Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants 6(11): 365-378, November 2018 DOI: 10.15413/ajmp.2018.0171 ISSN: 2315-7720 ©2018 Academia Publishing

Research Paper

Ethnomedicinal use of plants by the highland communities of Kailash Sacred Landscape, Far-west Nepal

. Accepted 19th November, 2018

ABSTRACT

Indigenous and local communities hold wide array of ethnomedicinal knowledge often leading to drug discovery. Ethnomedicine reflects the strong bio-cultural interface of the communities. Ethnobotanical knowledge has been eroding in recent decades due to rapid socio-cultural transformations. The present study investigates the ethnomedicinal knowledge of highland communities of Kailash Sacred Landscape in far-western Nepal. Following prior informed consent, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were conducted to gather and validate the information. The informant consensus factor (ICF) and use value (UV) were calculated in order to estimate the use variability and importance of medicinal plants. The study revealed a total of seventy (70) medicinal plants from thirty-six (36) botanical families. The most dominant families were Polygonaceae and Rosaceae. Roots, stem, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, young shoots and whole plants were used to prepare different remedies to cure eighteen (18) ailments and diseases. Most of the species were used to treat gastro-intestinal disorders (15 species), cuts and wounds (12 species) and dermatological disease (12 species). Herbs were the primary source of medicinal plants (42 species), followed by shrubs (12 species). The average ICF value for all ailment categories was 0.84, indicating a high level of informant agreement. High ICF values were obtained for cardiovascular followed by cataract, tonic, cut and wounds, and gastrointestinal disorders. Species such as Tetrastigma serrulatum, Thalictrum foetidum, Xanthium strumarium and Corydalis govaniana showed the highest use value, that is, 3 Kamal Mohan Ghimire1,*, Minu Adhikari2, Yadav followed by Achyranthes aspera (2.63), Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum (2.0), Delphinium vestitum Uprety1 and Ram Prasad Chaudhary1 (1.67), Swertia chirayita (1.6), and Eskemukerjea megacarpum (1.58). These species with higher ICF and UV can be further investigated from phytochemical and pharmacological 1Research Center for Applied Science and perspectives. Our study concludes that the people in the study area are rich in traditional Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, ethnobotanical knowledge. However, the herbal practitioners and users are declining which Nepal. possess serious threat to the ethnomedicinal practices. We argue that the tangible benefits 2Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Lalitpur, Nepal. from such research can be shown only if they are linked with national and international benefit sharing mechanisms under Nagoya Protocol. *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] Key words: Traditional use, herbal medicine, informant consensus factor, use value.

INTRODUCTION

Plants and peoples' interaction can be traced back to the management of the resources (Gemedo-Dalle et al., 2005; beginning of human civilization. Such a long, dynamic and Uprety et al., 2011). Conservation attempts and sustainable systematic interaction has led to the formation of rich resource management practices are successful when the knowledge systems regarding use and management of plant indigenous and local communities fully participate in such resources (Lira et al., 2009). Documenting traditional initiatives (Gemedo-Dalle et al., 2005). Documentation of knowledge systems through ethnobotanical approaches is indigenous and local knowledge is particularly important to important for conservation of biological and cultural safeguard the rights of the local people in the context of diversities as well as, sustainable utilization and globalization, intellectual property rights and access to Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 366

