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Examining the functions of graphics/ art work in literary magazines

Magruder, Ralph Clark, Ph.D. The Ohio State University, 1989

UMI 300N.ZeebRd Ann Aibor, MI 48106

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Copyrighted materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the authors university library.

These consist of pages: Figures 1-30

UMI

EXAMINING THE FUNCTIONS OF GRAPHICS/ ART WORK IN LITERARY MAGAZINES

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Ralph Clark Magruder, B.B.A., B.A., M.F.A. * * $ * *

The Ohio State University

1989

Dissertation Committee: Kenneth Marantz

Nancy MacGregor Advisor J. Ronald Green Department of Art Education DEDICATION

To Champ and Helen Magruder, James Magruder, Jeff Magruder.

ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to the following for their generous permission to reproduce images from their publications: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc. Dover Publications, Inc. Edward Lense of Botticelli James Haining of Salt Lick Jim Villani of Pigiron John Witte of The Northwest Review Leslie Willson of Dimension Morty Sklar of The Spirit That Moves Us Press

I am also indebted to my friends in Columbus, Ohio, and in Kingsville, Texas, for insisting that there be made order out of disorder, sense out of nonsense, and for contributing greatly to my understanding in the process of working on this study. For such errors as remain, I am solely responsible. I also wish to thank my committee for their time, insight, and encouragement in facing the task of which this study is the result.

iii •

VITA

1961 B.B.A., Texas Western College, El Paso, Texas

1967 B.A., University of Texas-El Paso, El Paso, Texas

1968 Art teacher, Bassett Jr. High, El Paso, Texas

1969 Art teacher, Austin High School, El Paso, Texas

1972 M.F.A., Arizona State University, Terape, Arizona

1972-Present Texas A & I University, Kingsville, Texas. Tenured, Full Professor

FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Drawing Studies in Rendition: John Drocopolis, Mark Regalado, Steve Edwards Major Field: Sculpture Studies in Surfaces: Ben Goo, Nat Woods, Mike Markham Major Field: Art Education Studies in Literary Magazines: Kenneth Marantz

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii VITA iv LIST OF FIGURES vii INTRODUCTION ' 1 CHAPTER . PAGE I. PART ONE: THE YELLOW BOOK 20 Part Two: Beyond The Yellow Book.. 67 Notes Chapter 1 110 II. A STUDY OF SELECTED MAGAZINES 112 Part One: Publishing The Literary Magazine 113 Part Two: The Study Overview 123 Part Three: The Continuum 132 Part Four: The Survey Undertaken.. 145 Notes Chapter II 153 III. VISUAL IMAGES AND TEXT 154 Part One: Text And Image 155 Part Two: Posters 163 Part Three: Cover Art 191 Part Four: Beyond The Single Image 201 Part Five: Phototexts 210 Part Six: Matching 226 Notes Chapter III 235 IV. PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE WORK OF ART 237 Part One: The Photograph 238 Part Two: Photography In Literary Magazines 265 Part Three: Literary Magazines As Works Of Art 284 Notes Chapter IV 300

v CHAPTER PAGE V. TRENDS AND SUGGESTIONS 301 Part One: Answering The Questions. 302 Part Two: Desktop Publishing 315 Part Three: Color 326 Part Four: Implications For Art Education 332 Notes Chapter V 340 APPENDICES PAGE A Ohio Literary Magazines 342 B University Sponsored Texas Literary Magazines 343 C Texas Private Presses 346 D Nominated Literary Magazines 347 E Original Study List 349 F Telephone Survey Form 350 G Continuum Sample Form 353 H Percentage Usage By Magazine 354 I Combined Survey Responses 358 J Site Interviews 399 K Literary Magazines Annotated 488 L An Inventory Of Literary Magazines Sponsored By Texas Institutions Of Higher Learning 501 LIST OF REFERENCES 509

vi LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE Figure 1. Title page from The Gentle Art Of Making Enemies by James McNeil Whistler 31 Figure 2. A Beardsley caricature of Whistler... 33 Figure 3. A Beardsley advertisement for The Yellow Book 35 Figure 4. A Beardsley caricature of Whistler's wife 38 Figure 5. An early Beardsley page in the medieval style 44 Figure 6. Beardsley's cover drawing for The Studio 50 Figure 7. Beardsley's The Peacock Skirt for Salome 52 Figure 8. Beardsley's The Stomach Dance for Salome 53 Figure 9. Beardsley's censored illustration for TheYellow Book which caused his termination. The tree crotch in the right hand upper corner was considered obscene. Virtually the same style tree crotch may be seen in the illustration for the cover of The Studio on page 50 60

Figure 10. Beardsley's first cover for The Savoy 66 Figure 11. Beardsey's self-caricature tied to a hermes 92

V1.1 Figure 12. Beardsley's caricature of Oscar Wilde with tumescent grotesque in Salome .. 100

Figure 13. Beardsley's proposed illustration for Salome, as printed in The Studio .... 102

Figure 14. Beardsley's caricature of Oscar Wilde as the moon in Salome 105 Figure 15. A pastiche illustration for Salome .. 106

Figure 16. A lithograph of Loie Fuller by Toulouse-Lautrec 166

Figure 17. A poster of Loie Fuller by Cheret.... 167

Figure 18. A Beardsley poster advertising the theatrical production: A Comedy of Sighs! 174

Figure 19. "Your Country Needs You." A World War I poster used for recruitment in Britain 176

Figure 20. "I Want You!" A World War I recruitment poster by James Montgomery Flagg 177

Figure 21. A Comparison of some "Want You" type posters 179 Figure 22. A secondary use of the "Want You" type poster 184 Figure 23. An anti pollution poster. The image shows sea gulls mired with oil 187

Figure 24. L'Estampe Originale created as a magazine cover by Toulouse-Lautrec... 195

Figure 25. The title page of Dimension (Vol. 13, No. 1, 1980). The identical image by Gunter Grass was on the cover 202

viii Figure 26. One page of Caren Heft's artist's book, as it was duplicated in The Northwest Review 206 Figure 27. The cover photograph for Men & Women Alone & Together 271 Figure 28. The cover photograph for Sulfur 273 Figure 29. "Picasso at the Beach," by Jeffery Hopp 287

Figure 30. A continued portion of the pen and ink/poetry by Jeffery Hopp, as found in Pig Iron 288

ix INTRODUCTION

The Study This study is concerned with those literary magazines that publish creative writing and visual art work. At first blush literary magazines might not seem a propitious source for the discovery of visual art work, yet this is not the case. The CCLM Directory of Literary Magazines (1988-89) carries listings for about 415 magazines. No less than 349 include in their self-descriptions some phrase (usually "graphics/art work") to indicate that their range of interests extends beyond the written word. It is not an exaggeration to say that hundreds of magazines are publishing, each year, thousands of issues carrying visual art work. These literary magazines are published all across the United States, from coast to coast, border to border. This study includes only a portion of that larger number; just over seventy literary magazines, and about half of them in the study are published within the state of Texas. Of these, the preponderance are connected, directly or indirectly, by state supported institutions of higher learning. If Texas suffers beyond its borders from a popularly held misconception that it is filled with Philistines and Yahoos; more comfortable with the trappings of the mystic frontier than the suspect frills of effete civilization, more used to communicating in grunts and a barbarous twang than the mincing accents of the over-educated, the taxpayers of this state may still be allowed to point with some pride to the irrefutable fact that they are supporting, even if indirectly, well more than two score literary magazines. Within the magazines published in Texas, as within the magazines published elsewhere in the United States, there are very often to be found two of the mainstays of our cultural expression, literature and visual art work. It is this latter aspect of publication in literary magazines, the use of visual art, that this study addresses particularly.

Nature Of The Problem Are these many thousands of visual images, being published in literary magazines, mere handmaidens in 3 the greater service of creative writing? It would appear, on the contrary, that many of these magazines are carrying visual images, not as illustrations to literature, but as objects worthy of attention for their own inherent aesthetic qualities, or as artifacts generated by artists who are deserving of their reader's attention. How visual artists are dealt with and what roles their art is made to play seem to touch upon an arena of interest to those who educate about the arts. If one is willing to recognize and accept that material presented in this fashion constitutes a sort of informal educating, or at least an attempt on the part of the literary magazine editors to engage and shape the aesthetic tastes of their readership, then it follows that by embarking on such a study we are aimed at carrying out a form of exploration familiar to art educators.

Problem Statement Given the extensive publishing just described, it seems natural to raise a number of questions about art in literary magazines. The primary question that powered this study might be summarized as follows: "How does art function within literary A

magazines?" Answering such a question leads to others. "What is the usage of such art if described on a continuum?" Since art work ultimately arrives upon the pages of a given literary magazine because of editorial decision making, an additional two sub-questions can be asked: "How do editors perceive the functions of graphics/art work in literary magazines?" "What would site interviews with editors reveal about the functions of graphics/art work?"

What Will Be Seen Immediately on proposing these questions, problems of context appear. In terms of presenting the material that bears on these questions concerning the function of art in literary magazines, it appears (my own impression) that literary magazines as vehicles for art and artists are not so widely recognized in the field of art education that a blithe plunge into the inquiry is completely justified without providing some historical background. This is also, in a sense, a sub-question. "What would an examination of the beginnings of literary magazines that also publish graphics/art work reveal?" 5

Therefore, this study begins with a chapter

sketching the historical background of one of the

early literary magazines that employed graphics/art work in combination with creative writing.

Individuals who played important roles during the

period of time described are also identified and some

description is given of their contributions to the

early literary magazines being delineated.

After this background examination, I have

written a chapter to describe the anatomy of the

study, how magazines were selected for examination,

how the study progressed (or failed to progress), and what sorts of results were obtained from measuring

visual art usage in literary magazines. Following

this material is a brief summary and analysis of the

views discovered through the process of surveying and

interviewing editors and sponsors of literary magazines.

I had hoped, when this study was first proposed,

that phototexts would offer a useful model for understanding and criticizing the layout of the

literary magazines in this study, but in a sense they

escaped such an approach. I knew there were various

phototexts available as models, and that books had been written describing how these phototexts were arranged to present material. I reasoned that there would be some parallels between the phototexts and literary magazines in the presentation of text and image combinations, and I suspected that many of the literary magazines would actually contain photo essays (similar in form to phototexts, but shorter i length). I had based this latter assumption on material I had seen in various literary magazines while browsing in The Ohio State University main library. While it is true that literary magazines, speaking of the magazines in this study, proved to b heavily dependent upon photographs for their visual material, they seldom presented them in phototext format. In a superficial way, this caused me to drop a proposed sub-question that sought to compare literary magazines to phototexts. Using phototexts a a comparison no longer seemed a valuable way to approach the functioning of graphics/art work in literary magazines. However, in a deeper sense, understanding how phototexts were assembled did offe some valuable clues to understanding how words and images work, or don't work, together. Thus the chapter that follows the description of the study 7 proper takes up the subject of image and text and examines such things as poster art, cover art, and artists who create in two different forms of expression. This latter essay led to the subject of artist's books and artist's books led, inevitably, back to the subject of phototexts. Such elliptical thinking can be misleading to a novice explorer. There were additional blanks on the map that needed to be filled. Tracking how image and text were sometimes placed together brought me to the borders of how student editors deal with the issue. Many of the literary magazines in this study involved a laboratory experience for students, and it seemed that student editors tended to follow a pattern in the presentation of visual images and text of which I was critical. I refer to this practice as "matching." It was a practice that involved both photographs and other visual images as well. Therefore, I ended the chapter with observations concerning the practice of matching.

