversthe of green employment? Green innovation helps businesses stay 2.5.4. Creating Green Jobs’ Drivers • • • • undertaken will sufferthe costs will undertaken the of renewables. leveraged businesses or of investment projects that would cheaper need credit to be to refinance its debt investments. new or undertake Thus, employees the of most additional a effect: restriction of present available creditthat a business could use spread out over (sincetime it implies future higher taxes). However, debt has an issuing public debt. asimilar effectthe to poses This strategy previous method but Finally, subsidy the to pay for “green jobs” or renewables financed could be by have available, reducing consumption and/or investment. secondThe method reducesthe amount of incomethat consumers or businesses subsidies to renewables, the by evidenced future ahigher cost. electric The first aims method to the correct rate deficit, whichpart is in caused the by function, howfunction, long last, are and they they whether handled responsibly at end the can influence apowerful exert on how products are designed, how efficientlythey public year. purchases every By buying environmentally preferable products, they nationalthe level, government to local the authorities of spendtrillions dollars on portant tools for governments to push economy the inagreener direction. From Public investment and procurement programs. These programs/policiescanbe im - 62 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia

20 63 Phase out subsidies for environmentally harmful industries, and shift shift and harmful industries, environmentally for subsidies out Phase Various types of renewables subsidies have had considerable success in a number in a number success considerable had have subsidies renewables types of Various - individ for loans low-interest through financing favorable Providing countries. of otherwise take that a very might long a market create help can businesses uals and become reductions cost a scale significant to where climb to and emerge time to in program a 1,000 Roofs (started as Solar program Roofs Germany’s feasible. initiative. well-designed such one 100,000 Roofs in 1998) is to expanded 1991 and wind and small hydro, energy, solar biogas, supports China, the government In loan). a standard half those typically of rates (at loans interest low with projects plants small biogas of the cost of 75 percent subsidizes the government Nepal, In Grameen Bangladesh’s families. usedby pumps drinking water solar-powered and 1996. since systems photovoltaic household for program a loan operated Bank has countries developing many in role huge a play could renewables for Micro-lending jobs. create help and for and producers for be needs fuel to between subsidies made A distinction fossil to gain the poor for essential often are subsidies side, On the consumer consumers. energy energyshare to higher services.access and much a spend often The poor energy of forms other and cooling, electricity fuels, for heating on their income of - subsi Without in society. the wealthiest those let alone than in the middle class, their for critical energy sources commercial afford to be able not dies, they may wood energy as such highly polluting on rely survival, they and may or wellbeing by be needs to accompanied subsidies fuel-related fossil of A phase-out burning. instance another yet is This energy affordable. alternative make that measures social and be need to integrated. objectives environmental where very a for smallshare accounts assistance Official development markets. Carbon - mecha funding alternative to pointed have analysts and global flows, financial of and (CDM) Mechanism the Clean Development in general, trading Carbon nisms. in particu - Protocol in the Kyoto included (JI) instruments Implementation Joint of the development support to sources large-scale potential been as cited have lar, gov- and greenjobs.Companies thus and energy energy efficiency, and renewable reduction specific emissions supporting by credits carbon acquire can ernments - develop targeting the CDM, (with these mechanisms two of either using projects, Union’s European the JI). The than role larger a much playing so far nations, ing - inno technological rules drive can purchasing their useful Well-designed of lives. markets. green establish help and vation Subsidies. clean efficiency technologies, energy, those all renewable to funds of or a portion transit. public methods, and production phasing is footing sustainable more to a the economy in shifting ingredient A key in- resources financial and use natural or pollute that industries for subsidies out and min- metals, of timber, fuels, prices the subsidies allow Numerous efficiently. they than lower be to far these commodities) incorporating products erals(and availability in data Limits consumption. greater otherwise be, encouraging would harmful activities, environmentally for subsidies of accounting a complete prevent But study. to study from differ may definitions methodologies and underlying and Development and Co-operation Economic for the Organization by a 2002 report member OECD with $1 trillion a year, about global at subsidies estimated (OECD) the total. of three-quarters for accounting states • • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Towards Sustainable Consumption: An An Consumption: Sustainable Towards (OECD), Development and Co-operation Economic for Organisation 41. 2002, p. Directorate, Environment Paris: Framework, Conceptual Economic 20 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia selves: There are alternative other drivers (orpolicies)that governmentscan pursue them- by • • • • panies to back take products at endlife) the of for of useful their types products. all Product take-back. Adopt “extended producer responsibility” laws (requiring com- at guaranteed prices. development,energy including laws feed-in grid that access to secure electrical the Energy alternatives. Adopt innovative to policies overcome to barriers renewable promotion of cogeneration in2004. buildingsnew and large renovated buildings. issuedalso The adirective EC the on requires member states to establish minimum standards of performance energy for of one percent duringsecond 2008–2017.The came into in effect 2006January and member states to define national action plansthat yield savings will annual energy The first, adoptedDecember 2005, asks in of and services. uses nal energy energy (EC) has issued directives performance on energy the of buildings and on fi - the as in1980.Most of were these inEurope and Asia. The EuropeanCommission 2000, for instance, 43 countries had such programs astimes in place many - seven of governments have mandatedstandards efficiency for household appliances. By standards,ciency and targets for renewable production. energy A growing number gional, rather than national, level), building various codes, kinds of effi- energy includes land-use (for policies tends jurisdiction which and on to rebe local the - greener technologies, -and products, thus and green employment. services This Targets and mandates. tools Regulatory play role acrucial drive inthe to develop ness of domestic industries on world the market. reimbursements.tial Often,this isdonethe in namethe competitive of preserving - reduced rates tax to energy-intensive firms, or companiesmaking eligible forpar loopholes -granting exemptions industries to certain or sources, energy applying motor vehicles. Unfortunately, are eco-taxes frequently weakened by avarietyof The these bulk of revenues arefrom derived taxes on gasoline and diesel, and on EU more than quintupled 1980and between 2004,to $364billion (€266billion). contributions. Before adjustment for inflation, environmentaltax revenuesthe in troduced reforms avarietyof linking green taxes to reductions security insocial Germany, Italy, Netherlands, the Norway, Sweden, and United the Kingdom in- come a reality 1990s in in agrowingthe number of European countries. Denmark, theoretically since late the shiftingDiscussed be- tax started to 1970s,ecological labor costs and could thus job creation boost without hurting workers’ interests. that are now through typically funded payroll taxes) would help lower indirect labor (by deploying revenues tax to financefunds nationalsecurity social health or expensive.too Using revenues eco-tax to lighten burden tax the now on falling in taxes. Current systems make natural resource far use cheap too and render labor thanRather merely imposing though, it tax, anew to makes advance sense ashift and materials productivity, generation andthe to curtail of wastes and emissions. centive for manufacturers to move away from heavy fossil energy use, to fuel boost virgin materials, landfill fees, and wasteother pollutionand charges provide an in- source consumption. on of Carbon taxes, use levies the nonrenewable and energy Tax reform. carbon tradingprovides -specifically for suchtransactions. Emission Trading currently -which Scheme(EU-ETS) accounts for bulk of the all Current systems tax discourage jobcreation encourage evenas they re- 64 - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 65 Adopt eco-labels for all consumer products to ensure that consumers consumers that ensure to products all consumer eco-labels for Adopt Eco-Labeling. Eco-Labeling. have access to information needed for responsible purchasing decisions (and hence hence (and decisions purchasing responsible needed for information to access have eco-friendly products). more market design and to manufacturers encouraging - fos and power nuclear for support Reduce Development. and Research for Budgets - efficiency energy technol and renewable for funding greater provide siland fuels ogies. development multilateral and national of the priorities Reorient Aid. International and fuels fossil from away agencies export as credit well as agencies assistance alternatives. greener toward projects hydropower large-scale • • • Modern economies mobilize enormous quantities of fuels, metals, minerals, lumber, and and metals, fuels, lumber, minerals, of quantities enormous mobilize economies Modern been decades in past made to have changes some Although materials. agricultural raw may and insufficient are these impact, gains environmental economy’s the world reduce growth. economic continued be overwhelmed by simply change, especially crisis, and climate the specter of environmental the view gathering of In re-examine to thus and sustainable more far economies make need to urgent an is there dematerialization, as such Concepts model. consumption and production theprevailing product replacing and durability, closed-loop systems, “zero-waste” remanufacturing, have discussedbeen contracting”) “performance services efficient with as (such purchases into be to translated yet have large and by but instances, in some tested time and some for reality. less require but products of volumes huge out churn to able are that systems Economic - unemploy and impact environmental do so to of pose labor less challenge the dual and their be need very to may essence do jobs need be to greener, only not the future, In ment. reduce to proposals with wrestled have companies and of countries number A redefined. all those who desire among better work available share to time in order work individuals’ work. Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 66 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - , AND ON NI EAN U P O 67 century, but under a global coercive consensus ini- consensus a global under coercive but century, th xperience with Green Jobs: xperience Jobs: with Green EUR S IN USA, OB gy efficiency (EE) and to create GJs gycreate to and efficiency (EE) particularities Macedonian the case to of their relevance upon possible Whenever regional of level history and administrative the economy, of state climate, (size, integration) Their ranking and reputation on the performance of measures to implement ener to implement measures of on the performance reputation and ranking Their • • - organiza new international and old major table the world this time on gathering tiative, the as nations and countries states, of groups highly regionalized of initiatives and tions players. key - mandato and initiatives voluntary the to examine an effort made was there Therefore, by formation, GJs the influence directly or address that decisions ry binding regulatory to while levels, when going regional-governance and the world from “top-down” starting the “bot- from results practices and concrete examine to GJs policy be to able paradigms states communities, living our those of example, For social of level formations. tom-up” the but the responsibility, if not sharing, and hopefully all conscious nation-states, and societies. our greening the need for and the reasons of understanding common minimum GJs ini- systematic major of reviewthe in detail a is examined chapter in this Therefore formations: governance regional keywestern by two the promoted and financed tiatives, Gov- Union European The and Americaof States United of the Federal Government The Australia. the case as of well as countrynation-states, its of ernance Country have and levels their State practices at policies and of these cases, examples For been criteria: selected two the base of on The review of relevant international green jobs (GJs) literature has attempted to cover the to cover attempted has (GJs) literature jobs green international relevant reviewof The of that dimension; causal contemporary its view of of the point jobs from green of subject dictated has already Necessity mitigation. change climate for global effort a trans-border, ‘old-fashioned’ under the must be undertakennot its consequences and effort an such that 20 ideology the early of nation-state 3.1. International E 3.1. International Methodological Remarks J 3. GREEN LIA AUSTRA International experience shows that in the last few years we have witnessed to a slow- to witnessed have we years few in the last that experience shows International turn ex- the to difficult is it the fact to that due creation, jobs green of thein process down major the it that seems point, To this products. retrofitted to retrofitting needs for pressed market. the energy of retrofitting efficiency the expansion but supply, labor not is problem the energy savings examining studies potential” “market numerous hand, On the one the necessary a reward with pay-back savings EER that show BEER-REER of potential numerous experimentaland evidence Also, time. reasonable a within capital retrofitting - manage estate real and owners among information of a lack is there surveys that show Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia The fact that The fact according the internationalto experience, an increasing number greenjobof employees instruments innew and characteristics the of and new this sizable market. within labor the but of trades skills the banking, insurance, also real estate and law firm colleges, oftenaiming to curricula open trans-skillandup-skill theup existingnew skills studies Departments, in cooperation with universities technical and vocational education For Business, this, Law and Economics Work schools as well as Social and Behavioral savings and benefits amongthe households. ablebe to organize housing the communities and to raise consciousness the of energy ists and of training the of tomorrow’s trainers, to produce grass roots leadership that shall in parallel, ifnot earlier, from preparation the of Green concept communication- special field retrofits.work Efficiency performed inEnergy Furthermore, it is imperativestart to of work-breakdown for management, the necessary operations and control for needed the are necessary elaboratedskills inorder for needed specialties the to packages performthe term, increasingly complex jobdescriptions and For green skills. new and curricula, this, ganized for re-training and up-skilling and available be to supply to short-to-medium the our built environment, today’s urgent for need a green labor movement is to become or operational and adeep BEER-REER wide potential that can embrace quasi-totality the of studiesCase from Europe, and America Australia argue with examples that to help turn ances, and other measures. economies, leveraged financing,scale better expertise, change of technologies and appli - attainedcould be through application the retrofitting of adeeper plan using multi-unit it “locks” building this at performance alevel ofefficiency energy lower than that which efficientergy results. For example, theonce retrofitting operation been has completed, refers to consumption the of owner’s the limited financial resources for sub-optimal en- bundling, and clustering operations. these For of clarity, purposes the “lock-in” the effect pliers have interest both concerted forms to devise of retrofit organizations grouping,by rofitting operations, governments, communities, home owners and retrofitsup- service Therefore, to avoidthe “lock-in” effect proper the to low-levelweatherization type of ret- schemes (example for EEand for of services ESCO REgrids). ing withend-use the production-distribution the EE performance under needs common under that optimal scales can provide cheaper both retrofitting and deeper by integrat- Market rationality for calls assembling/bundling the individual of EEoperations several deeper retrofitting –a efficiency – forbuildings. efficiency regulations,call all thefor attainment of increasinglylevels higher of energy national initiatives, regional and national/state efficiency laws energy and building energy Under impetus the of society’s concern for mitigation the of climate change inter effects, markets. futurein the characteristics new evolving of with particular the specific the BEER-REER nental, state show and local) that labor the market for green have jobsshall matched to be otherOn the hand, practices gathered best from international the literature conti (global, - financial instrumentsthat are either pilot tested or remainbe testedto and refined. failures and difficulties and we assist toa proliferation of creative businessmodels and But again literature shows that there are signs that markets are increasingly learning from amounts saved to be inEEand on level the of risk associated with such cash flows. and alackknow-how of professionals specific ment among financial intermediaries on the 68 - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - 69 ket trajectory of green jobs is highly contested. Although it is commonly understood that that understood commonly is it Although highly jobs is trajectory contested. green ket of - the envi maintaining and protecting, improving, to related way in some jobs are green delineate can that stillframework agreed-on is no 2009), et there al., (Dierdoff ronment establish and the work, of the nature jobs, determine green of the basic characteristics jobs. green counting for and this information capturing methods for un- common of by a lack difficult more made jobs is in green workers placing Although workforce on pressure place, the job in the first a green as counts what of derstanding related challenges of a myriad by exacerbated jobs is deliver to practitioners development evolving include challenges These market. labor jobs the green of nature the emerging to the industry make hard jobs that and industries green of structure emerging and nature in demand and between supply synchronization of a lack to serve,to related challenges difficult it make policies that and strategies development workforce and market, the labor in growth economic slow, yet long-term, support that programs deliver and develop to industries. emerging who practitioners development workforce that suggest challenges programmatic These - deep in with structuralthe train flaws grapple to be prepared must run programs green jobs career green a robust develop to market the labor and system, development and ing programs. model and pathways of out itself tried to raise States United as the about focuscame on jobs green The current factory-based fear that would be jobs a was widespread There crisis. economic the recent When the 2007 recession hit, the US. government looked to the green economy as a source source a as economy the green to looked the government US. hit, the recession 2007 When US. an unprecedented in resulted This creation. job and growth, economic innovation, of mar the labor 2007. Yet, of Act Training Jobs in the Green US$500 million of investment 3.2.1. Introduction 3.2.1. Introduction 3.2. USA antee. In fact, US Federal and EU Governance initiatives are currently earmarking “green “green earmarking currently are initiatives EU Governance and fact, Federal US In antee. in EE and in the SMEs research applied innovative of the creation stimulate to money” RE sectors. building to linked the industries and local medium this effect,and enterprises small To or up-skilled,to be be trans-skilled identified should that entities the only not industry are uni- addition, In the GJs initiative. of members become inno-skilled to skills in green and their curricula rethink technical)should and/ law, (business, allspecializations of versities assist specificshould in green enrich their services extraskills. courses or They offering by to undertake entrepreneurial results research quality demonstrated with students gifted services and products ideas on theirinnovative of thecommercialization activities and energy efficiency of (e.g. attainment and the promotion linked with indirectly and directly special etc). models, materials, green mathematical instruments, control software, - be to the construc linked with future the in near need not curricula pathways career and in the engineers and employees green new GJs skills to for shall refer that trades but tion voca- thein academiaand and institutions credit utilities, government, municipalities, however, opportunities, Jobs Green here. be to overstressed needs not institutions, tional should initiative GJs A sustainable only. employees and workers to be limited not should only the that creation upon jobs effect low-term to medium- the multiplier focus upon guar can small enterprises and medium innovative of multiplication and establishment Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia tion to a new digital electricity grid.”tion electricity to digital anew plants, advance next the generation of biofuels and infrastructure, fuel transi and- begin renewable scale cial energy, encourage efficiency, energy invest in low emissions coal “Accelerate commercialization the of plug-in hybrids, promote development of commer billion over 10years to: greenmillion jobs.Now, new as President, he plans to have government the invest $150 presidential the During campaign, candidate then Barack Obama promised to create 5 ing increasingly popular. politically are on seriously based flawedeconomic analysis.Despite greenjobs this fact, arebecom- and savings, inaddition energy all to environmental benefits. Unfortunately, these claims create anet increase inemployment, economic growth, recovery from current the crisis, Proponents of “green collar” jobspromise that government subsidization of jobs will these 3.2.2. Government’s Role credential from has risen 29 percent in 1973 to 59 percent in 2008. Smith,nevale, and Strohl (2010)indicated share the of jobsthat require apostsecondary left out thebetter-educated of as recovery workerseventually foundpositions. new Car 22 21 US. military. improvements include US.Department the of Housing and Urban Development, and the Act. programs federal Other using money federal to broadly focus onefficiency energy are receiving funding through 2010by and 2009American the Recovery Reinvestment Conservationand Efficiency and Block Grants Energy (EECBG). Most these of programs Assistance Program, insulation credits tax for homeowners, ENERGY STAR programs, idential re-insulation market. include, These but are not limited to,the Weatherization Currently, there are anumber of programs federally-funded available to stimulate res the - Funds3.2.3. Federal for Residential Re-Insulation cap and emissions trade limitations. states and cities are considering subsidizing creation the of green jobs and implementing by 2020from 2005levels. their Obama and government federal the are not alone. Many contains acap that and is policy supposed trade to reduce carbon emissions by 14 percent jobs that cannot outsourced.” be President Obama’s budget for last years the fewalso fiscal He claims plan “help this will private the create sector green 5million jobs,good new that change will economy the and savior the be for American the worker. place and green energy. Green jobsare sometimes portrayed as awonderful innovation This approach is firstaimed training, at job but also it emphasizes innovation the in work- work that place on them will apathway out of poverty. opportunitiesto build structural new to provide individuals with access to education and and systemic unemployment. Community -and efforts -wide industry be would required makers individual recognized icy learning alone could not solve problems the of poverty initiative of was part an effort to integrate advancedjobtraining joband stimulation. Pol- http://www.barackobama.com/pdf/factsheet_energy_speech_080308.pdf. Barack Obama and Joe Biden, “New for Energy America,” (March 2008) through 2018.Washington, Center on DC: Education and Workforce, the Georgetown University. A.P.,Carnevale, Smith, N.,&Strohl, J. (2010).Help wanted: Projections of jobs and educational requirements 22 70 21 Thus,greenthejobs - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 71 The Weatherization Assistance Program (WAP), founded in 1976, was created to help help to created in 1976, was founded (WAP), Program Assistance Weatherization The and energy their energy reduce costs efficiency to in home invest households low-income are insulation installing sealing Air and environment. health and their overall improve set Obama President the WAP. through homes to made the improvements typical of two the WAP, through 2010 2009 and during per year homes million one weatherize a goal to (ARRA). Act Reinvestment Recovery the 2009 American and from $5 billion funded by of the Energy Department and of the Department through primarily directed is Funding (LI- Program Energy Assistance Services Home via Income Human the Low and Health - qual line the federal poverty of percent 200 below or at Households Grants. Block HEAP) $2,500. the former from up $6,500 per household, at ARRA with funding the WAP, ify for - profes by trained completed be program the funded through work that requires WAP The $350. of savings household annual average an have to estimated is Weatherization sionals. - 2009 ARRAthe insti qualifications, low-income meet the those WAP who do not For the cost of percent 30 deduct to homeowners enables that tax credit insulation an tuted their home 2010, for 2009 and during purchased sealing air products, and insulation of primary whoseproducts purpose for for was only applicable was credit The $1,500. to up costs. labor to be applied cannot the tax sealing credit air and or insulation to in- was whose mission program is a program Star Energy with Insulate The Sealand insulation. sealing air and of impact the energy of saving awareness homeowner crease and middle help to available also was program Star Energy with Performance Home The determine the can who auditors energy identifyhome qualified families upper-income with In partnership energyhomes. efficiencyin their improve to ways cost-effective most de- homeowners help to programs develop organizations state-sponsored Energy Star, sealing,air replacing insulation, adding as such theircrease energy changes use through windows. replacing and ducts repairing systems, cooling or heating En- (EECBG)State andthe the Energy Grants Block and EfficiencyConservation Finally, - weatheriza finance to states the 2009 ARRA, allowed by alsosupported ergy Program, The 2009 communities. projects energy intheir efficiency home residential other or tion Energy the State the EECBG for $3.1 million for and million $3.2 ARRA providing was Energy. of the US. Department through Program despite growing industry are re-insulation in the residential opportunities Employment funding to in response 2010 was in 2009 and the growth of Much downturn. the housing of the Bureau to According Act. Recovery Reinvestment the 2009 American and from installing on who worked workers insulation 32,000 were 2006 there in LaborStatistics, number withgreatest the The states States. United in the walland insulation ceiling, floor, Delaware, Wyoming, Nebraska, Montana, in 2008 were per capita workers insulation of Louisiana. and Colorado, Alabama, Utah, Vermont, Idaho, Expan - Stimulus Economic (WAP) Program Assistance the Weatherization to According part-time 68,000 or than more required per year homes 1,000,000 weatherizing Plan, sion 2008. The since 55,000 new positions approximately network, full-time jobs in the WAP meeting strictrequired which auditor, energy an of that to wasfill difficult position most training. formal of months eight six to completing and requirements competency increased by funding affected also were suppliers material and manufacturing Insulation projects. energyimprovement efficiency homeowner for demand and weatherization for - vary based involve networks on contractor and in distributor opportunities Employment insulation for demand homeowner and Program Assistance in the Weatherization ment products. Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia research and consulting fields. istration of environmental programs, and supporting engineering, legal, jobsinthe and tion and installation of and energy pollution management systems, government admin- and inrenewable specializing wholesalers or energy energy-efficiency products, - construc facturing jobs producing in renewable used goods power generation, equipment dealers newable or nuclear fuels, agriculture jobssupplying corn for transportation fuel, manu- States define in2006.They jobs as:green activity thatany generates using electricity re- InsightGlobal estimates that there were approximately 750,000green United jobsinthe forecast how market demand and legislative impactthe efforts creation will greenjobs.of green jobsistheor beneficial shouldbe object of governmentpolicy. Instead seeks to it different combinations of renewable energy by 2020. on thatexpectation the USA, based the 20 percent of generation electricity come will from Kammen, Kapadia and Fripp, for example, project a range of labor market for scenarios Most of studies the and modeling of projections USAare comprehensive. inthe very 3.2.4. Scientific Approach/Research of the Issue on Green Jobs 24 23 jobs. current stock of green United jobs inthe States and forecast future the growth of green Insight’sGlobal report for United the States Conference of Mayors attempts to count the more employment opportunities. brace of responsible environmental no threat poses policies indeed, that it opens many This reasoningevidently is intended as a reassurance thelabor to movementthat the em- labors toward building agreen economy. occupations green jobsis that people the working are inthem contributing everyday their others, on roofers, insulators and building inspectors. What entirely makes these familiar others. Increasing efficiency of through buildings energy the retrofitting relies, among farms creates jobs for workers, sheet metal machinists and drivers, truck among many pations configurations. innew According the to report, for example, constructingwind majoritythe of jobscreated by draw greening will on industry existing- and skills occu areas. The gives report labor snapshots fortwelve US States. seeks to demonstrateIt that phasis is on identification of opportunitiesoccupational forgroupsparticular indifferent prospect of employment growth environmental new inthe economic conditions. The em- (PERI) at University the of Massachusetts. It to sectors the there identify in which seeks is campaign,America by undertaken has Political the been Economy Research Institute In USone the interesting particularly research project, sponsored by Green the Jobs for From other the side, differing have methods to assess likelyused been regional impacts. of latter this of employment the aspect outcome inpractice. cost comparisons for production, transportation and distribution are likely determinants within host the undertaken nation,be rather than relocated in other nations: international It should noted, be however, that study this assumes that most of manufacturing the will bling of overall the number of jobscompared to “business the as usual” fossil scenario. fuel distribution of jobnumbers two shows the scenario sectors. Each between at least adou- and operation/maintenance/fuel processing. Modeling differing the scenarios showsthe creationenergy and distribution intwo clusters construction/manufacturing/installation Economy 2008),http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2008/09/pdf/green_recovery.pdf (October InsightGlobal for US.Conference of Mayors “US. Metro Economics: Current and Potential Green Jobs US. inthe generate?industry report,University RAEL of Berkeley. California Kammen, D, Kapadia, K.and Fripp, M.(2004)Putting renewables to work: how many jobs can clean the energy 24 Unlike other the reports, Insight Global not does overtly claim that creating more 72 23 They focus They jobsonfocus fromarising . Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 73 ducation and Green Jobs Jobs Green and ducation 40 percent of electricity must come from alternative resources (of this, 30 percent this, 30 percent (of resources alternative from come electricity must of 40 percent - hy incremental from 10 percent solar, from 20 percent wind, by will be generated biomass); from 30 percent and geothermal from 10 percent dropower, buildings commercial and residential of stock the current by Energy consumption and 35 percent; fall by must trucks will light be and satisfied cars passenger diesel for and gasoline of 30 percent fuels. alternative by • • • The Green Jobs movement in the United States was gaining momentum for several years years severalfor momentum gaining was States United in the movement Jobs Green The purposebill of was in 2007. The the in Congress introduced was Act Jobs when the Green energy an and efficiency establish to 1998 of Act Investment the Workforce amend “to sponsor, bill’s 2007). The of Act Jobs (Green program” training energy worker renewable and training for California, recognized the demand from Solis, then representative Hilda green prospective If movement. the green in on get to US. workers for the opportunity those jobs States, United in the workers beAmerican could by filledtrained jobs openings withinEnergy the by Congress billwaspassed The be to overseas. filled have not would 2009, the US. economy funded. By never was 2007 but of Act Security Independence and American The intervention. recognized the need for Congress and in deeperwas trouble, 3.2.5. Community E 3.2.5. Community The report then discusses areas in which Global Insight believes there is potential for for is potential believes there Insight Globalreport in which discussesareas then The jobs They newjobs will separate be created. many how estimates and job growth green commercial and Residential generation, power Renewable categories: broad three into is the there that estimates Insight Global fuels. transportation Renewable and retrofitting, 2038. They estimate by theeconomy US. new jobs to million add 4.2 green to potential 81,000 generation, power in Renewable jobs willmillion 1.2 be created approximately that fuels, transportation in 1.5 million Renewable retrofitting, commercial and in Residential fields. support jobs in related 1.4 million additional an and - at never It here. analyzed thethree of objectionable the least is report GlobalInsight’s argue does it otherwise, or jobs, green good. is Nor of the creation that argue to tempts green jobs many how forecast to tries simply It efficient. cost-benefit policies are green that conditions. market and desires legislative given will be created it- work the not work, Insight’s Globalof of misuse the been have far thus criticisms The green of the number of forecast own even its with problem a major is there However, self. scenario in a single that assumptions a set of on based is entirely It will bejobs that created. scenario. plausible even a or likely being most as defended well not is assumes: simply Global Insight These drastic changes in power generation and energy consumptions are never given never given are energyand consumptions generation in power changes These drastic - probabili are nor justified never is assumptions of realismthe The support. empirical and assumed simply are scenarios. They alternative these to or attached ty distributions is “It admits: Global Insight thesewith radical assumptions. forecast are jobs then green scenarios. chosen our on depend heavily results these recognize to forecast important from electricity be to of generated the share regarding the assumptions of any Altering fuels from of transportation share or the retrofitting, of the extent resources, alternative the results.” change obviously would sources renewable Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia for green jobs. effort is to diversify and increasethe number of youngpeople interested in and qualified create opportunities for environmental literacy learning. An important end of goal this Kansas. This organization populationan urban serves and uses regionalpartnerships to jobs is Breaking the Silence/Building aSustainable Earth Community, inKansas based City, A second program working to educate citizens and promote development the of green own green jobs. createdneeds awareness that an additional step to help was needed people create their and conferences. The center’s communityeducation on individualfocus and community dress environmental and concerns energy through training programs, workshops, classes, oping future green jobs.The center’s mission is to helpthe community and region ad- communities develop capacity their for creating sustainable neighborhoods and devel- The SustainableCenterLiving at Flint Hills College inEmporia, Technical Kansas, helps community-level and solutions. higher creators of green jobs,putting sustainability the gained values toward they implementing context, Sustainable the Living Center has developed apathway for its participants to be education are intertwined to support green jobs.Emerging from acommunity education These are twoonly examples the waysof which in workforce development and community citizens to understand natural the world and place their within it. sustainability intention values the carries of building capacity the of communities and impetus for transitioning to a green economy Community education that incorporates realm that can support a transformationalsociety,the shift in providing an additional supportsthough this development the of green jobs, community education is another master’s, PhD, and certificate programs offered byuniversities the in UnitedStates. Al- formal education. At aminimum, there are at least 200associate’s, minor’s, bachelor’s, Currently, asignificant share of sustainabilityeducation is concentratedthe in sphere of system green inwhich jobsaddress economic, environmental, concerns. and societal could create a web that would strengthen each of and them create an interlocking support values,ty are existing movements within American the society. Unifying elements these ence, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education; and c)sustainabili - insignificant society ways. three elements:These serve a) workforcedevelopment; sci- b) To there dothis, are three elements that, woven together, can create green jobsthat will Statistics to advance (2012).They shouldtheserve development of sustainable societies. morebe than environmentally employment, friendly as defined the by BureauLabor of development?their From of perspective the environmental education, green jobsshould Or more pointedly, what and should be how they can field the of adulteducation support forums. Millions of to have glad Americans would very one, be but what are exactly? they Green jobsare currently amuch-discussed topic inpolitical, economic, and educational inavariety ofinfrastructure ways, including training. emergency with broad strokes that provided, among other things, investment ingreen president on February 17,2009.This piece of legislation intended to addresseconomicthe andRecovery Reinvestment Act was introduced (ARRA) January 26and by signed the sional legislation on climate protection. As of early 2008,legislation developed by- Sena In United the States, of idea the aJust Transition captured has been inproposed Congres- 3.2.6. The Issue of Just Transition 74 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 75 uropean Union Union uropean