genetic resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits ecosystems and diverse environments endowed with in the spirit of Convention on Biological Diversity and unique biological diversity, ecosystem goods and services, Nagoya Protocol. and a value-based cultural heritage. Indigenous people living on their ancestral territory The area is important for its genetic diversity including largely rely on medicinal plants for healthcare and they are its customary systems of natural resource governance and therefore rich in ethnopharmacological knowledge. management, which include unique knowledge, skills and Ethnobotany often reveals locally important plant species institutions (Chaudhary et al., 2017; Uprety et al., 2017). from such territories, sometimes leading to drug discovery Numerous sacred sites located near high-altitude lakes and (Cox and Balick, 1996) or contributing to economic snow-covered peaks across the three countries characterize development. Prioritizing high value species contributes the landscape. The holy Mt. Kailash and the adjacent directly to the process of bioprospecting (Uprety et al., Manasarovar Lake are the most important of these, and 2010). have been destinations for followers of Hinduism, The topographical characteristics of the Himalaya have Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and Bon for several millennia resulted in a variety of ecological niches that host diverse (Kunwar et al., 2016; Zomer et al., 2013). The traditional medicinal plants (Singh and Singh, 1992). Medicinal plants knowledge and skills, related to genetic resources and their play vital roles in the livelihood of rural people globally and traditional uses are inherited by the local people and their Nepal is not an exception. Medicinal plants are the major socio-cultural institutions (Atreya et al., 2017). Rangelands source of traditional health care systems and income based activities including collection of medicinal plants and generation (Manandhar, 2002). However, socio-economic livestock raising make-up the major livelihoods in the study transformation, land use change, unsustainable harvesting area. and climate change have triggered the loss of these valuable resources as well as, traditional knowledge in Nepal (Uprety et al., 2012; Kunwar et al., 2016; Uddin et al., 2015). Methods Several ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in Nepal (Manandhar, 2002; Bhattarai et al., 2006; Kunwar et Ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants was al., 2006; Uprety et al., 2010; Rokaya et al., 2010) and collected by conducting Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and particularly also in Far-west Nepal (Devkota and Key Informant Interviews (KII) with local people, healers Karmacharya, 2003; Kuwar et al., 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016) and herders. Semi-structured questionnaires and but many parts of the country remain unexplored. Few guidelines were developed to facilitate the FGD and KII. A studies have attempted to estimate use variability and use total of 60 informants including 44 men and 16 women, age value of medicinal plants in Nepal. ranging from 32 to 89 years, were interviewed during the Therefore, this study was conducted in order to field visits in 2016 and 2017. Respondents were mostly document the traditional knowledge of local communities from Dhami, Dhokare, Tamata, Lothyal, Bista, Bohora, Karki of Far-west Nepal - a potential place for World Heritage Site and Jagari castes belonging to Chettri community of Indo- and also a vast repository of biodiversity and traditional Aryan origin. Prior informed consent was obtained from the knowledge. local people ensuring that the study is entirely carried out for academic purpose and that the knowledge shared by the local people will not be used for commercial purpose. MATERIALS AND METHODS Consent was granted by the local people for the dissemination of their traditional knowledge. Study area Vernacular names, parts used, mode of preparation, way of application and dose were documented. Herbarium The study was carried out in Ghusa and Khandeswori specimens were identified with the help of references Village Development Committees (VDCs) of Darchula (Polunin and Stainton, 1984; Grierson and Long, 1983- district in Far-west Nepal. Under current restructure of 2000; Press et al., 2000), taxonomic experts and consulting Nepal these VDCs fall under Api Himal Rural Municipality of relevant herbarium specimen deposited at National Far-west province. These places are located inside Api Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH) and Tribhuvan Nampa Conservation Area (ANCA) within the Kailash University Central Herbarium (TUCH). Scientific name of Sacred Landscape (KSL) Nepal (Figure 1). The Kailash medicinal plants, their family, voucher specimen number, Sacred Landscape spreads across the Tibet Autonomous life form and use details were tabulated. Herbarium Region of China and adjoining areas of Nepal and India specimens were deposited in KATH. around the Mt. Kailash (Zomer and Oli, 2011). This is the The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was calculated to transboundary area delineated by China, India and Nepal to identify the most potential plant species in the study area conserve rich bio-cultural diversity and promote (Rahaman and Karmakar, 2015). ICF values ranges from sustainable natural resource management at landscape zero to one. Higher ICF value indicates that most of the level as this landscape hosts the world’s important informants agree to use the same plant to cure the disease, Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 367

Figure 1: Map of the study area.

while lower ICF value indicate that there is strong common in developing countries including Nepal (Shrestha disagreement among informants regarding the use of plant and Dhillion, 2003). Traditional practices and knowledge species to cure some particular diseases (Heinrich et al., regarding sustainable harvest and utilization of plant 1998; Canales et al., 2005). It is calculated by using the resources as medicine can only be preserved by formula: documenting such knowledge (Bhattarai et al., 2006).