Beyond the issue of how images get together with words, I wanted to look specifically at how photographs were presented in literary magazines and to hold up certain magazines found in the study as 8 exemplars. Doing so led to the development of the idea that certain literary magazines are, in themselves, so idiosyncratic that they might well be considered as creative objects on their own. Dealing with these subjects required a fourth chapter. Looming just over the literary magazine landscape hangs the enormous cloud of desktop publishing, already evident within the university laboratory experience and bristling with thunderous potential for the usage of graphics/art work in the literary magazine field at large. The evidence discovered in the survey demanded that some further consideration be given to projecting possible outcomes of desktop publishing, even at the hazard of predicting what may or may not occur in the future. Finally, it seems important to arrive at some conclusions with regard to the discipline of art education and how these various areas might have an impact upon future studies in the field...and the actions of future practitioners. This last set of prescriptions and projections concludes the study. 9

Some Terms One of the blind spots in my own writing is the unexamined assumption that; the reader knows and fully understands the definition, background, and context, of various terms and expressions sprinkled throughout the essays that comprise portions of this dissertation. While I would wish that my writing is sufficiently clear that this weakness in the presentation of ideas is not a serious obstacle to understanding, I have thought it best to offer, at the outset, some explanation of terms which I am guessing may not be completely familiar to every reader. Some anecdotal material about myself is included as background context to these terms.

My Background Four years prior to the initiation of this study, I was working as a professor of sculpture and drawing at Texas A&I University in Kingsville, Texas. I had, at that time, undertaken to polish several rudimentary poems written when I was an undergraduate art student. I enrolled in a creative writing course in the English department of our university. Our creative writing instructor broached the idea that 10 our class produce a "literary magazine." The class enthusiastically followed his suggestion. Because I could draw, I was drafted to serve as the art editor. We labored mightily, produced a publication of which we were inordinately, and unjustifiably, proud, and eventually went on with our lives. My experiences during the two years I was active in the life of the publication (we called it Writers Bloc ) planted the seed, of which this study is the fruit.

The Term At the time, and for some years afterwards, I continued to refer to literary magazines as "creative literary journals." It was the expression used by our creative writing instructor. I felt it denoted the fact that the publication carried visual art work in addition to creative writing. As I began to investigate various sources for information that would be relative to this study, I discovered that there are a variety of terms which describe what I had called creative literary journals and subsequently called literary magazines. For instance, I have encountered the expression "little magazines," sometimes abbreviated to just "littles." In addition, 11 one occasionally reads of "literary art magazines," and "literary periodicals." There would be no surprise in learning of other names as well. The list is not inclusive. All of these expressions are used to describe what I am calling literary magazines. Usually in naming these objects, some part of the expression is intended to characterize an important aspect of the publication. The key word "literary" so often occurs because they always carry creative writing. The words "periodical," and "little" occur because the publications strive (they are not always successful), to publish on a regular basis...and because at one time the publications were small in size. Most of the literary magazines funded by universities in this study published annually; but there is no ironclad rule about the periodicity of publication and there are, in this study, publication that are issued bi-annually, tri-annually, quarterly, and as God and good fortune permit. Nor is the term "little" satisfactory. There were, in this study, literary magazines thick enough to be thrown at an enemy, large enough to carry wanted posters. Size is no accurate measure of contemporary literary magazines. 12

I have fallen back on the term literary magazine, not because of it satisfactorily describes the class of publication in this study (it does not), but because in my correspondence and conversations with various individuals connected with literary magazine publication, it was a commonly used expression and one which they readily understood when it occurred. Why is it not completely satisfactory? The problem lies in the denotative "art" that sometimes accompanies the expression "literary magazine.'' Some literary magazines carry visual art, some do not, yet they usually are housed together under one term. This digression between the nature of the contents within the magazine is explored later in the study, but it is mentioned now because it highlights a difficulty in characterizing the type of publication I wanted to study.

Even the terms "art," and "artist" must be —-seeonsidered. Authors, as well as musicians, ballet dancers, and even haute cuisine chefs, all consider themselves artists and use the term when referring to their creative occupations. As a means of avoiding confusion, I have restricted the sense of the expression "artists," in the study, to mean those who create and produce visual art work. In the same sense, the term "art" is meant, in the study, only t denote visual art work.

The Editor As Architect One peculiar problem that developed in the stud was how to characterize those literary magazines whose overall appearance and contents seemed to indicate that they were intended to be perceived as aesthetic objects. I have called these magazines "idiosyncratic objects" and discussed them in connection with one of the fundamental characteristics of picture books. While the reader may differ with me about the name I have chosen, I hope they will agree that there is something about these particular literary magazines which entitles them to be distinguished with a distinctive name. It may help to clear away the cobwebs of confusion surrounding these literary objects to think of their editors, not in the role of visual artists painting canvass, but rather like conductors, or architects, who orchestrate a plethora of diverse moments into a single form of expression. Graphics And Clip Art I have already employed other terms, which may not be familiar, in this introduction. Generally, in the study, I linked art work with the term "graphics," as in "graphics/art work." They are not synonymous, but in the sense in which I have used them their function was so close as to be parallel. By linking the terms, I meant to ensure that I covered any sort of visual image that was printed in the literary magazine. There is one kind of graphics/art work that is described by the term "clip art." There are readily available books comprised of images taken from a variety of sources, often commercial, in which there is no copyright protecting the image. These are clip art books. Clip art is not widely used in the literary magazines in this study, but it did occur. It appears that clip art is most popular with "desktop publishers" who own a "scanner."

Microcomputer Jargon In Chapter V, I write about a comparatively new phenomenon in literary magazine production, that of desktop publishing. Any person or organization who 15

publishes material using a microcomputer is engaged

in desktop publishing. Trade magazines aimed at

desktop publishers advertise the latest advances in

technology. I was not comfortable with the myriad

newly coined terms which are contained in these

publications. In my writing, I tried to avoid these

as much as possible, but some of them could not be

detoured. "Desktop publishing" has probably entered

the mainstream public vocabulary, if not its

dictionaries, but "scanners" may be still an

unfamiliar" term. Scanners are mechanical devices which can be used to copy images by translating the

image into electronic signals sent to the

microcomputer. The scanned image can then be sent to

a printer which translates the electronic signal into

printed images on the page. Scanners vary in their

ability to translate images faithfully (with high

resolution), but all of them offer the desktop editor

a potential means of adding graphics/art work to

his/her publication. Individuals who produce literary magazines using microcomputers often use their

scanners to copy clip art (as well as a host of other

images, photographs for instance) for use within the magazine. 16

Tip Ins And Slip Ins There are other ways to present graphics/art work to the viewer than publishing it in the body of the magazine. One method is to lightly glue or attach the art work to one place on the page of the magazine. This method, called a "tip in," allows the reader to readily detach the art work for their own uses apart from the life of the literary magazine. A related method for presenting art work to the reader is 'to simply fold, or drop, the art work loosely into the magazine. It can be contained in its own envelope, or have its own separate binding, or consist of nothing more than a loose photograph or print. Any object so included in the magazine is called a "slip in."

Back To Writers Bloc During the time that our class produced a literary magazine at Texas A&I University, we were often faced by tasks new to our experience. We had to decide, early on, the dimensions of the magazine. Ordinarily, material printed and bound by a printer, returns to the editor with pages that are not 17

perfectly aligned at the edges. A machine, very like a hydraulic guillotine, may be used to trim all the pages in the publication to one alignment. As a consequence, the ultimate measure of any magazine along its horizontal and vertical axis is referred to as its "trim size." The trim size of our magazine depended on how much money we could spend for paper. But, having guessed at the approximate trim size we wanted, we were able to make decisions about what the magazine would look like, its "format," or how in the magazine text and visual images would be placed. When we decided where the contents would be placed in relation to each other, we were making important, cost conscious decisions about "layout." Layout can directly affect the amount of paper used, and has a direct bearing on the cost of publication. We studied our layout with the stargazing intensity of oriental Magi. The paper we printed on is commonly referred to as "stock," and comes in a variety of finishes, textures, and thicknesses. When we printed the cover of our literary magazine, we had the image "wrap around," that is, the image was on the front and back cover. 18

This is not presented as a step by step excercise in publishing a magazine, although, in the body of the dissertation, there is a summary of these steps, but rather, these sorts of decisions are useful to know about because they are a way of painlessly introducing terms that will be encountered again in the body of the study. For some terms that are very important, or because they lie deep within the dissertation, I have, at the risk of being redundant, reintroduced their meaning, or explained what is meant when others use the term.

Two Audiences I close this introduction with a final observation. My own education and life experiences have derived from teaching art, and of course this dissertation is being written with that aspect in mind. But during the course of the study so many editors and sponsors of literary magazines expressed an interest in what I was doing, and requested copies of the completed work, that 1 gradually came to feel that my study had two audiences. For this latter reason, there are appendices in the back of the study that contain annotated literary magazines worthy of 19 the attention of editors who wish to understand more about how to enrich their own publication, and a hard won, but accurate and up to date listing of every literary magazine in Texas that published graphics/art work during the time of the study. CHAPTER I

PART ONE: THE YELLOW BOOK

Introduction To Chapter I This chapter describes a particular literary magazine begun in Great Britain almost 100 years ago. The signifigance of the literary magazine The Yellow Book is found in that it was one of the first literary magazines to deliberately present visual art work (and the visual artist) as equally important as literature (and the literary artist). The tradition in publication prior to this important step was to have artists illustrate what authors wrote, and their art work serve as a prop to literature. This chapter describes how that changed and who helped bring the change about.

The Birth Of The Magazine While this essay is not an attempt to review the entire history of magazine publishing, the field is not nearly so old as the publishing of books and may be touched, if not encompassed, in a brief passage.

20 21 Patricia Kery (1982) has written a book, Great Magazine Covers, which describes early magazine publishing with sufficient succinctness that it will serve as an overview. Kery writes that the first magazine was French, the Journal des Scavans in 1665, and the first English magazine was founded by Daniel Defoe from a prison cell in 1704. Since Kery is specifically interested in one aspect of visual images, namely covers, she identifies the Illustrated London News (1842) as the precursor to all the general magazines that followed the practice of combining text with visual imagery. The practice grew in popularity and soon other magazines and even newspapers followed suit.

Thus magazines in Great Britain and throughout Europe began regularly to include graphics and visual images in their publications. But what about literary magazines, the chief focus of this study? A distinction concerning the motivations behind this inquiry needs to be made here. This study was undertaken to determine how graphics and visual images were used in literary magazines. Imbedded in that inquiry was the felt need to determine if the graphics/art work in literary magazines was accorded 22 a distinction different from the ordinary illustrative and reportorial functions that these general magazines used when they publish visual images. In other words, was there a hierarchy between text and visual image, one or the other more valued, or was there some form of partnership?

The concept of a partnership (in the sense of a shared participation) of creative writing and graphics/art work to be found in literary magazines can be traced back in time to almost a century ago. To understand how art functions within literary magazines today, it is instructive to examine one of the progenitors of the field, a literary magazine known as The Yellow Book. The importance of The Yellow Book lies in the fact that it was among the first of the literary magazines to honor both visual imagery and literature in a balanced fashion...as part of deliberate editorial policy. By studying how and why it was created, and examining the details of its format, it becomes possible to understand all its literary descendants. They have been given various names, but call them what you will, the creative literary journals, literary magazines, art and literary magazines, little magazines, etc., they are 23 the type of periodical that publishes select visual and literary art of our own times. What follows is a description of the early history of the circumstances surrounding the creation of The Yellow Book. This history has some of the tragic elements of a play, and life imitating art, has seemed to predestine specific roles for certain particular players. The names of Beardsley, Wilde, Whistler, Ruskin, Morris, Burne-Jones, and Rossetti will occur repeatedly in this brief account... for they are the principal actors in the drama that follows. The acknowledgement should be made immediately that this perception of life's complex interactions as a stage play is probably only the inevitable result that comes from reducing complicated human lives to bits of historical interpretation. But such an acknowledgement does not serve to diminish the ultimate drama of the events that surround the birth and death of The Yellow Book, and given Beardsley and Wilde's appreciation of the world of theatre, perhaps it is even peculiarly appropriate. In any case, there was, in the founding of one of the earliest of this special class of literary magazines, the interaction of several gifted 24 artists whose lives might well have been scripted, so surely did they proceed straight to, what seems now, their destined en.ds. It may prove useful to set the scene by introducing some key elements which provide the backdrop against which the production of The Yellow Book was staged.