25 If one were to look at the environmental goods and services (EGS) sector as a source of new jobs one would require require services goods would and new one jobs of (EGS) sector a source as the environmental look at to were one If information skills. Available and education of the level including patterns occupational about data qualitative services goods and industry is the environment that indicates EU ones, including countries, advanced most across and scientists occupations: people in the following hiring principally activity economic a labor-intensive generally the sector way a In laborers. and helpers as well as operators and service machine craft technicians, occupations, of the day-to-day spectrumMany of high-skillareas. the qualification low-skill of and ends the two at bunched is the highly for not it were exist not these would jobs However, unskilled workers. relatively on rely operations operation. the develop and plan who qualified executives service management expertsand skilled and technicians in EGS the roles various are there However, in the sector. workforce of the one-third about comprise The latter and consulting of theseis environmental One order. of higherthe qualifications skills and sector which require monitoring. 25 The Commission Communication Renewable Energy Road Map of January 2007 laid the 2007 laid January of EnergyMap Renewable Road Communication The Commission and state of heads the European where Council, European the 2007 Spring for foundation the To Plan’. Energy Action the ‘European a new EU energy endorsed policy, government sector, in the transport biofuels percent ten goal (including renewables overall 20 percent 20 a added the twin of goals Plan the Action State), Member each in as well as overall a 20 percent and 1990 levels) to (relative emissions gas in greenhouse reduction percent constitute targets 20the three percent Together, energy efficiency. in overall improvement 2020 goals. current the EU’s of the 2009 Re- enactment with the officially of EU goals legislation 2020 part The became electricity renewable on directives the previous whichreplaced Energy Directive, newable the that time first the marked it as decision a landmark act The constituted biofuels. and 2020 The targets States. Member its for targets renewables legally binding issued EU had formally strategy 2020’ growth ‘Europe the broader into been since incorporated have 2010. Council in June the European by adopted market’ ‘green job European policyand the to climate be a leader in is considered EU The large-scale cause policy may climate that Fears years. in recent very developed has rapidly of decrease in employment the Most be to unjustified. out turned far thus job losses have - au to due largely is it where industries, occurred energy-intensive has extractive in and protection climate to related not and outsourcing, and liberalization market tomation, to tend usually economy’ ‘green a with associated products theOn contrary, measures. - fuel based fossil indus traditional with associated products than labor-intensive be more tries. 3.3. E keting advanced technologies and practices that reduce greenhouse gas emissions.” The The emissions.” gas greenhouse reduce that practices and technologies advanced keting in a training participation to incidental costs “travel also includes workers to assistance a new job. to relocating of the cost portion of “a and program” - several path-break contained bill) (the Lieberman-Warner Warner Lieberman and tors measures. of emissions-reduction the effects by displaced workers help to provisions ing wage temporary displaced, workers any to quality job training include provisions These The measures. other and programs, in training workers to benefits health care assistance, - new creat jobs into workers to transition mechanisms place in puts also legislation draft mar and developing enterprises to skilled workers provide “to and the legislation ed by Available figures show that in Europe close to 400,000 jobs have been created in the re- in the beencreated have closeto 400,000 jobs Europe in that show figures Available and transport in efficient employed are people 2.1 million About energynewable sector. and goods services. energy efficient span These jobs supply that 900,000 in industries over the example, for jobs include, salaries. skill Green and levels professions, of a wide range - con and panels, solar and turbines wind of maintenance and installation manufacturing, Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia challenges. one-third Over of annual global revenues from eco-industries (€600billion) er for growth and employment. Nevertheless, it is at same the confronted time by daunting These numbers showthat the European greathas eco-industry potential as adriv- serve to etc. manufacturing buses, light rail and subways, maintaining rolling stock and infrastructure to creationlead the of asignificant number jobs in of new operatingtransport systems, 2-2.5 indirect jobs. The expansion and modernization transitof systems,therefore, can more than 900,000people are employed area direct jobcreates inthis and every another Another area with substantial employment potential is urban public transport. Today, opportunities. opment of second the and third generation of biofuels offer will considerable additional are in Germany and Austria, but Europe. booming in Eastern is sector the also The devel- heating, 424,000inbiofuels and 2.7million biogas inthe industry. Most facilities today In area the of bio energy, again, studies suggest apotential of 580,000jobsinbiomass 3,000. alone,sector Germany employs more than 17,000people, Spain 9,000and Italy about available. Another young but quickly emerging heating. is solar thermal industry In this reflectors and componentsother by 2020. Precisecapacity predictions, however, are not gium and UKare the to contribute expected to production the of collectors, mirrors/ in contrast, young is avery industry. Nevertheless, companies from Spain, Germany,- Bel 727,000 jobsand potentially 1.4million jobsby 2030.Concentrating solar power (CSP), almost entirely covered by Spain. By EU’s 2020,the PVworkforce to reach is expected Europe’s photovoltaic related (PV) employment of about 90,000.The remainingthird is Germany, producer as aleading global of solar cells, accounts for almost two-thirds of Germany,be Spain and Denmark followed by France, UKand the Portugal. indirect jobs to about 329,000 jobs in 2020 and 377,000 in 2030. The market leaders would areathe of wind energy, Europe has potential the to grow from today’s 154,000direct and 2.5 million net European jobsinthe renewable reached could sector be by energy 2020.In According to an ‘Advanced Renewable Strategy’ modeling exercise supported by EU, the by EUhas 2030;the roughly 33percent market of global the share. market for eco-industries is currently around year to per and triple €1trillion is expected waste-water management (11percent) and recycled materials (18percent). global The four largest sub-sectors are waste management (32percent), water supply (21 percent), inflation,the annualgrowth ratepercent.withinthe EU-27 is 5.9 eco-industry the of The corresponds2008, which to 2.2 percent and 2.5 percent of GDP, respectively. Adjusted for In had aturnover total, EU-27eco-industry the of €232billion in2004and €319billion in percent. 2000and 2008,employmentBetween areas inthese had an annual growth rate of 6.7 iron and steel sectors. Thisto continuetrend is a that expect experts the coming in years. jobs inmore carbon-intensive industries such as mining, electricity, gas, cement and the altogether, number the of green jobsremains However, small. it 2.8million exceeds the businesses have inrecent on rise the been years. Compared to 130million EU jobs inthe in public transportation, building sectors, wind power, solar photovoltaic and bio-energy there are another five million indirectjobs created by related branches. Job opportunities of opportunities for large of sections labor the force. It is estimated, furthermore, that workstruction related to improving inThey buildings. efficiency energy awide offer array 76 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - But the story But 27 77

26 Unlike the European eco-industry, economic considerations in the eco-industries of the US and Japan have played played have Japan the US and of in the eco-industries considerations economic eco-industry, the European Unlike Especiallyproposals. in US, the serve primarily funds investment finance public to and role important a more - in the eco-indus invest to readiness and interest growing showing are capitalists venture and investments private been have organizations third-party numerous and institutions financial investors, institutional too, Japan, In try. industry. green the country’s for markets capital develop to cooperating increasingly - the renew noticed a 2009 speech, the President In example. an as Spain singled Obama out Barack President Even, Spain has long been considered as a leader in the drive to renewable power. renewable to a leader as in the drive been considered long has Spain 26 27 3.3.1. Spain 3.3.1. Spain ious sub-sectors and, although strong development and improved investment conditions conditions investment improved and development strong although and, sub-sectors ious - in competi differences still substantial are there years, becan the expected coming for of EU the eco-industry is competitiveness the future for challenge major The tiveness. finance. to certainly access - tech other riskier than considered usually technology are in environmental Investments injections. capital on impact a negative has which, in turn, a situation nology investments, local- their fund for banks on risk-averse rely to as theyhave affected, especiallySMEs are international from capital private mobilize to it easier find companies larger whereas ing, and the capacity have cases do not local banks in many Furthermore, capitalists. venture - re Long in eco-industry projects. the involved risks evaluate to know-how technological crisis financial the current and uncertainty high of level periods, the relatively payment an of creation The capital. to raise SMEs of the efforts on strains additional meant have of competitiveness bethe future crucial for will, therefore, climate investment attractive eco-industry. the European are generated in the EU. In renewable power generation, the Union has over 40 percent 40 percent over has the Union generation, power renewable In in the EU. generated are technologies recycling and management waste European and share the globalof market turnover global remaining of bulkthe The the global of market. 50 percent for account the is Union the European the US. Although and Japan by generated is eco-industries for eco-industryglobal its deal still to hurdles. serious leaderwith has technologies, in green in barriers reduce to efforts great – despite that be acknowledged must it Furthermore, still regulation been Labor yet market achieved. not has market labor - a single this area has Europe within people of the mobility even though states, for issue a complex remains for it difficult makes of a globalabsencemarket the Additionally, significantly. increased deal to with order In global other regions. from workforce a competent attract the to EU be necessary will it inevitably revise inflexible to competitive, stay to and thissituation the current of training and further the education to develop and regulations market labor European of the technological demands meet the altered effectively to in order force labor eco-industry. - com European several to studies, according that, be noted should it least not Last but of the rest in the competitors their than profit of rate a lower average on generate panies flux. of eco-industrystate is in a European The productive. less are even those that world, var of the development in theEast still of behind thelag EU-15 in terms States Member Given this major financial challenge and competitive markets that currently attract more more attract currently that markets competitive and challenge financial this major Given will the depend on economy green Europe’s of competitiveness the future capital, private gaps financial the projected time, the same At investments. private mobilize to ability appear energy renewable doesnot of financing public of cutback early an that clear make within improvements Nevertheless, 20-20-20 targets. its retain to if the EU wishes realistic possible. are instruments policy financing of and the realms Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia things, these “socialthings, these roundtables” dialogue are empowered to monitor progress toward and paper production, and (most recently) transportation and construction. Among other oil refining, iron and steel manufacturing,glass and ceramics, cement production, pulp mechanisms on dialogue for climate social protection sectors, namely inseveral energy, In Spain, government agencies, employers, and unions have worked hard to establish pricesteed and government subsidies for 25years. backing to existing renewable power energy plants, built with an of expectation guaran- betting its bond rates must Spanish the rise, government likely was also to cut financial to Spain’s deficit finance exposed highly status, making ita target for marketspeculators tosales find outside trying while Europe, helped by a weaker Euro. In addition and due Major producer wind energy firms, such as Gamesa, havecuttingbegun their workforces, has cut spending inimportant areas. ernment revenue, Spain has found its foray into renewable unsustainable to be energy and or growth. Far from generating source anew of economic growth, jobcreation and gov- projectsgreen energy strongly suggests that expensive the programs are not creating jobs ing economic development, that fact the Spain back its has quietly once scaled ambitious In addition to research suggesting that Spain’s green jobsinitiatives were not generat- development that strongly suggests initiatives these have failed. document confirmingthe essential finding of Alvarez’s independent study is an important publiclybeen bullish about its green jobsprogram, of leak an the so internal government creator. The government thatof time Spanish Prime ZapateroMinister has consistently government documentthat confirmed spending greenjobson has job a notnet been destroyed more jobsthan it has created inSpain is correct. For example, Spanish aleaked ernment suggest that Alvarez and his colleagues’ findingthat greenspending has energy other research and arecent retreat policy field inthis part the theon of Spanish gov- Alvarez and his colleagues’ study has come under criticism from some quarters. However, 28 push into renewable energy. study examined economic the they in which and employment impact of Spain’s aggressive Gabriel Álvarez Calzada and colleagues at Universidad the Juan Rey Carlos released a of Spain’s renewable/green jobsleadership of took hits. aseries In March 2009,researchers ment of public aid to renewable sources, energy Universidad Juan Rey Carlos. Alvarez Gabriel, Calzada Jara Merino Raquel, and Julián Juan (2009): Study Ramón Rallo of effects the on employ- able and transportation, energy as sectors where Spain aworldwide has been leader. • • • • • inherent inschemes to promote renewable sources. energy costsThese do not appearbe unique to to Spain’s approach but instead arelargely economy: 8.99by photovoltaics, 4.27by wind energy, 5.05by mini-hydro. ‘green’Each megawatt destroys installed 5.28jobson average elsewhere inthe co industries. levels in metallurgy, nonmetallic mining and processing, food beverage and tobac- Principally, cost of high the affects costs electricity of production and employment ‘greenfor every job’ created. ofstruction nearly economy, 110,500jobselsewhere inthe or 2.2jobsdestroyed The studythatcalculates the programs creating jobsalso resultedthose the de- in including subsidies of more job. wind than industry €1million per The studythatcalculates since 2000 Spain spent €571,138 to createeach job’,‘green 28 What found they confounds usual green the job rhetoric: 78 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - 79 3.3.3. Germany 3.3.3. Germany energy when1997, in the European earnest startedin renewable to in foray Germany’s sources. renewable electricity from its of 12 percent generating a goal of adopted Union - re that a feed-in law of the institution was targets such achieving method for Germany’s rates. at different energyrenewable of kinds different purchase to utilities quired After all, investors. many attracted and power solar of wind subsidization massive This several set high decades a price and for a market guarantee to going is if the government Ger market. the into will flow capital a profit, make to producers renewable for enough - its invest and States, United energy wind the after of producer became the largest many aggressive. was power in solar ment said environmentalists and politicians Germany’s as out worked not have things However, energyand cost of lower form in the benefits economic bringing Rather than they would. - raised house power solar and wind of jobs, the implementation green of a proliferation the cost abated, while emissions gas greenhouse Further, 7.5 percent. by energyhold rates wind for per $80 ton over and power solar for $1,000 per ton high: over astonishingly was - deploy power also solar a leader and in wind in Italy, out played has situation A similar in the RES per worker capital of stock the average compares if one instance, For ment. in the industry per worker capital of stock the Energy average with (Renewable Sources) put To respectively. 4.8, and of 6.9 ratio average an find would economy, the entire and would sector, job in the green one creates that capital of otherwise,it amount the same respectively, general, in the economy sector or thein industrial invested if 4.8 or 6.9 create to create likely more wind with power exist RES between themselves, differences although even not it was because relevant factThis is particularly power. photovoltaic than jobs the focus on was but energy produced, the renewable of the value non-trivial considered per capital of stock the the energy average value, considered had one If subsidies. pure the eco- from taken away forcibly are subsidies Since even higher. result would worker a clear have to political purposes, especially is important it allocated for and cycle, nomic they beg. consequences what of vision the vast the fact that by negative even more is picture a negative Italy, the case of For es- see can inflated as one temporary: what were using jobs created the green of majority take between can 9,000 jobs, one green already-existing of sources, various from timates, as energy, 14,500 in photovoltaic between 5,500 and and power, 26,000 jobs in wind and has Rome the subsidies to thanks that calculate can one there, From point. the starting will aggregate rise an to economy in the green working people of the number promised, per 60 least those jobs - at of most 2020. However, between 112,000 by 50,000 to of total 3.3.2. Italy 3.3.2. Italy cent - will be for installers or other temporary work that will disappear once a photovoltaic a photovoltaic once will disappear that work temporary other or - will installers becent for operative. is tower, a wind or panel, reaching emissions targets, and developing criteria to allocate emissions for each installa- for emissions allocate to criteria developing and targets, emissions reaching However, Commission.) the European by approved (based the sectoraltion allocations on social adverse effects, in reducing and identifying also with concerned are the roundtables efforts Spain’s of the result as employment and competitiveness to particular those related Protocol. the Kyoto with comply to Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia increased income taxes, etc. landlords, and state the by about €3billion, through reduction of unemployment costs, introduction of renewable energies into country’s the portfolio. energy has to failed harness market the incentives to ensure necessary aviable and cost-effective So, renewable German policy, energy adopted the andscheme, inparticular tariff feed-in ton at time, the greenhouse gas emissions from wind and solar were not great investments. power. Given that carbon the price European inthe Trading system was about $19.00per 29 reduce two million tons of CO Work and Environment, aims which to renovate 300,000 apartments, create 200,000 jobs, job creation of aJust aspect Transition demonstrated has been through Alliance the for ates, while same the creating time sustainable jobs and improving conditions. social The have collaborated around initiatives to renovate buildings for climate protection- purpos In Germany, abroad coalition of government, industry, unions, and environmental NGOs generation, of renewables which accounted for about 20percent first inthe half of 2011. in2010,solarsector power only still represents 3.3percent of Germany’s total electricity date (€1.4 billion in 2010). However, despite substantial investments of €27.9billion inthe revenueers), export of more than €6.5billion and have paid over €40billion intaxes to panies inGermany that have atotal turnover of roughly €19.1 billion (including suppli- some 11,000to about 83,000in2009.Currently, there are approximately 10,000solar com- Since number 2000,the of jobscreated has solar increased German from inthe industry photovoltaic systems by 16percent, with freestanding systems cut by 15percent. els. In May parliament German 2011,the cut subsidy back the for domestic rooftopsolar Germany is finding it hard to continue to subsidizewind solarandpower at existing- lev that isand policy devoid energy of economic and environmental benefits. regard country’s the as acautionary of experience tale massively expensive environmental asdia setting a‘shining example in providing for a harvest world,’ the it would instead Although Germany’s promotion of renewable energies is commonly portrayed me inthe - with per-worker subsidies as €175,000. as high voltaics, Germany’s subsidization regime has reached alevel far exceeding average wages, economy, protecting environment, the or increasing security. energy In of case the photo- resulting inmassive expenditures that show little long-term promise for stimulating the Government’sthe support mechanisms have inmany subverted respects incentives, these German households,German according Industry. Solar to German the consumption has steadily solar increased; power currently covers annual the demand electricity of over 3.4million inrenewables,boom including solar inthe sector. time, share the Over of solar power inoverall energy German of externalities or unintended consequences, such as carbon emissions. The Renewable Energy Act precipitated a muneration for renewable is that energy price the for conventional forms notlarge does a of reflect energy number away from exploring industries new given uncertainties the and risks involved. Another justification for higher re- guaranteed tariffs feed-in is supposed to lower start-up costs in order to attract investors shywho would otherwise that young industries cannot competeinitially on own their against mature ones. Institutional support through energy, depending on cost the of generation, and over decrease gradually time. The concept the idea based on is payments for exceeding those conventional forms of energy. Rates of remuneration differ for different sources of The EEG’s core is asystem tariffs that of guaranteefeed-in grid access to renewable energy producers as as well until (EEG), Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz orAct, the 2000 when Renewable German scale Energy was passed. ageneroushas been system of subsidies that has its roots 1990sbut inthe that materialize didnot on truly alarge The institutionalbackbone the increased of spread (alongsidesolarof energy other forms of renewable energy) 2 emissions annually, and lower heating bills for tenants, 80 29 To contrary, the Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia The claim that Denmark derives derives Denmark that claim The 30 81 According to CEPOS, a Danish think-tank, that issued a 2009 report titled: “Wind Energy, The Case of Denmark.” The of CaseDenmark.” Energy, titled: “Wind a 2009 report issued think-tank, CEPOS, a Danish that to According 30 Denmark is yet another country that made wind power a hallmark of its energy policy. US. energypolicy. its of a hallmark power wind made country that another yet is Denmark an telling program, power wind their aggressive for the Danes praised Obama President electric our - of 3 percent than less America produces “Today, in Iowa, Earth audience Day - produc Denmark in comparison, Now, solar. and wind like sources renewable through ity Information US. Energy The power.” their wind electricity through of 20 percent es almost power in wind 9th ranks in the world Denmark children, America’s tells Administration wind.” electricityfrom its of percent 20 about generates but capacity, - gen than rather that found reports and studies some statements, the previous to Opposite about of the equivalent generates Denmark wind, energy from its of 20 per cent erating far contributes power wind but turbines, wind with electricity demand its of 19 percent electricity demand. the nation’s of percent 19 than less 3.3.4. Denmark 3.3.4. Denmark about 20 percent of its electricity from wind overstates matters. Being highly intermittent, Being highly intermittent, matters. overstates wind electricity from its of 20 percent about electricity- con annual of Denmark’s percent five as little as met in 2006 has power wind to CEPOS the According of 9.7 percent. years five the last over average an with sumption does because it as power wind much as consume and produce only can Denmark study, can that power hydro of a lot have countries neighboring circumstance: a convenient of energy its electricity Denmark on of grid, allowing flow balance the effectively and quickly bal the electricity- keep to systems manages Denmark capacity. wind exportto surplus and Norway electricity and their mix. its particularof neighbors the benefit given anced of amounts significant to access Netherlands and Germany Denmark, provide Sweden asact Denmark’s They effectively reserve,balancing term via interconnectors. short fast, turned be can rapidly hydropower Swedish and Norwegian batteries’. storage ‘electricity wind power. of Danish portion some ‘store’ effectively lakes Norway’s and down, and up of percent 57 average, use), on exported (couldn’t has Denmark Overdecade, West the last correlation The 45 percent. of average an East Denmark and generated it the power wind component is a large there makes casethe that outflows net and between high output wind indisputable. energy wind in theof outflow electricity Denmark’s the chin. on who take it the ones are consumers the Danish Finally, are reduction benefits gas Their greenhouse Union. in the the European highest are prices reduce significantly does not it hydropower, replaces the exported power wind Since slim. doessome displace in Denmark consumed wind The power emissions. gas greenhouse six times the nearly which is $124 per ton, of a cost does so it at but fuel emissions, fossil System. Trading the European on price - employ has shift to been subsidy government of the jobs, the effect green to regard With employment productive less to sectors in other employment productive more from ment DKK 1.8-billion approximately is GDP Danish consequence, a As industry. the in wind employed was been thesector if workforce wind have would it than lower ($270-million0 is power, renewable of adopters early other like Denmark, surprisingly, Not elsewhere. state the Danish So, technology. the from away is backing and it unsustainable finding are consumers and turbines, wind onshore build longer no industry would power owned despoliation. environmental and high energy rates about complaining Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia ations. Further, allocations of LIPfunding weretargeted never specifically towards mu- even to extent the that jobcreation evaluseries wasthe not addressed- of in specifically However, of goal the creating jobs was new downplayed as Programme the developed, improve prospects the of growth even invulnerable regions. stable employment, should which help to create jobsinmany differentsectors thusand to modernizationEcological inSweden as heralding of is along seen growth period and same advantage as time taking of opportunities the that adjustment offer will Sweden. modernization’ strategy. This strategy aims to promote sustainable development the at vision of employment as an allows viewed LIPto example also be of Swedish ‘ecological The decision to couplethe promotion sustainableecological of developmentwiththe pro- to addresscase downturns labor inthe market and inemployment levels. instrument for conversion ecological and amacroeconomic latter tool,inthe used policy advantage that investment this could create jobsas well. new LIPwas, therefore, an both developmentsinfrastructure could promote sustainable development, but with added the on ‘governance’. LIP was launched on assumption the that making provision for physical of sustainable development. makesalso ThisLIP of interest engaged those to in research ways of governing many contemporary problems, not just related those to promotion the inan trust LIP placed array of actors that are as key to development the seen of ‘new’ level actorslocal has proved justified. terest whether, inascertaining and to what extent, on, focus the and in,sub-national, trust implement commitment their to promote sustainable development there is widespread in- level. Aslocal member states, and countries beyond borders the of EU, the to struggle andfrom benefits political be derived to funding projectsthat mobilize interests the at atported national level. Against background, this there are potentially strong ecological had developed at level prior local the to LIP, Agenda through 21and Local especially sup- motion of sustainable development. However, that strong discursive practice in Sweden, have,which from acomparative European track record avarying perspective, pro inthe - actors, namely municipal authorities, economic based actors locally and citizen groups, innovative,LIP was also placing and willingness inthe trust capacity of three local-level to sub-national, the level. onlystill at stage the of defining and operationalizingpolicies the at national, as opposed tive, of ahead to its be time. At of time the launch the of LIP, many member states were inkeepingipalities, while with Swedish tradition, appears, from acomparative- perspec notable exceptions. Secondly, targeting funding at at level, case inthis munic local the the - upon regulatory mechanisms backed up by market instruments, although there are some to elaboration the of frameworks. general policy Typically, implementation strategies rely state-funded investment programs. Most EUmember states have confinedtheir actions exceptional that governments promote sustainable development through large-scale, From acomparative European launch the perspective, of LIPwas unusual. First, it is sustainable development inSweden. was hoped that Programme the would enhance capacity the level to of promote local the for modernization the of buildings, andinfrastructure systems energy at level. It local the Sustainabilitylogical (LIP–1998-2003)made 6.5billion Swedish kronor (SEK) available support sustainability ecological atInvestmentLocal The local. the Programme forEco- In Swedish 1997,the central government launched alarge-scale investment programme to 3.3.5. Sweden 82 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 83 The report’s key finding is that for every job created in the UK in renewable energy, energy, renewable forevery inthe UK in created job isthat key finding report’s The for support government benefit from net no is there Scotland In lost. 3.7 jobs are jobs. of a small loss net probably and the sector, is Renewthe - energygeneration renewable promote policymain usedtool The to electricity for pricefrom paid market raises the which effectively Obligation, ables • • cent reduction in the carbon emissions, but an 80 percent cut, and he believed that they believed he that and cut, percent 80 an but emissions, in the carbon reduction cent service and new million jobs. industry in modern manufacturing one green create could fan also was big time Leader the Opposition, that of at Ed Miliband, side, the other From power. wind on British green-jobnot in to The seem does a factor be boosting. current affiliation Party while a deal discussing Cameron, leader), David Conservative Party (and Minister Prime won’t business of creativity and “‘(I)nnovation said, India, with turbines wind on work to - reve of billions and jobs of millions expected is create to but the planet, save us help just services goods in the green and nue market.’” discussed countries the other than better no fared has Kingdom the United However, the new energy/ green economy. jobs of green in their pursuit above - methodol because its particularly is interesting Economics Verso by produced study One studies. ogy Italian the methodology to be seems and is to the superior used in the Spanish in foregone were jobs that of the number estimate to tables used the input/output Verso - gov through created were that jobs the green of favor in economy Kingdom theUnited studies: the other with aligned neatly conclusion Verso’s subsidization. ernmental The United Kingdom has pursued an ambitious wind power agenda. At that time the At that agenda. wind power ambitious an pursued has Kingdom United The in 2008, asked conference a Labor Party speech in his at Brown, Gordon minister prime per60 a not 2050 by the case October for, on by report to committee change theclimate 3.3.6. United Kingdom Kingdom 3.3.6. United nicipalities with higher than average unemployment rates. This can, at least in at least part, be can, This rates. unemployment average higher than with nicipalities percent four to seven percent from rate in the unemployment the decline by explained implementation. its LIP to of the formulation from elapsed the period time that over of attractiveness. immediacyits and of goalpolitical lose some made employment the This management, in environmental new jobs, mainly green create did help LIP Nevertheless, - proj LIP-funded for system the self-reporting to According understood. broadly is as were years) five for new jobs, lasting permanent as (measured 8,400 jobs ects, of a total These indirectly. been created have to estimated jobs are hundred four Another created. not been have effects substitution since the must be caution, with taken however, figures, - employ to contributing genuinely jobs were whether these unclear ‘new’ is assessed. It whether or LIP support, without been created whether have they would creation, ment the job re-designated municipalities Some job titles. of re-designation of a result they were a practice that, coordinators’, ‘LIP calling them instead coordinators, their existing of title those employed. of in the number increase overall an to contribute does not course, of - link the new to Pro jobs was of the creation supported have LIP could that way One development. regional especially those at aimed initiatives, job-creation other to gramme regional and development regional county-level with integrated never LIP was However, plans. and agreements growth Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia high winds they have winds they high switched to be offaltogether to preventdamage.” Even on day rarely agood they work above aquarter of theoretical their capacity. And in seizing up. Consequently, have they consuming been more generate. than they electricity As temperature the has plummeted, turbines the have hadheated to be to prevent them contributionthe of our forests of wind turbines precisely has been nothing. It gets better. for power at record levels of because freezing weather, the there have days been when points out United inthe Kingdom’s Daily Mail: “Over past the three weeks, with demand to put cease do they out power, heated. to need be they As reporter Richard Littlejohn Canada and United northern the States: wind turbines over freeze inwinter! Not only something that warmer the countries did not, and it is a lesson relevant particularly to inmind previous the Bearing conclusions, United the Kingdom and Scotland learned Subsidies were made available infour ‘stages’ (on basis of the first-come, first-served): ment subsidies allocated in an entirely different and rather complicated way. what remains was redirected well away from wind power. In system new the Govern the - subsidiesal from $5.5-billion to $2-billion. In addition, not only are subsidies the cut back, On November government 30, 2010, the unveiled its renewables new plan, slashing annu- owned, and operated wind farms. the $6.2-billion in subsidies to company a German (Bard Engineering) that would have built, required to build and operate wind farms of export and, to case, expected inthis the The mills. governmentthe in Netherlands takenhas exception the to massive subsidies According to Energy journal the Debate, Dutch the government has lost its faith inwind - and solar power. conservative government has reversed radically course and is slashing subsidies to wind Netherlands not producing will be many through its green power plans, their because there is no data available about green Netherlands, jobsinthe there that is evidence the wind. The Netherlandsthe is world’sthird-largest producer of offshore wind power. While The Netherlands is anotherthat country went big forpower,wind particularly offshore 3.3.7. TheN • • • • per m per In first the stage, a government subsidy of 9eurocentsper kWh (or 79eurocents If there money is still left after this first stage, second be opened the will stage up, in of less than 9eurocents. an economic opportunity. restthe of UKis the economically damaging. Governments should as not this see In conclusion, to promote policy renewable the inScotland and sector electricity Scotland. UKhasthe an opportunity cost of 10,000direct jobsin2009/10and 1,200jobs in implemented to promote basis, policy in2008-09.Onthis renewable in energy ilar to model measure opportunity the cost of cut (VAT0) the invalue tax added assess impact the of identified costs Scottishjobs.on The Government a sim- used Verso Scottish the Government’s used own macroeconomic for model Scotland to and around £100-million inScotland in2009/10. renewable sources.scheme This consumers cost electricity £1.1-billionthe UK in 3 for gas) is offered, but only to producers of technologiesthat have ‘deficits’ etherlands 84 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia The ) will be 3 ) will be offered. ) will be offered. 3 85 . This will be open to producers of hydropower hydropower of producers . This willopen to be 3

