RICHARD GRAVES A serious guide to survival and camping Illustrated by Richard Gregory DYMOCKS ised and produced by Taylo lications (Australia) Pty Ltd 1s revised and updated edition published in 1984 by Dymocks Publishing Pty Ltd 12 Clearview Place, Brookvale, @ Richard Graves 1984 This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Inquiries should be addressed to Dymocks Publishing Pty Ltd. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data Graves, Richard, 1898-197 1. Australian bushcraft. Previously published as: The 10 bushcraft books. Sydney, Dymocks 1970. ISBN 0 909824 35 5. 1. Outdoor life - Australia. 2. Camping - Australia. 3. Hiking - Australia. 4. Wilderness survival - Australia. I. Gregory, Richard. 11. Graves, Richard, 1898-1971. The 10 bushcraft books. 111. Title. IV. Title: The 10 Bushcraft books. 796.5 Designed by M. D. Camp Typeset by Everysize Typeart, Sydney Printed in Hong Kong Contents Introduction 7 1 Ropes and cords 9 2 Knots and lashing 43 3 Huts and thatching 70 4 Campcraft 108 5 Food and water 173 6 Fire making 225 7 Animal habits 249 8 Travel and weather 268 9 Time and direction 290 Bibliography 3 16 Index 318 Introduction i Richard Graves, who died in 1971, first published The 10 Bushcraft Books in 1950. A cousin of poet and author Robert Graves, he was an enthusiastic bushwalker, skier and a pioneer of white-water canoeing. During the Second World War he realised that knowing the bush helped to save lives, particularly those of men stranded behind enemy lines in the island jungles of the Pacific zone. He founded and led the Australian Jungle Rescue Detachment, assigned to the Far East United States Air Force. This detachment of 60 spe- cially selected A.I.F. soldiers successfully carried out more than 300 rescue missions during the period of the war. Most of these missions were in enemy-held territory. All were suc- cessful, and no lives were lost. The key to the success of these rescue missions in wild and inhospitable country was survival. It was then, during the jungle training school period, that he started to compile the notes for the original 10 bushcraft volumes. Graves later revised the notes and after the war conducted a school in bushcraft for almost twenty years. In his introduction to the collection of these books Graves stated: 'The practice of bushcraft shows many unexpected results. The five senses are sharpened and consequently the joy of being alive is greater. 'The individual's ability to adapt and improvise is developed to a remarkable degree. This in turn leads to increased self-confidence. 'Self-confidence and the ability to adapt to a changing environment and to overcome the difficulties is followed by a rapid improvement in the individual's daily work. This in turn leads to advancement and promotion. 'Bushcraft, by developing adaptability, provides a broadening influence, a necessary counter to offset the nar- rowing influence of modern specialisation. 'For this work of bushcraft, all that is needed is a sharp cut- ting instrument: knife axe or machete. The last is the most useful. For the work, dead materials are most suitable. The practice of bushcraft conserves and does not destroy wildlife.' 1 Ropes and cords One of the basic skills needed in bushcraft is the ability to join or tie poles or sticks together. The only method avail- able is to use lashings. Although the ready availability these days of cheap lightweight and extremely strong nylon ropes have made their inclusion almost automatic in any 'survival' bush kit, emergencies can arise. Under these circumstances ropes made from bush materials can be the key to survival. The ability to spin or plait fibres into ropes or cords is one of the oldest of all primitive skills. The basic method is sim- ple and has remained unchanged for thousands of years. You can find the material from which to spin or plait ropes or cords almost anywhere in the bush. Any fibrous material which has reasonable length, moderate strength and is flex- ible or pliable can be used. These three properties are the ones to look for when selecting materials. They can be found in many vines, grasses, barks, palms and in the hair of ani- mals. The breaking strain of handmade ropes and cords varies greatly with different materials. Because of this variation it is essential that the rope or cord be tested before being actu- ally put to use. The list of uses to which handmade ropes and cords can be put is almost endless. The making of ropes and cords .Almost any natural fibrous material