Whistler Versus Ruskin Victorian London was host to two separate and fascinating legal actions which influenced the design and destiny of The Yellow Book. The stories are famous ones, well known even outside art circles. The first trial at law involved James McNeill Whistler, an American painter living in London, who sued John Ruskin, an English critic, for libel in London in 1878. (1) John Ruskin was the first Slade Professor of Art at Oxford, author of Modern Painters (1843), critic-sponsor of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, and active supporter (after the P.R.B. dissolved) of two late Pre-Raphaelite artists, William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. The cause for legal action was precipitated when Ruskin published a critical evaluation of Whistler's painting, The Falling Rocket, (one of a series of night scenes called by Whistler "Nocturnes")• The criticism was published i Ruskin's own magazine, Fors Clavigera (Prideaux, 1970).

The two men, Ruskin and Whistler, were in fundamental opposition. Ruskin was a sincere moralis who wrote and theorized about Christian ideals that, while they informed his opinions on art, carried his influence and opinions far beyond the world of arts and letters (Abse, 1980). His influence in art circles hinged on a belief expressed in Modern Painters (Ruskin, 1843) that the painter's aim was to return to visual truth by a meticulous fidelity t what was recorded on the optic nerve, which was summed up in the catch-phrase "the innocent eye" (Gombrich, 1972). Whistler was a bon vivant rascal who had two successive mistresses and a penchant for offending his acquaintances (Prideaux, 1970). He wa also an artist of considerable originality and influence. Ruskin and Whistler held opposite opinions as to what was the proper approach to painting. Ruskin stood for a realistic (if romantic) faithfulness to nature in order that the artist and his audience 26 might experience the true glories of God's universe. Whistler, in contrast, standing for a subjective, idiosyncratic portrayal of what was seen that allowed him to freely interpret his visual experiences in terms of color and mood. Ruskin had expressed himself before concerning his view of Whistler's art, but not in such pungent terms as he used in July, 1877. Included here is a portion of Ruskin's writing to give the flavor of his criticism. I have seen and heard much of cockney impudence before now, but never expected to hear a coxcomb ask two hundred guineas for flinging a pot of paint in the public's face (Whistler, 1890, p.l).

A coxcomb, by Whistler's court testimony, was an arcane term for a court jester, or fool. After Ruskin had published his attack, Whistler filed suit against him for libel in the amount of 1000 pounds sterling on the grounds that such an attack by a critic of Ruskin's standing would inevitably damage his own ability to make a living in the art market place. Ruskin, only partially recovered from a mental breakdown, could not stand the strain of a courtroom trial and was never present during the famous 1878 case in which Whistler articulated (to Victorian 27 society) the radical idea that art could be created for its own sake and not for the moral uplift or education of the public. The phrase "Art for art's sake" gained great currency following this trial.

Among the many spectators at the trial was the young writer, Oscar Wilde, who subsequently both identified with, and imitated, Whistler's exaggerated mannerisms. (Ellman, 1987). During the trial other artists testified both for, and against Whistler. Ruskin pressured the Pre-Raphaelite painter Burne-Jones to represent his (Ruskin's) artistic views. In his own day, Burne-Jones enjoyed an international reputation as an artist and many thought him England's best painter in the romantic medieval style endorsed by Ruskin (Wood, 1981). Burne-Jones reluctantly took the stand to testify that Whistler's work lacked finish. While Whistler defended his own art ably, neither the judge nor jury were suitably impressed that Ruskin had really damaged him. The jury, following a strongly worded hint from the judge, came back with a decision for Whistler in the amount of a farthing. A farthing, one quarter of a pence, was the smallest possible amount of money the jury could have granted. Court 28 costs were to be divided between the two men (Prideaux, 1970).

A Farthing's Worth Of Results Ruskin, in high dudgeon at having lost the case, resigned his Slade Professorship at Oxford. He claimed his ability to review art work critically had been forever impugned. His friends helped him pay his share of court costs (Prideaux, 1970). Whistler, who also had court costs to bear, as well as a new house to pay for, shortly went bankrupt. Twelve years later Whistler published a book in which he found the satisfaction denied him in his first trial at law. It was entitled The Gentle Art Of Making Enemies (1890), and it was most emphatically not printed in the medieval print-revivalist style that Ruskin's P.R.B. proteges Morris and Burne-Jones espoused at the press which they had founded, The Kelmscott Press.

Whistler's book details the Ruskin-Whistler trial and quotes the statements made, by various witnesses who supported or attacked Whistler's art. While Dowling (1986), in her discussion of the influence of Whistler's book, delineates the type 29 face (Caslon old-face) and the format of printing chosen by Whistler with its generous leading (the space between the lines) and its wide margins, she does not mention some possible reasons why Whistler chose such a format. Obviously, of course, Whistler had no interest in publishing a book that appeared to accept any of the ideas promulgated by Ruskin, Morris, or Burne-Jones, but another reason appears possible.

The Bon Mot The format chosen by Whistler may well have been appropriate because of Whistler's passion for the bon mot. The term simply means "good word" in French, but this simple definition does not do justice to the acid character of what Victorians thought of, and relished, as bon mots. Whistler was no mean wit. When it comes to punchy epigrams he shares the nineteenth century stage with only one other Victorian, Oscar Wilde; and he often topped Wilde. (2) Their bon mots are quoted to this day (Byrne, 1986). It was a skill Whistler was proud of, a skill apparently more widely savored in his time than our own, and in his book he uses it to skewer men who, years before, had 30

humiliated him. Thus, while it is true that The Gentle Art Of Makinfi Enemies enjoys wide margins and an easy to read type, it is also true that printed within these wide margins and surrounding the easy to read Caslon old-face can be found many of Whistler's bon mots printed in a minuscule typeface so small they are barely legible. On some pages, when he is detailing the evidence of the trial, the testimony is virtually swarmed by Whistler's commentary. Sometimes this commentary consists of quotes by the witnesses against Whistler, but taken from other contexts, which make them look foolish. When the commentary consists of Whistler's witty asides, his bon mots, a butterfly is drawn upon the page. The significance of Whistler's personal insignia, a butterfly with a sting in its tail, has been much commented upon by his biographers (Prideaux, 1970); but seeing it flitting about with its barb raised on page after *page of Whistler's book brings home how apt a symbol it is. Whistler includes a drawing at the end of his version of the Whistler-Ruskin trial. It shows a farthing with a barbed butterfly perched upon it. Again and again Whistler stings his enemies. PLEASE NOTE:

Copyrighted materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author's university library.

These consist of pages: Figures 1-30

UMI 32

Whistler's book had a considerable impact in its time, not only for its bon mots, but also for the influence it had on his book making contemporaries. Dowling (1986) claims that Whistlerian typographic innovations have been assimilated so thoroughly in our own times it is no longer possible to describe the revolutionary effect the readability of his book had to the Victorian reader... accustomed as they were to the standard (visually cluttered) Victorian page. Finally, it should be borne in mind that Aubrey Beardsley, the art editor and co-founder of The Yellow Book, was just six years old when the original 1878 trial took place. But, by 1890, when Whistler brought out his book, the 18 year old Beardsley had published his first essay in Tit Bits (Brophy, 1968). He had an eye on the arts, was an admirer of Whistler, and must have avidly read The Gentle Art Of Making Enemies. Many a later Beardsley drawing had a butterfly of its own. 34

An Idea Whose Time Had Come The idea of publishing a periodical which celebrated both visual imagery and creative writing was born between Henry Harland and Aubrey Beardsley January 1st, 1894 (Brophy, 1976). Mix (1960), who has written the definitive work on the literary aspects of The Yellow Book, gives three possible accounts. They are that the idea arrived: suddenly one morning out of the yellow fog, or during a holiday in France the previous year, or after a drunken spree. Whenever the idea was first planted, it is most commonly portrayed as blossoming into full flower between the two men on the first of January, 1894. Henry Harland would be the literary editor of the new enterprise and Aubrey Beardsley its art editor (Weintraub, 1976). Their publication was to be the first of its kind, a unique literary magazine which gave an equal importance to literature and visual art. They agreed to call their periodical by a name Beardsley proposed. Harland, in describing how the idea came about, takes pains to suggest that the name was derived from the yellowish fog they were experiencing that day (Weintraub, 1976). But such was surely not the case. The name The Yellow Book guaranteed its instant notoriety and contributed to its financial success. The name also contributed to its ultimate destruction, for reasons that will presently be explained. Suffice it for the moment to explain that in the Victorian mind, yellow backed books were associated with a kind of vulgar and salacious Trench publication surreptitiously ferreted out from book stalls by Victorian readers of a mind to find them (Dowling, 1986).

Figure 3. A Ueardsley advertisement for The Yellow Book. 36

To finance their new concept, they approached the publisher, John Lane. Harland and Beardsley chose Lane primarily because of Beardsley's earlier connection with him. Lane, co-owner with Matthews of the Bodley Head publishing firm, had only recently hired Beardsley as an illustrator of the English version of Oscar Wilde's Salome (Mix, 1960). Beardsley had first met Wilde some years before when Beardsley and his sister Mabel called on the Burne-Joneses. Subsequently the two men met occasionally, had mutual friends and were cordial, but according to Mabel (and all of Beardsley's biographers agree), Beardsley and Wilde were not close (Benkovitz, 1981). Beardsley's first meeting with Wilde seems, at a remove, somehow contrived, but in fact he formed professionally fortuitous connections with the artistically significant men and women of England and France on a number of occasions. Serendipitous acquaintances were a common thread in Beardsley's life. Harland and Beardsley had first met in a tuberculosis clinic. They shared, besides the same disease and the same doctor, the same literary 37 interests, the same social/literary set, the same admiration for James Whistler's art, and a co-equal dissatisfaction with the man. Harland was an American and formed a friendship with Whistler in the first year he moved to London. They later broke for reasons that are not clear. As for Beardsley, he admired Whistler's art; but while vacationing in Paris with the American illustrator Joseph Pennell, had been snubbed by Whistler (for being excessively hairy), and Beardsley's subsequent admiration of Whistler was mixed with gall (Benkovitz, 1981). The rejection by a man Beardsley so admired must have stung, for Beardsley subsequently caricatured Whistler on three occasions, and caricatured his wife on one occasion as well. (3) Ultimately, Whistler recognized Beardsley's genius, told him to his face that he (Whistler) had been wrong, and the two men reconciled. However, at the time The Yellow Book was begun, neither Harland nor Beardsley were on good terms with the man whose style and defiant attitude so permeated their new publication (Mix, 1960). 39

An important motive behind the founding of The Yellow Book can be found in the literary ambitions of Harland and Beardsley. Both men desired to be published for their writing. It appears curious that so influential a visual artist as Beardsley became would have harbored plans to write, but Beardsley's life revolved around books. Beardsley tried first to be a writer before he seriously became an illustrator, and he never really abandoned his literary ambitions. He continued to work on his own private fiction until his death. Symons (1918) believes that eventually, had he lived long enough, Beardsley would have become an important writer; and tells how Beardsley once filled out a library application form with the phrase "man of letters." Harland and Beardsley invented the idea of a new literary magazine, not only to make money, but also to find an audience for their literary creations and Beardsley's art work. These ambitions were not evident in the pristine motive they gave the world.

A Pristine Motive When Henry Harland and Aubrey Beardsley approached John Lane on the second of January,1894 40 about the possibility of founding a new type of periodical magazine, they proposed to him an enterprise whose outward purpose was designed to fit an admirable goal quite typical of the Victorian age. Their quoted aim was that the contents of the new magazine would be: 'representative of the most cultural work which was then being done in England, prose and poetry, criticism, fiction and art, the oldest school and the newest side by side, with no hall-mark except that of excellence and no prejudice against anything but dullness and incapacity.' (Weintraub, 1976, p.97).

In their statements about achieving excellence, the philosophy of the proposed magazine was in perfect harmony with the widely accepted aims of Victorian art and literature. That is, like all high minded Victorian endeavors, it was going to educate and uplift its readers. If Lane was swayed by this concept of high minded education, he was subsequently to receive a hard lesson. During the brief span of Beardsley's reign as co-editor (April 1894 to April 1895), the Yellow Book became, in the minds of many of the Victorians who read it, the very symbol of fin de siecle decadence and the exact opposite of the high cultural ideals which seem to be embodied in 41

Harland and Lane's original aims. The cause of this ironical turn of events was Aubrey Beardsley's acquaintance with Oscar Wilde.

