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International Journal of Policy Studies Vol.6, No.1, 2015

Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladesh: A Case Analysis

Shafi Noor Islam Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Germany

Abstract The char-lands are highly vulnerable to natural disasters in the Ganges-Padma River basin. Over 12 million char dwellers are affected by annual floods, erosion and struggling against livelihoods sustainability and stability of settlements location. The newly emerged land in the river channel is called char-land or diara. Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza (Seat 3) of Char-Janajat is a unique char which is located in the Ganges-Padma River channel where over 3000 people are affected. The settlements and people of the char-lands are under threat due to floods which have exerted a greater impact on culture, society and local economy. The six livelihood assets (human capital, natural capital, financial capital, physical capital, political capital and social capital) have been considered in char-land development approach, but this study found that culture, heritage and cultural identity could be included with the other six assets of char-lands livelihoods sustainability. The study found that the important issues such as socio-economy, livelihoods and their resilient to the impacts of flood and erosion hazards. This is necessary to control or adapt the vulnerabilities through developmental strategic policies implementation. The objective of this study is to develop an integrated framework and policies for settlement and livelihoods sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River basin in Bangladesh. Key Words: Char-Land, Development, Livelihoods, Policies, Settlement and Sustainability.

INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh is a deltaic region allowing some of major rivers such as the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) flowing through it (Bormudoi et al., 2011). The GBM basins stretch over five countries like China, Nepal, India, Bhutan and Bangladesh (Hoper, 1989). The drainage area of the combined basins is about 1.76 million ㎢ of which about 0.79 ㎢ is arable and 79.7% lie in India, 13.0% in Nepal, 4.3% in Bangladesh and the rest in China (Hooper, 2001; Mondal, 2011).Most of the rainfall (80%) in the GBM region occurs during the summer monsoon prevailing from June to October (Haq, 1981; Anwar, 1988). The entire Himalayan belt experiences 2 Shafi Noor Islam snowfall during the winter as a result of the western depressions, the intensity declining from west to east, which is the reverse of the monsoon pattern (Ahmed et al., 1994). A total average runoff of 1281400 Mm³ flows through Bangladesh every year and debouches into the Bay of Bengal (Haq, 1981; Mofizuddin, 1992; Haque and Zaman, 1994; Haque, 1997). The cause of floods in Bangladesh is a consequence of monsoon precipitation in the GBM catchments; snow and glacial ice melt with monsoon rain in the Himalayas and runoff generated by heavy local rainfall (Islam, 1995). The estimated total discharge is 1,369,000 m³ per annum of which more than 90% originated from outside the country which is making massive floods in Bangladesh (Alexander, 1993; FAP 21, 1993). There are no systematic records of annual floods available until the 20th century, including 1987 and 1988, 1998, 2002, 2004 and 2008. The recent flooded land area was increased from 35 % in 1974 to 71 % in 2004, comparing to the flooded land area in 1954 (Islam, 1995; Ahmed and Falk, 2008). During the flooding period, suspended sediment load reached as high as 13 million tons per day. These suspended sediments formed new lands in the river channels. (Coleman, 1969; Kelly and Chowdhury, 2002).

The newly formed sand bars and landmasses are locally known as ‘char or diara’ in the Bengali term are settled upon by people of both banks as new settlement frontiers and remain sources of perennial dispute among conflicting claimants (Zaman, 1989; Baqee, 1993; 1998; Schmuck, 2001). While erosion removes land, new lands re-emerge occasionally form river beds in the midst of the river channels where they did not exist before (Hutton, 2003). Extensive char areas have been created along the bed or basin of big rivers Jamuna, Padma and Meghna (Smith, 1996). In Bangladesh the char-lands of the three main rivers the Jamuna-Brahmaputra, Ganges-Padma and Meghna cover some 8, 450 ㎢ (6% of the total land area) with a population 6 million in 1992-93 (FAP 16/19, 1994a) and presently this char population has increased in 12 million which is covering 11% (MoWR, 2000; Thompson & Tod, 1998; Islam et al., 2010; Arifur et al., 2011). This new land is fertile and a valuable natural resource (Baqee, 1993). The char-land landscapes are of great importance for its exceptional hydro-geological setting (Sarker, 2008). The physical characteristics of the geographic location, the rivers morphology and the monsoon climate render the char-lands highly vulnerable to natural disasters (Coleman, 1969; Baqee, 1986; 1998). The Ganges-Padma is a meandering river and is highly affected by river bank erosion and accretion in the channel (Islam and Islam, 1985; Baqee, 1993; 1998; Sarker, 2008). It has been estimated that between 2000 to 3000 km of river bank-line experienced major annual erosion (Islam and Islam, 1985). It has been revealed that the braided channels of the main rivers are on average widening and shifting. With the result of that an estimated 87,000 ha of land were lost to Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladeshs 3 bank erosion along these three rivers during the decade up to 1993, while some 50,000 ha of land accreted (FAP 16/19, 1994a). An estimated 728,000 people were displaced by river bank erosion during this period, and many more people living on mid-channel islands had to move as the configuration of islands continually changed (Alam, 1989; Thompson and Sultana, 1996; Thompson & Tod, 1998). The sediments carried by the rivers have aggraded the river beds having negative impacts on the floodplain and the char-lands (Baqee, 1993; 1998). The Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza (Seat no 3) of Char-Janajat union is part of the Ganges active delta and is located in the main channel of the Ganges-Padma River (Islam, 2000). The Char-Janajat Island (bar) is inundated and eroded by monsoon floods every year, and in consequence people have to relocate their settlements and move from one place to another (Islam, 2000). The char people have to relocate because of the frequent massive floods and trends of river bank and char-land erosion (Baqee, 1993).