ICF = (Nur - Nt ) / (Nur - 1) Medicinal plants diversity Where, Nur is number of use reports of particular plants to cure particular diseases and Nt is total number of plants The ethnobotanical survey identified a total of 70 species used by informants to cure that disease. used as medicinal plants by the local people belonging to 36 Similarly, Use Value (UV) was also calculated, which is the taxonomic families. Sixty eight species were Angiosperms quantitative calculation of importance of species in the and only two species were fungi (Morchella esculenta and study area (Gazzaneo et al., 2005). Use value ranges from 1 Ophiocordyceps sinensis). Of the total 36 families, to infinite. If numbers of diseases can be cured by single Polygonaceae and Rosaceae were dominant with 7 species plant then its use value is high. It is calculated using the each followed by Asteraceae and Ranunculaceae (6 species) formula: and Liliaceae and Apiaceae (3 species) (Table 1). In terms of life forms, herbs were the primary source of medicinal UV = ∑U/ n plants (42 species), followed by shrubs (12), trees (8) and climbers /vines (6) (Figure 2). Herbs constitute major Where, U is number of citations per plant species and n is source of medical remedies in the present study (70%) as number of informants. in other parts of Nepal (Bhattarai et al., 2010; Kunwar et al., 2015; Rokaya et al., 2010; Uprety et al., 2010) and elsewhere (Kosaka et al., 2013). Herbs are reported to have RESULTS AND DISCUSSION high presence of active compounds such as alkaloids, phenolic glycosides and cyanogenic glycosides (Coley et al., Medicinal plants play vital role in traditional health care 1985) that makes them able to satisfy therapeutic systems of the study area. It was apparent in the study area treatments (Lyon and Hardesty, 2012). Moreover, most that mainly those who are economically marginalized were species used in the traditional health care system of the much more dependent on traditional use of medicinal Darchula district are harvested from the wild except plants due to lack of alternatives. Therefore, local healers Eskemukerjea megacarpum (Voucher no. 212) and Selinum and the people of economically lower classes still retain the species (Voucher no. 74). This is a common practice in traditional use of medicinal plants. The use of medicinal Nepal (Uprety et al., 2010; Kunwar et al., 2015) and plants to treat various ailments and diseases is due to lack elsewhere as observed in Uganda (Tabuti et al., 2003) and of accessibility to modern healthcare facilities and Peru (Bussman and Sharon, 2006), for example. The traditional belief about plant effectiveness. Such practice is Fagopyrum dibotrys is a common cereal of the region Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 368

Table 1: Medicinal plants used in traditional health care in the study area.

Scientific name, voucher SN Local name Life form Medicinal value Parts use Mode of use number Family: Amaranthaceae Stem and 1 Achyranthes aspera L., 5 Datiun Herb Tooth problems Brushing teeth with stem and chewing leaves leaves

Family: Apiaceae 2 Pleurospermum sp., 18 Gaanon Herb Gastro-intestinal disorder Stem Oral intake of small piece of stem thrice a day Tablet made of 3 finger full seed powder mixed 3 Selinum sp., 74 Ban Jira Herb Diabetes and diarrhea Seeds with honey - one tablet per day after meal Selinum wallichianum (DC.) 4 Bhootkesh Herb Mental problem, spiritual, fairness Root Use a necklace of part of root on the forehead Raizada and Saxena, 175

Family: Asteraceae Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) Banmara/Banma Application of crushed leaves on the affected part 5 Herb Cuts, wounds Leaves R. King and H. Rob., 316 ro as much as required Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess., 6 Kuljo Shrub Hair fall due to infection on skin Stem Application of paste on affected part as required 220 Blood circulation and shrinkage of Application of the paste of plant on the affected 7 Erigeron karvinskianus DC., 304 Laalbeli Herb Whole plant blood vessels area Application of one spoon powder of whole plant, 8 Galinsoga parviflora Cav., 206 Ganejhaar Herb Muscle sprain, back and waist pain Whole plant two times for three days Cut wounds, to remove spines from 9 Myriactis nepalensis Less., 317 Kauwaatel Herb Stem Rub the stem and use paste in affected parts the dermis Two finger full tablet of seeds, two times for one 10 Xanthium strumarium L., 136 Bhainsikuro Shrub Diabetes, asthma, joint pain, Arthritis Seeds, leaves month. Apply the paste of plant on affected parts

Family: Begoniaceae 11 Begonia picta Sm., 22 Makarkanchi Herb Blood purifier Root, stem As decoction, one tea glass, twice a day

Family: Betulaceae Bhoj/ External application of the paste of bark with 12 Betula utilis D. Don, 33 Tree Arthritis Bark Bhojpatra honey.

Family: Boraginaceae Hackelia uncinatum (Benth.) C. E. Boils, Blister on sole, spine stuck in the 13 Solpatte Shrub Root Paste on the affected part C. Fischer, 221 body

Family: Campanulaceae Diarrhea, diabetes, high blood 14 Codonopsis viridis Wall., 12 Surmajaadi Herb Root and stem Oral intake of half little finger size piece on mouth pressure; constipation in cattle

Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 369

Table 1: Continued

Family: Caprifoliaceae Gastro-intestinal disorder, sour Oral intake of two finger full powder in one glass 15 Valeriana hardwickii Wall., 324 Mauremulo Herb Stem and root watery mouth of water.