Beardsley Meets Wilde Aubrey Beardsley came from a lower middle class family. His father also had tuberculosis, held mostly low paying positions, and as a consequence, the entire family was substantially helped by income Beardsley could earn. This meant that at age seventeen Beardsley held down a clerk's job in the Guardian Insurance Company. In addition to his lack of funds and sparse education, Beardsley had no formal art training. He did, however, work briefly in an architect's office (Harthan, 1981). Beardsley first tried his hand at writing but came to feel, despite the acceptance of his literary work in Tit Bits, that drawing offered more immediate lucrative possibilities. He began to study early Italian masters in the National Gallery, practice his pen and ink sketches, and, still tantalized by his original literary ambitions, to haunt book stores. In one of those fortuitous connections mentioned earlier, he met the bookseller, and excellent Victorian 42 photographer, Frederick Evans. Evans early recognized Beardsley's uniqueness as an artist. Evans began to trade books for Beardsley's art work and sold his photographs of Beardsley's drawings in his shop (Brophy, 1976). Beardsley, eager to acquire more art background, learned that he might visit Leyland's home in Peacock Gate to see Whistler's famous Peacock room. He and his sister Mabel called on Leyland and were given the grand tour. One of his letters after this visit lists the Leyland collection of Pre-Raphaelite painters Beardsley saw (Maas, Duncan, Good, 1970). It may be inferred that Beardsley made careful note of Whistler's many images of golden peacocks for they appear, transformed, in much of Beardsley's later art work. Beardsley and Mabel, the Leyland visit a success, and hearing that Burne-Jones also accepted callers, decided together to visit the studio of one of Beardsley's early idols. Actually Mabel and Aubrey were misinformed, Burne-Jones did not have an open studio policy; but he generously received the pair, praised Beardsley's portfolio and urged him to enter the artistic life full bore. Beardsley and Mabel had inadvertently dropped in at a time when Burne-Jones 43 was entertaining visitors. Here again Burne-Jones acted a good host and introduced Aubrey and Mabel to his guests, Mr. and Mrs. Oscar Wilde, who gave the young siblings a ride home in the Wilde's carriage (Fletcher, 1987). It was an introduction of nemesis into Beardsley's life.

Spurred on by the enthusiasm of Burne-Jones, Beardsley continued his campaign to gain an entrance to the art world. In 1892, Evans introduced him to a publisher, Dent, who wanted to produce an economical series on the King Arthur legend similar to the lavish and expensive version produced by Morris's Kelmscott Press. Dent was searching for a capable artist to illustrate a book successfully, yet not charge too dearly for the art work. Beardsley eagerly took on the assignment. He produced, eventually, 500 drawings as illustrations for Dent's Morte d'Arthur . Beardsley resigned his clerkship and became a full time illustrator (Brophy, 1976). His illustrations for this commission were heavily influenced by the medieval style that Burne-Jones and Morris had employed for years. Morris, when shown the completed art work on Dent's Morte d'Arthur, felt Beardsley had plagiarized him. Beardsley, in his turn, wrote in a letter that he ha surpassed Morris (Maas, Duncan & Good, 1970). Beardsley's art continued to change up until hi death, as he absorbed and then transformed the influences he encountered. The transformation from his medieval style into something remarkably new and different occurred during the summer of 1892 when Beardsley was on vacation in France. He speaks of it in an Autumn letter to E.J. Marshall in which he attempts to describe the new style he has struck upon, and mentions it again in a December letter to A.W. King (Maas, Duncan and Good, 1970). In these letters, he never quite comes to grips with his attempt to explain what it is in his new art that makes it so original and powerful. Beardsley knew he had something; he calls it "weird". He acknowledges Japanese influences mixed with images from his own imagination, but'the exact nature of his new art lay beyond his powers of description. I will return to the indescribable Beardsley style much later, for it lies at the heart of the curious historical events that follow.

The Beardsley illustrated Morte d'Arthur, issued serially by Dent during 1893, was a great success. Beardsley s style drew the attention and admiration of the illustrator Joseph Pennell. In 1889 Pennell had published a comprehensive text on pen and ink artists. Entitled Pen Drawing And Pen Draftsman, the book published the best examples of the work of the time by all the important pen and ink artists and print makers that Pennell knew. Included in Pennell's book are such well known names as Frederick Remington, Howard Pyle, Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane, Sir Frederick Leighton...and James Whistler. This grouping of men is interesting because it does not discriminate between illustrators and more serious artists, for good reason. There was no such distinction, particularly during an age in which so many fine illustrated books were produced (Laver, 1966). Pennell's book examines the work of these men critically and at the last discusses the art of pen drawing for book decoration. Pennell went into detail concerning the best means for reproducing drawings and, to demonstrate his intentions, included hand pulled prints of many of these artists. The included art work is protected by a flimsy or guard-sheet. Pennell, far from wanting to distinguish between illustrators and fine artists, went to some pains to 47

emphasize their interconnections. He was correct in this, for many of the famous names in the art world moved easily between book illustration and painting (Ray, 1976). In part, they were able to do this because they had available to them men who would translate their drawings into line block prints. This practice of employing a translator was both common and accepted. Some of the great names in illustration had their own wood engravers who translated the drawing into a printable block. It was not unusual for the artist to draw directly on the block and then turn the entire enterprise over to the wood engraver. Swan, Hooper, Linton and the Dalziels are known among aficionados of the Victorian illustrated book because, as craftsmen, they skillfully interpreted the drawings of other artists.

These latter craftsmen were utilizing the end grain of very hard woods screwed together to produce a tough, dense wood surface that could stand the pressure of printing repeatedly. In the periodical Punch, the chief cartoon remained a line block drawing long after other presses had turned to more modern means of reproduction. Laver (1966), like Kery (1982), claims that the great era of illustrated 48

•magazines began in 1842 with the founding of The Illustrated London News; and the chosen medium of that publication was wood block illustration. There were a great number of 19th century London newspapers offering cartoons and illustrations to their readers. What follows is not a definitive list, but is offered to show the extent to which text and image were a standard part of the reading fare of the day. Besides the Illustrated London News offering visual images, there was the London Society, The Will-O-The Wisp, The Sphinx, The Graphic, and The Pictorial World. Now it becomes clear why Pennell would devote so much of his book to means of reproduction. It was an age of black and white illustrations, and from this background Beardsley flowered. Pennell favored the line block illustration. This however was not Beardsley's method. By the turn of the century, photographic means of reproducing the drawing had been developed. Beardsley's drawings were photographed, the image projected onto a photosensitive emulsion on a zinc plate, and then the plate etched with acid in the unexposed areas. The process was quick and eliminated days or weeks of waiting for the middle man to translate drawing into 49 wood block. The zinc plate process was also more faithful to the original drawing. Its only drawback was its inability to render tones; but in Beardsley's art work there were no tones, the man and the medium suited perfectly. This acid etched technique was known then as "process" printing and has come down into our language as "stereotyping," another name for the same thing and giving a sense of its accuracy. Beardsley could not have had a more important presentation than the one Pennell gave him when he introduced Beardsley to the art world in the first issue of the new arts magazine The Studio, issued in April of 1893. Beardsley also drew the first cover for this magazine. Pennell wrote a brief, but laudatory, criticism of his new discovery; and The Studio carried examples of Beardsley's current work of the time, including a proposed illustration for a French play by Oscar Wilde entitled Salome. Beardsley began to acquire other assignments including illustration for a book entitled Bon Mots. His production of bizarre drawings added to the attention that Pennell had paid to him. Beardsley's rising fame led to his commission to provide the illustrations for the English translation-'of Wilde's play. 51

An Immoral Book Oscar Wilde wrote, in the preface to his book The Portrait of Dorian Gray, "There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book. Books are well or badly written, that is all." (Wiener, 1984 p. 94). Wilde's Salome had first been written in French. When he brought an English version across the channel, he was denied permission by the Lord Chamberlain (a government functionary who had the powers of censorship) to produce it as a play. It was thought to be indecent in tone. Naturally this turn of events convinced those who never saw the play that it was wicked. They certainly felt the drawings that illustrated it were. The illustrations for Salome, the effervescence of Beardsley's genius, dominate the writing. They were so spectacular in style and so lurid on the English art scene that Beardsley's name and Wilde's became linked in the public mind. It is worth pointing out how Whistler's peacocks have become Beardsley's design in one of the most famous drawings of Salome,"The Peacock Skirt." The irony is that Wilde, caricatured several times in the illustrations, found Beardsley's drawings far more wicked and effective than his own writing. 54

Wilde, in a complaint that admitted Beardsley's coup while denying it, told Lord Douglas that Beardsley's art work was like the precocious scribbling of a naughty schoolboy (Benkovitz, 1981., My underlining). As for Beardsley, he had been appalled at the in-fighting between Wilde and Lord Douglas, Wilde's lover who provided the English translation, prior to the publication of Salome. Their working association with Salome had not made Beardsley and Wilde friends at all.

The Beardsley Period The 1894 illustrations for Wilde's Salome capped Beardsley's rise in the London art scene. Almost within twelve months time, he also had helped found The Yellow Book, and been favorably reviewed in The Studio. Nor was this all. Beardsley was both prolific and original. I will develop the art of posters later in this dissertation (Chapter III) but it is only right to mention now that Beardsley had, within the same twelve months, gained considerable public notice with his poster art. Years later, when Max Beerbohm, a writer and caricaturist of the time, was writing his autobiography, he said he was "...of The Beardsley Period." (Burdett, 1925, p.l). How did Beardsley, suddenly renowned, deal wit Wilde when he became co-editor of a literary magazine? Mix (1960) describes how, when Harland, Lane, and Beardsley were seeking authors for their first issue of The Yellow Book, they proscribed Wilde. Henry James took the honor as leading litera lion in the first issue. Prior to its first issue, there was wide spread anticipation among the litera concerning who and what would appear in the first issue of The Yellow Book. It had an enormous impact when first published and all the critics hated it. Every literary critic had a go at it, and every member of the literary and artistic set had to buy copy. Wilde claims to have thrown his copy out a train window in disgust, which if true, is probably an accurate measure of his pique at not being included within the pages of the new sensation. Despite Wilde's absence from its pages, The Yellow Book flourished. The first printing of 5000 copies sold out, as did a second and third printing. 56

Wilde Kills A Thine He Did Not Love Shortly after the theater opening of Wilde's The Importance Of Being Ernest, Lord Douglas's father warned his son in a public letter (left at Wilde's club) to avoid associating with Wilde, whom he described as: "posing as a somdomite ." (Fletcher, 1987, p. 13. My underlining). Wilde could interpret the spelling and also knew his reputation in London society was seriously threatened. Two faces may be put upon what happened next. One way of presenting the events is to say that in an effort at putting on a bold front and to preserve his place in high society, he foolishly sued for libel and opened himself to the truth (Brophy, 1960). This is fair enough; but Hyde (1963) makes it very clear that Wilde was also steered into suing the Marquis of Queensberry by his son, and Wilde's lover, Lord Douglas. Film copies of several London newspapers of the time in question can be scanned for a sense of how these events were reported. The April 5th, 1895 and the April 6th, 1895 issues of the London Times carried long columns (on pages 11 and 10 respectively) detailing exact testimony on the part of witnesses. In Victorian England, homosexuality had 57 recently become a crime (only about ten years before, according to Hyde). The testimony, reported by The Times (April 5th,1895, p.11), describes the continuation of the libel trial of John Sholto Douglas, Marquis of Queensberry, defendant. In the events of the trial that day, Mr. Oscar Fingal O'Flahertee Wills Wilde was testifying on the stand. His own testimony, brought out on cross examination, quickly revealed the underground life, that Wilde led. His lawyers urged him to drop the case. On the very day Wilde dropped his suit, the Marquis's lawyers forwarded the damning testimony to prosecutors and Wilde was arrested. According to Dowling (1986) and other biographers, he was taken away carrying beneath his arm a book entitled Aphrodite by Pierre Louys; and typical of these naughty novels, it had a yellow cover.