Millions of people live on the river banks and newly accreted land along the rivers of Bangladesh (Lein, 2000). Life in the char-land is undoubtedly a very special way of life. The char-land is regular subject to floods, massive erosion, char landslide and drought. The living in the char-land is a risky and vulnerable (Lein, 2000). The char is only accessible by country boat and people have to cross the channel to get the large hat (Bazar) which lies in the main land in Sibchar sadar upazila (Lein, 2000; Hutton and Haque, 2003). Their dwellers are displaced from the char and return to the native char when new land emerges in the river channel (Baqee, 1993; Islam, 2000). The relocation distance of the char settlement in this mouza is about 12 km range on average. The interval of displacement is about 5 years at the Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mauza. The main source of livelihoods in Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza (Seat 3) is agriculture and land cultivation (Islam, 2000). The sustainable livelihood approach (SLA) is a way to improve understanding of the livelihoods of the poor people as well as for the char- people. The SLA draws on the main factors that affect poor people’s livelihoods and the typical relationships between these factors (Morse et al., 2013). It can be used in planning new development activities like char-land settlement stability plan and char poor people livelihoods sustainability actions. The two major components of the SLA can be recognized like;

･ A framework that helps in understanding the complexities of poverty in a particular area. ･ A set of principles to guide action to address and overcome poverty (Morse et al., 2013).

A major portion of char inhabitants are involved in crop sharecropping, agriculture labours, 4 Shafi Noor Islam operation boats and fishing (Hassan et al., 1999; Hasan et al., 1999). Fishing and rearing animals are also an important additional source of income and food security for many char households in Char-Janajat union. Access to land is an issue in the char community and violent conflicts over newly emerging char-lands often involving fighting (Zaman, 1989; 1991; Baqee, 1998). The char-land erosion, rural livelihoods and cyclic displacement of people are subject to floods occurrence and erosion at the Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza of Char-Janajat union (Islam, 2000; Islam, 2010; Islam et al., 2010). The outcome of this study could be an important contribution to prepare a national char-land development policy framework in Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main objective of this study is to demonstrate ways to build on people’s indigenous knowledge and livelihood capital and to show how resource conserving practices can lead to improve productivity and environmental stability of char-lands in the Padma River channel. Further to make policies for livelihoods and settlement sustainablity in the Char-Lands of the Padma River basin in the Ganges Delta in Bangladesh. The specific objectives are as follows; ⅰ. To analysis the present floods-erosion and impacts on char-lands as well as settlement dislocation pattern and ensure its stability in the river channels in Bangladesh. ⅱ. To analyze the scenarios of livelihoods in the riverine char-lands. ⅲ. Discuss on important policies for char-lands development and sustainability in the river basin area in the Ganges-Padma River basin in Bangladesh. ⅳ. Make some practical recommendations for sustainable livelihoods and settlement location in the char-lands of river channels in the Ganges Delta in Bangladesh.