Equal amount of powder of Valeriana jatamansii, Cuscuta europea and Tetrastigma serrulatum with Paralysis, Blood circulation problem, 16 Valeriana jatamansii Jones, 301 Balchan Herb Whole plant 5% of Swertia chirayita to make a power with the Vomiting help of stone only, make pest and apply thrice a day

Family: Caryophyllaceae Ghantephool/ Make paste and apply on the affected part only 17 Silene laxantha Majumdar, 313 Herb Internal injury, Boils, blister on sole Stem, root madur once Hydrate the plant and squeeze and apply on 18 Stellaria sp., 207 Akjaalo Herb Dermatological allergies, Chicken pox Stem, leaves affected part

Family: Convolvulaceae Two tea spoon full juice of plant in case of jaundice, for others mix two finger full powder AakashBeli/ Jaundice, menstruation problem, 19 Cuscuta europaea L., 302 Herb Whole plant with Viola biflora (root), Tetrastigma serrulatum sunjadi gastro-intestinal disorder (root) and Berginia ciliata (root) in one tea spoon water; thrice a day for 21 days.

Family: Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Two tea spoon full stem or leaf juice in one glass 20 Ajambari Herb Gastro-intestinal disorder Leaves, stem Oken, 49 of water, two times per day

Family: Elaeagnaceae Oral intake of two tea spoon fruit juice mixed Shankhadhar 21 Hippophae salicifolia D. Don, 219 Shrub Hepatic tonic and dehydration Fruit with one glass water with one tea spoon sugar, Chuk, Dalechuk three times per day

Family: Ericaceae Rhododendron arboreum Sm., 22 Guraans Tree Fish bone stuck on throat Flower Oral intake of petals till recovery. 210

Family: Gentianaceae Gentiana capitata Buch. -Ham. ex 23 Galaajhaad Herb Kidney stone Whole plant Extract of plant twice a day D. Don, 322 24 Gentiana elwesii C. B. Cl., 206 Baramkoila Herb Swelling of testis Whole plant Paste of plant, external use only as required Whole plant during Decoction of small piece of plants part in one Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Karst., 25 Chiraito Herb Cough, asthma, fever budding/ Root glass of water, taking bath with warm water with 305 is more a piece of plant for three days effective Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 370

Table 1: Continued

Family: Geraniaceae 26 Geranium donianum Sweet., 308 Palti Herb Chicken pox Leaf and stem External use of paste as required

Family: Gesneriaceae Corallodiscus lanuginosus (Wall. Two finger full powder in one spoon of water 27 Tampaate Shrub Stone and other disease of gall bladder Whole plant ex R. Brown) B.L. Burtt, 315 twice a day for a week

Family: Lamiaceae Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth.) Loss of appetite, stomach disorder of Soup of bark; one glass soup two times daily for 28 Lektulsi Tree Bark Benth., 24 sheep three days Elsholtzia strobilifera (Benth.) Application of crushed leaves on affected part, 2 29 Tulachha Herb Skin disease Leaves Benth., 314 to 3 drops twice a day for one week

Family: Lauraceae Neolitsea pallens (D. Don) 30 Kaulo Tree Dermatological disease Seed Extract oil and massage on the affected area Momiy. & H. Hara, 97 Neolitsea umbrosa (Nees) 31 SaanoKaaulo Tree Scabies Fruit Paste of fruit on affected part as required Gamble, 223

Family: Liliaceae Ghande Bish / For earache, Tonic, Asthma, Flower bud, Application of Juice of bud in the affected ear, 2-3 32 Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don, 63 Herb Wild garlic Tuberculosis Fruit drops twice a day until recovery.

Family: Melanthiaceae Stick on the breast until it attaches properly Tumor on breast, cuts, wounds, 33 Paris polyphylla Sm., 125 Satuwaa Herb Root beside the nipple, for other disease make a paste swelling and apply twice a day or as required

Family: Melastomataceae Dermatological disease, allergies, Depending upon severity of problem; 2-7 leaves 34 Melastoma normale D. Don, 94 Angere Tree Leaves itching in paste form (Bud is highly poisonous) Flower and Make juice of plant in water and drink one glass 35 Osbeckia nepalensis Hook., 129 Angeri Shrub Blood hemorrhage, blood purifier fruit daily for a week

Family: Morchellaceae Three mushrooms fried in ghee and eaten three 36 Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers., 9 Gucchichyaau Fungus Vitamins for pregnant woman Whole parts times per day

Family: Ophiocordycipitaceae Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk) G. Yarchaa/ Yarsaa/ Increase potent of heart, lungs and Mix with water or alcohol or milk and drink. 37 H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones Fungus Whole plant Kidajadi pancreases Single larva per day for one week. & Spatafora, 89

Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 371

Table 1: Continued.