31 and small-scale biomass. small-scaleand biomass. per m or 132 eurocents per kWh (15 eurocents stage last and fourth The which a subsidy of 11 eurocents per kWh (or 97 eurocents per m 97 eurocents (or per kWh 11 eurocents of which a subsidy - includ Not processes. all-purpose from fermentation electricity to open produced power, solar are too expensive, because they are categories, the four of ed any in wind power. indeed, offshore and, biomass large-scale This stage will be open to producers of onshore wind power and fertilizer-based and wind power onshore of producers willstage open to This be gas. - of 13 euro subsidies willwith stage left, there be a money is third there if Again, per m cents 114 or per kWh cents • • The Australian State Department of Education and Training commissioned a survey to provide previously un- previously survey a provide to commissioned Training and of Education Department State Australian The - Skills, 2003, Envi (Green Australia. sector the jobs green in Western of state the current on information available 31 In the 2007 Federal election the Labor opposition, led by Kevin Rudd, made climate climate made Rudd, Kevin led by election the Labor opposition, the 2007 Federal In victory electionmarked that in Labor’s policy key a platform. the environment and change government Rudd The debate. policyand environmental Australian in shift a substantial Trading Scheme an Emissions developing and began Protocol Kyoto the ratified quickly report his and Garnaut Ross policy Professor its advisor of (ETS)the assistance with 3.4. Australia 3.4. Australia Agenda Jobs Green 3.4.1. Australia’s The proposed ETS was expected to have a substantial substantial a ETS expectedproposed was have to The Review. Change Climate Garnaut - employ towards a shift driving industries, highly with polluting jobs associated on impact jobs policy green agenda A prominent industries. damaging environmentally in less ment at the global crisis until financial however, the Labor government, by developed not was 2008. of the end Another change in the Netherlands government’s attitude toward renewables is how to to how is renewables toward attitude government’s the in Netherlands change Another Moving budget. the general of out for paid were subsidies the past, In the subsidies. for pay their energy on bills. a surcharge saw consumers forward, to renaissance power a nuclear on planning was the Government reports, to According green generate would a plan such that certainly argue could one and electricity, generate 2011, in March tsunami and earthquake the tragic Japanese of in the wake jobs. However, irony The scrutiny. deal of a great will in for a plan also come such that assume to has one years, of hundreds for of wind power been enamored have who rich. The Dutch, is here one work, it make If theyeven at cannot windmills. tilting had enough finally have may can. if anyone wonder to has - a com develop to aims project “Green4Sure” the national the previous, of the light In 2030, based by emissions gas greenhouse the country’s halve to energy plan prehensive - environ with partnership in has by unions, been effort spearheaded The 1990 levels. on by usedthe was the policy instruments study focus of the main The organizations. mental - develop the concerned question in The policies target. the emissions reach to government energy sources, climate-neutral use of greater new technologies, of deployment and ment for a pathway create to was the plan the of goals of One change. behavioral inducing and net no leads to and incomes impact seriously does not that reductions these emissions jobs. of loss Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia growth and established polluting industries. green jobsand industries evidently second to apoor maintenance runs the of economic of economic compensation to households and industry. The government’s commitment to outspell considerable the jobimplications of policy, the and has on instead issues focused substantial growth of ‘mid green’ jobs.Significantly,thoughthe government has failed to The Gillard governmentswhatevercarbon tax/ETS, its faults, maypotentially lead toa to green jobsand environment the not previously within Australian seen public policy. hanging fruit’, didrepresent they an increased level of commitment from government the Although many of abandoned the initiatives policy plainly reached for light the green ‘low abolished, investmentalso while incarbon capture and storage reduced. was also Funding for Green the Start program, a replacement of Green the Loans program, was abolished or cut funding to anumber of climate change and programs. green industry to five yearsbefore moving ETS. permit-based to a More recentlythe Gillard government to Ruddthe have is expected ETS, afixed (tax) carbonprice on emission forthe first three implemented to be bon tax/ETS by of middle the 2012.The policy, proposed new unlike later abandoned its Emission Trading Scheme, only to subsequently announce afresh car ofber serious issues relating to and health safety.Labor The governmentthen delayed and process beganwith axing the of home the insulation program, after a it experienced num- light 2010-11even the During green jobs agenda deferred has or been abandoned. This governments over last the twenty years. ing economic growth are consistent approaches with policy by taken successive Australian ly classifiedgreen. as Critically,greenpoliciesjob aimed at enhancing and accommodat- of green jobprograms these supported retrospective established had which been - industry were policies the one-off programs or some receivedfunding,while short-term budgetary Direct responsibility of implementing programs the was largely left the to market. Many of active to economic circumstances, rather than originating from environmental concerns. to create largely sit within light green job category.policies The were motivated by and re- greenThethatjobs the Rudd/Gillard government’s environmental agendasoughtpolicy ers’ program to promote purchase the of greener vehicles. ment announced also 2010Federal inthe that election it would establish a‘cash for clunk- assessments and interest loans free to purchase saving energy technologies. The govern- and establishment the of agreen loans program, provided which home free sustainability commitments to renewable programs energy such as solar the homes and schools policy, program, aprogram for green jobs,traineeships 50,000new and apprenticeships, funding commitments,policy form in the of $6.2 billion to ‘A New Car Plan for a Greener Future’ nine months government Labor the announced also anumber of other environmental to maintain and enhance economic growth rather nature. than preserving In spaceof the modating of economic interests and aimed at remedying or adapting decline to ecological Australia up for a low carbon future’ was policy (2009). Thereactive, short accomterm, - ing to Prime then the Minister Rudd, scheme the ‘to was designed support jobs and set ment’s economic stimulus package was a$2.7billion home insulation program. Accord- Within Australia most the visible promotion of agreen jobsagenda within govern the - address environmental specific areneeds referred to as environment industries. lems. sectors. Hence Jobs across industry jobs occur all these and businesses that have created been to primarily smelter), to jobs that are entirely and new have initiated been primarily to address environmental specific prob- from innovations that reduce environmental the impact of traditionally “dirty” industries (for example, aluminum sectors. This industry broadall definitionallow thought be jobswould green to across occurring spectrum of a as reduceswhich negative the impact madeon environment, the relative to status the quo. acrossoccur jobs These ronmental Jobs in Western Australia: results of 2002Employer the Survey.) This defines a job as a report job green 86 - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 87 The future of employment, working conditions and the types of work people will un- people work of and typesthe conditions working employment, of The future climate as such challenges to environmental responses on dertake depends significantly to engagement positive from ranging positions of diversity in a resulted has It change. workers to industries and greenjobs of benefits The potential suspicion. and resistance Council of (Australian theACTU by been has promoted in Australia thecommunity and the since (ACF) Conservation Foundation the Australian with in tandem Unions), Trade that as the role peakto ensure is body union its that ACTU understands 1990s. The early and workers for change positive a is economy Australia’s of ecological transformation any Gold Rush’, ‘Green entitled a report released ACF and 2008 the ACTU In theirfamilies. 2030, and 500,000 jobs by approximately create could industries green that which argues this report, to According prosperity. economic future Australia’s for the foundation build - strat broad three of the implementation on relies Gold Rush’ a ‘Green for the potential industry environmental term a long facilitate and develop should the state egies. First, an as such market, environmental an implement needs to the state second, framework; industry Scheme (ETS), while standards; codes also and strengthening Trading Emission technologies, research, in environmental investment be increased an must there third, and training. skills and can reduction policies emissions of carbon in impacts one energywhich the The is sector sorts what about posed could One questions be expected be to particularly pronounced. regime. trading an emissions complement effectively might this policies affecting sector of would be of scenarios, there possible in a range that, suggested modeling preliminary The reduce taken to were 2050 if steps by large jobs in the energy sector at 5,000 more around ambitiously, activities. More such of nature the labor-intensive to due largely emissions, energy markets renewable policies stimulating that suggests report ACF and the ACTU 500,000 new jobs for generating for the wider they strategy part of propose form could Australia. in the unemployment cause need not and jobs of industries the reconfiguration While - region The highly issues. adaptation and transition significant clearly are there aggregate, industry planning poses the energy particular for of generation challenges alized nature and newer jobs into effectively re-distributed or be can re-trained workers existing how on kinds the be dependent will largely to energymarket the labor changes The industries. this issue ETS leaves an on Reliance adopts. Australia that energy solutions alternate of - direct not market-determined, is energy supply of the pattern a regime such under open: of the part that how including uncertainty, lies considerable Therein government. ed by of the promotion set for has aside the government ETS that an from expected revenue equal when not are energy will energyrenewable actually outcomes be used. All alternate these jobs. of the location and new jobs generated of the number considering and the ACTU from this commitment of signs strong already are there noted, already As im- are (AMWU). There Union Workers Manufacturing the Australian like unions key which policies and experience about the wider international from draw to lessons portant because economy, a greener towards the transitions handling for best suited are strategies for Germany, with compared power, green of the uptake behind on relatively is Australia example. outcomes, achieving as the same not is policy possible developments on reports Producing been encour not has experience date to the Australian be that conceded must It course. of labor industryand interventionist systematic of the tradition had not has Australia aging. 3.4.2. The Challenge for Unions Unions 3.4.2. The for Challenge Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia Will sectors the where jobgrowth new more occurs than compensate for declines the in other countries that lack equivalent environmental economic policies. are to international they because under ETS the exposed competition from producers in portant regional to local economies. They are lobbyingvigorously concessionsfor special dustries are overwhelmingly concentrated innon-metropolitan areas whereare they im- to remainelectricity viable, are directly threatened by rising the cost of energy. in- These ly vulnerable. industries Other like aluminum refining,which have relied on low-priced supply chain. Workers employed mining and incoal generation electricity are particular power with high those and resources usage, and directly involved those energy inthe Industries most likely negatively to be affected by climate change mitigationpolicies are within broad this sector. there to is aneed develop adisaggregated analysis of prospects for different the industries vant issues and principles that (AMWU 2008). Building faced to on need be initiative, this Australian Manufacturing Workers Union has produced a significant report the on rele - One of sector economy the that is likely quite to be quickly affected is manufacturing. The strongly.most usingmodeled input-output influence analysis,which also industries will are impacted moderatewill rates the of change. Complex inter-industry of that links, sort the can be formsthe of that technology are and inindustry buying inthe used habits of consumers inindustries products whose expected become relativelybe cheaper. However, in inertia product after higher whose the be introduction prices will jobgrowth while of canan ETS, anticipate gains. Simply, one can anticipate that employment tend inindustries to will fall Australianthe economy is driven towards becoming more sustainable, others while can Onepolicies. can anticipate that some industries and occupations sufferjob will loss as There arethreatsboth and opportunitieslabor in market responses to climate change 3.4.3. Job L urgency. immediate economic crisis to for policies longer-term sustainability has gained particular necessity for alternative approaches. Indeed, importance the of for policies linking the coexistence of economic and environmental opens up crises possibility the both and the is widespread recognition that economic neoliberal has had adverse policy outcomes. The though. In current the conditions of sudden economic downturn as of 2008there October stances, inconjunction with influentialcan transform ideas, what possiblepolitically is institutional engagements that are redolent of Accord the 1980s.Material inthe circum- agenda either, since business organizations, government and unions trade the eschew all proach to managing transitions. A corporatist approach policy not on to does be the seem since its hands off market orientationthe is antithesis of a more democratic social ap- changes situation this fundamentally. Certainly, not proposed the will trick dothe ETS There reason is to no assumenecessary that currentthe on environmentalfocus concerns and its recommendations principal policy were not implemented. gued, that initiative support political lacked within ALP necessary government the the onpolicies more conventional socio-economic grounds. Although quite thoroughly ar about climate change put for of case the sort interventionist those development industry ple. Aproposal from labor the movement inAustralia ago two decades predating concern retraining that policies has existed inSweden and other Scandinavian nations, for exam- oss on theWay to Sustainable E 88 conomy? - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 89 the less ecologically sustainable sectors? Assessing the net effects is a complex process. The process. effectsis a complex the net Assessing sectors? ecologicallythe less sustainable even that found Conservation Foundation the Australian from commissioned modeling impact overall a negative have need to does not sustainability to transition a rapid quite the medium that suggested has modeling jobs. Other econometric of number the total on create would to Australia be energy in efficiency adopting measures of impact term net of nature otherwise would than be the case.labor-intensive The jobs nationwide more emphasize that projections in energy-efficiency aspect key of is a improvements making growth. employment net of the prospects Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 90 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia

- IA IA ON 91 ED L IN MAC TENTIA nvironment in Macedonia nvironment S PO OB Report was 32 out of 185 countries. In 2010, Macedonia was recognized as the recognized as was Macedonia 2010, In countries. 185 of Report out 32 was usiness E usiness During last five or six years Macedonia has made significant improvements in its business business its in improvements made significant has Macedonia years or six five During last Doing Bank Group in the 2010 World business” doing of in “ease rank Its environment. Business 4.1. B registration, business on a newlaw of a result As in the world. reformer” “top overall third in 2011 (even day one in 2006 to 48 days from cut was a company register the time to is less a company register to cost The in 2012). format electronic in and hours few to guillotine, a regulatory introducing been has by also reduced regulation Business €50. than J 4. GREEN 482 by-laws and which 64 laws of out by-laws, and 2,000 laws than which reviewed more amended. were - ac were that tax rates cutting significantly proposed 2006/07 the Ministry Finance In of taxrates personal income and Corporate the Parliament. and the Government by cepted Eu- in rates of lowest the one represent which ten of percent, rate been a flat to cut have These measures profits. reinvest to been introduced have exemptions Additional rope. - environ business the underwayimprove to efforts broader complement designed to are labor Macedonian ensuring including investment, to the impediments reduce and ment in Europe. competitive remains - re and hiring of the burden reduce additionally should tax reform payroll ambitious An to access and competitiveness wage made has the government Indeed, workers. taining foreign more attracting for campaign a globalmarketing of element a key the EU market - contribu social reduced has insurance the government this strategy, a part of As capital. in 27 percent in 2008 to income gross of 32.5 percent been from cut which have tions, by fiscal been while implications managing carried out have tax reforms Payroll 2010. a from moving and social bases for security, income the tax base, harmonizing expanding had pos- have reforms These calculating contributions. for basis wage a gross to wage net jumped has participation labor general. in Consequently, market on labor the effects itive 2004. since points percentage five by very In are tousually difficult courts and perform. market real estate of the reforms The of in the coverage resulted have cadastre in the estate real case, reforms the Macedonian the Also, registration. the period transaction shortened the territory for and of 99 percent doubled. transactions registered of the number and tripled nearly mortgages of number 30 per and day, in one registered are all transactions of the time being, 70 percent For to 90 days 60 the from improvement is dramatic This days. eight between and three cent judicial to been the made have improvements significant addition, in 2005. In required one including new and laws, organized is better system court The legal framework. and the en- strengthening cases the backlog and of reducing are procedure, administrative on the shorten helped has a new bankruptcy law Similarly, judgments. court of forcement years. two over just to years four around time from processing court average sector. to the transport made a particularhas commitment Government Macedonian The been rehabilitated have roads motorway 200 km of than more Over 15 years, the past Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia but inattendance also and participation. dents’ achievements. The improvement is mainly in planning and assessment processes, 2007, less than one of half school managers and teachers reported improvements instu- for first the all timefour-year in2008 general and vocationalschools. From 2004 to The State Matura examination,the national assessment of student achievement,given was was established, along with criteria for accreditation and monitoring of teacher training. out rates for to below school decreased two primary percent. Amarket for teacher training enrollment 2004and 2008,secondary Between increased from 85to 95percent, and drop- reforms. wide triggered Key challenges were directed toward strengthening enrollment. tion system. Poor performance of system this of beginning millennium inthe new the Since government 2006/2007,the attention has paid particular to improving educa the - ment system are helping to level playing the field for domesticall and foreign investors. have developed an e-procurement system as well. improvements These the to procure- pendent public procurement bureau of (PPB) Finance. under Ministry the Authorities law, and government the has established an independent appeals commission and inde- Consistent with EUrequirements, Parliament has approved public anew procurement increase stability in the of power the system. capital of Skopje. This work has led to asignificantreduction losses oftechnical and an stations throughout country, the including main the power transformation station for the work by completing power the transmission line to Greece, and restored 38transformer power transmissionelectric company) has capacity increased the of transmission the net - of railway operations. In addition, is sector more energy the efficient.(the MEPSO public reformed(MR) has been to improve financial the viability, productivity, and effectiveness railway law, for example, has helped strengthen entire the sector. Macedonian Railways and average the border and exit entry threefold. hastime decreased EU-compliant A new ble for operations energy that are of public interest and importance. of local and after previously provided opinionfrom Economy.of the Ministry They are responsi- gram for development energy of municipality. the occurs Thisthe upon Mayor’s proposal, The council the municipality of with law the on energy. lating issues certain regarding performance the of operations energy that are determined CommissionRegulatory The Energy of Macedonia executesthe affairs that refer to regu- implementing Energy the Agency policy energy was established. munications as well. In order to provide support from Government the for of purpose the of EnvironmentMinistry and Physical Planning of and Transport Ministry the and- Com sector.energy Parts of competences the related are to energy under competence the of the Within frameworks the of Government, the of Economy Ministry the is incharge of the try’s overall development. Among reforms, those fields the efficiencycrucialand are of energy the energy for coun- challenge of efficiently implementing serious reforms economic the in systems.social and TheRepublic of EU membershipMacedoniafull as a candidate withthe is faced country - Analysis of Strategies, theRelevant Documents, and L 4.2. Institutional and L egal Frameworkegal , such of as Council the City the of Skopje, adopts apro- 92 aws Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - Ministry of of Ministry 93 their capacities. Numerous duties of the of duties Numerous their capacities. gy sector, it is necessary is it enhance to gy sector, local the of units the and Agency Energy Commission, Regulatory Sector, Economy-Energy this legal framework. from derived are self-government implications huge has develops Macedonia in energythe which direction The in sector For standards. living for and protection environmental for growth, economic national for for account food, respectively, energy and bills monthly in Macedonia, households many longer no can in Macedonia Municipalities budget. thefamily of proportion thehighest they also have Now their local covered. costs having the ministry on lean for departments in Industries energy their usage. own managing of responsibility expensive the new and - Eu in industries comparable many than unit energy perproduct more spend Macedonia in exportmarkets. the disadvantage they face a competitive Therefore, rope. technologypromotion. for room leaves which optimal, not are technologies existing The - is encourag to be hightechnologies have necessary the not fact do The technologies that - opportu numerous are there that out point decisions policies and economic Former ing. the for available are that technologies verified adopting through improvement for nities the wide application important, more is What insulation. and controls as timebeing, such newverya in jobs period and short new businesses of create can these technologies of manner. economical in an time and will it energy become and commercial for reserves resources limited of has Macedonia energy practices efficiency can However, energy imports. on dependent more and more - invest the need for reserves postpone and domestic increase this dependence, moderate investments than cheaper are newin energythese Eachoutcomes infrastructure. of ments infrastructure. the existing expand reserves to increase to and arejobless facewho Macedonians many that circumstances difficult under economic Even Traditionally, value. financial and economic be can of energy saving income, no with and energy of effi- application withthe wide together activities in energy efficiency, business and intensity force high with labor characterized are in the sectors, key technologies cient extent, large to a energy ignored where efficiency is currently countries new jobs. In create priority lower are a new Energy jobs. efficiencytrends create to higher is potential there families, and individuals low-income to and unemployed chronically thoseto who are forms necessary is cases it provide such to In investments. of especially a matter if they are at justified economically their energy is of usage social of because the improvement aid level. national Energy an establishing example (for laws current amending or new legislation Creating frame- existing legal the implementing than difficult more much can be Fund) Efficiency new jobs in a period creating or resources and budget the government Allocating work. Therefore, difficult. quite facedrestrictions fiscalcan be is with when the government energy efficiency enables that a new framework of the creation to be given should priority basis. a commercial on improvements on En- Agreement The on Energy Charter, Agreement the ratified signed and Macedonia and Changes on Climate Convention Framework Nations United The ergy Community, Protocol. Kyoto The legislation its adjusts Macedonia Energy Community, on theAgreement to According ener on communautaire) (acquis Union the European of the actual with legal regulation energyoil and efficiency energy, of sources renewable competition, and environment gy, For the purpose of efficient implementation of the latest legal framework of the ener ofthe legallatest framework ofthe implementation the purpose efficient of For Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia financial support are providedfrom: Governmentthe could establish mechanisms for financial support. meansThe the for Forthe ofobjectives defined the fulfilling with Strategy purpose Efficiency the on Energy implementing efficiency. energy term objectives that are measures, met to with those be as well as incentive measures for of efficiency, energy measures for improving and promoting efficiency and energy long- tential regarding combined the production of highly-efficient combinedplants, indicators on conditions the regarding gross the consumption final of energy, assessment po- the on Development. The Efficiency Strategy should on Energy give andassessment an overview of ten years,to period the something that is incompliance with Strategy the on Energy on Efficiency, Energy egy which ought beadopted to the by government, which and refers In its on law 130,the Article efficient determines policy the usage thewith Strat of energy - achieved: With there for efficiency is policy the energy provided that the following be goals could public direction inthe sector of efficiency and saving. energy energy for efficiency and controls,energy energy as aswell meeting bythe requirements the of improving and promoting their efficiency and energy implementation, services by giving sures and for activities efficientusage of energy, by adoption of programs andplans for Thelaw stipulates on energy berealized through mea- policy should that efficiency energy continued implemented. to be ment program, subventions vulnerable of bills of households electricity the socially the followed. Pursuant recommendations the 2011ECProgress inthe govern the Report, - foractivities preparation of by-laws the for implementation full the necessary of law the as strengthening role the of regulatory the commission. In following the mid-termperiod change of energy.Law liberalization The enabled new further markets,of energy as well from Agreement the for establishment community of energy the that refer to ex- the of internal the market of energy, efficiency, energy as liabilities as the well with arising was adopted. With that adoption came harmonization with EUlegislation the part inthe Pursuant to Accession the Partnership priorities, Law Energy in February new 2011 the pletion of law the regulation its and sector on cases improvement. incertain energy the fieldin the of environment protection and other relevant fields. What follows the is com- some were sub-legal acts adopted. there Also were adopted many laws and sub-legal acts on energy. For of makingprovisions the purpose the from law the on operative energy determination on complying with acquis communautaire are implemented within law the Strategicreserves. determinations of Macedonia sector, energy inthe among is which the • • • • • • The self-governmentbudgets the local of units The budget theRepublic of of Macedonia reduction of greenhouse gas emission. Fulfillingthe international obligations theRepublic of of Macedonia regardingthe Improvement of safety the during supply, energy the and erations as well as reduction of consumption, energy Reduction of negative the influence on environmentperforming while op- energy Sustainable development, energy 94 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - - 95 for renewable sources of energy action in 2012. The of sources renewable for Grants, donations and sponsorships and donations Grants, Credits Aid State on the Law with in accordance aid State • • • For the purpose of efficient implementation of measures and achievement of the indic- ofthe achievement and of measures implementation the purpose efficient of For law a is possibility a there on energy efficiency, plans action defined goals the with ative support to shallgiven be law, this Through energy efficiency. a fund for establish could the obligations of the purpose implementation of sector for the private and boththe public energyimprovement. efficiencyfor energy ser provides that energy ESCO defines as a legal on entity the law Interestingly, energy its efficiencywith - beneficia the purpose improving of for measures other vices or performance, operations’ during the risk financial a certain of degree accepts it ries and partially theor services based the im- achieved on for entirely is the payment whereas criteria. arranged other on energythe of or efficiency of fulfilling provement The started. got energy development for the strategy realize to During 2011, preparations the of realization of dynamics and manner conditions, determined the measures, program - local of self-gov the institutions institutions, the state of the liabilities as well as strategy, secure to liability energy of activities who have the executors of and (LGUs) units ernment to fulfill government Macedonian of the service. the efforts with line public In adequate an energy efficiencywas adopted for the plan action strategy, 2020” in the “Europe the targets nine percent obtaining for activities and measures various envisages plan in 2011. The inthe period energyconsumption average tothe compared energy by 2018, efficiency energy which regulate prepared were bylaws then, various 2006. Since between 2002 and capac - ofthe and strengthening energycontrols of implementation efficiency buildings, in energy efficiency. the policies for of in the implementation institutions the involved of ities strategy 2020” for pro the “Europe of the recommendations consideration into Taking the market, the energy internal on of sources renewable from generated electricity moting action an adopted plan government percent 20 having goal of the strategic reaching activities for and measures envisages plan goal, this with line In by 2020. sources renewable from come final energyof consumption thermal solar collec- of installation the expenses part for of of subvention for the program well. as continues tors - continu was (HPPs) plants power small hydro for During period, the past the program 47 of total for concession for 47 agreements for which enabled being implemented ously that, to regards be 35 MW to With signed. about of installed with capacity small (HPPs) the ac- thus the country, around small HPPs more of construction for possibility is there term medium the next during continue should water for concession granting for tivities period. mar the labor to related changes been several legislative have there years, few During last - Man for the Law and insurance unemployment and employment on in the law mainly ket, market. policy labor and the employment to Socialdatory related Security Contributions in the laws, changes the proposed with that apparent is perspective, it a general From reduce to legislation, labor national the streamline to effort an making is thegovernment are measures Such incentives. wrong correct to as well as the system, from the leakages - a na establish to a law adopting by protection worker increase to a measure with coupled shared for the EC recommendations with in line policies are Such wage. minimum tional Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia plier is not obliged to have any licenseor authorization. operations should registered be Register Central and inthe according to law this sup the - plumbing, terrain arrangement and other craftsmanship operations,the supplier these of buildingthe such as light installation, painting,tiling, door flooring, andwindow setting, is of importance high to note that inorder to perform operations for interior setting of level,a defined thatand they shouldthe meet requirements for efficiency. energy Also, it location.the They shall providethat consumptionthe energy equal be orlower shall than and ventilation appliances up should set inaccordance be with climate the conditions of is analyzed.ciency Namely, according to law, this building the and its heating, cooling Finally, law the on building has some important issue the articleswhen on effi- energy individual interest is entitled to paid absence from work for of exams. taking purpose the Тhe employee educates who himself, has career upgrade or is subject to training upon separate contract or with collective agreement. afterthe completion education,of career upgrade trainingand shouldbe regulatedwith a upgrade and training as well as rights the and duties of contracting the before parties and right to apply for benefits these on individualbasis. The duration the of education, career his or her education, upgrade his or her career or to train, whereas employee the has the career upgrade and training, employer the has right the to employee the send to further cancelled due to or personal business reasons. In compliance for with needs the education, if education, career upgrade and training could prevent that employment the contract is and training to employees if required by working the process. The employer also obliged is In Macedonia, employer the is obliged to provide continuous education, career upgrade promote at job skills the position, the as well as to job post. the preserve training in accordance of with needs the working the process.this is all to Theof purpose cording to law, the employee the is entitled to continuous education, career upgrade and Thelaw on employment important is very with to developingrespect greenjobs. new Ac- responsibility unemployed the between and authorities. the to aconflictwithinthe state. above. The exceptioneconomicthewhen this wasto 2001 growth ratepercent was 4.5 due EU accession or of that those EU member became countries mentioned during period the rate than was economic the smaller growth rates of countries the that were candidates for reached highest the level of 37.3percent last the ten in2005.Over years, GDP the growth This rate of unemployment continuously transition increased of period the during and Namely, Macedonia had arate of unemployment of 22.6percent at end the of 1980s. the rateThe high of unemployment from was inherited priorperiod transition. thethe to of time. than labor demand. This imbalance resulted rates high of unemployment for alongperiod prettyto be labor imbalanced. supply whole the period, During was significantly higher Thelabor markettheRepublic in of transition,Macedonia, of period theduring appeared 4.3.1. Unemployment inMacedonia 4.3. L abor Market -Trends inMacedonia and Structure 96 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 97 abor Force Force abor abor Market Market abor abor Market and L and Market abor Macedonia is still going through transition process. There is a high degree of government government of is a high degree There process. transition through still is going Macedonia syndical organization. of tradition a long is there and society, of in all spheres involvement some- is market of the labor final onthe performance ofinstitutions these influence The be neglected. cannot that thing un- only cover not Macedonia does in market labor onthe institutions of influence The deter process, the job-hunting of activity, rate the also influence Institutions employment. income and protection employment labor, of in the quality salaries, changes of mination taxation. Govern- market: of the labor final the influence performance institutions of typesThree Labor of in the Association unions labor the branch institutions; government and ment these All of their own. of associations through the employers and Macedonia; of Unions and market of labor the segments different to special refer policies that create institutions more market make the labor institutions These ways. in different its performance influence and of activities their Some in environment. the happen that changes to the flexible less or opposite. do others the whereas flexibility, market labor increase to intended policies are four Macedonia of in caseand the states, member EU for typical are These institutions be can analyzed: institutions types of 4.3.3. Institutions and L and 4.3.3. Institutions Labor market flexibility and labor force structure are both significant dimensions ofthe dimensions significant both are structure force labor and flexibility Labor market especiallystructure, force labor unsuitable and market The rigid labor climate. investment time, waiting the employment and age attainment, educational the perspective of from For environment. investment of a convenient on creation the influences negative have secondary of years four had in 2008 in Macedonia the unemployed of 90 percent instance, individuals is the with 50 percent, above unemployment, of rate highest The education. secondary of - educa years four with the individuals with whereas education, no whohave higher with education Individuals 35 percent. around is unemployment of the rate tion, in the country. the lowest rate, unemployment face a 20 percent the un- of 2008, 65 percent In in Macedonia. also is problematic unemployment Chronic of unemployment structure The years. four least at for work beenhad without employed face under 24 and aged Individuals perspective also is the age unfavorable. viewed from - Unem cohorts. all age for rate the which highest is 60 percent, of rate unemployment an increase. cohorts age decrease as to tend rates ployment cli- investment the influences negatively structure unemployment unfavorable an Such be in the should be the government to undertaken by are that measures Further mate. the especially aspect educational structure, of from force the labor improving of direction purpose, be the put focus should that For education. non-formal including attainment, focus their countries EU member policies, where activity which is market the labor on these to poli- GDP its of percent three devoted Germany in 2006 example, For attention. for cost the total part of the largest comprise expenditures training 41.1 percent, cies. At private promoting for percent 24.2 by followed countries, policies in EU member active initiatives. employment 4.3.2. L Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia on Employment, 203,p. Article 78) at national level, for Special each branch of activity, and Separate for each employer (Law Macedonia, there are of three types collectiveagreements: General Collective Agreement of collective contraction. In law the on employment that regulates operation syndical in Thelabor union (through its branchlabor unions) activelyparticipated the in process nization of employees inlabor unions decreased. lost jobs,many their stagnated activities development, intheir and consequently orga the - with privatization the and restructuring the of Macedonian economy, many employees ization rates of more than 90percent. However, of transition, period inthe inparallel prior totense period independence. inthe that During time, some had activities union- Syndical organization 32 this does not implementation does actual this the because function solutions of legal these is lack- provide greater flexibility in working hours thelaborand in market. In reality, however, cording to law the on employment. In Macedonia, solutions the covered with law this marketLabor flexibilitywiththe determined flexibility also is the of working hours ac- andmale female participation labor inthe force. donia shows that increase the minimum in the wage gap the decreases rate the between of participation inMacedonia is 45percent. However, some labor market research inMace- labor force not shall under 60percent be (for EUmember countries). The rate of female LisbonAgenda.the One of criteria the states that rate the of female participation inthe As an EUmembership candidate, Republic the of Macedonia has to criteria the meet from could not contradict law the on employment or collective agreements. gave an opportunity for minimum the wage with determined some to be other law that with determined law the cannot or below with acollectiveagreement. be salary the This not as determined aconcrete amount, but there was aprovision stating that amount this were effective provisionsfrom thelaw on employment. thislaw, In the minimum wage was percent of average the country. inthe net salary Up until adoption the of law, this there cording to minimum determined the which wage amounts to €132(8,100MKD),or 39 in its implementation. At end the of adopted country 2011the aminimum wage law ac- in complianceof has been salaries with international practice, but there a delay has been The regulationtheRepublic in of thatMacedonia refers the determinationto paymentand segmentin this labor the market is flexible. due to pressure the of employers the associations, their via one then could conclude that privatein the where sector collective agreements are more difficult to conclude,primarily collective agreements is not that large two-thirds because of employees the are employed ing labor adecreased market flexibility. But if takenit intois accountthat scope the the of of to employees salaries freezing the leads the both following inthe two years and to hav- agreements have an overall validity of two years, with apossibility to prolong which them, there for are organization rules syndical strict and that it is that determined collective the • • • • time, inMacedonia there have concluded been around agreements 30sectoral and agreements at enterprise level. tive agreement on economy agreement andcollective General on public the sector. two, these Besides up to present Up to year 2010there were concluded of two types general agreements collective at national- collec level: General Legislation referring to employment protection Passive on polices labor the market Active on policies labor the market unionsLabor and collective agreements