Beardsley's biographers infer that newspapers proclaimed that Wilde had been arrested carrying The Yellow Book. Lane was confronted on Sunday with a newspaper headline that read: "Arrest of Oscar Wilde, Yellow Book under his arm." It was a headline that Lane claimed was the death of The Yellow Book and nearly his own death as well (Mix, 1960). 58

According to the account of The Times (1895), Wilde was arrested at half past six o'clock in the evening outside his hotel on Sloane-Street. Fletcher (1987) locates the site of the arrest as the Cadogan Hotel in South Kensington. Beardsley's various biographers usually mention some version of the events that follow. An angry mob then attacked Lane's Bodley Head publishing establishment on Vigo Street. The offices were stoned and its windows smashed. Chapman, Lane's second in command, sent off an alarmed telegram to Lane (Brophy, 1968). It is intriguing at this point to tell where Lane was located when he first learned the news. He had just stepped off the ship in America. Lane was in New York when Wilde was arrested, Harland in France. Beardsley would have gone with Lane but his precarious health prevented the risk of a rough crossing. It was a New York paper in which Lane read the dreadful headline linking Wilde's arrest to The Yellow Book. Do Beardsley's biographers refer to London headlines when they infer Wilde's arrest sent a mob toward Vigo street? Or, are they referring to Lane's account of how he got the news without them realizing he was an ocean away? On this point their references are not clear; but in our own time, it is difficult to appreciate how high public feeling ran over the matter, or to appreciate how bravely Wilde conducted himself thereafter. The attack of the mob was followed by an even more effective frontal attack against the soul of Lane's publishing firm. Some of the successful authors who published with Lane through Bodley Head and some of those scheduled to be in the next issue of The Yellow Book examined Beardsley's art work for the upcoming fifth edition, discovered that the Beardsley trees had limbs with ambiguous crotches, and threatened to withdraw their custom unless Beardsley and his art were terminated.

More pressure was put upon Chapman to do something. Lane, to protect his investment, allowed Beardsley to be fired and his art expunged from The Yellow Book . Wilde was soon convicted of indecent private acts and sent to Reading Gaol in disgrace to serve two years at hard labor (Mix, 1960). Hyde (1963) shows why the prison term was so devastating, the prison system of the time so mean in spirit, and why Wilde, pursued even in prison by the Marquis, was reduced to a physical breakdown. A Mystery

To discover the true significance of what Beardsley had done to set a mob howling in the streets outside Lane's publishing offices, and caused certain members of the literary establishment to pull aside their metaphorical petticoats (this allusion is fair, Mrs Grundy being the Victorian term for someone excessively prudish), it becomes necessary to have in hand a copy of The Yellow Book, The rare books section of The Ohio State University Library offers such an experience. The cover reveals one of Lane's motives for visiting America. As it states quite clearly on the cover, The Yellow Book was being simultaneously published in Boston, Massachusetts. Examining the pages of the issues with which Beardsley is associated, one becomes aware of a mystery. There is nothing apparent (judging by contemporary values) in the visual images to justify such an over-reaction by a group of London citizens as to convert them into a mob. The mystery deepens when filmed copies of London newspapers of the day are examined. Not The Times nor The Guardian nor Black And White carry the putative headlines that biographers refer to. An 1895 issue of The Times 62

(April 6th, p.10) does give a detailed account of the arrest (officer's names, demeanor of Mr. Wilde, etc.) but not a word about a book with a yellow cover. Hyde (1963) mentions papers published the next morning, but the mob acted that night. The response to this minor mystery must be that additional searching of London newspapers is needed; but even so, according to all the biographers, the mob that eventually milled about in Vigo Street originated from in front of Lord Douglas' hotel (where Wilde was vacillating) on Sloane-Street at six thirty in the evening. One cannot help wondering at the nature of this gathering prior to the arrest so exactly described by The Times, and how the mob knew to proceed to Vigo Street, and how they knew that both Wilde and The Yellow Book were published by the same establishment. These questions are beyond the scope of this brief history, but Ellman (1987) in his biography of Oscar Wilde, suggests that the Marquis of Queensberry's detectives were active even after the first trial. Perhaps the Marquis' detectives were among those watching the hotel where the true object of the Marquis' venom was lodged, his son, and were active in the mischief that followed. The primary question, 63 the question of what it was in the benign art found in The Yellow Book that raised the wrath of Mrs. Grundy, can be approached. Before a plausible explanation of this mysterious tempest can be formulated, it will be necessary to explore even further into the past.

A False Reprieve Beardsley's sacking was not the end of The Yellow Book. It ran through eight more issues, but Harland was no art editor and the loss of Beardsley profoundly altered the character of the publication. It was perceived to have lost its fizzle. Beardsley's available worth was quickly recognized by the writer Arthur Symons. He formed a second creative literary magazine, The Savoy with himself as literary editor, Beardsley as art editor, and Smithers as publisher. Smithers, a book dealer, former lawyer, and renowned ladies man, also collected pornography, a taste that included the private pornographic work that Beardsley was producing for his own writing. Moreover, it was Smithers who was courageous enough, or defiant enough, later to publish Wilde's epic poem wrought from his prison experience, Reading Gaol (Hyde,1963). 64

The new literary journal was again named by Beardsley. He called it The Savoy, a name he derived from a fashionable hotel in London's theatrical district. Wilde's cross examination testimony in his libel suit against The Marquis of Queensberry involves a great deal of coming and going with young men to the Savoy hotel. Was this on Beardsley's mind when he arrived at a name for his second effort, and thus comprises a sly reference to the events that led to the founding of the new journal? His attitude toward John Lane and The Yellow Book is certainly evident. His first drawing for The Savoy had to be repressed for it showed a cherub being led by the hand, and the cherub urinating on a copy of The Yellow Book. The cover was re-drawn without the scatological insult.

The new literary magazine, The Savoy, was a soft cover and sold for two shillings. It, like The Yellow Book, was typographically modeled (in the sense that it was reader accessible) on Whistler's book. While Beardsley was well enough to publish his drawings in The Savoy, the publication flourished; but all too soon Beardsley's tubercular lungs began to fail him and his ability to work slipped away (4). He left 65

London and, with his mother, took up residence in France. Poignantly, if some biographical accounts are correct, he spent the last months of his life avoiding Oscar Wilde, who also had gone to the continent after being released from prison. Symons ended publication of The Savoy shortly after Beardsley died of the disease that had consumed him since childhood (Benkovitz, 1981).

?! PART TWO: BEYOND THE YELLOW BOOK

A Promise To The Reader In the material that follows, the reader will be led even deeper into the dense thickets of Victorian books arts and illustration. There is a purpose, beyond the love of exploring the past, that motivates the presentation of this material. Bear in mind that Beardsley's art was a central element in the initial success of The Yellow Book, and of its downfall. At the end of part two these various unraveled threads, that are part of the fabric of the times, will be knit up.

More About Morris Although Whistler's book, one of the inspirations for Beardsley's design of The Yellow Book, is credited with great typographic influence today, he was not regarded as the final word in the book arts (Dowling, 1986). That honor belonged to William Morris.

67 68

Wilson (1983) cites the influence of William Morris on the book arts. William Morris was a strong minded critic and he began a new typographic movement. His principal doctrine was; we are not sufficient unto ourselves. We must go back to the beginnings of printing and pick up the art all over again (Wilson, 1949, p.21).

Wilson also labels Morris as the "messiah" of the reform of printing. By that appellation, Wilson means quite simply that Morris inspired an entire movement towards the fine craftsmanship of the book arts. Private press printing had been in the doldrums until Morris showed, with the Kelmscott Press, what a beautiful art form it could become (Ray, 1976). Morris' influence was widespread but it had its limits. For comparison, here is a letter that Beardsley wrote Smithers while contemplating a new creative literary journal which would have been called The Peacock . On the art side, I suggest that it should attack, untiringly & unflinchingly the Burne-Jones & Morrisian medaeval [sic] business & set up a wholesome 17th & 18th century standard of what picture-making should be! (Alpert, 1971, p.47-48, emphasis in the original).

The quote makes it clear that Morris was no messiah to Beardsley. Perhaps it would be helpful to explain Morris in more detail and to what beginnings Morris intended everyone return. After all, Beardsley wanted to go back 200 years.

A Return To The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood To explain Morris, it is necessary to delve deeper into the Victorian era and touch upon one of the men whose life became intertwined with that of Morris. Dante Gabriel Rossetti was one of the most interesting figures in the Victorian age and he and Morris are connected in a number of fascinating ways. Rossetti was the leader of the three founders (Rossetti, Hunt & Millais) of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (The P.R.B.). He was also a close friend of Ruskin and directly involved with literary journals for reasons I hope to make clear. But first and foremost, he was an artist who sought inspiration in literature. He turned repeatedly to certain favorite books for subject matter, as did his friends. Rossetti loved Dante's Divine Comedy, The New Testament. Shakespeare's Hamlet, and The Morte d'Arthur all of which he employed as sources for his visual imagery (Wood, 1981). 70

The P.R.B. was formed in 1848 as a revolt against standard painting practices of the day. Rossetti was its leader and spokesman. The brotherhood consisted of seven members (only three were committed painters) whose shared views consisted of a revolt against the old establishment style of painting. The brotherhood found the establishment style messy, brown, and over varnished. The style the brotherhood meant to paint involved meticulously rendered images, rich in foreground detail, glowing with color, and derived from classic literature, or carrying a moral, or preferably both. As an indication of their secretly shared agenda, they signed their paintings P.R.B. Initially, its members had some success getting into art shows, and then it became known within establishment art circles that young upstarts were painting with a revolutionary philosophy. Critics fell upon them like wolves onto r' lambs.

The P.R.B. came under continuing attack until they were rescued by the foremost art critic of the day. John Ruskin (1978) defended them in a lecture delivered in Edinburgh in 1853. In this lecture, Ruskin explained the importance of the Christian 71 theory underlying P.R.B. art. Ruskin maintained that the Renaissance painter Raphael had abandoned Christian principles when he decorated the Papel quarters with an allegorical figure drawn from pagan mythology. It was at this moment that Raphael, Ruskin alledged, had led artists down the varnished path of secular humanism and away from the pure Christian principles that had been the bulwark of painting. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, Ruskin explained, meant to go back to Christian art as it was before Raphael. Now Ruskin's defense of the P.R.B. may appear, in hindsight, to be only relatively important. After all, history has rendered a final judgment in favor of their art work; but before a figure with the renown and prestige of Ruskin spoke in their defense, their feet were being held to the critical flames. A favorite source of P.R.B. inspiration was the bible, which gave at least one of their critics a means of attacking them on a religious basis. To give the flavor of the public hostility directed toward the P.R.B. here's Charles Dickens, in the guise of establishment critic, in a review describing Mary in the 1850 P.R.B. painting by John Millais entitled Christ in the House of His Parents. 72

a woman so hideous in her ugliness that...she would stand out from the rest of the company as a Monster, in the vilest cabaret in France, or the lowest gin shop in England, (Prideaux, 1970, p.64).