CASE AREA - DATA AND METHODOLOGY

The Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza is a revenue village of Char-Janajat union which is located in the Ganges-Padma River basin in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bangladesh. The Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza is under Sibchar upazila which is situated between 23° 15´ and 23° 30´ North Latitude and 90° 05´ and 90° 18´ East Longitude (Fig.1). The area of Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza Seat 3 is 1.7 ㎢ and the whole Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza area is 6.73 ㎢ and the population of Seat no 3 is estimated 1350 in 2008. The mouza is under Char-Janajat union Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladeshs 5

(area 31.94 ㎢) in the Sibchar upazila of Madaripur district. The whole char (Island) is termed as Char-Janajat and its area is 84.09 ㎢ until 2003. The population of the Char-Janajat Union is 13,958 until 2003, and presently it is estimated over 35,000 (2008) (BBS, 2007). The Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza (Seat 3) is an area bounded by Char-Janajat mouza, Char-Amirabad, Akter-Char, Boro Khas Bandarkhola, Bandarkhola union, Kathalbari union, Panchchar union of Sibchar upazila (Fig. 1). The Char-Janajat is located within the districts borders of Madaripur, Shariatpur, Munchiganj, Manikganj and Faridpur. The Padma and Arial Khan Rivers have influential role in formation, erosion and accretion of Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza (Seat 3) (Fig. 1). There is a Junior High School, primary school, Post office, Mosque and small Bazar are situated in Char-Janajat but there is no medical clinic in this char (Islam, 2000). About 55 % of the char inhabitants are farmers but a portion of farmers are involved in sharecropping (Islam, 2000; BBS, 2007).

Figure 1. The geographical location of case study area in the Ganges-Padma River channel

Source: Author, 2012. 6 Shafi Noor Islam

The study was conducted based on primary and secondary data sources. The primary data on char-land erosion, settlement relocation, people displacement, char livelihoods information were collected from the local people of Seat no 3 of Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza through PRA practice and informal interviews. An integrated practice of PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) method was used to develop char-land maps on erosional trends, settlement relocation pattern and displacement of people in the case char-land. The PRA method is incorporated local knowledge and perspectives, priorities and skills in the development process while facilitating the empowerment of local people. Essential participatory methods offer the local population a role in research and planning that can result in solutions which are more appropriate for the local context and longer lasting. Besides this, a questionnaire survey on 101 households of Purba Khas Banderkhola Mouza Seat no 3 (1.7 ㎢) of Char-Janajat union of Sibchar upazila of Madaripur district in 2003 and in 2008, and a three months socio-economic survey with char-land people in 2008 and recheck in 2011. Besides this, a geomorphological and anthropological village-settled study and questionnaire surveys for bench mark data collection were conducted. Complete enumeration of the households covering the land holding pattern, tenancy, agricultural cropping system and marking, occupation, demographic character, literacy etc were collected in 2003 and 2008 at the Purba Khas Banderkhola Mouza (Seat 3). A number of standard approaches for information and data collection and analysis were used including a review of literature to get a basic understanding of char-land development and rural livelihoods pattern. The secondary data inputs were obtained from different publications of government agencies, NGOs reports and research organizations in Bangladesh. Collected data was analyzed and visualized using VISIO 32 and ArcGIS 10.0 software in order to make the maps of settlement relocation patterns. The time series Remote Sensing (RS) imageries from 1995 to 2008 were used to investigate and compare the trends of char-lands erosion, settlement relocations, people displacement pattern in the Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza. This data and information was used to analyze the char settlement relocation pattern and tendency of community livelihoods stability in the char-lands of the Padma River channel.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The char-lands formation and development process is depend on monsoon floods and river bank erosion in the large rivers catchments in Bangladesh. There are very few research works are carried out on char-lands formation, development, settlement location and livelihoods sustainability Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladeshs 7 aspects. Some important research and studies are carried out by the following prominent scientists. The key researchers in this area, are Elahi (1987, 1989; 1991), Baqee (1993, 1997), and Mamun and Amin (1999).They discussed the eternal struggle of the people for survival on the western bank of the Jamuna River in Rajshahi division and described how they cope with the conditions and resettled on the river banks after erosion. Wiest (1987; 1991; 1998) discussed the cultural anthropology of the Brahmaputra floodplain and char-lands erosion pattern in Bangladesh. Zamman (1989; 1991) argued in his anthropological study that response to natural hazards varied in accordance with the background of the family. It is perhaps somewhat surprising that more people do not choose to resettle on the char-lands. However, it is a commonly held view in Bangladesh that char people are different and have their own distinct culture. Haque and Zaman (1994) stated that the effects to migrate the impacts of riverbank erosion in Bangladesh have been largely structural and technologically, to the exclusion of non-structural measures which might migrate the impact of riverine hazards at the individual and community levels. Baqee (1993) discussed that the settlements originate through the sponsorship of powerful elites and inevitably grow through a filtration process. These scenarios described the existing socio-economic relationship in the char-lands which become increasingly complex. Mamun and Amin (1999) discussed the perception of people in the vulnerable char-lands and suggested a number of strategies to reduce their sufferings. Haque (1999) provided an overview of indigenous knowledge and practices of people while coping with river erosion and floods. The earlier study on char-lands carried out by Adnan (1976) pointed out the dynamics of power in remote villages of Barisal. Currey (1986) documented the overall changes in a predominantly char settlements in Rangpur district in Bangladesh. Ali (1980) attempted to outline the evolution of the laws that operate in the char-lands. Thompson and Tod (1998) analyzed in their study the impacts of floods in char-lands and the potential use of flood proofing to reduce the vulnerability of people living in the char-lands. Schmuck (2001) discussed in her study on indigenous engineering knowledge of char people in Bangladesh, especially on Jamuna River’s chars. Barkat et al., (2007) delivered a general discussion on char-land in Bangladesh on political and economic point of view where he mentioned the char-land resources are indicated as ignored resources in the river catchments area. Islam et al., (2010, 2011) developed a model on the settlements relocation and people’s displacement pattern (2010). Islam also worked on development construction and linked with the char people livelihoods sustainability and char-lands stability in the basin area, where he proposed for important policies and recommendations for char-land development and sustainability. Sultana et al., (2011) discussed on the role of performance of char-land women for maintaining sustainable livelihoods. Siddiki et al., 8 Shafi Noor Islam