has along tradition inMacedonia, although it was much more in- 32 . Thelaw on employment showsthat in Macedonia 98 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - . 99 lso have significant influence on the performance of the labor market market labor ofthe onthe performance influence significant lso have a have a big influence on the labor market in Macedonia. The activist ap- The activist Macedonia. in market on labor the influence a big have Active policies Active policies Passive others. among shuttering-worker, and installer water-proofing installer, mal insulation will leave workers a certain of portion that presumed is it 2020 the year Approaching will it be necessary additional an train to eventuality, that for prepare To force. the labor of socially strata from people vulnerable young preferably new workers, of 20 percent the in solutions low-energy of penetration the stable to due However, the population. be engaged would all workers nearly that supposed is it practice, construction mainstream main to activities dedicated training vocational in continuing levels) different at (although programs. specialized or through training on-site either energy efficiency principles, - re main of maintenance and installation specialists for of the supply side, On the other are workforce of the qualification of the level and buildings in energy systems newable (small systems studied of the in of installers each shortage clear is a There limited. quite and geothermal systems thermaland systems, solar photovoltaic boilers, biomass-fired be- devel specialized should schemes New training turbines). wind mini and pumps heat even exceeding or similar rates growth with system, in the training introduced oped and the specified of systems. introduction of the expected rate ing. Most private sector employers do not keep records of overtime work, and they also and work, overtime of records keep not do sector employers private Most ing. with engagement part-time work additional an have to ability a full-time limit employee’s flexible less market practices Thesemake labor the employer. another the very- the tran at beginning of accentuated was government the Macedonian of proach technicalassistance, and on social reforms project of the period.realization The sition - Recon Bank for the European and Government the Macedonian behalf of on organized 1994. the beginning of 1993 and of the end started at (EBRD), Development struction and in Macedonia. The greatest range of these policies negatively correlates with the rate of rate with the correlates of thesenegatively policies range The greatest in Macedonia. well as of unemployment in case useto health insurance opportunity The unemployment. persons unemployed of the motivation lowers grounds various on allowance getting as the of the range and the health insurance Decreasing employ. formal of in their pursuit unemployment of shall decrease the rate unemployment the in case of program allowance in Macedonia. - concern legal protections unemployment, of a high is rate there although Paradoxically, fact with the that complicated more becomes situation The strong. are employment ing who of become persons number in the an increase is there of unemployment in the field - pro on employment of legislation the themthe flexibility for and part-time employees, small. is tection con- In institutions fact, these market. labor non-flexible of a image an offer These details cal - some to According economy. in the informal participation of the high to rate tribute the of third one almost Labor, of Bureau the International behalf of on made culations part-time seasonal work, including economy, the in informal exclusively works force labor in economy the informal that show Calculations work. the overtime and employment from that maintain researchers Some the GDP. of 40 percent 25 to comprises Macedonia lower whichis percent, 36 around was Macedonia in economy the2005, informal to 2000 economies. transitioning other of average the 40 percent than of shortage clear no is there dynamics, theworkforce on theexpectations Concerning reinforcement worker, concrete as activitiessuch professional thein traditional workers ther frames, window installer of electrician, roofer, plumber, carpenter, mason, worker, Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia influence of productivity. of technologies new the as aresult of pressure the put on enterprises, the with positive coststhe for compliance and business the society the between sector, greater acceptance legislation on employment protection to leads having greater stability, social division of ing agreater gap insiders the between and outsiders. the other Onthe hand, stricter the legislation on employment protection increases labor the market segmentation by creat- do not operate successfully, unemployment isand higher more persistent. The stricter and labor productivity. In places where labor the market is less flexible and institutions volved employers the both and employees, the influences this labor the costs, employment severance pay. that Considering fact the legislation on employment protection directly in- employment, at same the giving time some them to time find anotherjob givingor them reasons. It intended was also to protect employees against unjustified termination their of give an opportunity to enterprises the to cancel employment the contract out of economic to reality depict new the ofpected labor the market. these Theof reforms purpose was to in favor of transition the to amarket system was promotion the of legislation that was ex- es of labor the market in Macedonia. One significant economicof aspect reformsocial and The legislation on employment protection has significant influenceperformanc the on final - construction sites training inthe programs. andterials technologies and through inclusion of intensive training practical on actual of education, through both enhanced cooperation with producers and suppliers of ma- One of key recommendations the should to foster be trainings practical during stage this differentvery comparedtraditions the to and in most practices EU other member states. It worth noticing is also that system the vocational of secondary training and education is more done can be to build on recent improvements. Areas efforts wherecan pay further Since 1991 Macedonia has made remarkable results inimproving its business climate but needed. formed and institutional strengthening is ongoing –however, considerable efforts are still of mismatch.cases skills and legal Onthe institutional re side, has labor the - been code and quality the of employment outcomes, but might help also reduce unemployment in ing tolabor poor market outcomes. Enhancing would skills not only increase productivity or public high wages, sector and discouragement are among important factors contribut- that “soft lack of (especially skills skills”), wages high reservation due to remittances and/ factors can help to create more and better labor jobs.Onthe supply side, analysis shows Economic growth an is certainly important prerequisite for jobcreation, further but other omy and contribute to better and more jobs. secure Finally, business environment reforms support growth but help also “formalize” econ the - it requires upgrading and skills enhancing productivity employment to boost outcomes. sustaining employment growth, including low-wage inthe sector. medium the Over term, growth rates translate also into employment generation. In short the requires term,this lems of Macedonian the labor market addressed to to need be ensure that economic high and manage risks of the shocks new and At crises. prob same the time, structural the - row and imbalances fiscal external the overthe medium term to ensure debt sustainability tained macroeconomic stability. Consequently, aprudent framework policy would nar statesEconomic theory that continued growth and employment creation on depend sus - 4.4. Potentials for Improvement of theB 100 usiness E nvironment - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - ew 101 Further improvement of business climate and competitiveness and increased level level increased and competitiveness and climate business of improvement Further investments; of im- as well as contributions, socialand costs insurance operating of Reduction salaries, determining social as such insur mechanisms, market labor of provement ance, social protection system, etc.; etc.; system, socialance, protection the needs with in line resources human and system educational of Improvement market; the labor on both of improvement servicesmarket and bylabor further modernization Efficient services; of quality and quantity policies; market labor active of Implementation and functional socialetc. dialogue, efficient of Development • • • • • • To the end of creating a coherent strategic framework for unemployment reduction, in reduction, unemployment for framework strategic a coherent creating of the end To ad- (2011-2015) was Strategy Employment the social with cooperation partners, National to increased to contribute and goalspolicies priorities, key the in 2011, defining opted by: term the medium jobs on of opening and participation 4.5. Potentials and Prerequisites for Creating N Creating for Prerequisites and 4.5. Potentials and “Green Jobs” Jobs” “Green and off include administrative procedures, improving contract enforcement, and facilitating facilitating and enforcement, contract improving procedures, administrative include off the rule law, and of rights property needed in safeguarding are Advances trade. foreign access improving and entry exit, and market improved through competition facilitating to couldaddressed be framework financial ingaps the sector remaining The financing. to reforms of Continuation growth. in supporting role its enhance and stability its safeguard further reductions but competitiveness, wage help could socialof security contributions the Though finances. public of the sustainability endanger not should taxation in labor in activity still economic impedes it been has reduced regulations excessive of burden for venue a provide can Function Aftercare Investor an of establishment The certain areas. Licensing regulation. of excessive identification and dialogue businesses with institutional - fre voiced critical concerns permits, remain construction including permit issuance, and representatives. business by quently on attention more put should Macedonia competitiveness, the its rise of ensure to order In - knowl of a “country becoming goal of the national achieving and population its educating of nine-year introduction the containing education for strategy government’s The edge.” revised curriculums and which secondary compulsory education, primary education, English of learning early learning, and teaching interactive and oriented outcome promote forward. step a positive as technology skills, be can evaluated information and language Eco- for the Organization reach to sought are education for increases budget addition, In GDP. of percent five of target expenditure (OECD) Development and Co-operation nomic applicable skills foster to institutions of domestic capacity the strengthen help should This force. the labor of the competitiveness increase and the EU market to According to the National Employment Strategy, national goal as regards employment employment regards goal as national Strategy, Employment theNational to According in realizing forward a step which is 55 percent, set 2015 is at for age) of (20-64 years rate Specific 2020” Strategy. the “Europe with being in line priorities, the determined strategic and Plan Action Employment set thein National are priorities realise strategic activitiesto Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia the EUstandards:the arewhich to contribute expected to harmonization the of EARMwith the of services the tional capacities. In to coming need implement the EARMfacesthe period, activities, the andpolicies, continuously toactivities strengthen undertakes administrative and institu- implements and monitors employment and policies success the assesses of labor market The Employment Agency theRepublic of of Macedonia (EARM), as a public institution, can be identified:can be savingsessing energy the potential of an average participant, four major priority sectors businesses in regardsactivities to in conducting efficiency Macedonia. energy When as- Analyses of supply the sideshould circumstances the identify framework inthe of the unemployment, following measures as most the important: seen could be employment, i.e. increasing participation the labor inthe market and reducing structural institutional capacities, as well as possibilities for public financing, aimed at reducing un- Taking into account needs and specific conditions the thelabor on market in Macedonia, employment of policies EUMember the States. arethey inline with “Europe the 2020”integrated guidelines for economic and policies the residentialthe sector. Namely, we should analyze sidesof both market: the onenia, should evaluate possible the market for improvement the in ofefficiency energy In order to analyze opportunities the and potential for establishing green jobsinMacedo- 4.6. Market for Green Jobs or Supply and Demand for Green Jobs • • • • • • • • • • Frequent analysis of for needs the on skills labor the market inMacedonia. persons with lowerparticular possibilities on labor the market; to strengthen individual access as regards with activities unemployed persons, in ment of employment inorder to extend of scope services the beneficiaries and Implementation of active employment programs and measures and develop- Training as support for first employment for youngpersons up the to age of 27. Formalizing informal businesses as to so reduce gray economy; ofneeds labor the market indicated previous inthe year; Training professions incertain deficient being thelabor on market according the to possibilitythe for employment; their ification of unemployedpersons so as to acquireknowledge andto increase skills Preparation for employment through training, re-qualification or additional - qual registered under self-employment the measures; Additional employment with grants for employed each newly person in companies Support to self-employment for starting own businesses; dential sector. The demand side, such as households theand in needs for efficiency resi- energy The supply side, suchpotential as for thatbusinesses services offer these need or 102 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 103 Residential sector Residential service and Commercial sector sector Industrial sector Transportation • • • • - Tradi energy the total Macedonia. in of 96.5 percent spent sectors 2006, these four In new reserves focused creating in the energy on sector are speaking,tionally professionals and new refineries energy, of transportation and production of new systems energy, of This priority. lower usually a is Energyconsumption efficiency withend the pipelines. the decreasing for opportunities many are there especially where the case is in Macedonia studies no are there However, tasks. the same energy performing needed of for amount tothe economy. energycontributes efficiency how monitor that of the distribution on or breakthrough surveys no the market on are there Macedonia, In of the potential estimating for a necessary which is point starting use energy, that products Besidesenergy the extensive the the experience savings. country these and of restrictions, - energy for sav the potential that show clearly countries neighboring of in this field work Statute The energy in energythe to efficiencypriority that has be a sector. and huge is ings step the in significant first made the in 2008, Energy adopted Buildings, of on Efficiency values the maximum determining by buildings of marking and energy control of direction that be mentioned should it these objects. However, of heat-penetration the insulation’s of compulsory. not these voluntary, rules are of commercial the terms the financing, commercial in cases when banks provide Even for measures of realization for funds borrowing to enable unacceptable often are loans longer the a for period have energy for projects efficiency could The energy efficiency. might These them. loans for be can offered guarantee no sometimes funds, of repayment appropriate experienced not in preparing are that entities physical be legal and needed by application. and technical project is necessary it it to seems energyreaching efficiency, for the efforts support to order In projects to the finance pertaining Thisshall fund Energy Fund. an Efficiency establish projects, of preparation study, market conveying for grants including energy efficiency, if the projects only be provided should Funding awareness. public raising energy controls, - proj energy of efficiency features economic and the technological to suitable found are of co-financing for or loans direct to for used be ects. either available shall The fund be commercial that loans for guarantees provide could it banks,or commercial through loans capital. their own through banks give the for be a high should priority it and goal, the a constant fund is Collecting for means EU, bythe offered options other and own funds its use can government The government. - Recon European like agencies other and IMF like the institutions financial international USAID, Commission, Bank, the European Bank, the World Development struction and GTZ. The and Cooperation Development Agency/Austrian Development the Austrian energy for initiatives support to funding of purpose sources identify possible to is ultimate from the benefits promote could government the In addition, efficiencycountry. inthe to allevi- community financial entire ofthe in energy efficiencyfront in these investments sector. the in private the investments ate benefits economic it energy andabout efficiency about also awareness public of level The be ex- should This group in the country. professionals of a small to number limited are Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia the lossthe accounted 19percent. large consumers accounted for 26percent, accounted industry small for 9percent, and households. In 2007households accounted for 36percent consumption, electricity the ence of gas despite consumption. electricity high thecase in of true This is especially In comparison with developed European the countries, Macedonia low has pres avery - and commercial and service sector: and sector: commercial and service The consumption is concentratedof energy in sectors:five industry, households, traffic ing recently, with to respect electricity. especially in addition to oil the and gas it was already importing. imports Energy have increas been - dependenthighly onimport. energy Since 2000,Macedonia importing started electricity capitaper and consumption high it has very GDP per unit sectors. Regardless, inall it is on households. In general, Republic the of Macedonia low consumption has energy very Concerning demandanalyses the should sidefor concentrate kinds of these services, efficiency beappears to relatively simple economical. and forbecoming staff the capable of implementing methodologies and for practices energy industrial and commercial business The activities. provision of additionaltraining skills established and donot require bigger skills that than those are usually available inthe development of technologies, new technologies the have already proven been and well ness activity and number inthe of jobsat levels of all economy. mented fast and inavery economic manner. There is a proportional increasethe in busi- Countries that adopted as generaldiscovered efficiency goal energy that be it could imple- area. providealso an opportunity for professional upgrade and development of business inthis able development the of and skills knowledge within business the community and shall To that end, government the has toof use make transfer the good channels that en- shall economic efficiency, this but group beexpandedshould in become ordercritical to mass. a Macedonia is lucky to have group asmall of professionals are who active field inthe of actors sector. energy inthe become efficiencypractices implemented energy the the mind in who those of thekey are panded through programs for impact range local inorder to make and methodologies the 34 33 people, qualified or not-qualified). open couldof efficiency ten thirty to workplaces energy (opportunities for local engaging by World the and Bank its inMacedonia, experiences investments of €1million field inthe • • • • • • tion at Conference “Improvement the Republic in efficiency of energy of Macedonia”, September 2012, Skopje. Sekerinska Liljana, Activities field efficiency in the supportedof energy the by Bank, World power point presenta- could include differentpositions. widely from projectvary to project. on Depending project, the areas specific the of workthis in stagejoband types mainly construction inthe phase. The duration, job types, and job specific numbersthe in construction phase ipalities, estimated invested $1million that every inbuilding retrofits createsperson-years 20 of employment, An extensive study of municipal building retrofitsCanada, conducted in the by Federation Canadianof Munic- Non-energy Needs 1.7% 13.1% Sector Commercial and Service Households 29.2% Agriculture and Forestry 1.8% Traffic 20.5% Industry 33.8% 34 Although for activities the efficiency imply energy 104 33 According to estimates Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 2 3.6 1.11% 3.95% 30.12% 47.80% 17.02% 70.6 m 564,296 697,529 3 rooms 3 rooms household 0.96 toe/per year year 0.96 toe/per 105

Before 1919 Before 1919-1945 1946-1870 1971-1989 1991 After • • • • •

Average household area area household Average habitats of Number members family of number Average Number of households households of Number Average number of rooms in urban settlements settlements in urban rooms of number Average Age of the apartment fund the apartment of Age 4. 2. 3. 1. 5. 6. in the Republic of Macedonia up to year 2020, Skopje, p. 93. p. 2020, Skopje, year to up Macedonia of Republic the in - ap household for 22 percent heating, energyfor of 57 percent spends family average An ventilators, air-conditioning, machines, washing cleaner, fridge, vacuum (oven, pliances preparing for 12.7 percent light, the street part as for well as computers), and televisions, proportion the greatest for accounts heating Energy light. for for 8 percent and water hot consumption. of fewnet salary the fact last the the over that consideration into take should analysis The 3.41 by increase while costs the living a year, 4.95 percent by increases average on years - it cov after family, average one years, the last for data the statistical to According percent. the of 25 percent 15 to disposal its only at has consumer, the average the expensesers for the expenses. of salary the rest cover to average be expected the en- cannot that it poverty, of the high rate Macedonia’s in mind Keeping qualifying low-income cover allthe shall year one for a period of ergyprogram efficiency be should priority social in existing the structure, work to order in Therefore, households. energy part of a greater shall receive families Such families. vulnerable the most to given put could government the alternative, an As a certain during year. efficiencyassistance Source: Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Macedonia (2011): Strategy for Improvement of Energy Efficiency Efficiency Energy of Improvement for Strategy (2011): Macedonia of Republic the of Economy of Ministry Source: Analysis of households’ energy consumption for different purposesas- the made is from different for energy consumption households’ of Analysis real get to order In the period follows. for that demand the pectfuture determining of done is This family. conventional one is analysis of the unit energy consumption, on data in mind having representative, less is per capita because in this sector energy consumption appliances, light, (heating, the apartment depends on mainly consumption thefact that important. that not is family in one persons of the number where water), the hot excepting energy. consume that of units number as taken not is apartments/houses of number The cover does not this number and in the country, families of the number only is it Rather, - energycon continuous have do not that cottages weekend as such apartments empty families. than apartments more are in country the there that means This sumption. Monitored unit

household per energy consumption Average Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia be immediatelybe implemented residence inthe homes cover: measures donot require large investments but give direct results. measures Basic that can adopt low-cost measures that can voluntarily by used range awide be of consumers. These In order to to start efficiently implement measures, efficiency to energy necessary it is of consumptionciency energy for heating buildings. from and neighborPractices the countries surveys show that there is acomparable ineffi- tors: tors: point out potential demand for green jobs.It into takes consideration following the fac- The analysis the of measures for reducing consumption energy with households should forshould designed be low-income households. children. In coordination care authorities, with social the a program for efficiency energy its on focus most the vulnerable groups insociety, such as elderly the and families with • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Buying efficient energy appliances. efficiency Energy appliances; Automation of sub-stations the and counters the for heating the installation; Installation ofpanels reflecting behindthe radiators; Insulation of hot-water the pipes; System balancing; Installation of thermostatic valves on radiators; the Insulation of basement’s the ceiling; Additional insulation of attic; the insulationThermal the insideof coverboard; insulationThermal of outside (façade);11 walls cant due to bigger the infiltration fromof air the outside; Upgrading windows the near stairs. the The loss jointthe on stairs- canbe signifi ering quality the of air inhomes; crease air inthe infiltration could result insignificant saving, energy without low- ments often overcomesthe norms for ventilation in west countries, theand de- Improvement of passive the ventilation systems. Infiltration of the air in - apart Proper closing of entrance doors with tape for closing; er window setting, filing andsealing; vacuum For windows, to have it is necessary advanced low-energy techniques for multi-lay - Automatic control of consumption. energy efficiency,energy the one especially of household appliances theand homes; Measures and (legal training, sub-legal acts, promotion materials) for improving Population and number the of families; Number of built homes; Living standards; 106 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia

35 enhanced activity with respect to energy to respect with activity enhanced 107 Actually, in 2006 Macedonia’s GDP fell to the level of 1990 and and 1990 of the level to fell GDP Macedonia’s 2006 in Actually, 36 fficiency and Creating Green Jobs in Macedonia:Jobs in Green fficiency Creating and nergy E significantly lagged behind both the developed European countries and the less less and the countries European lagged developed behind both the significantly in the period per year 3.5 percent from of growth average an With ones. developed growth economic the lowest with the countries among is 2006, Macedonia 2003 to USD) (in per capita $3,460 GDP With Central Asia. and Europe of in the region a rate reached 2007 growth In in the world. 111st ranked was in 2007, Macedonia had 2008, of the end at appeared that crisis the global economic but percent, 5 of on the and growth on the economic both influence still a highly negative has and in energy on as well sector as investments regarding the state of power economic the in energy efficiency in investments for the households of power the economic sector. the residential Introduction of privileged tariffs for using RES and in the adoption appropriate appropriate in adoption and the RES using for tariffs privileged of Introduction their implementation; for guidelines appropriate Energy and for Efficiency Plan Action National the first of Preparation this field; for guidelines heating; energyfor of solar usage for support financial and relieves Financial power wind building for measurements) and activities(analyses Preparation plants; the waste of energy, geothermal of usage greater underway for are that Activities biogas; and biomass bio-fuels; of defined participation clearly and greater for Activities lines. credit and donors of interest Increased Weak economic power of the population regarding investments in energy. efficiency in investments regarding population the of power economic Weak exchange current of €3,645 (at per a GDP capita with Macedonia, of Republic The power economic low with and GDP low with the countries among itself lists rate) investments. for Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Macedonia (2011): First Action Plan for Energy Efficiency for inthe Republic Plan Action (2011): First Macedonia of the Republic of Ministry Economy of 43. p. (in Macedonian), 2018, Skopje ‘till Macedonia of was for 2009 Macedonia of inthe Republic capita GDP per Office, Statistical State from the data to According €3,434 in 2010. €3,269, and • • • • • • • 1. 36 35 It is clear that for the last few years there has been has there years few the last for that clear is It 4.7. E in Macedonia. Activities for accelerated accelerated for Activities in Macedonia. (RES) energysources renewable and (EE) efficiency im- significant more and accelerated for and RES of breakthrough significant more and in: energyvisible are efficiency of provement The average single return on investments in the residential sector is 8.3 years according to according years is 8.3 residential sector in the on investments return single average The of prices if the liberalized market years 4.1 shall be it only but energy, the of actual prices of investments is expectedIt financial the that in. factored are 2015 year electricity after the purpose improving of for buildings, residential regarding in Macedonia households forthe period and 2018.” €80 million between 2012 around to be energy efficiency, From the other side, the Macedonian case has several weaknesses in regards to raising the raising to case several has weaknesses in regards the Macedonian side, the other From are the of them important most The jobs”. “green creating energyand efficiency of issue following: Analyses of the Possibilities in Macedonian Circumstances the Possibilities Analyses of Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia UND “green jobs” inMacedonia. For example: Obviously, there are few opportunities for efficiency realizing energy projects and creating ERLINE V 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Methodological barriers. its price and for need the rational usage. ity, as well as insufficient awareness campaigns regarding the importance of energy, depreciated price of electricity, commercial high distribution the losses - of electric incentives for saving energy and lack the of incentive for saving energy due to the outdated production equipment, distribution and usage of energy, absence the of isaita. efficiency result Low energy the of long-term absence of investments and sumption GDP of per unit, low the energy besides consumption cap of per - energy One of characteristics basic the inMacedonia sector of energy con the is high the - Low efficiency energy in the production, transport,distribution usage and of energy. arapidhas been increase import inthe of electricity. import increasingEnergy has been inrecent years, and over last the few years there oil, natural gas and quality and coal, in2000it beganimporting as well. electricity import. The countryis poorwith domestic energy resources andis highly dependent on energy introduction of sector. technologies new energy inthe obligations of theirs. Insufficient also are capacities for research,development and tion of framework legal new the of sector, energy out of derive which numerous unitsthe self-government of local the are not sufficient for efficient implementa- Sector,Energy of Commission, Regulatory the Agency of and Energy of the those Insufficient institutional capacities. and financing. regulatory and economic measures, roles specified of institutions,scheduletime goals for OIE and that saves energy, as well as programs and action plans with becomingthem entirely unprofitable.Lacking is legislation that defines national administrative obstacles that impede realization the of projects up to level the of completion full sides the legislation, of to secondary remove it is necessary the all tion, refers which to efficient the usage of energy, hasbeen yet not completed. Be- Incomplete secondary legislation on- legisla efficiency energy and RES.Secondary usage of renewable sources of energy. related to natural gas and by electricity improving the efficiency and energy the Community’s establishment, place is given special to environmental improvement petition, liquidity and usage the of economies of In scale. Contract the on Energy potential. Membership Community inEnergy enables also development of com- and for also exploitation of domestic of natural reserves and gas, coal hydro-energy natural Caspian, in the gas North reserves and of Middle-East the Africa natural region of Europe, South-East opportunities are created being for connecting with of natural gas and electricity. By providing unique regulatory framework inthe forties production of electricity. of All enables this astable and continuous supply and transfer for infrastructure gas and as well electricity as investments incapaci- of a stable regulatory and market framework that attracts investments in transit have cooperation close other with members. all In addition, it enables creation the Energy Community. Membership Community Energy inthe enables Macedonia to notgreen definejobs as an official category. Macedonia has apronounced deficiency. energy It imports all the of its O ITALIC

So far,So officialstatistics Republicthe in of Macedonia do 108 Capacities of of Economy Ministry the – the Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - More sig- More

37 Over the years, the depreciated price price the depreciated Over the years, 109 It seems that the investments in the residence sector do not sector do not in the residence the investments seems that It Energy efficiency could be very important for the economy in the country inthe forthe economy Energy efficiencycould very be important

- do other of engagement additional and energy sector the in employment Additional domestic bigger enables projects energy of large building The companies. mestic production, as such certainsegments of the in realization beto engaged companies the energy of efficiency, Activities in field the affairs. assembling and construction in households gas natural of the energy introduction and of sources renewable The transfer enterprises. medium and small of inclusion significant more a enables of the development energy enable sustainable for technologies of the spread and and the will undertake that the financing companies private specializednational energythe for services This also counts breakthrough. technological of realization (ESCOs). companies economically energy efficiency is country, the in conditions current of context the In feasible. - re to life, of the quality improve new jobs, to create to the capacity has because it In EU accession. the county’s for the chances improve to and energy import duce feasible isand economically environment the protects energy efficiency addition, prevents in energy efficiency invested euro “One circumstances. the current under the energy the side of supply.” €2.2 on of investment - electricity consump in the total of high participation electricity relatively ledof to twice than as more and been has continuous Growth energy in households. of tion countries. European to high compared households. in electricity of consumption High have fast a return on invested means due to the fact that the potential for savings savings for the potential the fact to that due means invested on a return fast have sub-measures individual of a list include necessarythe sum for investments and of replacement or systems solar example, For intensity. capital of a wide with range - period pro to opposed as a repayment long with new impose investments stoves which buildings, of energy characteristics on legal reform and campaigns motion Besides cost. no that, or little for conditions the climate from in isolating results tariffs, crossed-subsidized which with is energy that sector consumes the residence current to according even However, investments. on the return retards turn in energy efficiency residential inthe improving for the measures energy, of prices cover non-monetary social This strategy effect. to a significant seeks sector have and legal reform awareness, public raising through cost the lowest at the measures high a cost with alsomeasures are there However, finance. to the access increased to contribute because these technologies be to changed technologies require that well as protection environmental for the goals reaching energyto independence, capacities. production the in and energy imports of price the in Changes shall import through gained energyof and the equipment price rise in the nificant ener energy and of importer an which is Macedonia, to threat a serious represent because the see opportunity can this an as one hand, On the other gy equipment. energy the energy be of the to higher more price by be pushed should households isalso a of certainsupplies energy price of ratio inthe change Greater efficienct. of usage. diversity insufficient which has Macedonia, to threat return. Investments Filkoski V. Risto, Energy efficiency in the industry – multiplied gains, power point presentation at Conference atConference presentation point power Energygains, efficiency industry inmultiplied the Risto, – Filkoski V. Skopje. 2012, September Macedonia”, energy of of efficiency inthe Republic “Improvement 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 37 By and large, nobody can omit the possible threats for an intensified energy efficiency intensified an for threats the possible omit nobody can large, and By from: primarily coming in Macedonia, jobs” “green creating for and ‘climate’ Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia Table 4.1.Energy savings per sector (ktoe) there for adecade needs to them paid being start off. measuresThe mentionedabove shall attractivefrom very being measures with afast return on funds to measures for which havethey various characteristics regarding economic their performance and vary they is 4.1years.riod In each of range sectors the wide the of suggested measures are such that yearthe of monitoring, it amounts to 1.3to 4.6years, and- transport inthe pe this sector for simpleperiod return on investments is 6.2years. In industrial the sector, depending on ments is 8.3years. In (public sector commercial the buildings) and average the service the investments but average observed, the for period inthe simple period return on invest- Cumulative financialsavings the in be sectorresidentialthan cumulative bigger theshall Table 4.2.Annual Break Financial Of Down Savings Per Sector- Source: Strategy for Promoting Energy Efficiency in the Republic of Macedonia up to year 2020, p.5. Source: Strategy for Promoting Energy Efficiency in the Republic of Macedonia up to year 2020, p.6. Total Total Sector Transport Sector Industrial objects) (public Sector Service and cial Commer Sector tial Residen Sector Transport Sectors Sector Industrial objects) lic (pubSector - and Service Commercial Sector Residential Sectors Macedonia up relevant: to year very 2020could be tations contained in Strategy for Promoting Republicthe in Efficiency Energy of as replacement windows and insulation. facade In following the sense, this - expec ments made residential in the sector. Some measures have an intensive cost, such ofbetter performance simple period the (half return on investments) of invest- marketelectricity in2015should result prices, thus energy inhigher resulting in as of because as a effect their marketcatalyst. liberalization The expected the of - - 12.26 35.20 2012 55.7 3.90 4.34 66.10 12.55 40.96 2012 4.96 7.63 17.45 38.94 2013 68.8 5.91 6.49 82.15 17.86 45.32 2013 7.53 11.4 22.46 54.59 2014 94.4 8.49 8.87 113.09 22.99 63.53 10.83 15.74 2014 112.9 11.63 11.43 27.56 62.29 2015 135.97 28.21 72.49 14.85 20.42 2015 110 130.1 14.15 14.75 32.43 68.74 2016 158.16 33.20 18.43 26.52 2016 145.0 16.46 18.50 37.80 72.23 2017 80 177.87 162.3 18.41 22.55 43.60 77.72 38.70 84.06 21.62 33.49 2018 2017 199.78 176.3 20.22 27.40 50.74 77.99 2019 44.63 90.45 24.19 40.51 2018 In Million EUR(per year) 192.2 21.85 33.04 59.08 78.27 2020 217.56 51.94 90.76 26.54 48.32 2019 1137.72 237.31 121.01 147.36 303.39 565.96 60.48 91.09 28.60 57.14 Total 2020 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia uildingSector nergy Sources 111 nalyses a fficiencyRenewable and E rt a In almost the entire period sector 2011) the construction (2005 to the entire almost In 38 nergy E The data on trends of construction sector in Macedonia in this case is to a certain degree limited, because time certainthe a in to Macedonia limited, this degree case is in sector of construction on trends data The analyzed starts in 2005. series data of 38 4.8.1. State of the of 4.8.1. State since Macedonia, of Republic the for importance strategic of is sector construction The of the to data According of society. the benefit infrastructure to and buildings provides it has It economy. national place inthe important an has it Office (SSO), Statistical State in 2010, (5.5 percent years in recent GDP the national of 6 percent nearly been generating persons all employed of 5.7 percent for employment ensuring in 2011), and 6 percent and industrial the biggest of one into turning sector is the construction this way (2011). In which in terms 4,400 enterprises, the 2011, sector comprised In in the country. employers 422 small, 3,552 micro, follows: as be distributed may employment of legal categories of in the gross of construction of participation The trend companies. six big and 57 medium (between 6.0-6.8 percent) six percent above remains economy the added national to value in the construction of the share important, even more is the period 2006. What for 2000 to the for 30 percent around was economy Macedonian in the formation capital fixed gross period 2006. between 2000 and - con the Macedonian that obvious is then it the activities quarterly, analyse to want we If in the first level activity the lower by noticeable struction a seasonal sector has character, each year. of quarter 4.8. Capacities of the Macedonian Construction/4.8. Capacities of B Regarding E Regarding have significantly more attractive periods of return on funds with the higher prices of prices higher on the with funds return attractive periodsof more significantly have of the liberalization the for projected is that expected – a 2015 date after are energy that energy market. in Macedonia, as a share of the value added, registers a stable trend. The lowest registered registered lowest The trend. a stable registers added, the value of a share as in Macedonia, in the of 2007, is 7.9 while level percent highest quarter the in the first 3.7 percent is level de- annual 2007, a small crisis from the economic after the years 2011. In of quarter third the largest having added, value in the gross share be in the construction can crease noticed as well as (6.3 percent), 2010 for data Yet, (14.7 percent). in 2008 basis annual an fall on (6.4 level pre-crisis to the return a show of 2011 (6.6 percent) quarters three the first on in 2007). 6.6 percent in 2006 and percent - mem Union added in the European value on data 2007 with from the data compare we If one added almost is sector in value the construction of the share that notice can bers, we - ap contributes construction in the EU countries While in Macedonia. higher than third 6.6 percent. is share its in Macedonia added, the value of 9 percent proximately fall average an shows sector in construction the of employees number of the analysis The to the related directly not is reduction this However, years. five in the last 4.5 percent of of the number of reduction of the trend crisis in 2007, since the economic beginning of seven fall of annual the largest sector begins in 2005, having in the construction employees in construction the of employees number decrease in the in 2010. The persistent percent in If in the economy. employees of number in the total share a decrease in its sector caused sector, the construction to belonged employees of number the total of 2005, seven percent noticed to it can be the salaries, regard In percent. five to reduced was in 2010 this share the average than lower 25 percent around are salaries continually in construction that Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia the Skopjethe region. The number of built dwellingsthere in2007accounted forpercent 29 of As highest the intensity expected, inregard to construction of individual dwellings is in years there was alarger offer two-roomof three-roomand dwellings. level. Analyses of built dwellings by room numbers show for whole the period that inall built dwellings increased by 9.4percent, but 20.6percent was still lower than 2006 the of years. The decreasingtrend lasted untilwhen compared 2010, the to 2009, number of Directly following financial the there crisis in 2007, percent was afall of 10.4 for a number peak of Thenew built dwellings in Macedonia waswith in2006, 6,493 total dwellings.new dwellings, mainly of because labor higher costs. increased demand, there increase is inconstruction acertain costs for individual new and spillover their effects the on Macedonianeconomy. theIn 2011, under influence of responds to lower the aggregate demand, resulted which from world the recession trends and labor costs (around three percent). coststhese in 2010 The in mostly decrease cor (around two percent) coming from inmaterial decrease the costs (around two percent) In 2010there wasintotal adecrease construction costs for individual new dwellings percent and two percent, respectively. and 17percent respectively), and same inthe material the time costs had rates of three vant for 2008and labor 2009,when costs registered annual high growth rates (10percent determinant of movement the of total construction costs for dwellings. new This was rele- compared to material costs, due appear they to inmost which as of main the period this But since second the quarter of 2007,labor costs have registered more significant increases averagethe annual growth of labor more costs has been moderate at around two percent. nual increase with an average growth rate of approximately ten percent. At same the time, costs forstruction dwellings. new Up to 2007,material costs registered asignificant an- trendThe of materialthe main costsbeen determinanthas the of movement of total con- labor costs total inthe construction costs for individual new dwellings. sharehigher of material costs (about 73percent), compared to 27percent the share of movementthe of components both - material and labor costs. This is due the to relatively costs forstruction individual new dwellings, on average, is almost by determined equally Despite increase higher the inlabor costs, direction the and intensity of movement of con- thanhigher increase the inmaterial costs for was which 17.1percent. same the period, cumulative increase inlabor costs infrom 2005to 2011was 34percent and is two times ponents, increased. costs Labor had growth also ahigher intensity than material costs: the 21.4 percent 2005and between 2011.Material costs and labor costs, two the main com- According to available the data, construction costs for individual new dwellings went up 2008and between 2010,due inlarge period the to “Skopje part the 2014”project. construction hadinfluence activities ahigher the increaseon inconstruction activities for contrast, share this has declined. Thelargest percent).annual was in2008(10.3 fall Other from 2005to it 2007when was 39.3percent on average). In following the three years, by wasactivities 34.1percent.the activities had These most significant period influence the in sharethe of related activities to construction of individual dwellings in total construction to construction of individual dwellings. Onaverage, 2005and between 2010, for period the The significantplace of total construction work in belongs Macedonia activities to related economy. have past in the six years risen at almost same the as average the pace inthe gross salary gross entire inthe salaries economy. Despite construction inthe sector salaries the this, 112 - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia -

39 nergy Sources 113 fficiencyRenewable and E nergy E gy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Sources, Skopje, December 2012, p. 16, 17, and 21. (in Macedonian). and 21. (in p. 16, 17, gyDecember 2012, Skopje, Energy Efficiencyand Renewable Sources, According to: Build up skills – Macedonia: Report on the capacities of the construction sector in the field of Ener of sector thein field the construction of the capacities Report on skills Macedonia: – up Build to: According 39 Construction sector’s vitality is secured by small businesses (20 to 50 employees with with 50 employees (20 to small secured businesses is vitality by Construction sector’s - highly (resi specialized businesses segments in specific and market contracts) long-term giants construction Former premises). business of adaptation luxurydences, apartments, the to adjustments considerable made have 10,000 workers as many as used employ to that 1,000 persons. 500 to a maximum to employees of the number reducing market, - pres Macedonia of in the Republic businesses related Overall, sector and the construction 25,000 workers employs sector alone the building whereas 40,000 workers, employ ently jobs). finishing and installation (excluding businesses construction of as well vitality the as of investments, structure and volume The in construction. stages all development conditioned have abroad, has trend been The 1990. since has been growing enterprises construction of number The medium small and of the increased number that the privatization following maintained - while their num companies, 317 registered were there example, 1990, for In enterprises. 4,400. ber to in 2012 rose Around sector. construction Macedonian in the huge potential represents force labor The 15.5 percent engineering, in architectural employed is force labor the total of 56 percent jobs. finishing and in installation 18.5 percent and in civil engineering ten and between eight sector, in the construction employees of number the total of Out - or low-pro qualified are 75 percent and technicians, are 15 percent engineers, are percent age. of years over 50 workers of up made mostly category is Thelast workers. file decade in structure has the past GDP in sector of construction share added-value The has it investments greater times of In 7.9 percent. and betweenbeen 5.1 percent ranging between 480 ranges added-value its present, At GDP. of 13 percent even peaked 12 or to the added When GDP. of six percent which constitutes annually, Euros 520 million and - unrecord projects private of construction by sector accumulated the non-formal of value 4.8.2. Construction Sector’s Development Trends in Regard in Regard Trends Development 4.8.2. Construction Sector’s E to all built dwellings in Macedonia. In 2010 the figure grew to 40 percent, showing that this that showing to 40 percent, grew 2010 the figure In in Macedonia. dwellings all built estate. real residential for market attractive the most far by is region total in of 31 percent share with a region, significant most is the second region Polog The the period for from dwellings built decreasea of showed it But 2007. in dwellings built in municipalities in all dwellings built of decrease in the result fall The 2010. a is 2007 to region in the southwest dwellings built period the of same In thenumber region. the Polog built of number in the total this region of 2007, the share In a decrease. also registered 14 percent. to fell while in 2010 it 18 percent, was dwellings total of trend the decreasing from apart that conclude can one data Based the previous on signs shows a whole as region in the period the 2007, Skopje dwellings from starting built most is the region Skopje that the confirms trend This dwellings. in finished growth of a for a possibility as recognize the people that a place as and living for place attractive investment. capital long-term Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia increasing earnings their as aresult ofqualifications. certified training awaste of and time potential earnings, but are unaware also of possibility the of andsalaries are not interested inimproving inEEand skills their consider RES.They Workers directly employed inarchitectural engineering are low-profile, they are paid low attendees’ knowledge. qualifications obtained theand ability to provide intensivetrainings thatthe valorize will ging in providing trainers, definition trainingsof leading to tests for acknowledgement of Educational institutions are not still accredited for EEand REStrainings. They arelag - wagehigher disbursement to qualified highly workers). enterprises sending workers when their to training (absence of workers during training, efficiency. Low interest in worker training comes from the additional costs incurred by RES workers influence profitability and increase both expenses construction and work implementation price pressures Energy activities. and for need the training direct EEand enterprisesConstruction are not still sufficiently interestedboosting their EE in and RES privatethe sector. rising as sixpercent as high of total the workforce and eight percent of workforce the in The number of employees inconstruction been hasfluctuating pastthe in fouryears, in assetsof Republic the of Macedonia. Investments construction inthe in2010represent sector 34.7percent of total investments nationalthe economy is estimated at 700million Euros, or percent seven of GDP. inofficialed State Statistical Officeis data takenin consideration, thetotal contribution to For Improving Energy Efficiency, 2010-2020. Table 4.3.Investments, Savings, Advantages Based on the Adopted National Strategy a year for private the housing stock and year 39million per for public buildings.” will thus cost efficiency energy aroundmillion 200 Euros peryear, million 166 with Euros dations for renovation the rate year per of housing and public building stock in terms of square meter depending on age the of building. the Implementing EU recommen the - “Introducing EErequirements cost somewhere 180and will inbetween 250Euros per EE Requirements Sector intheConstruction 4.8.3. Investments and L 40 Source: Build up skills –Macedonia: Report on the capacities of the construction sector in the field of Energy sector Residential Subsectors and Sources, Renewable Skopje, Energy 2012,p. December 37.(inMacedonian). Build up –Macedonia: on skills Report capacities the of construction the field Efficiency in the sector of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Sources, Energy Skopje, December 2012, p.37. (in Macedonian). Investments 279.6 prices energy present with Savings abor Force for Introducing 151.3 prices energy ized ter liberal Savings af - 114 311.9 - ktC 1407 O 2 buildings duction of EEmeasures in benefits introupon social - E conomic, environmental & • • • measure Anti-poverty energy budgetSmaller Comfort and health in millions of Euros 40

Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 67.4 15.0 52.4 2020 2,080 229.9 12,400 10,320 Private Private sector Size of Size of labor force 58.8 14.9 43.9 2019 44.9 500 250 250 in millions of Euros – Euros of millions in in millions of Euros – Euros of millions in 49.3 14.8 34.5 2018 Daily per rates year Foreign Foreign donation 0.7 46.6 14.8 31.8 2017 520,000

3,100,130 2,580,130 42 ecessary N labor force (daily rate/ year) Municipality Municipality as investor 40.2 14.0 26.2 2016 7.1 4.0 3.1 4.0 35.1 15.5 19.6 115 2015

) 2 41 Single valueSingle renovation for (daily rate/ m 31.2 12.3 18.9 2014 /year) 962,300 130,000 832,300 2 Government of Republic Republic of Government Macedonia as investor of Area renovated (m 27.3 10.1 17.2 2013 5 7.9 2.9 279.56 8.9 21.3 12.4 2012 Total in- Total vestment Renovation Renovation (%) ) 2 in the Republic of Macedonia up to year 2020, Skopje, (in Macedonian). Macedonian). (in 2020, Skopje, year to up Macedonia of Republic the in in the Republic of Macedonia up to year 2020, Skopje, (in Macedonian). Macedonian). (in 2020, Skopje, year to up Macedonia of Republic the in According to: Build up skills – Macedonia, ibid. p. 44. p. ibid. skills – Macedonia, up Build to: According 38. p. ibid. skills – Macedonia, up Build uild sector xisting xisting Total Commercial sector Private Private sector Total Public Private E buildings (m Private Private apartments Year B Source: Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Macedonia (2011): Strategy for Improvement of Energy Efficiency Efficiency Energy of Improvement for (2011): Strategy Macedonia of Republic the of Economy of Ministry Source: “The necessary direct labor force to implement the planned dynamic for introduction of introduction for dynamic planned the to implement “Thenecessary force direct labor time calculated by Macedonia of sector in the Republic in the building EE requirements per work of the cost and squared necessary in meters of area necessary renovation for private of in casethe is 2.9 buildings percent existing repairing of dynamic diem. The newof construction and the buildings public of in casethe percent five and stock housing trends.” recent following public) and (housing buildings Table 4.5. Dynamics of Necessary Financial Investments for Introduction of EE in the Build Sector Build the EE in of Introduction for Investments Financial Necessary of 4.5. Dynamics Table Source: Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Macedonia (2011): Strategy for Improvement of Energy Efficiency Efficiency Energy of Improvement for (2011): Strategy Macedonia of Republic the of Economy of Ministry Source: 42 41 Tables 4.6/7. Size of the Labor Force Needed to Introduce EE Requirements When Renovating Existing Stock of of Stock Existing Renovating When EE Requirements Introduce to Needed Force Labor the of 4.6/7. Size Tables Buildings and New Buildings - fluctuat has been years four in the past in construction employed of persons number The Macedonia, of in the Republic force the labor size of the total of 6.5 percent reaching ing, workers 45,000 total were 2011, there In sector employment. in private percent eight or industry. in the construction employed Table 4.4. Investments Necessary to Reach National EE Strategy Targets By 2020 By Targets EE Strategy National Reach to Necessary 4.4. Investments Table Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia cations (certificates) for mounting equipment efficiency energy orRES equipment. workers directly involved inconstruction, pending appropriate their training and qualifi- todata almost 43,600…These showthat there is room for employment of additional 9,000 52,400 workers.current The number of workers directly engaged inconstruction amounts EEbuildingsnew or to renovate of exist buildings to comply with EEand RESmeasures is The total size thelabor of force directly engaged theto in sectorbuild building necessary 43 Source: Build up skills –Macedonia: Report on the capacities of the construction sector in the field of Energy ings N Total ings - Public build buildings Housing - build ew According to: Build up –Macedonia, skills ibid. p. 39. Efficiency and Renewable Sources, Energy Skopje, December 2012, p.39. (in Macedonian). (m N ew area ew 2 /year) 900,000 200,000 700,000 rate/year) renovation (daily ofSingle value 25 15 10 116 (daily rate/year)(daily N ecessary labor force ecessary 10,000,000 3,000,000 7,000,000 year rates per Daily 500 250 250 force labor ofSize 40,000 12,000 25,200 43

Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia IA IA ON 117 arriers arriers b ED N MAC ES I ISSU ICY S POL OB One potential barrier for effective usage of the policy and these programs is the of programs the and policy these usage effective barrier for potential One the (the ministries and charge in institutions the among coordination of absence further could post- that something parties, which are the involved and agencies) This barrier can programs. energy efficiency of the realization even stop and pone - coop inter-agency effective for scheme a coordination up setting by be overcome actions. strategic implementing and designing on eration cases, the insufficient many In knowledge. and awareness information, of Lack infiltrating of the progress impede can changes to the resistance and awareness Organization barriers Organization barriers Market/financial policyLegal-regulatory and barriers barriers Technical sector Barriers in the construction training and education vocational of Barriers in the system • • • • • • • • he institutions in charge should be enhanced with human resources. There should be should ca- There resources. human be with enhanced should charge in institutions he of government government of capacity institutional of lack to the potential refer primarily These barriers - promo of development, charge in capacity actual. The institutional institutions state and energy efficiency on in the measures about information and evaluation monitoring, tion, Ministryat of energythe of the sector resources human limited weak. The is Macedonia not Agencypossess Energy of (EA) do staff the insufficient with together (ME), Economy ac- appropriate andthe Strategy boththe implementing for necessarycapacity sufficient of capacity the barrier, this overcome to order In the energy efficiency. regarding plan tion t delegated be clearly should that implementation task for tools a set with of building pacity ministries. and agencies the various the EA and to rganization 5.1.1. Organization A significant numbers of barriers related to the creation of green jobs in Macedonia could could Macedonia in of jobs green to creation the related of barriers numbers A significant orpolicy assign specificmarket to to a those barriers possible hardly is It be identified. - con and overlapping are the issues of many framework; a coherent propose to and area vocational professionals, and companies construction – extent a different cern to – albeit technologies, and products building of suppliers and producers practitioners, education the results of organization better the sake of for However, households. policy and makers individuals prevent Barriers could will distinction be a general explored. the analysis, of are but include, They energy efficiency. for the opportunities using from businesses and to: limited not arriers and Draft Solutions Draft and 5.1. Barriers Solutions J 5. GREEN Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 5.1.2. Financial • • • solutions delivered, could be size of small the market the means costs higher and ofLack market for technologies new and products. Although efficient most energy renovations. Step-by-step renovations are not by recognized market. the fort contribute to unacceptable return rate of investment for low-energy building High cost of low-energy renovations. Higher costs and low current levels of com- impede realization the of efficiency energy programs. aiders to for individuals (social with lowenergy income or no income at can all) grams for efficiency. energy this Subsidies in field give counter-results. The vouch- Weak price The signals. increasing is a price strongof energy incentive for pro- shall makeshall investing easier regarding efficiency inenergy vulnerable households. forneed programs for efficiency intended energy for low-income households that implementationthe solutions of efficiency energy in general. Therefore, there isa The rate of unemployment stronglyshall povertysociety in and energy influence efficiency and branding appliances can help in eliminating this barrier. for raising consumers’ awareness, programs for training professionals on energy efficiency, which shall resultalleviating in decision-making. optimal Campaigns forvices of enabling purpose the access to competitive advice for improving energy Therebe promotedshall a market of professional controls energy ser and energy ment. dards and access the to finance, becausethey are in earlyan still phase of develop- form inthe of of apolicy support for expanding quality the activities, their stan - that are paid from savings companies These energy the (ESCO). the support need cy. There is not a sufficient number of companies that efficientprovide solutions The opening the of marketssomething is that positive had efficien- effect on energy ers. various groups of as beneficiaries, well as forthe financiers decision-mak the and - are to designed overcome problems. these Such programs should adapted be to the Programs for education and for raising awareness, together with marking schemes, and real the risks. of limited the information cash flow, on expected the performancethe technical like often banks show resistance to becausesupporting efficiency energy projects not give return best the on investments. show Practices that traditional mediators donotnologies, they evenwhen appear most the to efficient be do they when or techniques could initiate investors such as tobanks continue supporting old tech- with risk aversion the related to premature the adoption of technologies new and economic and financial effect the on return on investments rate. That combined There lackis a of information trainingand thelatest on technologies theirand minimumthe requirements instead of leading to behavior with optimizing effect. canfirms adopt simple rules for decision-makingthat fulfillment lead to shall of to make significantnecessary investments time of and energy, individuals and with complexity,faced and insecurity risk, for understanding the of it which is make effective decisionsthat include complex and insecure results. when In fact, solutions with great efficiency. Individualsfirms and are not alwaysa position in to b arriers 118 - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - arriers arriers b 119 olicy p for high-end, low-energy new building and renovation projects. projects. renovation and new building low-energy high-end, for In general, urban planning is not consistent with the requirements therequirements with consistent not is planning urban general, In egal-regulatory and imbalanced positioning are common. For many of the materials and details, prices prices details, and thematerials of many For common. are positioning imbalanced a recognizedan important is also This as market. European on higher than are trainings. on-demand and especially on-site to barrier, mance of the buildings. Differences may well relate to the low quality of execution of execution quality to low the relate well may Differences the buildings. of mance need further and training. works construction of - demonstra and NZEB pilot no Almost, projects. demonstration and pilot of Lack The governance. local of or level national a on been implemented have projects tion based on not are buildings) multifamily of renovations for (mainly projects current understanding of lack obvious an to This leads high-energy efficiency standards. the and companies both construction by EU trends the current of appreciation and workforce. between Better coordination professions. and crafts between coordination of Lack of broaderknowledge in resulting after, be should sought professions and crafts - More overspecialization. of the problem avoiding and works construction related spe- of execution necessary avoid to are instruments controlling additional over, very which is training, formal no with workers cializedactivitiesby construction especially economy. in the and practice in the informal common It is necessary to quickly adjust the Macedonian legislation to the EU legislation. thelegislation. EU to legislation theMacedonian necessary adjust is quickly to It - regard of EU directives the penetration faster shallhaving leadto adjustment This projecteddepends measures of the realization The the energying efficiency sector. of the the actual preparation acts of and amending and the necessaryon changes in sub-legal actual actsthe amendments and changes shall impose That new ones. the EU directives with in compliance standards and rules,with recommendations energy efficiency. on might improvement in the object’s investing for responsible who are owners Flat those Similarly, comfort. increased energy or bills experience directly lower not not are objects that or in homes invest to want not might apartments who rent period time. of a longer for rent to intend they do not that or in their ownership isolate to them for owners flat to aid as such measures, stimulating with Programs help could that something is standards, minimum implement to and their property be to overcome. this situation Lack of incentives No national programs for support of new nearly zero energy buildings (NZEB) energy buildings zero new nearly of support for programs national No relation no with renovations (partialtotal) or support programs The current exist. NZEB. for the expectedto standards Urban planning. prospective solar of use optimized for planning no coherent is There NZEB. for measures. such other or sources, geothermal gains, of underachieving against actual measures No assessment. and assurance Quality are renovations total and the new buildings of indicators the energy performance clear if evidence declared no the is There legislation. the in existing provisioned projectmeetthe energy actual level onthe energy perfor efficiencycharacteristics • • • • • • • 5.1.3. L Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia enhancing savings and investment insustainable or goods own intheir business, profes- forEarnings migrant workers (getting an income ensures which reproduction of labor, 5.1.5. Barriers inthe 5.1.4. Technical sons” (statement by Minister, Labor German the Ursula von derLeyen). shortage of up to sixmillion people of working age, due to purely demographic rea- of recruitingpersonnelthat Germany qualified with a view “in 2025, experience will employment rate (6.7percent Government German in2012),the has made apriority Thus, experiencing inacountry an accelerated process of lowaging un- and a very qualitythe of life inGermany and aims to facilitate search the of jobsfor foreigners. personnelfrom qualified outsideGermany (www.make-it-in-germany.com) praises ous shortage area. inthis One of platforms the from benefits a websitethat addresses qualified workforce,this since ‘locomotive’ the of Europeaneconomy - is facingseri a Agency, Germany has launched two internet platforms for informing and attracting Example: At initiative the of Ministries the of Labor, Economy and Employment • • • • • ° ° countries. Migration of the work force to other countries, especially toward the EUand neighbor perceived risky as highly by most of employers. the labor market, investments incontinuing vocational training and qualification are As work the force mobile is highly and open to jobopportunities EUopen inthe factor remuneration –the package –is not reaching levels from previous years. Lack of loyalty. number to smaller Due the of building projects, main the loyalty and prospects for career development workers. of skilled from alack of access to vocational training but from also stability the of jobs the corporate and HR policies suffered activities a major pullback, resulting not only Lack of coherent human resources policies. related Closely to previous the obstacle, of sector. the but not surprisingly mostly affecting which, in SME, turn, representthe major part ployees. This conclusion is valid for companies sizes, includingall of bigger ones, counts starting with investments the professional in the development of em- their constructionthe companies, hadwhich to cut most of by expenses, their most ac- ing inMacedonia boom to in2009lead asignificant changethe in priorities of Impact of the financial It crisis. is without question that abrupt the end of build the - about possible the actions for improving efficiency. energy consumers.ergy The controlschemes are way a practical of informing consumers Their introduction shouldbe compulsory, when it comes especially thelarge to en- ket. Controls are not industrial developed inthe and sector building inthe sector. impede fast the also effect theof on efficiency technologiesnew with mar energy The lack of standardization of equipment and of components that spend can energy ° ° labor. labor. Policies and strategies of member states and non-EU countries for attracting (Macedonia) and destinationtry their (Italy, country Germany, Montenegro). curity, sanitation, migrants’ the infrastructure, banking) between home coun- Differencebetween wage levels, working and living conditions- in (se general There visibleis a phenomenon of qualification “export”by: explained b arriers c onstruction 120 s ector ector - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - 121 In connection to the previous barriers, the unfavor the previous to connection In able public perception of the builder’s profession is a major barrier to attracting barrier attracting to a major is profession the builder’s of perception public able high construction during the salaries relatively The people. ambitious and young very is stilland formidable exists it but extent, this barrier some to boomovercame in the period. crisis - con of number the large is problem related Another workforce. the of structure Age do not usually workers Older their careers. of stages in the later struction workers the on new technologies; and training vocational in continuing interest manifest hindered. is people young of development career to the access side, other - build passive or energy building nearly-zero Construction of experience. of Lack companies. medium the small and of most for incognita” virtually is “terra ings - recog generally further not is experience, the need training of for theDue lack to nized. very regular is no or There small energy renovations. nearly-zero for practice of Lack buildings, Especially in multifamily renovations. energy building low of practice to relation with no energy efficiency measures implements owner each apartment – measures common most two The a whole. as the building of the characteristics for any without workers by applied usually – are external insulation glazing and evidenced. is renovation step-by-step practice in No in construction. mal training regional discrepancies. Most building projects projects building Most discrepancies. regional market; labor the of Fragmentation not usually are seasonal Region; workers Polog and in the Skopje concentrated are un- are approaches training even if on-site in training, in participating interested dertaken. interested not generally is force working existing The workforce. the of Motivation for reasons numerous are activities. There training in vocational in participation - employ project-by-project the jobs and insecurity to of them related of this, most the workers. of level education general also the low to but ment, - educa low The barrier. literacy and language workforce; the of level educational Low - in train both participation active to threat a constant is the workforce of level tion A materials. and technologies concepts, new building of implementation and ings - represen mostly crafts, building in conventional engaged the workers part of large - in Mace literacy with problems has speaking minorities, language other of tatives possible. hardly are “learning-by-doing” than other Training language. donian in level educational general ofsocialthe toward sciences change significant The high-endof mastering for efforts in more resulting also obstacle, is an Macedonia skills between and existing gap the larger to due materials and technologies use of on emphasis skills, an professional improve to Additionally, know-how. required also be should put. system education vocational in the national competences key Low prestige of the profession. • • • • • • • sional gains: knowledge, skills, inter-human relations, labor discipline, work safety, partic- safety, work discipline, labor relations, skills, inter-human knowledge, gains: sional social as well as disadvantages, economic by compensated are life) in community ipation the workers, migrant other or labor domestic with when compared discrimination like contract, the employment of theterms with comply to the employer by failure of risk which environment to the new difficulties in adapting workers, frictions the native with well as employer boththe from dissatisfaction causing work, at efficiency reduced lead to unsatisfactory in materialized social protection inadequate or reduced the employee, as conditions. security work and Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 5.1.6. Barriers inthe • • • • • • • • strengthen education between link the and work. Macedonianthe vocational education increase system its will attractiveness and dium-term area. and Through particular inthis long-term such surveys surveys cornerstone the be for establishment successful implementation and further of me- zational and financial conditions,equalthe distribution of responsibilities, should yet. The cooperation all stakeholders,between the creation of appropriate organi - has notskills) established been Macedonian inthe vocational education system transversal emergingskills, (specific-sector skills, casting skills new professional Lack of anational system for forecasting new skills. The national system for fore- tion of trainees for entering labor the market. ordination of interests and concrete partnership projects leading to better prepara - practice. Further effortstaken shouldbe for intensive exchange knowledge,of co- representatives of business the community, cannot they classified be as common actors. business with Cooperation under constantshould be also consideration. tion with relevant the stakeholders. New programs reflecting emerging skills new of programs the should and easier be applied regularly, inbetter coordina also - plans and specific the programs is perceivedgenerally as a major problem. Updates evant developments, technology introduction of elements new education inthe conservative and changes are implemented at aslower rate compared to rel the - New training programs. As national the system for vocational education is quite tions, NGOs, and, most importantly, relevant representatives of Government. the ing training and education establishments, professional chambers and- associa Intensiveneeds. cooperation interested all between stakeholders includ is crucial, - Anticipation of training needs. There is no institution for anticipation trainingof missing.also educational establishments. Incentives for additional qualification trainersof are towilling enter training the system, probably with participation the of higher the Further solutions found should be also for qualification of construction specialist ification of teachers in professional disciplinesthe in nationaleducation system. Access to training of trainers. There are no facilities or programs - forqual further meaningactivities, no access to formal training. Gray economy. tion, monitoring and maintenance of such technologies. ings is estimated low, very to be means- virtually in which installa no experience Although no relevant statistical data is available, integration the of RESinbuild - Low level of penetration of renewable sources energy (RES)technologies in buildings. workers. hampers opportunities the for on-site training and up skilling of construction the tion of technologies, new processes and know-how building inthe practice, which construction companies, financial the crisis has significantlyreduced the introduc- No access to new technologies, processes, know-how. Among other of activities the Many construction workers are involved ininformal economical s ystem of Although there are examples of cooperation with v 122 ocational ocational e ducation and and ducation t raining Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - Most Most easures easures m rograms/ p 123 mployment e assive assive p students and adult trainees are attracted by different professions, predominantly in predominantly professions, different by attracted are trainees adult and students - cam communications public Broad science. computer and economics of theareas by created the opportunities market to necessary in order are initiatives and paigns energy sources. renewable energy and efficiency of the new developments Unattractiveness of the professions, lack of adequate professional orientation. Stimulating the participation in the private sector for the purpose of providing the purpose providing of sector for in the private the participation Stimulating and profit bases. The thecommercial energy on efficiency services improving for the commercial and in the industrial owners private shall motivate the competition energy efficiency for programmes individual implement sector to withenergy for pov- dealing optimal measure energy an efficiency as Promoting erty sources renewable energy from usage Improving ap- and technologies of promotion and education research, in scientific Investing high-energy with efficiencypliances • • • • • ing of the realization of the active programs and measures for employment. In Macedonia, Macedonia, In employment. for measures and programs the active of the realization of ing - pre 2009, as during prepared were employment for measures and programs active nine 5.1. in Table sented The active policies of the labor market in Macedonia were implemented during the whole during the whole implemented were Macedonia in market of labor the active The policies monitor and realization for prepared are plans operation Each year periodtransition. of 5.2.1. Active and and 5.2.1. Active A lot of separate recommendations for energy efficiency that can create green jobs can greenjobs create energycan efficiency for that recommendations separate of lot A - or com interconnected not are they but strategies, and documents in different be found of Energy Efficiency inthe Republic Promoting for the Strategy instance, For prehensive. proposals: thefollowing contains 2020 year to up Macedonia 5.2. Policy Measures Measures 5.2. Policy Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia Source: Operation plans on active programs and measures for employment for 2008and 2009,Employment Table 5.1.Active Programs of the Labor Market in year 2009 entitlement of healthcare for persons the are who all registered as jobseekers Em- inthe contributing to preservation stability. the of social The most obvious example thisthe of is population. In Macedonia, passive of policies labor the market are primarily of afunction comes to coverage of unemployment both for insurance security elderly the and social (Austria, France Belgium, and Luxembourg), iswhich most the extensive one it when inMacedonia model that fact the is closest social to the European the continental model on are pensions the they focused also of elderly the population. The previouspoints out Actually, there isrange awide of programs that refer to unemployment insurance, but Passive and policies programs are also implemented on labor the market inMacedonia. unemployed inMacedonia. there were around 7,700persons got who employment or 2.2percent of number the of of Program the for Employment Preparation it then concluded could be that inyear 2009 donia. If we assume thattheseall efficiencyof the programs the is same the efficiency as year 2009amounts 9,573 persons or 2.7percent of unemployed the population inMace - The total number personsof covered active these withall programs for employment in to 2007,is from persons prepared who themselves for operating industry. textile inthe est participation programs, inthese or an average of 70percent from for 2001 period the unemployed persons, out of almost which 80percent managed tojob. find Also, greatthe - programs together.from This program,period 2000 theto 2007,covered in almost 25,000 tion, covers which more persons compared to number the of persons covered the with all As shown inTable most 5.1.,the comprehensive is Program the for Employment Prepara- Roma Population Program for Supporting E of Family Terror E Pilot – Survey on JobPilot –Survey Vacancies Public Affairs Organization Internship Program Program for E Program for E Program Program for Formalization of E nesses Self-employment Program conomic E Agency of the Republic of Macedonia. nhancement of Women-Victims mployment Subsidy mployment Preparation mployment Program mployment of xisting B usi- 124 Scope/Persons Year 2008 EUR 1.791.057 1.581.067 997.782 294.902 - - - - 5.853 5928 600 107 500 30