Family: Orchidaceae Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Hataajadi; Depending upon severity of problem; roots paste 38 Herb Cuts and wounds, bone fracture, tonic Root Soo, 342 Panchaunle or juice-external application (Orally as a tonic).

Family: Paeoniaceae External application as paste well as drink as tea 39 Paeonia emodi Wall., 216 Sungraaulo, Heto Herb Piles Root for one month

Family: Papavaraceae Cardiovascular diseases, One spoon powder in each dose for 40 Corydalis govaniana Wall., 202 Ladajauddi Shrub Dermatological allergies, Shingles, Whole plant cardiovascular diseases two times per day, paste vomiting for skin allergies

Family: Plantaginaceae Hemiphragma heterophyllum 41 Rati Jhar Herb Dermatological disease, Ring worm Whole plant Apply paste on the affected parts, as required Wall., 218 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia Katuk/Katki; Decoction of three pieces (little finger size) in one 42 Herb Common cold, fever, headache Root (Pennell) D.Y. Hong., 97 Kutki liter of water and drink thrice a day

Family: Polygonaceae 1:1 ratio of root paste in water -1 tea spoon Bistorta vacciniifolia (Wall. ex Internal as well as external injuries, 43 Jelo Herb Root thrice a day for injuries. For tuberculosis, one tea Meisner.) Greene, 310 Urinary problems, tuberculosis, spoon twice a day Pigmentation on skin, cold, food Make paste of seed and apply as required. Three Eskemukerjea megacarpum (H. Kalinarayan/ Kali 44 Vine poisoning, Internal pain, wound, joint Seed, root finger full piece of root boiling with one tea glass Hara) H. Hara., 212 indrayan pain, loss of appetite in cattle etc. water and use as decoction for three days Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) H. Application of either paste or juice in affected 45 Faapar Herb Burnt Stem and root Hara, 204 parts as required for a week Boil one handful root in 750 ml of water and 46 Rheum australe D. Don, 188 Dulu Herb Cuts, wounds Root apply in the affected parts, Mixed with Gaanon taken as tea. Equal amount of Potentilla argyrophylla, Rheum spiciforme and Potentilla leuconota, make 5 cups 47 Rheum spiciforme Royle, 422 Taantari Tree Stone problem, Urinary problem Stem of tea from half little finger size, drink 3 cups a daily 48 Rumex acetosa L., 103 Halhale Herb Diarrhea, Digestive problem Stem and root Decoction of plant thrice a day for five days 49 Rumex patientia L., 143 Lekphapaar Herb Diarrhea, Digestive problem Stem and root Decoction of plant thrice a day

Family: Ranunculaceae Decoction of whole plant on the affected parts, 50 Clematis barbellata Edgew., 347 Jaibeli Vine Circulatory problem, paralysis Whole plants external use only 51 Clematis buchananiana DC., 155 Jaibeli Vine Circulatory problem Whole plants Decoction on the affected parts, external use only Application of paste of root on affected parts as 52 Delphinium himalayae Munz, 139 Nirbis Herb Old wound Root required Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 372

Table 1: Continued.

Depending upon age and severity of the animal. In Food poisoning in cattle and to 53 Delphinium vestitum Wall., 208 Atis Herb Whole plant case of human do not use without prescription of decrease cancer pain healers Mamiro, Chitare, Asthma, paralysis, weakness, Root piece, one fourth of little finger size -two 54 Thalictrum foetidum L., 26 Shrub Root chidchide dysentery times a day for a week

Family: Rosaceae Menstruation problem, blood 55 Fragaria nubicola Lindl., 42 Bhuikafal Herb Fruit Oral intake of fruit as much as possible impurities Apply the paste of root on affected area as 56 Geum elatum Wall., 137 Chote jhaad Herb Wound Root required Mix Potentilla argyrophylla, Potentilla leuconota 57 Potentilla argyrophylla Wall., 55 Raktajadi Vine Renal disease, stone in kidney Root and Rheum spiciforme to make 5 cups of tea from half little finger size - drink 3 cups daily Equal amount of Potentillaargyrophylla, Rheum Pahelphul/pahelj spiciforme and Potentillaleuconota, make tea of 58 Potentilla leuconota D. Don, 306 Shrub Renal disease, stone in kidney Root adi half little finger size to make 5 cup of tea, drink 3 cups daily Potentilla peduncularis D. Don, One drop of root juice on the affected part. Brush 59 Chinabhuri Herb Toothache/ brightening of teeth Root 311 the teeth twice a day Apply the paste of plant on affected area as 60 Rosa sericea Lindl., 109 Ban Gulaab Shrub Dermatological disease Whole plant required 61 Rubus niveus Thunb., 90 Ainselu Shrub Anemia Fruit Eat as much as one can