(2012) discussed on the status of river bank erosion and population displacement in a small scale scenario on the left bank of the Jamuna River in Bangladesh. The specific literature reviews suggested that, the opinion of Sociologists, Economists, Anthropologists and Geographers are almost the same. In most cases, the Geographers collected data and analyzed on socio demographic and physical problems of river basins. Thus, the problems of char-lands are not solved due to lack of proper research in these areas.

FLOOD-EROSION IMPACTS ON CHAR-LANDS AND SETTLEMENT IS PLACEMENT

Settlement relocation in the char-lands of Bangladesh is a natural hazard and common feature to the people of Bangladesh (Alam, 2000) and they have learnt how to survive with massive floods in the char-lands. The impacts of massive floods in the char-lands are tragic and vulnerable which has been demonstrated in figure 2 (Miah, 1988). The river bank erosion and char-lands slide makes the Char-Janajat more vulnerable (Islam and Islam, 1985; Rogge, 1989). The settlements, livelihood and the cropping systems are also unstable. The char people of Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza (Seat 3) of Char-Janajat are facing socio-economic and habitat problems such as settlement displacement, agricultural crops production, communication and small entrepreneurship development (Zaman, 1989; ISPAN, 1995).

Figure 2. Flood impacts on Char-lands in the Padma River channel

Source: Islam, 2010. Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladeshs 9

Figure 2 shows the impacts of floods and erosion of char-lands in the Padma River channel. In figure 2 there are 13 important issues these are severely affected by floods and erosion and as a whole it is the treats for stable char-lands and livelihoods. The boundary lines of char-land villages are often of great antiquity. Whilst, the possible reasons for the origins of some nucleated designs or forms of house and homes have been postulated, there are four basic ways in which these villages could have evolved in the char-land (Elahi, 1987; Haq, 1981). These are the growth from a single place; the agglomeration of several single place close enough to merge. The collapse of a pattern dispersed settlements are into one of nucleated village; deliberate planning etc. Figure 3 shows the number of settlements and relocations patterns in different years in the Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza (Seat 3) of Sibchar upazila of Madaripur district. This cyclic movement of people and their settlement relocation is occurring in the char-lands very hastily especially in the Ganges-Padma River channel (Islam, 1993).

Figure 3 demonstrates the char-land changing pattern and settlement displacement and relocation trends in the Padma – Ganges River channel in the Ganges Delta. The char village could have developed anywhere, but were united by territorial boundaries of the land available for the subsistence of their inhabitants (Baqee, 1993). The first process of development by steady growth from a single farmstead could have occurred when a family expanded and land was subdivided amongst the next generation (Figure 3). The resulting form might be loose and amorphous if there were no features such as a road or road junctions along which to arrange the houses (Bhooshan, 1980; Ahmed, 1985). Figure 3 displays the time series scenarios of char-land settlement relocations patterns. In figure 3 top left (1970) and top right (1980) which represent the time frame (1970 to 1980) when the settlement pattern was cluster pattern. In 1988 (Figure 3, middle left) and 1990 (Figure 3, middle right) shows the scenarios when the settlement pattern was mostly random and cluster. In 2000 (bottom (left) and 2008 bottom (right) shows the time series scenarios of char-land settlement pattern where the settlements are distributed as random and semi cluster basis, this is one kind of mixed of random and cluster pattern.