can be spun into good, serviceable rope or cord. Many materials which have a length of 30 to 60 cm or more can be plaited or braided. Ropes of up to 5 and 10 cm diameter can be 'laid' by four people, and breaking strains for bushmade rope of 5 cm dia- meter range from 50 kg to as high as 1000 kg. BREAKINGSTRAINSTaking a three-lay rope of 3 cm diameter as standard, the following list of breaking strains gives an idea or guide to the general strengths of various bush mate- rials. For safety's sake always regard the lowest figure as the actual breaking strain unless tests have shown otherwise. Green grass 50-100 kg Bark fibre 200 - 700 kg Palm fibre 300 - 1000 kg Sedges 900 - 1000 kg Lianas (monkey vines) 250 - 300 kg Lawyer vine (Calamus) 500 kg (10 mm diameter, unskinned) PRINCIPLESOF SELECTING ROPE-MAKING MATERIALS TO discover whether or not a material is suitable for rope-making it must have four essential qualities. It must be reasonably long in the fibre It must have strength It must be pliable It must have adhesion or grip so that the fibres will bite into one another There are three simple tests to-find out if any material is suitable. First pull on a length to test it for strength. If it does not immediately snap or pull to pieces, it should be twisted between the fingers and the fibres should be rolled together. If it will stand this and not snap apart, tie a knot in the mate- rial and slowly and gently tighten it. If the material does not cut in on itself and you can pull the knot reasonably tight, it is suitable for rope-making, providing it will bite or grip together and does not slip apart instantly. You will find these qualities in all sorts of plants; in ground vines, .in most of the longer grasses, in some of the water Strong bush ropes can be made only if the materials are suitable. The fibres, as in grass or bark, mzlst be long enough to be worked, they must be able to be twisted and be pliable enough to take a simple knot without snapping. weeds and rushes and in the inner bark of many trees and shrubs. Some green, freshly gathered materials may be stiff or unyielding. However, they still may be suitable for rope- making. Pass them over the flames of a hot fire for 30 sec- onds or so. The heat will often cause the sap to burst through some of the cell structures making the material pliable. If material is hard or stzjfit can be passed over afire to make it more pliable. i Apart from fibre sources in the plants mentioned above some seaweeds can be useful sources for rope-making mate- rial as can members of the large aloe family. GATHERINGAND PREPARING MATERIALS In some plants there may be a high concentration of vegetable gum. This can often be removed by soaking in water (such as the back-eddy of a stream or in a waterhole) for several hours until the material is cleaned. A running stream is suitable only if the material can be anchored or secured. Large stones are useful for this. If large enough containers are available the material can be boiled. A third method is to dry it out thoroughly in the sun and then tease the fibres out. Some materials have to be used green if any strength is required. Those that should be used green include the sedges, water rushes, grasses and liana vines. Grasses, sedges and water rushes should be cut and never pulled out of the ground. Cutting above ground level with a sharp knife or Grasses, sedges and whesshould always be cut and not pulled out by the roots. Pulling them out destroys the plant and the nuttq-a1 environ- ment. A machete is harvesting. But pulling it out destroys the root structure and kills the plant. When harvesting, work over as wide an area as possible. Do not completely clear any one site. Remember to leave at least some stands of the plant to go to seed to allow for regrowth. Thus with the sedges and grasses be particularly careful with your harvest. Cut what you require above ground level and take only from the biggest clumps. Palm fibre in tropical or sub-tropical regions used to be regularly harvested as a matter of course and was put to many uses. It is found at the junction of the leaf and the palm trunk. It can also be found lying on the ground beneath many species of palm. It is one of the best rope- and cord-making materials available. The lawyer vine or Calamus must be approached with some caution. Normally found in the rainforest areas of northern Queensland it can also be obtained (although it is rarer) in similar areas in the southern part of that State and in northern New South Wales.