Dickens also described the entire work of the P.R.B. as "mean, repulsive and revolting." Such was the form of savage criticism that the brotherhood of young artists suffered under, until Ruskin spoke in their behalf. Ruskin's widespread influence was decisive, his Christian moralizing persuasive, his intervention life-giving to the style, but not the group. The P.R.B. manner triumphed and the seven in the secret brotherhood, now justified, found that the bonds forged in adversity were inadequate to the powerful tug of their expanding horizons. The first phase of the P.R. B. ended, but the philosophy that caused them to search out literary sources as subjects for paintings continued on in the work of their now publicly acceptable method of painting. Painters trooping the P.R.B. path chose literary subjects, narrative art was in, as indeed it always had been, but now it was storytelling from the romantic medieval days of yore. 73

The Germ Even more germane to the theme of this study, in 1850, the original brotherhood formed a literary magazine. Rossetti, as usual, was instrumental in its formation. He wanted to be published as a poet and saw a literary magazine as an avenue towards this ambition. The short-lived journal (four issues) was called The Germ, and it functioned primarily as a house organ for the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Alpert (1971) believes that this magazine may be historically important because it was one of the first of the "little magazines." Alpert means that The Germ was devoted to publishing art and literature and thus was closely related to The Yellow Book. Alpert supports his position by listing other magazines being published at the time ( The Westminster Review, The Quarterly Review, The Atheneum, etc.), none of which he says were devoted exclusively to the concerns of art and literature. Rossetti's Germ and The Yellow Book share a subtle familial connection. When Dante Rossetti lost interest in The Germ, his brother William, one of the few who testified on behalf of Whistler twenty years later, took over as editor (Wood, 1981). 74

In 1856, Rossetti recruited a second cadre of acolytes. Two students at Oxford, William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones, had formed a literary journal called The Oxford And Cambridge Magazine (Alpert, 1971). It was financed by Morris, modeled on The Germ and had as one of its contributors, Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Ruskin, always faithful to Pre-Raphaelite causes, praised the new journal. While the journal was concerned with visual art issues, there were no illustrations and the magazine did not sell. Morris lost money. Rossetti, liberating two of the most influential talents of the age, convinced them to quit writing about painting and actually become painters. The young men, under Rossetti's influence, soon abandoned their journal and began an artistic life commencing with a library mural for the Oxford Union whose theme was, in the Rossetti tradition, Morte d'Arthur (Eitner, 1975). While The Germ and The Oxford And Cambridge Magazine were important predecessors of The Yellow Book, there were other attempts at publishing literature and, occasionally art work, that employed some of the same stratagems Beardsley later used. 75

Dowling (1986) mentions The Butterfly (much influenced by Whistler's "gentle art") which began publication a year prior to The Yellow Book and ended in February 1894, the year The Yellow Book began. Harland and Beardsley must have been very aware of this publication... its aims and agenda were so much like their own. In addition they had the example of The Albemarle, a monthly periodical which lasted nine months in 1892. This journal, for the price of six pence, included an original lithograph in each issue. The lithographs were slipped in after the contents page. James M. Whistler's lithograph, A Song In Stone, led off the short lived experiment. Berry and Poole, in their book The Annals Of Printing (1966), describe a magazine entitled The Strand founded in 1891 that was the first to contain wood engravings, photographic line blocks and half-tone illustrations in one issue. Finally, Dowling describes the Century Guild Hobby Horse which was published between April 1884 and 1894. This quarterly attempted to reverse the ordinary text/visual image relationship by emphasizing illustrations... and even have words describe visual images instead of visual images illustrating text. 76

Beardsley must also have reckoned with two other magazines that are more properly described as art magazines than literary magazines. As I have earlier described, Beardsley was featured in the British art magazine The Studio, and circumstantial evidence would suggest that he might have been familiar with L'Estampe Originale first published in France between 1893 and 1895 (Kery, 1982). Kery rates it as one of the best of all the group portfolio magazines. Its first cover (discussed in more detail in Chapter III) featured the work of

Toulouse-Lautrec; and it subsequently carried the art work of many of the most important artists of the time, including Beardsley's mentor-target and model, James M. Whistler. Given these attributes, it is possible that Beardsley, a frequent visitor to France, a great reader and fluent in French, would have been aware of the publication. Even if he was not, its appearance on the scene in the 1890!s is yet another contributing factor to Kery's description of the period as the age of the "beautiful vanguard publications" (Kery, 1982, p. 106). 77

Full Circle Edward Burne-Jones, seduced away from The Oxford And Cambridge Magazine, went on to become Victorian England's leading painter in the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood style (Wood, 1981). William Morris wrote poetry that gained him an important national literary reputation and then he eventually formed, with Burne-Jones, the Kelmscott Press. In fact Morris and Burne-Jones became an expanded cottage industry and influential champions of design and craftsmanship. They, and other fellow artists and craftsmen, Rossetti was part of the artistic team for a time, produced tapestries, carpets, printed papers, furniture (the Morris chair), stained glass, ceramics, mural decoration, metal work, and tiles. William Morris learned to perform every craft (Sparling,1924). His craftsmanship served him well, but he employed it constantly with an aesthetic drawn from the romantic bygone era of the medieval. The foundations for this aesthetic were clearly laid during the time he and Burne-Jones were publishing together at Oxford.

Peterson (1982) states that Morris and Burne-Jones spent long hours in the Bodleian Library 78 at Oxford studying illuminated manuscripts and medieval woodcuts. This immersion in the lost arts of the book was to serve Morris as an unending fountain of inspiration in later years. Morris is usually described by his biographers as a Protean figure, a Renaissance man who had a fundamental impact on the book arts and an entire range of crafted and designed items. Perhaps Morris's most successful craft effort was the Kelmscott Press. Bookmaking early on had fascinated him but his own tyro efforts did not please him. Disappointed, Morris pursued other interests for a time; and when he took bookmaking up again, after hearing a Walker lecture in 1888 on the aesthetics of the book, he mastered the craft. Morris eventually issued 52 works in 66 volumes during the seven years he was active (Sparling, 1924).

It seems natural, given the nature of Ruskin's interest and moral support, to discover that Morris published the Pre-Raphaelite' s first ally. Ruskin's book, The Nature Of The Gothic, was Morris's fourth press effort (Eitner, 1975). The book is actually an important chapter (Ruskin said it was the central chapter) from Ruskin's Stones of Venice (Ray, 1976). 79

Morris's best known book was the so called Kelmscott Chaucer produced in the year of his death. It is commonly acknowledged as a masterpiece of the book arts. Keats, a contemporary of Morris, called it "...the most beautiful book in the world" (Wood, 1981). However the Kelmscott Chaucer has also been faulted. McLean (1972), an authority on Victorian book arts, says the most beautiful book in the world was unreadable. Particular criticisms were based on the book's weight, and the fact that medieval illuminators, and also Morris, viewed the page as a blank space to be tightly filled. The eye rebels, the mind boggles, when confronted with a dense mass of Gothic printing and neo-medieval illustration such as that included in the Kelmscott Chaucer (Dowling, 1986). The P.R.B.'s medieval aesthetic had, through the craft of William Morris and the art of Edward Burne-Jones, suffused an entire generation, with the heroic exception of Whistler. While Morris made no secret of the fact that it was in the medieval age, as he conceived of it, that he drew his inspiration, there were other sources that predated and informed the Victorian love of the medieval. 80

In The Beginning There Was The Word Before the written word, there was the visual image. Many a reader will have fond memories of learning his or her ABC's with blocks: the word "apple" introduced with a large red 'A' on one side, an image of a large red apple on the other. This means of communicating a concept by linking a picture with a word has played a role in human history that covers millennia (Hussein, 1972). Some written language systems began with visual images that became written words in a direct fashion. The pictorial glyphs of the Mayans and the hieroglyphs of the Egyptians are ready examples. Visual images predate written language and are an earlier form of communicating ideas. It is not that visual imagery as a form of communicating ideas has been replaced by written language as much as simply run alongside it. In the medieval period that Morris used as a yardstick, the idea of the two forms communicating side by side was unquestioned. Smithison, in an essay entitled "Going Too Far With The Sister Arts," makes clear the distinctions between medieval text and image: 81

Images are the code of the illiterate. They served as a biblia paupernum in the middle ages, providing the vulgar laity with an outward, sensory expression of history and doctrine, while the inward, spiritual sense was preserved in the texts of the clergy. (Heffernan, 1987, p.4)

While there is a class distinction favoring text over visual image in Smithison's essay that would have made Morris, the socialist, uncomfortable, Morris, the craftsman, would have admired the utility of putting pictures to some worthwhile task. Perhaps the two forms (text and visual image) have never been combined in so loving and painstaking a way as during the medieval period of hand written books.

Scanning What Morris and Burne-Jones Studied The idea of combining text with image is so ancient that Harthan's The Illustrated Book (1981) begins with the Egyptian papyrus rolls, The Book Of The Dead. Harthan points to the early Greek invention of the codex (leaved animal skins bound in book form) as the next significant advance beyond the papyrus roll in illustrated books. The codex introduced a timed, sequential flow of ideas and patterns into writing and visual image making. 82

Illustration had to fit into pages and could no longer travel (like a film) continuously across the top and bottom of a roll. The development of the codex is a convenient departure point that will allow us to leap in time to the medieval period Morris studied.

When the preservation of wisdom through the medium of books, as a higher calling, fell to early Christian brotherhoods, the text and visual image were illuminated upon the prepared skins of animals. The labor of transcription became a labor of love, an occasional act of punishment, and an act of piety in the holy orders (Putnam, 1962). Certain of these early illuminated manuscripts produced by the religious brotherhoods have become famous treasures. The following description of an eighth century illuminated book of the four gospels kept in Ireland reveals the passion the book arts can engender among connoisseurs. Speaking of The Book Of Kells , A.A. Luce quotes some of its features:

The noble script, the generous margins, the ample spacing, the huge initial letters at the opening of each gospel, the single-column text, the mere magnitude of the ornament, the ocean of colour and the forest of ornate capitals (more than two thousand one hundred of them), the large numbers of pages devoted to ornament, the sustained beauty and dignity of the six hundred 'ordinary pages' [which comprise the manuscript]. (Diringer, 1953, p.458)

Diringer takes up the task from Luce to describe the number of leaves, lines to the page, and even detail the 198 interlacements that can be counted in a one quarter inch square with a magnifying glass. If, for the moment, we can let The Book Of Kells stand as a total representation of what medieval book arts (and it is book arts that Luce and Diringer are enthused over in the above passage), then we can begin to understand what it was that motivated Morris to spen long hours in the Bodleian library. Hassall, a forme librarian at Oxford, documented the medieval collection at the Bodleian Library (1976). His book contains a small sampling of thousands of medieval works that Hassall spent years recording. According to Hassall, the best known illuminated manuscript at the Bodleian Library is The Ormesbv Psalter (dated 1310 A.D.). Hassall provides a photograph of the illuminated letter 'D' in the psalter. It is surrounded by an ornate border which contains portraits, allegorical figures, religious figures, animals, and plants. 84

Beardsley's first major artistic assignment was to illustrate the Morte d'Arthur produced by Dent. The finished product made Morris angry. One of the criticisms that Harthan (1981) levels against Beardsley's illustrations is not that they plagiarizes Morris, but that they satirize the Gothic form. This accusation against Beardsley, that he mocked the text he illustrated, was similar to the complaint Wilde made later about his own work; and I believe a disinterested observer would support the justice of the accusation. Making mock of that which is the exemplar, the medieval style, may lay at the source of Morris's anger with Beardsley. In defense of Beardsley, he might have had available to him a source which would have justified his irreverent treatment of the medieval style Morris utilized with such homage. The British Museum had, in Beardsley's time, a collection of alphabetical characters formed by bizarre deliberate contortions of human forms that seemed to mock the pious formation of illuminated letters such as the letter 'D' in the Ormesby Psalter. The collection was published under the title Grotesque Alphabets (Dodgson, 1899). The published date would have been 85 too late for Beardsley to have seen the book, but it is not inconceivable that he saw some of the individual woodblocks in The British Museum. (5) Knowledge of such a source must not be construed as a defense of Beardsley's refusal to slavishly illustrate a book. Beardsley's art always seemed to have an element of mockery in it and his japes at the medieval revival were just a few among many.

The Victorian Book Arts Morris came away from his Oxford studies with a profound respect for the lavish care given to the creation of medieval manuscripts. Harthan (1981) explains that the so called "Book Beautiful" movement, the very foundation of the approach later supported by the Kelmscott Press, began in the 1850s in England at the time when the rise of photographic reproduction began to replace older fashions of printing. Harthan also states that the entire "Aesthetic Movement" which Morris led, in his revival of an interest in well crafted items, was a direct reaction against the swing towards industrial mass production. In the book arts, the Aesthetic Movement was heralded by books nominally designed for 86 children, but so lavish in their totality they were cherished as precious objects. Harthan mentions Walter Crane, Randolph Caldecott, and Kate Greenaway as the leading illustrators of beautiful children's books printed in color in the late 1870s and 1880s. Harthan (1981) also indicates that the illustration of fiction became frequent from the 1850s onward. Partly this had to do with technical printing innovations that allowed artists and authors to reach mass markets. McLean (1972) claims rocketing population growth and the founding of large urban centers also were factors in the new public appetite for illustrated books. Harthan lists his own personal favorites, including Charles Keene, an illustrator for Punch and several children's books, and John Tenniel, the illustrator of Alice In Wonderland. He completes his list by mentioning (he calls them artist/illustrators) the members of the P.R.B. The important point here is that a major portion of the Victorian art experience was centered on storytelling, and Harthan's personal commentary underlines it. I don't mean that Victorians were deriving all their art experiences from books that were illustrated (although when one thinks of 87

Caldecott, Crane, Dore, Greenaway, Tenniel to name a few-the Victorians had an embarassment of riches) but that Victorians wanted their art to have an accompanying story. Where did this appetite for storytelling art come from?