Family: Rubiaceae 62 Galium asperifolium Wall., 205 Phulejhaar Herb Cataract of cattle, goats etc. Whole plant Juice of whole plant twice a day Earache, pus cell formation in ear, Application of 2-3 drops of root extract twice a 63 Rubia cordifolia L., 345 Majitho Climber toothache. Allergy, bleeding of women Root day in ear, one spoon powder or coal of plant after delivery twice a day on the affected part or bleeding part.

Family: Rutaceae Use as decoction or one can take few seeds on Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew., High blood pressure, skin diseases, Fruit and 64 Boke timur Shrub mouth for few hours. Use decoction for external 148 altitude sickness, digestion leaves use

Family: Saxifragaceae Astilbe rivularis Buch. -Ham. ex Oral intake of juice prepared from, half a little 65 Ban marshi Herb Diarrhea Root D. Don, 217 finger size root, three times per day. Mix with Viola biflora (root), Cuscuta europaea Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb., Bhideti; Gastro-intestinal disorder and (whole plant) and Tetrastigma serrulatum (Root), 66 Herb Root 223 Paakhanbed menstruation irregularity two finger full powder in one tea spoon water; three times per day for 21 days.

Family: Scrophulariaceae Flower and 67 Buddleja crispa Benth., 323 Fushrapataaulo Tree Pigmentation on tongue Chew and spit 5 times per day but do not swallow Leaves Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 373

Table 1: Continued.

Family: Urticaceae Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Body warmth increase hemoglobin in leaf or fruit as vegetable for improvement in 68 Allo Herb Leaf, fruit Friis, 55 blood haem level in blood Tighten the fractured part with flower and leaves 69 Urtica dioica L., 176 Sisno/ Nettle Herb Bone fracture Whole plant with its stem for 6-15 days

Family: Vitaceae Equal amount of powder of Tetrastigma serrulatum, Cuscuta europea and Viola biflora Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Paralysis, Blood circulation problem, 70 Panchapatra Climber Root with 5% of Swertia chirayta to make a power with Planch., 303 Vomiting the help of stone only, make paste and apply thrice a day for one month

Figure 2: Number of plants used as medicine on the basis of life form. Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 374

Figure 3: Frequency of plant parts used.

known for its nutritional value. The species that are used to treat more diseases/disorders can be taken as candidate species for phytochemical screening and bioprospecting. Such species include Bistorta Parts used, mode of preparation and ailments/diseases vaccinifolia, E. megacarpum, Rubia manjith, Thalictrum treated foetidum and Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum.

Almost all plant parts were used to prepare different medicinal formulations: roots, rhizomes, stem, bark, leaves, Informant consensus factor and use value flowers, fruits, young shoots and whole plants. The most frequently used plant parts were roots, followed by whole Of the total 18 diseases and ailments treated, ICF showed plants, stems, leaves, and fruits (Figure 3). Preparation total consensus for cardiovascular, piles and cataract (IFC = methods include decoction, paste, juice, powder, soup, plant 1) followed by tonic (0.96), cuts and wounds (0.93), hepatic extract, oil and fresh parts. Seven species namely Bergenia (0.92), and gastro-intestinal disorder (0.92). Circulatory ciliata, Cuscuta europaea, Potentilla argyrophylla, P. and dermatological diseases showed relatively low IFC leuconota, Rheum spiciforme, Tetrastigma serrulatum and value, that is, 0.62 and, 0.46, respectively (Table 3). Valeriana hardwickii were used in combination with other Relatively higher average IFC (0.84) for all categories species whereas majority of the species were referred as indicates a high level of informant agreement compared to single use. In total 18 different diseases and ailments were other studies conducted in Nepal (Rokaya et al., 2010; treated from these plants. Most of the plants were used to Uprety et al., 2010), Mexico (Caneles et al., 2005) and India cure different ailments including fever, swelling and pain (Ragupathy et al., 2008). A detailed phytochemical and (28 species) followed by gastro-intestinal disorder (15), pharmacological study of traditionally-used medicinal cuts and wounds (12), dermatological diseases (12), plants is important line of research to pursue, especially for cardiovascular (8), genital problems (6), blood impurities species showing high informant consensus (Uprety et al., and anemia, pulmonary diseases and renal diseases each 2010). with 5 species, arthritis, cancer, diabetes and tonic with Species such as T. serrulatum, T. foetidum, Xanthium each of 3 species, hepatic diseases and neurological strumarium, and Corydalis govaniana showed highest use disorder (2 species), and cardiovascular, cataract and piles value, that is, 3 followed by Achyranthes aspera (2.63), B. by single species (Table 2). Although most species were vaccinifolia (2), Codonopsis viridis (2), Hippophae salicifolia only used to treat one ailment/disease (43/70), some were (2), Rubia manjith (2), Selinum wallichianum (2) and found having up to four different medicinal uses (Table 2). Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum (2) (Table 1). Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 375