In order to determine the spatial distribution of the char people, population density per ㎢ and average yearly affected inhabitants under both scenarios portion of Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza were done following the bellow equation developed by Carlos (1994). 10 Shafi Noor Islam

Figure 3. Settlement pattern in: 1970 (top left); 1080 (top right); 1988 (middle left); 1990 (middle right); 2000 (bottom left) and 2008 (bottom right)

Source: Islam, 2010.

The population of the char erosion affected area is given by the following relationship: (Average population density of Char Mouza) × (Affected area of Char Mouza)･･･････････(ⅰ) Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladeshs 11

= (Affected population of Char Mouza)･････････････････････････････････････････(ⅱ)

= (571 /㎢) × (1.7 ㎢)

= (970.7)･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････(ⅲ)

The equation (i), (ii) and (iii) has formulated the accurate figure of affected population in the Char-Janajat mouza. Therefore 971 persons were affected by yearly floods and char-land erosion in this mouza. The above equation was used to calculate the yearly average population affected by yearly floods and char erosion at Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza (Seat 3) of Char-Janajat of Sibchar upazila of Madaripur district in Bangladesh. The population density of this char mouza was calculated through this equation which is 571 people /㎢. The equation also estimated that approximately 971 inhabitants of Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza (Seat 3) were affected annually and had to relocate to different places and come back to the same char when the new char-land emerged. The following case study demonestrates the people displacement mobility trends inside the char and outside the char-Janajat mouza of Sibchar- Upazila of Madaripur District.

CHAR-LANDS DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN BANGLADESH

The char-lands development efforts in Bangladesh are very negligible. Historically there were very few efforts carried out in Bangladesh. Two development projects were initiated in by the Government of Bangladesh in the last decade. The only Government project was the Char Development and Settlement Project (CDSP) from phase I to IV which was implemented during 1994 to 2010 in 6 coastal districts, by government agencies and 5 local NGOs in the Meghna River deltaic region. The objective of this project is poverty reduction through improvement in economic situation and living conditions of people in the targeted region (Nangulia char, Noler char, Caring char, Ziar char, and Urir char) in the coastal region where 30,773 hetares land was the case areas of the CDSP project. This CDSP project covered 6 districts of char lands with 112,393 char people. This is very minor considering the total number of char people is approximately 12 million in Bangladesh. These project activities were poverty, social capital and rural poverty information analysis including gender issues of the project area. This project also discussed about the local governance and institutional issues, political and economic issues. The project does not follow structure guideline or a livelihood framework. The other projects namely Jamuna char Integrated 12 Shafi Noor Islam

Development Project (JCDP) and Char Livelihood Program (CLP) of DFID (Department of foreign and International Development of UK) were initiated in 2003, although this project followed the livelihood framework but it was not a perfect framework for sustainable livelihood sustainability in the char-lands in the Ganges-Padma River basin in Bangladesh. Similarly the project was carried out in a small case basis, not a vast project for the entire country. Beside such implantation projects there was only a few research projects carried out by some prominent scholars. In general the there is no institutional platform or organization for char-lands settlement development and livelihoods sustainability initiatives from the Government of Bangladesh. There is not enough long time development projects are operating only some short term coastal and disasters preparedness and mitigation projects are ongoing which the project of millennium goal.

CHAR-LAND LIVELIHOOD SUSTAINABILITY FRAMEWORK AND POLICIES

In Bangladesh, few char related projects have been carried out. Most of the char-development projects were built based on foreign fund collections. Almost all the Char-land related project fits very well with the government’s secondary poverty reduction strategy (National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction 2009-11). In this strategy, water management, agriculture, forest, rural roads, land policy and disaster management are all focal areas for pro-poor growth to which the project will contribute. Supporting strategies include actions to reach extreme poor groups, support for better water and sanitation, especially where groundwater conditions are unfavorable (such as the saline coastal area), and adapting to climate change impacts for sustainability of char livelihoods. Usually the resource availability in char-lands are cultivable lands, green field, natural vegetation, grazing, various indigenous trees, open-water fish resources and domestic animals (Chowdhury, 2003). Moreover the successful uses of these resources are highly limited by the restricted mobility of the char-land dwellers because of the isolation which is further increased during disasters and natural hazards (Chowdhury, 2003). The selection of crops in the Char-lands is dependent on the quality of new land and is targeted to minimize food insecurity. A high number of species and variety is therefore needed to secure production. Both flood and drought resistant varieties of crops/vegetables have importance in terms of biodiversity in char areas. The selection preparation of food is therefore hunger towards providing food security in the lean period and highly related to the available resources (Chowdhury, 2001). Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladeshs 13