Narrative Art, Alive and Well One classification for the kind of visual art appearing to contain a story that Piper (1984) uses in his book Looking at Art is "narrative." Much of Victorian art was narrative. The listing is presented here to demonstrate that the narrative tradition in art has a long and honorable history. Here are a few examples of art work that predate the Victorian age and may have generated the taste for narration. Piper lists, among others: The Bayeux Tapestry 1080 A.D.(which Piper links directly with the Pop painter of our own era, Roy Lichtenstein), Giovanni Di Paolo's St. John Entering The Wilderness 1450 A.D., Ruben's The Medici's Cycle 1622-25 A.D., and Hogarth's Rakes's Progress 1733 A.D. These works don't particularly represent what was known to Victorians, although some of them may have been. Art works such as these could be read very like a book. 88

Undoubtedly, titles helped (were invaluable even) but the images themselves have a narrative structure. They have built into them a temporal element that enables a viewer to study the visual image and decipher the story it contained.

There was also, during the Victorian era, a full range of single image narrations. Single image narrations were probably what Harthan meant when he named members of the P.R.B. as favorites. If one were to search Piper's list for single image narrations that predate the mid 1800s, several well known works would surface. Piper lists Altdorfer's The battle of Alexander and Darius on the Issus 1529 A.D., Ruben's The Battle of the Amazons 1618 A.D., and Goya's The Third Of May 1810-1815 A.D. The listing is highly arbitrary. One could hardly claim it is definitive for it lacks certain works by Blake, Turner, the Sistine Chapel paintings by Michelangelo, or The Arnolfini Marriage by Jan Van Eyck, etc. The potential list appears inexhaustible. Having plunged into the past for examples of narrative art that underlay the Victorian appetite for storytelling in their art and before I return to the mystery of the demise of The Yellow Book, it seems important to 89 re-emphasize a point. Piper makes it clear that from our earliest beginnings as an image-making species right up to this present moment we continue our storytelling tradition through pictures.

Elements of Beardsley's Design Holding a genuine copy of The Yellow Book or The Savoy is very like holding an artifact from a lost civilization. In the connotative sense, it is a lost civilization; for while we can gather a loose idea of Victorian aesthetics from scanning the pages of their publications, we cannot scrutinize the art they viewed with the same sensibilities they possessed anymore than we can appreciate (as Dowling pointed out) a page of accessible print from their viewpoint.

But turning the pages of the two creative literary journals offers an insight. Beardsley's art work appears very tame in these issues. It is said that John Lane (publisher of The Yellow Book ), examined every drawing with a quizzing glass (a sort of magnifying glass) and then turned them upside down to ensure that nothing too salacious got by him. Lane learned to take care with Beardsley's art when he commissioned him to do the Salome drawings, some of 90 which had to be suppressed (Benkovitz, 1987). In this age, it is difficult to see what all the fuss was about. Beardsley does have some infamous work (or what we would continue in our own time to accept as infamous) but it is not to be found in The Yellow Book. Our conception of what constitutes wickedness has changed radically if Beardsley's reputation for evil rests with his work in The Yellow Book . Yet, that is exactly where it did rest when he was fired from his job.

Weintraub's Imp Of The Perverse In Beardsley's short life (dead at age 26), certain associations loom up which have almost inevitably drawn his biographers into the murky realm of psycho-biography. Of course Beardsley called it down upon himself with his private art and his public posing. Of his public posturing, I am convinced he was deliberately modeling himself upon Whistler. Whistler was famous for his self-advertisement (Dowling, 1986). Wilde had befriended Whistler shortly after the Ruskin trial and at the same time adopted Whistler's grand mannerisms. Whistler exercised his penchant for stinging wit at social 91 gatherings and in letters to the editor. He carried a cane and sported pink bows on his shoes. He acted as though his public appearances were events. Degas, the French Impressionist painter, accused him of acting as if he were not serious as an artist, a left handed compliment (Prideaux, 1970). When Beardsley appeared on the art scene in London, he also dressed, spoke, and acted in a notably eccentric manner. For Wilde (with his Sunflowers) and Beardsley (with his tasseled cane), these public displays smacked of the same theatricality as Whistler's turns upon the boulevard. Dowling says that Whistler was one of the first artists to realize the adage "it pays to advertise." As did Whistler, so did Beardsley. This is Beardsley on himself and his art: "I have one aim-the grotesque. If I am not grotesque I am nothing." (Weintraub, 1976, p. frontispiece). Weintraub also includes Beardsley's self-caricature of himself tied to a satyr's hermes. In the main, it is these pen and ink drawings, Beardsley's genius expressed in black and white, that so goad his several biographers into psycho-biography. It seems appropriate at this juncture then to survey quickly Beardsley's art. 93

Beardsley's Design The design of The Yellow Book shares something with the nature of Beardsley's artistic makeup. Both man and book were composed of a pastiche of borrowed elements. This pastiche deserves closer examination. The art work as a separate element in The Yellow Book is distinguished from the text by flimsy guard papers. Many books of the time employed the same practice. Whatever its practical intent in preventing smudges of printer's ink, it is also a sign that there is something about the page that is special. It is not an innovation on Beardsley's part, but its usage indicates his readiness to employ all available strategies to signal the equal role of image with text. Beardsley's knowledge of the layout of Pennell's (1889) book on pen and ink and the same treatment of art works in the Studio would have influenced him in this regard as well as in the choice of artists to feature. It is no accident that the first issue of The Yellow Book also contains art by Sir Frederick Leighton...he is in Pennell's book and in The Studio also. We know that the Caslon type face followed from Whistler's book and it seems 9 likely that the appearance of the book, its color, general dimensions, and heft, were deliberately chosen to parody commerce in the disreputable yellow novels of the day. The number of visual art works chosen by Beardsley to be in The Yellow Books is not profuse. Each of the issues Beardsley was associated with contained about fifteen drawings... or the art work composed about five percent of the total number of pages. There is no distinction made between illustrators and other artists, but as we have seen there was no need. In the great age of narrative art, and the great age of pen and ink illustrators, no such distinction was needed.

The visual art work in The Yellow Book bears no relation to the text. They are separate physically and intellectually. Dowling (1986) ascribes this separation as deliberate editorial policy which reflected the illustrator's resentment of the primacy of text over visual image. It also meshes with Beardsley's tendency to illustrate his own inner world instead of the meaning of the texts he had at hand. As a final instance of the distinction accorded both writers and visual artists in The Yellow Book. 95 authors and their works are listed on one page, the visual artists and their art work on another. The only element in The Yellow Book that strikes a jarring note during a contemporary viewing is its use of catch-words, an anachronism scarcely known to contemporary readers. The last word of the last sentence on a page hung down at the last line and was repeated at the top of the next page. Medieval texts had not yet invented pagination (it came with printing) and so employed catch-words to match one loose page' with another prior to binding. Catch-words in the layout were Beardsley's chief bow to the medieval influence of the Kelmscott Press.

Elements In Beardsley's Rise Beardsley established himself with astonishing rapidity; and while part of this rise may be ascribed to genius, some of it may fairly be ascribed to intention. Beardsley needed funds and wanted achievement. His biographers ar^e fond of pointing out that Beardsley had the premonition of early death nipping at his heels (Symons, 1918). We also know that sometime in 1892, in the midst of a tremendous effort to invent himself as an artist, he hit upon a 96 new style that catapulted him to the top ranks of pen and ink artists. This sudden rise occurred in the midst of formidable competition and at a time when pen and ink art was at its zenith. The engine that powered this ascent was the new art of illustration he could not adequately describe when he wrote to his friends. The apparent sources of the art that Beardsley drew upon in his own self creation as an artist can be itemized very briefly. Beardsley, a consumptive, often bed-bound, was a great reader. Naturally, black and white illustrations form part of the pastiche to which I referred earlier. Beardsley also had an admiration for the art of James Whistler and borrowed (besides his public posing), butterflies and peacocks from him. Beardsley was indebted to the work of Burne-Jones and Morris. His illustrations for the Morte d'Arthur are medieval in spirit even if Morris did find them objectionable. Even some of the minor details Beardsley employed in his art at the very end of his career show this early indebtedness to Morris. A careful comparison of the lips of many of Beardsley's drawings of females show that he almost inevitably used the protuberant upper lip popularized 97 by Rossetti and protruded in real life by Morris's wife, Jane. (6) In detailing the elements of his artistic pastiche, some mention should be made of the wise eye Beardsley turned upon fashion and the theatre. Beardsley attended plays (including Wilde's) and operas, featured drawings of actresses in The Yellow Book (such as Ellen Terry), and displayed throughout his art an informed use of the stage-player's world.

In addition to these English influences, Beardsley had visited Puvis de Chavannes in France and was aware of the work of Henri Toulouse de Lautrec and perhaps Emile Redon (Fletcher, 1987). He also may have first encountered the work of Japanese printers in France. He refers to Japanese elements in his letters attempting to describe his new drawing style (Maas, Duncan & Good, 1970). Japanese prints became widely popular in the latter half of the 19th century. On the front page of the London Times (April 5th, 1895), on the day Oscar Wilde was arrested, are two gallery announcements of interest. One is for a public viewing of Sir John Tenniel's pen and ink drawings of Alice In Wonderland, plus his work for Punch, and the other...an exhibition of Japanese 98 prints. Medievalism, the stage, London society, Japanese prints, illustration for children's books, all these elements are visible in Beardsley's art, but combined in a strange new fashion. This is not presented as an inventory in depth of the sources of Beardsley's ever changing style. The more interesting aspect of his work is not where it came from but where it led to. The addition of Beardsley's own imagination and the unyielding requirements of the square or rectangular format of "books and magazines ultimately led Beardsley in the direction of what was to become known as Art Nouveau. Burdett, an early biographer, speaks to the new style Beardsley helped usher in. Beardsley accomplished in art the final overthrow of the complacency that had blinded Victorian eyes to the spiritual atrophy beneath the riches that it was accumulating. He showed the soul corrupting beneath the mask of commercial civilization (Burdett, 1925, p.143).

Not everyone welcomed Art Nouveau. Walter Crane described it as "that strange decorative disease known as L'Art Nouveau which some people consider a development of William Morris-ism, was really its antithesis" (Brophy, 1968, p.54). Beardsley Introduces Nastiness Into Art Beardsley began to filter what amounted to a new kind of message into Victorian society during the time he was illustrating Lamb's Bon Mots. Small vignettes and decorative devices on the page reveal Beardsley's inner world beginning to emerge. This world of the imagination rapidly blossomed into a jungle of evil associations. Cognescent viewers of the time would have begun to be alert for the mischievous minutia found in many Beardsley drawings in which cloven hooves, horns, masks, too knowledgeable children, and oversized women leering back at the viewer share a shallow stage with masked actors and costumed fetuses. These grotesques (to use his own apt word) were illuminated by phallic candles and flames that scorched the all too evident erections of those on stage. I am combining several drawings by Beardsley in this example. It is hardly surprising that a salacious menu celebrating vice in general and various forms of deviation in particular would catch the attention of Victorian art viewers.

Berry and Poole (1966) credit him with over 1000 illustrations in his short working life. We know well enough that even in our own time Beardsley's 101 work continues to exert a powerful fascination, as the continued sale of books featuring his drawings attest. It must be in this time period, prior to the birth of The Yellow Book, that many who had only heard of Beardsley and also those who knew of Beardsley's art, came to the mistaken belief that every work he drew carried some hidden sexual perversity that would reveal itself to the careful and knowledgeable viewer.