Table 2: Medicinal plants used to cure various ailments/diseases.

Ailments/Diseases Plants used Ailments Achyranthes aspera, Bistorta vaccinifolia, Buddleja crispa, Corallodiscus lanuginosus, Corydalis govaniana, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Eskemukerjea megacarpum, Fritillaria cirrhosa, Galinsoga parviflora, Girardinia diversifolia, Hackelia uncinata, Hippophae salicifolia, Morchella esculenta, Myriactis nepalensis, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Paris polyphylla, Potentilla peduncularis, Rheum spiciforme, Rhododendron arboreum, Rubia manjith, Silene laxantha, Swertia chirayita, Tetrastigma serrulatum, Thalictrum foetidum, Urtica dioica, Valeriana jatamansii, Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum

Arthritis Betula utilis, Eskemukerjea megacarpum, Xanthium strumarium

Blood circulatory Clematis barbellata, Clematis buchananiana, Codonopsis viridis, Erigeron karvinskianus, Tetrastigma disease serrulatum, Thalictrum foetidum, Valeriana jatamansii, Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum

Blood impurities, Begonia picta, Fragaria nubicola, Girardinia diversifolia, Osbeckia nepalensis, Rubus niveus anemia

Cancer/ tumor Delphinium vestitum, Paris polyphylla, Rubia manjith

Cardiovascular disease Corydalis govaniana

Cataract Galium asperifolium

Cuts and wounds Ageratina adenophora, Bistorta vaccinifolia, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Delphinium himalayai, Eskemukerjea megacarpum, Fagopyrum dibotrys, Geum elatum, Hackelia uncinata, Myriactis nepalensis, Paris polyphylla, Rheum australe, Silene laxantha

Dermatological diseases Artemisia dubia, Corydalis govaniana, Elsholtzia strobilifera, Eskemukerjea megacarpum, Geranium donianum, Hemiphragma heterophyllum, Melastoma normale, Neolitsea pallens, Neolitsea umbrosa, Rosa sericea, Stellaria species, Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum

Diabetes Codonopsis viridis, Selinum species, Xanthium strumarium

Gastro-intestinal Pleurospermum species, Astilbe rivularis, Bergenia ciliata, Bryophyllum pinnatum, Codonopsis viridis, Cuscuta disorder europaea, Delphinium vestitum, Elsholtzia eriostachya, Eskemukerjea megacarpum, Rumex acetosa, Rumex patientia, Selinum species, Thalictrum foetidum, Valeriana hardwickii, Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum

Genital problem Bergenia ciliata, Cuscuta europaea, Fragaria nubicola, Gentiana elwesii, Morchella esculenta, Rubia manjith

Hepatic disease Cuscuta europaea, Hippophae salicifolia

Neurological disorder Rubia manjith, Selinum wallichianum

Piles Paeonia emodi

Pulmonary disorder Bistorta vaccinifolia, Fritillaria cirrhosa, Swertia chirayita, Thalictrum foetidum, Xanthium strumarium

Renal disease Bistorta vaccinifolia, Gentiana capitata, Potentilla argyrophylla, Potentilla leuconota, Rheum spiciforme

Tonic Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Fritillaria cirrhosa, Ophiocordyceps sinensis

Bold: species used to cure 2 different ailments (15/70); underlined: species used to cure 3 different ailments (7/70); bold and underlined: species used to cure more than 3 diseases (5/70).

Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 376

Table 3: Categories of ailments/diseases and informant consensus factor (ICF) in respective categories.