For example women dry pat shak (edible leaves of jute) as they are the only leafy item that can be dried in the sun and preserved for a long time. Another nutritious food called shidol is made from the heads of indigenous small weed fish or with whole fish if there is a surplus. It also contains a vegetable locally called Kachu. After the fish and Kachu, and Fen Kachu are pounded together, garlic and turmeric are mixed in for both flavor as well as preservation. Moreover some other popular foods are passed along within their indigenous knowledge from generation to generation. The indigenous processed foods include; Sutki (dry fish), Dal gura (flower of licen), Dal bora (dry pest of beans), Preserve sweet potato, Preserve potato, Dry vegetable (leaves of lincen), Pera gura (flower of pera or wheat), Gur (sugar cane molasses), Chira muri (puffed rice) etc, and are preserved in various ways (Chowdhury, 2001). On the other hand the affected char dwellers also need to think about their animals and energy preservation which is used in the critical time.

According to the sustainable livelihoods framework of DFID (1999), a livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living (Scoones, 1998). Through this livelihood definition there are 6 major potential livelihoods assets that have been found to be considered as the capital for the char-land livelihood sustainability model. The previous model and framework has considered only 6 potential assets as the important capitals. The DFID operated and implemented one project in Bangladesh in the upper Jamuna River channel where they considered 6 assets of livelihood framework. Based on the DFID framework of livelihood sustainability in the rural areas in Bangladesh the major and important two assets are not considered in the frame work. In our studies we found two potential assets which have been incorporated in the framework newly formed by us. We found Culture & heritage and Indigenous knowledge as potential assets in our research findings. Therefore these two assets are included in the new livelihood framework redesigned through our research findings on the char-lands (Figure 4). Figure 4 shows the livelihood framework model where 8 potential assets have been considered for sustainability. These 8 strengthen assets includes social-economic, culture & heritage and indigenous knowledge capitals were short listed and selected by the char dwellers through participatory rural appraisal (PRA) practices. Figure 4 displays a framework set of 8 livelihood capitals such as physical capital, political capital, social capital, natural capital, human capital, financial capital, indigenous knowledge capital and culture & heritage capital. All these capitals are the assets of livelihood sustainability in the context of char-lands and rural Bangladesh. 14 Shafi Noor Islam

Figure 4. New livelihood sustainability framework for the Char-lands

Source: after DFID, 1999.

The Sustainable livelihoods approach (SLA) framework is not necessarily dependent upon facilitation by an external agency for that livelihood is being analyzed. In theory is should not be possible for anyone (char dwellers) to apply this model. It could apply to analyze their own livelihoods and should not specify particular methods and techniques (Morse et al., 2013). The char dwellers believe that their traditional knowledge enables them to adapt to the vulnerable situation of the river channels of Bangladesh. Choura culture (the culture of char people) and the char traditional society is very important to them, because they love their culture and it is the cultural identity of the char dwellers. Therefore culturally and psychologically they are attached to their native traditions, customs, culture and heritage. This is why when the new lands emerge in the river channel, they, without delay come back to the native char again and become the owners of the new sand land. They start a new life and again make a small community. Therefore for any kind of livelihood sustainability the newly reformed livelihood sustainability framework with 8 potential capitals is necessary for sustainability. This framework could become a potential framework that could be implemented in any other rural areas in Bangladesh as well as in any other places in the world. Based on the newly formed livelihood sustainability framework the following policies are strongly proposed and that should be incorporated in the national rural development framework; a) Char poverty reduction strategies should be a special agenda in national development profile, b) Identify the most vulnerable char-lands in the river channels and actions should be taken based Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladeshs 15 on the vulnerability, c) Institutional development and action policies, d) Strengthening capacity building of local people, e) Reform of the political culture and recognizes the factors of socio economic improvement strategies, f) A monitoring and flood warning centre should be establish for char-lands, g) Local culture, heritage, and indigenous engineering knowledge should be considered and implement in char-land protection process and development activities and it should be included as fundamental policy for char livelihoods sustainability, h) An integrated national char-lands and islands development policy framework should be developed where all the proposed recommendations are included.