Scope/Persons Year 2009 EUR 4.127.073 1.248.457 2.073.826 536.585 471.220 219.512 764.228 10.570 81.300 6180 644 200 650 959 250 600 90 - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - , is released released , is 44 125 isabilities isabilities d eople with with eople p Allocating non-refundable assets for full-time employment of an unemployed per unemployed an of full-timeemployment for assets non-refundable Allocating - intend this is person where place the working of adaptation for disability, with son in and criteria with in accordance equipment of supply if needed, and work, ed to Labor and of the the act Minister determinedwith behalf passed of on a manner Social Policy payment contributions for assets of provision and release payment Tax operation during the support financial of Provision Employment law for people with disabilities, Official Gazette of the Republic of Macedonia No.87 from 17 from No.87October Macedonia of ofthe Republic Official Gazette disabilities, with people for law Employment 2005. • • • 44 In order to improve the employment opportunities as well as the operation of people with with people of the operation as well as opportunities the employment improve to order In mea- the following envisages Macedonia, of the Republic of the Government disabilities, sures: 5.2.1.1. Employment for for 5.2.1.1. Employment ployment Agency. The data from this agency point to the fact that in December of 2008, 2008, of in December to factthe that agency this point from data The Agency. ployment the with they registered had that stated persons unemployed the registered of 20.8 percent active that means This healthcare. to the right the purpose exercising of for solely agency thein persons unemployed registered of number the total of percent 79.2 are seekers job Agency. Employment has a This socialmeasure large. is beneficiaries allowance are of who people number The to the due a seeking job stop theybecause in on this group, the people influence negative well. as beneficiaries and allowance beneficiaries, also health insurance theyfact are that benefi - allowance were persons 37,000 of average the periodan 2008, to 1998 In from same that for persons unemployed of number the average that in mind ciaries. Keeping percent ten than more of average an that be can drawn period the 358,099, conclusion was ben- allowance period time were of mentioned the above for persons the unemployed of money allowance the qualifications, low with persons of are these many Since eficiaries. because the salary their search job they would that continue to their incentive reduces and unemployed remain to prefer they Therefore, be low. would employed if theyget got and employed becoming than beneficiaries rather health insurance and allowance become an had all the categories for allowance in 2005 the money example, For salary. a receiving same salary that net real €204 for of the average of 39.7 percent €81, which is of average year. from paying personal income tax. The assets for paying pension and invalid insurance, insurance, invalid and pension paying for assetstax. The personalincome paying from the of the budget from be to provided are contribution employment and health insurance amount total to the the funds provides Macedonia of budget The Macedonia. of Republic in the salaries net in Macedonia two paid value the nominal to paid the contributions of month. previous - protec are there in Macedonia, disabilities with people of the purpose employment of For be can established company A protection which act trade as companies. companies tion are 40 at least percent of which out five people for full-time employment offers it of only - estab The newly defined in as law. the a disability have those, half must From disabled. - all the employ employ to a period within 90 days obliged is of company protection lished disability. of a with person full-time the first employment of the day ees calculated from The employed person with disability, whose disability is determined by law is determined whose disability disability, with person employed The Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia poses: The meansfrom the FundSpecial areallocated as non-refundable forthe following pur funds. concludesthese of with beneficiary the adeal funds separated the use Fund Special inthe solely for previous the The agency purposes. month, actual the for of meeting needs the previous the month. The is Agency obliged to sub-account Employment inthe Fund), Agency Special (the not later day than 30th the of employment within actual the collected sets contribution are fund at allocated being the workingthe place and providing equipment, necessary the ten percent of total the as- tions and operation the of persons with adisability, as well as for of adapting purpose the For of financing purpose the the actions to improve undertaken the employment condi- for operatingnecessary at given the position. or is trained to perform tasks for that position and estimated has been to have skills the job position ifhe or she general the meets and specific the provisions forthat position, andskills qualifications. For example, he or shecan get employed or redirected to another A person with a disability can get employed at a position for hewhich or the she possesses ditions and manner inthe withthe defined Employment Agency’s Act. on employer’s the premises or elsewhere inaccordance programs, with special under con- subjected tobe training under employer’s the direction. The worktraining canbe realized The unemployedpersonwith disabilitywho is nottrainedtasks perform shall to certain Agency of Republic the of Macedonia. ability becomes a subject to employer’s training under direction the of Employment the employer the both and person with the adisability. The unemployedpersonwith adis - person becoming capable of work practical field according inacertain the to needs of Work training, as defined thelaw, by training is offered person to a disabilitywith this for protection company. founder or family close member of founder the not shall allowed be to establish anew notshall allowed as be to such act following inthe fivewhichthewithin years,period a If is this not company this case, the not shall gain status the of aprotection company and • • • ratio of 2:1or guarantee a bank amount inthe of total the of funds. allocated the facilities, stores) to show whereas claimer the expected be shall a mortgage with a the in fined claimer’s (constitutionalbooks debt,equipment, building and business intotal funds cantoallocated equal value be the of property the and capital the de- loana bank or funds personal of owner the of company. the The amount the of accounted value of program the with 20percent of his or her own funds, such as donia preceding in the year, claimer the when of funds should participate in the Supply of equipment inatotal of 200average paid Republic inthe salaries of Mace - person the andtechnical the technological process andor type degree the the of disability of done to be according reused necessary can when MKD which be to changes the in Adaptation of working the place, amount the of funds100,000 being allocated the chair awheel needs who inorder to move employing sight aperson disability with full and person with physical disability Republicin the of Macedonia for year the preceding employment the when incase Macedonia for year the preceding employment. the That is, 40 averagepaid salaries amount of funds20 average being allocated the paid Republic inthe salaries of Full-time employment of a person with a disability as defined thelaw, by the 126 - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - obs” obs” j reen day of the month, for for the month, of day th g reating “ c (in a preparation phase) (in a preparation 127 and for for and EE for egislation l ramework f ational ational the previous month the previous legacies and Gifts Other sources - Mace of the Republic of the Assembly of the meeting at adopted is Energy on Law ofthe Re- in the Official Gazette published is 2011. It 3 February on held donia 18.02.2011 on force into came 10.02.2011, and from No.16 Macedonia, of public Energy to Efficiency) XI refers (Chapter the Assembly of the meeting at Energy adopted is on Law the amending on law The thein published is It 2011. September 28 on held Macedonia of the Republic of came and 03.10.2011, from No.136 Macedonia, of ofthe Republic Official Gazette 10.10.2011. on force into Value Added Tax and the Customs Tax paid on behalf of the protection companies companies the protection behalf of on paid Tax theCustoms and Tax Added Value which shall be disposed in total to Macedonia, of the Republic of the Budget into the 15 than later not the Special Fund of the sub-account (Official Gazette of the Republic ofthe Republic (Official Gazette energy saving for objectives indicative on Provisions No.112/2011), Macedonia, of Macedonia, of ofthe Republic (Official Gazette products of eco-design on Provisions No.100/2011), of ofthe Republic (Official Gazette facilities combined highly-efficient for Guidelines No.128/2011), Macedonia, energy of sources other energy and of consumption the determining for Guidelines Macedonia, of ofthe Republic use energy (Official Gazette that products the for No.154/2011), Guidelines for changing and amending the Guidelines for determining the consump phase) (in a preparation energy control for Guidelines while measures saving energyand energy efficiency the apply to how on Instructions - procure public to subjects are services that and goods of features the determining the Energy of Agency site web the Internet on published and (...) adopted ments – adopted, Macedonia (EVN gas distribution energy and for regulations Network preparation) of a phase Skopje-in of District Heating tion of energy and other sources of energy for the products that use energy (whichis that products the energy for of sources other energy and of tion . air-conditioners) of determination new (for adoption) of in a phase Guidelines for energy features of buildings • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 5.2.2.1. Legal 5.2.2.1. Legal 5.2.2. N The claimer can use the funds for the previously defined purposes defined has he if in been previously active the usefor can the funds claimer The years. three than a period shorter for not business from: shallprovided Special Fund be of the means The The following list contains the most reliable sub-legal acts (by-laws) in this field: in field: this sub-legal acts (by-laws) reliable most the contains list following The Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia From other the side, obligations the for public the units sector are: instance, obligations the for self-government local the units are as follows: units inregards to found EEcould be previous inthe mentioned laws and by-laws. For obligationsSeveral and for activities self-government local the units and public the sector • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • relevant sub-legal regulations To release market the products that energy, use inaccordance labeled with the subject to significant renovation, or to public buildings To issue acertificate for features energy of new buildings and/or thatbuildings are lines on Efficiency of Buildings Energy of current the ones regarding asdetermined thewith efficiency Guide- energy their To requirements the meet for designing and building facilities or new renovating and facilities with Guidelines the on Efficiency Buildings Energy To control compliance the of buildings the and construction the units, equipment ings or construction the units that are subject to significant renovation To minimum the meet requirements for efficiency regarding energy newthe- build To controls make energy To give authorization controllers to energy the for auditors/controllers energy upgrade skills To organize training and exams for auditors/controllers, energy as well as training unit where business the space, is has acertificate featureson energy When leasing business premises, to require that building the or construction the of itemciency the that is asubject to public procurement terion for of selection most the favorable offer also representshall effi- the energy When implementing public the purchase procedures tothat define obligatory- cri nomically, and indoing to comply so sub-legal with regulations actual the ownershiptheir to sun install collectors for hot water ifthat appears to pay offeco- When buildings or new making significant renovations to buildings thator are in units that are ownership inthe of entities the from public the sector To provide acertificate featureson energy the of buildings the constructionor operations units performtheir struction they inwhich To provide at least once inthree years control energy of buildings the all or con- consumptionon energy the To make annual analyses consumption of energy the and to organize monitoring withdetermined program the To adopt three-year efficiency energy programs and to implement measuresthe each year respectively To prepare information on implementation the ofefficiency energy programs for To adopt annual plans for realization of efficiency energy programs To adopt three-year programs on efficiency energy 128 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - evelopment in the Republic of of Republic the in evelopment d nergy e 129 fficiency in Macedonia Macedonia fficiency in e nergy e ocuments for for ocuments d bjectives of the Strategy on on Strategy the of bjectives o To release the market products that use energy and that also meet the requirements also meet the use requirements that energy that and products the market release To regulation sub-legal relevant eco design, defined as with the for the demands and for a guarantee issue to and facilities combined highly-efficient of records keep To facilities combined the electrical highly efficient the of origin by energy produced a certain type of distribution for the systems of the operators to tasks allocate To boost to the materials energy and of the suppliers to as well as energy gas, of or energy efficiency of measures implementation energy services deals for concluding for Opportunities cent energy reduction until 2020, closing in on EU’s set target of 20 percent energy 20 percent of set target EU’s in on 2020, closing until energy reduction cent 2020 by reduction Macedonia of Republic the in Saving Energy for Measures Indicative the on Decree 112 - 24.08.2011) (Official Gazette 2012 characteristics, energy building on (Draft) Guidelines 2012. control, on energy (Draft) Guidelines - to aiming 2008-2020 Macedonia, of Republic the of Strategy Development Energy 2009 January 2030, wards 2020 until Macedonia of Republic the in Efficiency Energy Promoting on Strategy until Macedonia of Republic the in Sources Energy Renewable of Use the for Strategy 2020 2018. until Macedonia of Republic the in Efficiency Energy on Plan Action First of the The 2008-2020. EE Government for Plan) Action (National NPAA Second 14.5 perin view of measures additional develop should Macedonia of Republic Program for realization of the Strategy on Energy Development of the Republic of of Republic the of Development Energy on Strategy the of realization for Program Macedonia buildings. public EE in for Program National To maintain, revitalize and modernize the actual infrastructure and to build new, new, build modernize to the actual and infrastructureand revitalize maintain, To energy production the purpose the meeting needs for modern of infrastructure for and usage • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 5.2.2.2. Strategic 5.2.2.2. Strategic meeting energy includes: for policy targets legislation national The In their final phase of preparation are: preparation of phase their final In 5.2.2.3. Basic Strategy on Energy Development of the Republic of Macedonia was prepared by the by prepared was Macedonia of the Republic of Energy on Development Strategy the of the Government by adopted was Arts Science and and of Academy Macedonian 2010. in April Macedonia of Republic - the Strat end-consumers, to energy quality supply and safe the purpose providing of For basic objectives: egy the following sets out Macedonia Macedonia Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia sector aresector as follows: The strategy’s measures forthe EEin residential, commercial, industrial transportand • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Wider usage of railway transport. No Automobiles Day ofQuality -standards fuel ° ° ofRenewal national car park Mechanisms for clean development Improved heating systems Combined production energy Inspections of boilers/air-conditioning systems ManagementEnergy Street lights collectors energy Solar Financial support to physical entities, investments for EE Information centers, information campaigns for EE andLabeling standards for features energy appliances of electrical and equipment for codices Energy building facilities and certification social housing in efficiency Energy European and market energy natural of electrical gas To integrate of sector Republic the energy the of Macedonia regional inthe and To increase usage the of renewable resources of energy To increase usage the of natural gas production energy and for of solar energy) electrical purpose the To domestic use resources of lignite, reserves (the hydro-energy potential, wind usage of energy To improve the in efficiency transport,production, energy distribution the and ° ° Promotion of usage wider of bicycles Introduction of tramway inSkopje 130 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - - reen g and for “ for EE and trategy for s 131 46 olicy and p

45 ducational egislation e l is an integral part of the National Program, providing for the adoption of Law Law of the adoption for providing Program, the National part of integral an is ational ational olicy and and olicy ducation e Labor Law (Official Gazette 80/93-2007). Labor (Official Law Gazette 7/08, Macedonia of ofthe Republic (Official Gazette Education Adult on Law 17/11, 51/11). by registry and kept documentation of the form and the contents of Guidelines education. adult for bodies institutions and gy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Sources, Skopje, December 2012, p. 28. (in Macedonian). Macedonian). p. 28. (in gyDecember 2012, Skopje, Energy Efficiencyand Renewable Sources, 4. p. ibid. skills – Macedonia, up Build to: According According to: Build up skills – Macedonia: Report on the capacities of the construction sector in the field of Ener of sector thein field the construction of the capacities Report on skills Macedonia: – up Build to: According • • • obs” obs” j 46 45 According to the National Registry of Professions in the Republic of Macedonia there are are there Macedonia of in the Republic Registry Professions of the National to According are of which 79 build in sector, the professions 113 specific and professions of 23 groups RES requirements. EE and in implementing involved directly of energydirect efficiency in the field - measures indicative the national of Implementation who should in 23 professions workers 9,000 additional of the engagement depends on ly be the secured should from workers Future trainings. skill-improvement in priority have 5.2.3.1. P The National education system in the Republic of Macedonia covers formal and non-for and formal covers Macedonia of in Republic the system education National The in state carried out education institutionalized is education adult Formal mal education. and plans appropriate following full as part-time education, or universities private and curricula. 5.2.3. N National Program for for Program the National adopted Macedonia of the Republic of 2006, the Assembly In of Republic the in Education Adult for Program 2005-2015. The Education, of Development Macedonia - Center institution a public of the establishment 2008) and (January Education Adult on general ofthe part constitutive as a education adult defines This law Education. Adult for Macedonia. of in the Republic system education for institution public a legalby actas a established was Education Adult for The Center the by founded legal entity separate a as and Macedonia of in the Republic education adult a functional, to create is mission center’s The Macedonia. of the Republic of government opportunities provide and education adult of system EU compatible and contemporary of needsmeetingthe population. the qualifications of attainment for adult for curriculumstandards professional the other develops things, among center, The of adopted a catalogue publishes curricula adults, for verifies the education education, a publishes the Ministry on website, public it makes and curricula adults education for it makes and education adult for licensedand institutions verified bodiesand of catalogue on the suggestions gives Education Adult of The the ministryCouncil on website. public education. adult of development for strategy includes: education non-formal regulating legislation national The 5.2.3.2. National Educational System System Educational 5.2.3.2. National Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia mentioned, however. of work practical plus 10hours of testing, oral both and written exams. EEor RESare not for installers covering joinery 220hours in70hours subdivided plus of 140hours theory grams in Macedonia, none of field in which the of EE Closest toor RES. trainingtheit is According to Center the for Adult Education there are adult 11verified education pro- ployment agencies, professional universities, bodies, non-governmental organizations etc. cation unions, schools, elementary trade schools), high chambers and associations, em- centers, foreign language centers, computer literacy centers, centers, advisory adult edu - tutions for adult education (worker’s universities, educational consultingtraining firms, Adult education providers include, among others: public and private insti- specialized associations of citizens or individual trainers. education institutions, professional development centers, employers partners, and social Lawthe on Adult Education public can be they and private adult education adult bodies, Yet, providers there are other service also field inthe of adulteducation. According to for Adult Education, of Council Adult Education, Policy. of and and Labor Ministry Social of Education Ministry and of country: Science Republicin the the of Macedonia, Center system. State and public institutions are main the providers incharge of adult education A number of institutions Republic inthe of Macedonia make up education the for adults 5.2.3.3. Accreditation trainings (five-dayseminars) or courses (40 hours over 32 months). forthorized adult education. Trainings are organized as one- or two-day seminars, weekly offered equipmentby and construction material producers as well as by institutions au- There aresome trainings providedbeyond the vocationaleducation trainingand system, ment heating installation. installation training program is only the one providing training for and solar energy pave- on interest the and number of attendees completing trainings the annually. The electrical have verified as providers been craftof training.technical this In regard, there is no data training of plasterers and fitters, trainingand of exterior plasterers. Only eight institutions far,So three programs weretheRepublic in verified of trainingMacedonia: carpenters,of adults. Program and institution verification proceduresbetweenlast six and nine months. ification of programs and implementing authorities for providing vocationaltrainings for The national accreditation and certification system foresees applicable guidelines for ver schoolcurricula. RES inhigh programs. Moreover, there is no strategy for green jobs and for introduction of EEand established in2011,but have they and experience capacity small EEand to RES verify ing authorities is inplace. Implementing authorities for non-formal adult education were regulatedA legally national system for vocational training and education with implement- domainin the of EEand RESshould additionally be specified. Thetypes of skill-improvementtraining for constructionthese specific falling works - with graduates. list of registered unemployed persons (12,978persons) or from school high technical 47 According to: Build up –Macedonia, skills ibid. p. 50. b odies and r elevant 132 t raining raining i nstitutions 47

- Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - rojects in Macedonia p urpose for the purpose of determining the purpose determining of for p , intended for the new buildings the pur the new buildings for intended , fficiency e 133 The framework of ESCO and the contracts for for contracts and the of ESCO The framework 48 nergy easures for the for easures easures easures e m m umber of umber of egulatory egulatory n echanisms/ r m egal and performance of energy services of performance the necessarywith shall be together developed sec - that contract the performance of the form with together and ondary legislation in Macedonia. the circumstances to shall be adapted - a man in shall be the new built buildings that pose which shall be guarantee of to and admin- Regulatory reasonable. and economically energy is efficient that ner of preparation ofthorough boost energy that consist efficiency measures istrative of level the minimum on instructions their support, for legislation and measures can marks. policy Other and measures and standards energy efficiency, acceptable of quality and and training, education staff equipment, of boost standardization technical documentation. the obligation for preparation of energy efficiency study during the phase of project of phase duringthe energystudy efficiency of preparation for the obligation which shall guarantee license, a building obtaining for a precondition as designing, the with Energy and on the Law determinedwith the measures of implementation Energy Buildings of Efficiency for Guidelines Energy of Buildings Codes for Preparation Changes and amendments of the Law on Building on Law the of amendments and Changes Assistance for establishing companies for energy services (ESCO) and contracts for for energyservicescontracts for (ESCO) and companies establishing for Assistance energy services of . performance ncreasing the ncreasing Businesses that develop, install, and finance energy-efficiency projects areprojects energy-efficiency Energy or called finance and ESCOs, install, develop, Service Com- that Businesses - there the energy through time savings, back over paid are and investment the capital initial for ESCOspay panies. Since owners. building to attractive making energy-efficiencyprograms and costs the upfront initial covering fore $7 which approximately of worldwide, projects of worth $20 billion for funding provided the 1970s, ESCOs have ESCOs have that estimates Laboratory National The Berkeley Lawrence employment. labor for gone has billion on directly is spent of 25-30 which percent States, United inthe in energy-efficiencyinvestment $4 billion provided enormous has area This building inthe sector. programs efficiency maintain and design, operate, install, to labor jobs. create and grow to potential • • • i 48 Together with the legal-regulatory measures, there is also a necessity for several measures several measures for also is a necessity there measures, the legal-regulatory with Together - the purpose guaran all of for development, the institutional and the capacity enhance to These various the energysectors. in in of efficiency break measures a continuous teeing the following: contain can measures 5.3.2. Support 5.3.2. Support 5.3.1. L The task for the rest of the paper is to try to propose, in a systematic way possible, mea - possible, way to in a systematic tryis of propose, the paper to rest the for The task jobs via green implementation of creation lead to could that recommendations and sures residential sector. onthe with energyparticular punctuation efficiencies for solutions 5.3. Possible Measures and Recommendations Recommendations and Measures 5.3. Possible of There are 15 vocational universities in the Republic of Macedonia whose work should should work Macedonia whose of in Republic the universities vocational 15 are There vo- is in of activity scope main Their Universities. Civic on Law a by soon be regulated skills and practical in knowledge providing jobs profile low for empowerment cational as well as levels qualification vocational as such years, two to up of areas labor various adults. and people young of specialization and empowerment for education non-formal Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia • • creation of demand and provision for ishigh, efficiency Mace- energy of services consumers. energy well as primary Although potential the private inthe for sector a significant rolepotential as implementers and investors as efficiency inenergy measures intended for target the sectors of economy. Private entities sector have educationboth and training of staff also andfor stimulatingthe multiplication of financial stimulating measures, as through well as other resourcesfor necessary convenient government through policies, capacity building and establishment of privatethe that sector can efficiency makeinvestments energy the under cap of ficiency. be has achieved through efficiency to buildingpartnerships Energy with It to increase activity of the is business necessary the related sector ef- to energy and on focus consumers.service mentation, more advanced management practices,cost reduction and skills better enable shall access to private services ergy capital, in project experience imple- partnerships Public-private provide clear operative framework, and sub-legal acts actions. tablished EEF should this justified be and conceptualized in a mannerthat it shall To prepare asound base for establishing an Energy Efficiency Fund : Before es- being circumstancesthe inMacedonia. legislation contract and that form the has adapted services to of be energy the to secondary contracts developed together be shall with necessary the services energy sumer, and bank the providers the of ESCO.framework The for ESCO theand What is aframework is necessary that regulate shall relations the among con the - paying bill. energy the somebody’s ownership or are to one responsible leased subject is who further for measures. However, can this only function are objects the when in cases under appeared efficient to be inother countries graduallyfor introducing the efficiency competentto be this ofrole, fulfilling but thetype ofcontracts it is infact that tenance. It impose that shall managers object the are trained and prepared inorder addition to current the responsibility for management object everyday and main- ESCO. In one fact, be managerialstimulated shall firm to improve its efficiency, in ization of savings certain arrangements offered such of as those services the by However, concept the of object’s management on contract based can cover real - departments or agencies,ministry or with municipalities. the antees provided by government, the contracts the that are concluded to be with the performance contracts contracts be shall kindof services with certain guarenergy appearance and existence eventhe of difficult.best The ESCO option for initiating with limited the transparency arrangements, and settled inthe trust makes the forwith efficiency will ical energy appropriate financial stimulus, in combination industry.for establishing services energy The vagueness theand politabsence of - currentThe andpolitical, social business environment not does provide support on investments, due to perceived the risks regarding long-term the investments. obstacle for at ESCO moment the is economic the climate that requires fast return formation. In addition institutional to all and financial greatesttherestrictions, stimulus for of activities the and both ESCO related activities the to market trans- upon based performancevices contracts. In terms, wider there provided could be a ownership or such related for of all providing purpose the to public services, ser Therepossibility is a to establish in companies (ESCO) private services for energy (PPP) of communal the public administration for en- 134 - - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia Introduction of new programs new programs of Introduction . - sav the best method for Probably uilding 135 b easures easures m apacity apacity c raining t donia’s participation in this area is limited. Profit and competition shall motivate shallmotivate competition and Profit limited. is in this area participation donia’s separate realize sector to the commercial and the industrial from owners private shall programs ofthese implementation cases, some In programs. energy efficiency technology, inefficient of replacement or radical making refurbishments to refer energy saving for technical measures and cases the in other organizational whereas will be sufficient. and between the government certain coordinated policy engaging By instruments, turned should be resources renewable energyand efficiencythe sector, the private of Some Macedonia. of development economic the overall of force driving a into and the regulatory policy, the general to related issues to refer theseinstruments and taxes the fiscal to as well as policy, framework, legal aspects, the institutional policy. the price-making of demand the bigger gets,the developed energythe market efficiency more The pro- two policyFirst, on actions. pressure puts products.This need energy efficient the could Second, productsenergy be simplified. efficiency importing for cedures - govern bythe supported couldproducts be energy of efficienct local production market, industry job and an a into energy efficiency turn could Therefore, ment. country’s and the GDP the secondaryfor benefits in excellent which shall result social indicators. - contribu effective have can (NGOs) organizations non-government existing The training, providing by theprograms, energy of efficiency the realization to tion They awareness. public services and raising for the consumers with local contact energy of efficiency realization and in the preparation role important alsocan have protection environment energyand efficiency on work that NGOs Some projects. awareness public raising on campaigns in organizing their leadership shown have units’ energyfor and efficiency self-government training energy efficiency, about environmentally are styles that life of acted catalysts as that NGOs management, energy efficiency related issues on seminars and lectures give that NGOs friendly, this issue. on perception stronger dialogue and public in generating which result Professional and higher education capacity building capacity education higher and Professional that refer to energy efficiency (EE) measures in the education sector on vertical all sector education energy in to the efficiency (EE) measures refer that the for Support universities). secondary education, education, (elementary levels higher for and grants equipment, new like laboratory research scientific applied - universi prominent at doctoral papers and master of preparation such education ties abroad. levels. all at awareness raising and Education all to shall refer initiatives education and awareness public energy of quickly, ing local and level. regional national, on shall be launched and consumers of groups de- helps that information from issues, of wide range shall cover These initiatives on decision-making to up buy to appliances household what about cision-making municipal level. and national at energy to efficiency planning related issues • • • 5.3.3.1. Education and and 5.3.3.1. Education 5.3.3. Institutional and and 5.3.3. Institutional Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 5.3.4. Economic and lower or tax onefficient no tax energy equipment and household appliances, convenient determining of price the both of supplies energy – policy as policy andtax well, tariff the Generally, initiatives these under one fall of following the generic categories: rationalized and initiatives investments fiscal boost to fortrying theof efficiency.purpose inenergy promotion. support to outlining the of program asuccessful for efficiency and energy investments Efficiency F 5.3.3.2. Energy following: 49 • • • • • • spending. explanation was that would this to lead better control of from Finance Ministry the (MF)over public the finances downclosed as aresult of intervention of mission the of International Monetary Fund (IMF)inMacedonia. The tablished Environmental Fund, as aseparate entity. Unfortunately, after 5-6 years of successful work,the Fund was Namely, in1997/98upon initiative the of of Environment Ministry the and Physical Planning (MOEPP) it was es- Here it must mentioned be that proposal the for establishing EEFhas to get approval of from Finance. Ministry the energy management.energy andport conclusion the of municipal contracts for services, performing energy indifferentciency fields. These cover, but are notlimited ESCO’sonly the to sup- fund implementThe shall promotional programs in order to promote effi- energy and probably from donor sources as well. gas), government subsidy for heating fuels and gas, from individual contributions come programs inclusively (such as building license fees and demands for natural Initial financingbe providedshall differentseveral form sources, and from the in- guarantees for loans the that commercial give banks from own their capital. rently giving loans.forbe used givingfund Thesoft shall loans or for providing For example, itmanaged be shall by commercial on banks basis of the cur them be maintainedfund The shall and managed by a subject outsidethe government. niques and principles. the program and that are they competent it when comes controls’ to energy the tech- capable of demonstrating that have they successfully completed authorization the try. Consumers feel shall more comfortable auditors energy if the hire they are be asobjects well as of having recommendations these uniform be across coun the - improvements and recommendations in the intended for buildings and industrial thorization ofauditors energy may help efficiency incorrectly identifying energy Professional training –authorization of auditors energy training: the and au the - tences of workforce. the employees and workforce the by branches and regions; evaluation of compe the - laborthe market and workforce; the qualification skills, and competences the of Preparation of analyses basic and studies stitutions. “e-government” and raising awareness the of employers, employees and state in - at national the level and creation of prerequisites for integration so-called inthe nition of results the from information the system for evaluation of competences as amajor components “flexible of so-called the safety”; application and - recog out for policies regulatory promotion of lifelong learning and career development provement of employers’, the employees’ and state institutions’ awareness; worked Preparation of proposals 49 Key principles of cover, shall fund this but not shall limited be to, the f iscal iscal m und established be (EEF)shall for of providing purpose the easures. for changes regulatory in the framework aimed at im- In different countriesthere are different economic 136

related to current the state and trends on - Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 137 such as tax relief and accelerated depreciation, are are depreciation, accelerated and tax as relief such

as investments for economic efficiency still remain popular. Due popular. efficiency remain still economic for investments as are an important way to initiate changes in the behavior and and in the behavior changes initiate to way important an are measures policy Fiscal in the tax improvements The energy. spend less that new products of in the usage the at without pays, really the polluter that thepurpose policy guaranteeing of for dealing for the options of one is taxation of levels the total time increasing same thesewith bottlenecks. rather the tax initiatives on lean more and more measures stimulation Financial a prevent boost or that tax measures promote could EU subsidies. direct on than tool tax policyused as a simple still is Macedonian often certain type behavior. of policies other the of goals with coherence large its serves without that the budget, the member behalf of on required are that exceptions with overburdened is it and perception. of ways various for states Directsubsidies to especially comes the subsidies, direct than when it cheaper considered usually They costs. transaction lower which have the ones because they are households, usually measures These high is enough. rate if the tax function well payment can in is or a recession undergoing is that in the economy weak performance have transition. - ex For effective. more are several instruments combine that measures A set of notes plus measures stimulating economic financing, plus subsidies direct ample, of notes and financing for mechanisms or subsidies plus regulations quality, of quality. with be accompanied should it but importance, essential of is Goodinformation mea - stimulating financial with and regulations with or measures these stimulating in parallel, be implemented should measures These complimentary well. as sures another. after one not to subject leaseare boostingthat homes energy for efficiency of incentives Giving elecpaythe - notusually building does ofthe owner a difficultis taskthe because in improving invest to interest economic an have does not therefore and tricity bill windows. double or insulation putting as such energy efficiency, vulnerable protecting towards directed largely are subsidies crossed Although prices in- if the influenced be could negatively those that consumers, of groups ben- greater have consumption greater with consumers influential themore crease, pressure general andthe subsidizing crossed Therefore, this social from efit policy. to the fact that they are often considered expensive and with non-bearable effect, non-bearable with and expensive considered often they the fact are to that - a tempo as perceived are Subsidies targeted. better now are these measures same new regulations of preparation for consumers, of mobilization rary for measure than market bigger a creating by technologies energy of efficient promotion for or thepurpose lowering of case, for the in opposite existed have could that theone can subsidiesthese However, technologies. energy subsidized efficient for the cost are in casesappear when measures these that markets on the effect a negative have continuity. real without applied Fiscal stimulating measures, • • • • • • • • customs fees for energy efficient equipment, capital mobilization for the purpose of forming forming purpose forthe of mobilization capital equipment, energy efficient for fees customs for standards and banks, regulations the commercial for guarantees funds, investment this issue. about awareness raising and informing for campaigns energy, of usage rational Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia towards development of for skills green jobs. ernment to increase range the of active the labor market and policies to of direct apart it persons, or 2.7percent of overall the unemployed population. This challengesthe gov- ofber persons covered active the employment with all programs in2009amounts 9,573 means that coverage the of other business isactivities quite Also,small. total the num- that program inthis 70percent are preparing those to work industry. textile inthe This of total the unemployed population. However, it into taken should be also consideration 2007, or around year. 3,000per This meansthat its annual coverage is around percentone program– the for preparing for employment, covered 2000and 25,000people between and programs new should realized. For be example, most the comprehensive program groupsin these of active However, policies. future, in the range their should widened be In principle, active and policies measures on labor the market in Macedonia are contained The shouldbe focus put the on following: and developing ones, new as well as towards determining target groups for green jobs. new government should direct labor market towards policies upgrading current the programs 5.3.5. Labor • • • • • ing subsidizing and salaries covering training find cost ifthey work. should offer avariety trainingof programs for unemployed youngpersons, includ- Programs for stimulating employment the of younger persons. Those programs attend work interviews, clubs, and other employment skills. grams that cover range awide of courses on how to fill out applications, how to Programs that educate shall unemployed the how to for look ajob. Those are pro - ment public inthe sector. ment programs private inthe should sector made more be appealing than employ- releasestax for employed newly individuals, and like. the Through employthese - of employed salaries newly the individuals, allocating grants for self-employment, Programs that stimulate shall employment private inthe sector, such as subsidizing labor force demand from of education aspect the and professional qualifications. should to enable that labor the force supply structure adapts to structure the of Implementing programs for labor force training.these Theof programs purpose sumers energy services. sumers services. energy sures for of having purpose the electro-energetic the companies offertheir con - should combined be care network with asocial as well as with stimulating- mea However, reform the inprice determination should promoted be inadvance and provideshall significant motivation savingsfor energy behalf theon consumers.of The tothe reflect costintroduction service. real the of of marketprices of energy The increase of is unavoidableprices tariffsbecausethe adapted be should in order for efficiency. energy more effective. Theprices of electricity are relatively low and do not providestimuli coverage of investment costs, and as greater the discipline of payment becomes become aproblem regarding increasing tariffs fortheof increasing purpose the groups that are exclusively for designed low-income households. likely Thiswill replaced being these with subsidies and measures care for of target social certain of price determinationodology are initiatives, built-in efficiency energy instead of on prices the of should eliminated electricity be inorder to enable that- meth inthe m arket p olicies and m easures 138

In coming Macedonian the the period, Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 139 On the other hand, it is evident that passive policies have significant influence onthe influence significant policieshave passive that evident is it hand, On the other of thesenega- policies range The greatest in Macedonia. market the labor of performances in case use to health insurance opportunity The rate. unemployment with correlates tively the in fact removes grounds, various on allowance getting as well as unemployment of to engage them encourages and employment formal find to the unemployed of incentive the for programs allowance and the health insurance Decreasing education. in informal this socially is but in Macedonia, unemployment of shall decrease the rate unemployed 30 percent. over is in Macedonia poverty of the rate that in mind has if one unacceptable - hap it protection, employee a high is of level there in Macedonia the fact to that due Also, between a wider gap of creation by market the labor of a segmentation is there pens that most are full-time employment, have in theenterprises, employed who are the insiders andthe with legislation, protected significantly are and unions in labor organized often part-time with en- but employed are or in enterprises, employed not who are outsiders with covered not is that a population they are short, In seasonal workers. are or gagement, ofthe so-calledthe validity confirms only This protection. employee on the legislation in Macedonia. market the labor on theory insiders-outsiders of Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 140 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 141 . Here are the responses given by Mr. Gjorgjiev: Mr. by given the responses are . Here What is missing is a regulation in the field of energy efficiency, technicalthat rules energyof efficiency, thein field a regulation is missing is What : According to your estimate, what is legal legislation in Macedonia like (e.g. Law Law (e.g. like Macedonia in legislation is legal what estimate, your to Q: According your for opportunities available the from perceived etc.) Energy on Law Building, on you that obstacles or privileges legal certain to refers question The business? doing not opinion, your in interested are We operations. everyday your during experience laws. the about comment your shall regulate this field, like in the EU countries for example. The fact that up to now we now to up The fact that example. for in countries EU like the this field, shall regulate importance estimated) (incorrectly theunperceived to due is regulations such have do not new in an investment as treated Energy often most is energy economy. in our of the role of Less attention made. import of theamount on information as and capacities production overall an having Not spent. is it of much how and where energy to to paid needs and is the what about energy, energy in heating has the the portion consumed about perception something is are, there many how about and are, it in participate that energysuppliers energy survival for a strategy of set up appropriately to opportunity an give does not that heating the fact recognize that we When us. ahead of the critical periods are during that in energythe consumed and that stake in energybusiness, the energy a significant has - rep percent 70 to objects up non-insulated designed in poorly and cooling and heating - the shall goals purpose be prevent other set of for that sure is then it loss, a direct resents will direction be in the right heading We energy. non-productive consuming from us ing useful is energy in that spent unreasonably of disposal our the amount at have when we energy effi- improving in investments To make on. and so traffic, capacities, industrial the less through return fast have to necessary the investment is it for ciency a building, of have to investor the of investments, the return the periodof after and energy, consumed entire The thein economy. potential additional whichprovides power purchasing greater harmfulof gasesis emission the to this due that is it and this will benefit from economy - protec heating in improving Investments protected. better is the environment and lower should energy consumption heating rational for systems of the implementation and tion Then, plant. a power like a new energy of producer the building with equal treatment have inthe sense regulations technical and energylaws efficiency itsshall place in rightful take stimulated. boosted and to, directed being limited, its of be to has place the central works, the building of functioning the purpose correct of For - the build the designers, industry, the building him that on is it and the investor, taken by in country the depend. overall economy and the local firms, the ing economy which even for quality appropriate object of an get should he invests, he the money For all spends, energy this being it much how be known should it phase the building during : S. Gj. Mr. Slavco Gjorgiev is a General Manager of the company “Ekspro” from from “Ekspro” thecompany of General a is Manager Gjorgiev Slavco Case study: Mr. espe - business thein construction involved company construction a is Strumica.“Ekspro” very are that (buildings buildings” socalled of construction “passive and cially in creation could “Ekspro” and cooling). of ofheating view especiallypoint the energy from efficient, Bearing asked this, in this all we sense in mind of in Macedonia. a pioneer as be perceived jobs - Green the Questionnaire of in the framework questions three answer to Gjorgjiev Mr. Economy in Macedonian X: InterviewANNE Gjorgjiev with Mr Slavco Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia he will save.he will quality plan from investor the which could precisely know what he invests and how much at time. this This meansthat we shouldtrain and create a staff technical capablemaking of mental For perspective. staff technical is needed, purpose but this we do not have enough evaluation of eachseparate measure to assess value the of measures the from an environ- opportunity for supply energy replacement. At same, the there should an be economic layer, replacement of doors and windows as a replacement for heating systems and the drafted to improve efficiency, such as installation of insulation systems the in covering an elaborate analysis of currentthe condition, according to measureswhich are being In order to really improve efficiencyof anexisting energy to conduct itnecessary isobject energy needed for needed heatingenergy and cooling. The standard measure is kWh for 1м themeasured efficiencyof isS. Gj. : Energy objects calculated theand with amount of through savings consumed. made with less energy tor not does have need an additional budget for repaying loan the he because provides this have investors infront of have who them has (which object The mortgage inves security). - interestedbanksThe shouldbe especially this, in theprimarily in placement, becausethey most investors, not does enable operation good nor increase amount inthe of work. currentThe economic conditions,with the financialto especially respect condition of as afirst theand most significantmeasure crisis that dealing for energy with ahead is of us. sures are regarding undertaken referring part the to improvement the of efficiency energy of economy, the thus making own their strategies regarding of set area.- this mea Aspecial S. Gj.: Many of countries the huge the realized role has future inthe energy development appearsloser investor the to be himself. knowledge. In manner, this there spaceto improvise, is still during greatest the which solutions there is no way to express real the value of advantages the contained inexpert by perceiving and energy environmental the value of suggested the measures. With partial sures of realization, their for of all improving purpose the the efficiency of energy object any coherent solutions, with no technically projects solid or any analyses with draft- mea have objects these appropriate protection. are these All mostly random actions, without as objects wellnew about as to think current the of objects theirs direction inthe of having is made by market. the It price is higher the of supplied energy that press investors to build Under current the circumstances, largest the improvement inthe part ofefficiency energy create more green and eco-buildings. cient buildings as well as towards consuming renewable heating energy. This, in will turn, engineering shouldConstruction heading direction inthe be of effi- constructing energy stipulated with regulations. the current The regulations do not havethis direction. insulation. tion, or trained staff to replacewindows and doorswith new ones that have better viduals for facade works that are performed for the purpose of having better insula - efficiencyenergy projects in the building works you do? example,For trained indi- Q: from the economic policy of the government. perience during your everyday operations that result from the work itself aswell as condition in Macedonia? Are there any possible privileges or obstacles that you ex- Q: Basedon that opportunities for your business, how do you estimate the economic What are the possibilities for engaging aprofessional labor force to realize the 142 2 per year.per Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia - 143 - the inves provide could the contractor and the designers sovalues, that the declared antee engagement we needincreased Thus, the necessary with investment. the tor benefits from on work can industryin the that construction teams entire and professionals competent of precisely have should effects. bigger Contractors have that systems and materials creating de- procedures certain with technology and in compliance they are that designed systems many enable can we organization of this way With manufacturer. the system termined by construction civil, architects, the in building: engaged are that professionals competent occupations. professional other and electricaland economists, engineers, There is a need for materials and systems verified by appropriate institutes that shall guar that institutes appropriate by verified systems and materials needfor a is There Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia 144 Green jobs: Case Study of the Republic of Macedonia , . , CofFEE, Newcastle. , CofFEE, Newcastle. 145 , Vol. 12, No. 4, Routledge, August, pp. 325-342. 325-342. pp. August, 4, Routledge, 12, No. , Vol. CES , Wien, August. 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