S/N Ailments/diseases Number of informants Number of taxa (Nt)a Number of use reports (Nur) ICF 1 Ailments 60 28 123 0.78 2 Arthritis 16 3 19 0.89 3 Blood circulatory disease 6 8 14 0.46 4 Blood impurities, anemia 12 5 16 0.73 5 Cancer/ tumor 14 3 23 0.91 6 Cardiovascular disease 9 1 9 1.00 7 Cataract 6 1 6 1.00 8 Cuts, wounds 59 12 162 0.93 9 Dermatological diseases 16 12 30 0.62 10 Diabetes 8 3 10 0.78 11 Gastro-intestinal disorder 58 15 173 0.92 12 Genital problem 13 6 21 0.75 13 Hepatic disease 13 2 14 0.92 14 Neurological disorder 9 2 9 0.88 15 Piles 6 1 6 1.00 16 Pulmonary disorder 13 5 23 0.82 17 Renal disease 15 5 26 0.84 18 Tonic 37 3 52 0.96 a A taxon may be reported in more than one ailment category.

Comparison with other ethnopharmacopia published preparation of herbal medicine is limited to a few due to from Nepal migration to lowlands for jobs and seeking better facilities. Many of the species recorded in this study are high value We found 14 new medicinal plant species from the present low volume medicinal plants having high economic study which were not reported in major potential and could thus supplement family income ethnopharmacological studies of Nepal (Manandhar, 2002; (Carvalho, 2004) and generate incentives for biodiversity Kunwar et al., 2006; Rajbhandari, 2001). These plants are conservation and protection of traditional knowledge Bryophyllum pinnatum, Buddleja crispa, C. viridis, C. (Hamilton, 2004). govaniana, C. europaea, Erigeron karvinskianus, E. We documented higher degree of contribution of root and megacarpum, Gentiana elwesii, Hackelia uncinata, Neolitsea whole plant in traditional medicine noting potential pallens, Neolitsea umbrosa, Pleurospermum sp., Selinum sp. negative effect to ecological sustainability of the resources and Stellaria sp. These peculiar species mark the (Chaudhary et al., 2017). Traditional knowledge and uniqueness of the study area also indicating rich traditional practices are important to consider in sustainable knowledge and biodiversity. Other species were also management of Himalayan medicinal plant resources reported and used in different parts of the country. This is (Ghimire et al., 2005). Furthermore, species such as of significance because an identical use of a plant by Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora and Dactylorhiza hatagirea different people from different areas may be a reliable are protected under government laws and highly concerned indication of its effective properties (Shrestha and Dhillion, species in the Himalayas. Therefore, sustainable harvesting 2003; Rokaya et al., 2010; Uprety et al., 2010). has remained as an issue in sustainable management of the resources (Larsen and Olsen, 2007; Olsen and Hallens 1997). Protection of medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge Conclusion It was observed that the ethnomedicinal knowledge of the community has been transmitted from generation to Indigenous people and local communities are the generation orally without documentation. Due to lack of custodians of local biodiversity and traditional knowledge. documentation, traditional knowledge about the use of These people have developed sustainable natural resource plants as medicine is at risk of extinction (Busmann and management systems over many generations based on a Sharon, 2006). Furthermore, people practicing the use and holistic knowledge of their surroundings. The present study Academia Journal of Medicinal Plants; Ghimire et al. 377

revealed rich traditional knowledge wealth of Darchula Grierson AJC, Long DG (1983-2000). Flora of Bhutan Vol. I & II, Part I-III. district of far-west Nepal. People are still using medicinal Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh and Royal Government of Bhutan. Hamilton A (2004). Medicinal plants, conservation and plants but the trend is decreasing that calls for proper livelihoods. Biodivers. Conserv. 13(8): 1477–1517. documentation of local knowledge. The species having high Heinrich M, Ankli A, Frei B, Weimann C, Sticher O (1998). Medicinal plants consensus and use value identified in this study could be in Mexico: healers' consensus and cultural importance. Soc. Sci. Med. taken for detailed phytochemical and pharmacological 47(11): 91-112. Kosaka Y, Xayvongsa L, Vilayphone A, Chanthavong H, Takeda S, Kato M studies. This will help to generate tangible benefit for the (2013). Wild edible herbs in paddy fields and their sale in a mixture in local people in context of Convention on Biological Houaphan Province, the Lao People's Democratic Republic. Econ. Bot. Diversity and Nagoya Protocol. 67(4): 335–349. Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW (2015). Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal. J. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ethnopharmacol. 163: 210-219. Kunwar RM, Baral K, Paudel P, Acharya RP, Thapa-Magar KB, Cameron M,

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