DISCUSSIONS

Floods, riverbank erosion settlement displacement and char-lands livelihoods are interlinkaged in the Ganges delta in Bangladesh. Over 12 million char dwellers are suffering the impacts of floods and erosion and fight against poverty and livelihoods. Char-Janajat is one of the worst and vulnerable char-lands in the Padma-Ganges river basin. Due to unstable char-lands and unstable char agricultural cropping systems the dwellers livelihoods are under threat. The study findings show that more than 60% dwellers are under poverty line and majority of the inhabitants are running within 121 ㎢ range and coming back to their native char when its emerges as a new land. Studies also show that a maximum of 17 times and a minimum of 6 times the people are displaced from one place to another within the char and outside the char. Due to severe flooding and erosion, char household members are forced to find paid work and safe land which includes migrating away from the char-lands. The majority of the char people are dependent on the agriculture, charity, and relief materials from government agencies and NGOs. Severe floods in the char-lands make vulnerable households and communities poorer. A detailed explanation of settlement and population density increasing and decreasing behavior has been demonstrated in figure 5. Figure 5 illustrates the settlement and population density of the Purba Khas Bandarkhola of Char-Janajat union. The historical settlement density was 189 / ㎢ in 1964, 163 / ㎢ in 1970, 117 / ㎢ in 1974, 92 / ㎢ in 1980, 101/ ㎢ in 1985, 61 / ㎢ in 1988, 72 / ㎢ in 1990, 59 / ㎢ 1998, 48 / ㎢ in 2000, 89 / ㎢ in 2003, 102 / ㎢ in 2008, 29 / ㎢ in 2009 and the density rate has gradually decreased and it is only 3 / ㎢ in 2010 (March). The increasing and decreasing behavior depends on the nature of floods and erosion, or char landslide tendencies. The average settlement density is 57 per ㎢ (in March 2010). The polynomial approximation of settlement and population density curve displays the normal trends. 16 Shafi Noor Islam

Figure 5. Settlement and Population density in Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza (Seat 3).

200 2000 189 Settlement Density Population Density 180 1765 Poly. (Settlement Density) 1800 163 Poly. (Population Density) 160 1600 y = 0,0282x5 - 1,1293x4 + 16,234x3 - 99,796x2 + 230,82x 140 R2 = 0,7867 1400

5 4 3 2 120 1141 117 y = 0,3843x - 14,419x + 192,92x - 1083,8x + 2191,8x 1200 R2 = 0,7507 101 102 100 92 89 1000 80 706 72 794 800 61 59 60 551 600 Settlement Density 48 685 Population Density 507 40 306 29 400 359 318 20 182 3 200 90 21 0 0 1964 1970 1974 1980 1985 1988 1990 1998 2000 2003 2008 2009 2010 Time (Year)

The polynomial trend of settlement scenarios show regular and non-regular behavior where the curve shows the regression value R² = 0.7867 which is acceptable for a normal tendency. On the other hand the population density of Purba Khas Bandarkhola mouza (Seat 3) is also follows the similar increasing and decreasing tendency. Figure 5 shows the population density was 1765 persons/ ㎢ in 1964, 1141 persons / ㎢ in 1970, 706 persons/ ㎢ in 1974, 551 persons/ ㎢ in 1980, 90 persons / ㎢ in 1985, 306 persons / ㎢ in 1988, 507 persons / ㎢ in 1990, 356 persons / ㎢ in 1998, 318 persons / ㎢ in 2000, 685 persons / ㎢ in 2003, 794 persons / ㎢ in 2008, 182 persons / ㎢ in 2009 and gradually this trend has fluctuated several times due to floods and erosion and socio cultural attraction.

The lowest population density occurred in 2010 and it is only 21 persons/ ㎢ (in March 2010). The average population density is 571/ ㎢ (Figure 5). The polynomial trend of population density shows (Figure 5) the normal behaviour where the regression value R² = 0.7507 which is acceptable value for a normal tendency. The present (2015) tendency of population density and settlement stability is totally opposite and difference from the scenarios of 2010. Presently the Char-Janajat mouza is very stable and the whole char mouza has been shifted from the left bank to right bank of the river basin. Based on this information it can be argued that the settlement and population density is not stable in Purba Khas Bandarkhola of Char-Janajat union of Madaripur district. The decreases and increases of settlement and population curve show cyclic relocation of people owing Char-Lands Development Policies for Settlement and Livelihoods Sustainability in the Ganges-Padma River Basin in Bangladeshs 17 to displacement through flooding and char-land erosion.

CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

Floods, riverbank erosion, settlement displacement and char livelihoods are interlinked in the Ganges delta in Bangladesh. Therefore floods and riverbank erosion are common phenomena in the river channels and over 30 thousand char people of Char-Janajat struggle against floods, erosion and poverty. Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza of Char-Janajat is one of the worst char-lands in the Padma-Ganges river basin of Bangladesh. The dwellers are under threat due to unstable char-lands and livelihood options. Floods and char-land erosion is the key reason for settlement dynamics and susceptible livelihood options. The Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza is one of the most vulnerable and unstable char-lands in Padma- Ganges river basin where the char people move and migrate because of unstable char-land and uncertain livelihoods. The finding also shows that the mouza has changed its shape and size due to erosion and accretion owing to devastating floods. Therefore the char inhabitants have been displaced 17 times and minimum 6 times within 50 years duration of char life which is a threat for char livelihoods and sustainable char-land development. As a result, the inhabitants of this char mouza had to relocate their settlements and migrated to the nearest flood safe and erosion free places. The floods and the char-lands erosion is a challenge for managing char settlements, cultural landscape protection, agricultural cropping systems, crop biodiversity and riverine ecology of Char-Janajat Island. It is necessary to find an alternative approach or adaptation strategies for sustainable livelihoods option in the char-lands of the Ganges-Padma River channel in the Ganges active delta in Bangladesh. The following policy statements are strongly recommended for char-lands stability settlement locations and livelihood sustainability in the Ganges active delta in Bangladesh. ･ Topmost priority should be taken in policy-making at governmental level in order to mitigate the devastating effects of floods and river bank erosion at the char-lands in the river channels in Bangladesh. ･ The char-lands have historically been considered as sandland unworthy of consideration for protection. As a result, char-lands have frequently been altered or lost because their ecological functions and resulting values to society have not been understood; therefore it should be introduced to the people as a common properly, its importance and community rights. ･ Develop a better understanding of char-land poverty and the linkage of char-land resources management strategy (Rahman, 2003). 18 Shafi Noor Islam

･ Enhancing people’s participation and community mobilization and access of the poor at the char-lands areas for resource collection and proper use for their livelihoods. ･ To develop indigenous knowledge base char-land resource collection, uses and management strategies and ensure social security of the char dwellers. Need the recognition of indigenous resource collection and management practice that should be included in legislation dealing with resource tenure and policy makers in the government level. ･ The community participation, local adaptation and capacity building, awareness education and applied research on floods and char-land erosion should be incorporated in the national development agenda. Local people could be equal partners in the char-land physical stability development through indigenous knowledge practices and ensure sustainable livelihood in the char-lands. ･ Political commitments and wills for the better management and conservation of char-lands stability which is necessary and potential for Government vision 2021 to eradicate poverty and rural livelihood sustainability in the char-lands in the river channels in Bangladesh. ･ Geographical Information Systems (GIS) should be introduced in char-land data analysis, visualization, mapping, planning and modeling for future char-land development planning and management. Hydro-engineering embankments or dams could be constructed to reduce the char erosion and settlement displacement. Moreover non structural means could be included as alternative solution of char-lands problems in the Ganges-Padma River basin. ･ An integrated interdisciplinary char-land developmental policies and plan should be developed based on the results of char-land erosion, the cyclic relocations of settlement and livelihoods scenarios of Purba Khash Bandarkhola mouza in the Ganges-Padma River basin in Bangladesh. ･ All the aspects of char-land studies and research should ensure future capacities for development activities. In such condition a Char-land and Delta Research Institute (CDRI) should be established in a public university in Bangladesh for graduate studies (Islam, 2010), and short training courses could be offered for the professionals for capacity building and good governance to ensure char resource management for livelihoods sustainability in the Ganges Deltaic region in Bangladesh

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Shafi Noor Islam holds his PhD in Environmental and Resource Management (ERM) in the Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Process Engineering, Brandenburg University of Technology at Cottbus, Germany. He also obtained his M.A. degree in World Heritage Studies from the same university in Germany, and M.Sc. and B.Sc. (Honours) in Geography from Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Currently he is a Habilitation candidate in the Department of Ecosystem and Environmental Informatics, at the Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Germany. His current research project is “Ecosystem Services and Food Security under threat in the Mega Deltas of Asian Coastal Regions: An Analysis on the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta. He published one book on sustainable eco-tourism and 53 articles on environmental issues as book chapters and in Journals. He has done some special research projects in Germany, France, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Italy, China, Indonesia and in Mexico([email protected]).

Received: December 24, 2014 Accepted with one revision: June 5, 2015