Beardsley's new style lent itself very well to the format of book design. Beardsley, influenced early on by Morris and Burne-Jones, took the medieval custom of framing illustrations and turned it into book design as a stage space. Medieval illuminated letters were replaced with grotesques (Weintraub, 1981). When Beardsley took on the assignment of illustrating Salome, Beardsley's indescribable art meshed flawlessly with the idea of Salome and then rose above it. That is, Beardsley's fascination with the stage and his portrayals of large leering women and nasty young boys found the perfect literary vehicle. When Beardsley later caricatured Wilde, as "The Woman in the Moon," in illustrations for the same play, he was both mocking Wilde and exposing him 1 as deviant. When Beardsley, in the proposed illustration first published in The Studio in 1893, drew Salome floating above a pool of John's blood and announcing that she had kissed his mouth, Beardsley was creating a visual metaphor of depravity that struck at the cardboard heart of romantic medievalism propped up by Morris and Burne-Jones.

Figure 13. Beardsley's proposed illustration for Salome, as printed in The Studio. 103

Why The Mob Attacked The Bodley Head Press If I have theorized correctly, it was not necessary for Beardsley to have filled the pages of The Yellow Book with wickedness because the expectations of his audience were that every Beardsley drawing, no matter how innocuous, contained a concealed explication of vice that ran exactly counter to the common Victorian viewpoint of what art should be about. In other words, through the medium, of the illustrated book, Beardsley had very rapidly taught his viewers a new visual code, using and debasing the familiar artistic elements of their own time. I do not argue that it was a deliberate teaching. I suspect he really didn't think of it that way. His private letters show he was aware of the scandal he caused, and his biographers claim he played to it...seemed to enjoy it even. I do argue that he, in effect, turned romantic medievalism topsy-turvy, and using it, presented to his society a mirror reflecting the dark underside of Victorian life in London. 1

Casting The First Stone The available biographies of Beardsley attest to the fascination of his art and the difficulty historians face in getting the straight facts, or the facts straight. The Maas, Duncan, and Good (1970) book which annotates Beardsley's letters has demonstrable errors of fact that can be seen by comparing their annotation with their photocopy of the original letter. My own library copy has pencilled annotations challenging their errors. Such are the hazards of scholarship. Historians revise. It may be that Beardsley's biographers are wrong also when they infer that London papers sent a mob marching on Vigo Street. But if my argument has any validity, no headline composed before six-thirty in the evening is needed. It is not difficult to suppose that the crowd outside Wilde's hotel had bought wholeheartedly into the idea that Beardsley's art, elegant and wicked, held a message they did not wish to acknowledge. In this speculative scenario, the Marquis of Queensberry's private detectives would have served quite adequately as catalysts for a mob scene. Oscar Wilde and Aubrey Beardsley are linked as one because of Beardsley's 105

illustrations for Salome. If these speculations have

validity, the mob's mistaken belief was that The

Yellow Book was yet another vehicle attacking their

own belief system.

Figure 14. Ueardsley's caricature of Oscar Wilde as

the moon in Salome. 107

A Summary of Chapter I It becomes possible to set The Yellow Book in its final context. It is understandable how, in an age that equated painting with narrative, and art with literature, in an age that did not distinguish between painters and illustrators, Beardsley and Harland would have wanted to publish a periodical carrying both literature and visual imagery, a periodical that looked like a book. Because both men were very aware of Whistler and the literary and art periodicals that had gone before them, and because Beardsley's art was something more than just illustration of the text it accompanied, they set out to present visual art and literary art as co-equals. But for the accident of Oscar Wilde's arrest carrying a yellow-backed book they might have seen their project go forward successfully through the few years Beardsley had left. (7)

As it is, Beardsley's two truncated efforts to produce a creative literary magazine that balanced the presentation of text and image were followed by journals on both sides of the Atlantic that were drawn to the bright light of his Art Nouveau flame and failed to understand the philosophical candle 108

that fueled it. A few examples should suffice. Berry and Poole (1966) list a German periodical called Pan that started publication in 1895. It was founded to publish the best in art and literature. In 1896, also in Germany, Die Insel was founded as a rival to Pan. Die Jugend followed them both in 1896. In Edinburgh, Scotland, The Evergreen was founded in 1895 as an art periodical. The Chap-Book was founded in Chicago in 1894. These latter periodicals leant their pages and their aesthetic suasion to the specific cause of Art Nouveau. The more important issue of providing an independent platform for the best of art regardless of its school or orientation somehow drifted away.

A Compass Sighting Taken For The Study How does the historical background just presented serve this study? In the main, it is useful to understand one of the early important precedents for combining visual art work with literature. Few literary magazines have been blessed with an art director as gifted as Beardsley, but many now publish graphics/art work. The aim of this inquiry is to determine what is being done and how it is being done now. Rather than trace the intervening history of how 109 literary magazines have fared since The Yellow Book and The Savoy first appeared, it would be better to determine what is being currently done in our own time and in our own country with regard to the publication of graphics/art work in literary magazines. In Chapter II, this next step is taken. 110

Notes Chapter I

(1) For a keen appreciation of Whistler's trial, and Whistler's subsequent published baiting of the critics of his time, Henry James' brief commentary may be read in his own book The Painter's Eye (1956) in the chapters "On Whistler and Ruskin, 1878"(p.l72) and "On Art-Criticism and Whistler, 1879"(p. 175).

(2) So ingrained was this habit of speech for Oscar Wilde that Hyde (1963) quotes Wildean sallies made even during his time in prison. (3) Beardsley meant to parody Whistler's rotund wife ("A Study In Major Lines" in Volume 1. of The Yellow Book but Lane carefully suppressed it (Maas, Duncan and Good, 1970).

(4) Beardsley's letters at this time mention episodes of blood (Maas, Duncan and Good, 1970).

(5) Recall that Beardsley was self-trained. The British Museum was, for Beardsley, a sort of school where he deliberately went to study the works of other artists. That he might have seen grotesque alphabets there is pure speculation.

(6) Some writers have s peculated about the relationship between Ja ne Morris and Rossetti. The speculation is framed i n such a way that Mrs. Morris was "probably" Rossetti 's mistress (Stansky, 1985 p. 39). Mrs. Morris did ha ve a large upper lip, it can be seen in photographs, And an illicit relationship would conveniently expl ain the lip showing up in Rossetti's paintings of allegorical young women. But why should the lip be f ound on Beardsley's drawings of females? Was Beardsl ey mocking Rossetti's manner, or mocking Mrs. Morris; or had he simply found a manner of drawing femal e faces (almost a short hand or caricature) derived from his early studies of the Pre-Raphaelites with wh ich he was comfortable? The lips occur with such co nstancy, I favor the latter view.

(7) The years Beardsley could have given to any publishing effort were few. Nor did other influential Ill figures of the time escape the end of the era. Morris died in 1896, possibly of tuberculosis, two years before Beardsley. Burne-Jones died in the same year as Beardsley, 1898. Ruskin died in 1900, also of tuberculosis. Essentially, Beardsley compressed his life's work, and established his reputation, within a period of six years. CHAPTER II

A STUDY OF SELECTED LITERARY MAGAZINES

Introduction To Chapter II There are four separate sections to this chapter. In the first part, a brief description is given of the phases of selection made during the process of publishing a literary magazine. This section is included with the hope that it will enable the reader to understand more readily the material presented in the sections that follow.

In the second part of the chapter, the actual study is described as it progressed during 1988 and 1989. The questions that motivated the study have already been described in the introduction to the dissertation. What follows is how the study to answer these questions was implemented, how certain problems arose with respect to continuing the study, and how sources for gathering data were chosen.

112 113

The third part describes the results of counting the number of graphics/art works and comparing that number to the number of pages in a particular literary magazine. Such figures were arranged on a continuum in order to determine the percentage usage of individual magazines and to arrive at some sense of the parameters of usage. In the fourth part, in a highly condensed manner, the results of survey questions are itemized to give a sense of editors' concerns with respect to the use of graphics/art work in their magazines.

PART ONE: PUBLISHING THE LITERARY MAGAZINE

A Few Steps My initial frame of reference with regard to this study came from my own development; at one time I had been involved in the production of a campus literary magazine. I began as a contributor and set of willing hands and ended my involvement as a sponsor and art editor. What follows is an extremely general description of some of the mechanics of bringing a literary magazine to press, 114 based partly on the information I acquired during this study and partly on my early involvement with a university literary magazine. Rowena Ferguson has authored a text entitled Editing the Small Magazine (1963) to which I have also referred in compiling the summary below. The steps in publication are presented in the widest terms possible. Hopefully, for those readers not intimately familiar with the world of literary magazine publishing, a quick understanding can be imparted by this description. The first factor in publishing a literary magazine is money; the first problem in publishing is costs. Before anything can be done, one must have some idea of what is possible in terms of production costs. Not only are costs a first consideration, they arise again when considering the appearance of each issue. With the understanding that all publishers have some idea that they can bring a publication to press and pay for its production, this explanation will proceed; and specific areas where cost again plays an important role will be reconsidered.

One of the fundamental concepts behind any literary magazine, if not the fundamental concept, is to introduce creative work to an audience. Since it is necessary to have material before introductions can be performed, one of the first steps in publication is to arrive at some means of acquiring the creative work. On college campuses this is usually done by notifying the student body, and any other participants that would be acceptable, that th editors are accepting submissions. The first step on campuses often proves to be a considerable hurdle fo a number of reasons, including apathy, bad timing, poor publicity, etc. any one of which can diminish the flow of submissions. As a consequence, it is not unusual to discover that the editor of the magazine has contributed an inordinate number of his or her own works, or that the sponsor of the magazine has galvanized would-be authors from a creative writing class, would-be artists from an art class, or that the magazine publishes the winners of poetry, or art contests, etc. Literary magazines produced at universities generally come out once a year. This is due, in no little part, to the time it takes to solicit and obtain publishable material.

Editors of literary magazines with a general circulation depend for their submissions on the 116

reputation of their magazines, their personal contacts with certain authors and artists, and most of all, upon the acknowledged fact that most new writers and some established authors vigorously seek out sources who will publish their material.

Having gained a body of submissions, the next editorial step is deciding what is accepted for publication; what is not. On college campuses, the decision making process can be the source of serious ego damage, and the avoidance of partiality, or even the appearance of partiality has, in some cases, erected tier upon elaborate tier of decision-making structures that would shame a Byzantine palace. Ultimately, someone has to do it, and work is chosen for inclusion in the magazine, for better or for worse. Editors of literary magazines with a general circulation preclude some of the worst sorts of this anxiety by identifying in their self-descriptions the kind of work they are interested in reading, or viewing, and a list of the kinds of authors they have published in the past. Often, private press publications will center a particular issue around a theme and invite responses, or seek submissions, from artists whom they feel would be appropriate for the 117 special issue of the magazine. Basically, to generalize fearfully in the interests of brevity, editors decide; and writers and artists who have been cut, nurse their wounds, then submit to someone else on their list of potential publishers. Having judged the submitted, or otherwise acquired material, it must be copyread, that is edited in such a way that the material employs acceptable standards (to the editor) of grammar, punctuation, and English usage (or if the magazine is bilingual... both languages). The copyread material is then assembled in order, collated; and a "layout" of the prospective page is made. The layout involves thinking about the external structure of the magazine, as well as how skillfully the reader is to be guided through the material. When the appearance and format of the magazine is decided, (all the decisions with regard to appearance and placement of text and visual image having been made), a mockup of the magazine pages are arranged in the way the editor would like the finished product to be printed. Sometimes this process is done by hand (known as "cut and paste"), but currently many university publications are 118 arranged on the screen of a micro computer using some version of computer softwear for the purpose.

The mockup of the literary magazine is called a

"dummy." The dummy of the magazine is ready for printing when the editor knows what he or she wants it to look like from cover to cover. When the dummy has been printed on a computer in the exact format for printing, or when the dummy has been assembled without errors by hand, it is considered "camera ready." That is, the printer may photograph all the copy and the visual images, preparatory to printing.

Some commercial printers will work directly from floppy disks, and thus the dummy is potentially eliminated. The issue of desktop publishing is discussed again in Chapter V.

With ready to publish work in hand, decisions about book arts rise to the fore; and the ugly fact of costs once more shows its face. Shall the publication be massive in thickness and generous in trim size? The post office will have a say in what it charges for mailing the epic tome. Shall the publication be issued on heavy stock with a soft finish, or shall the paper be covered with a glossy surface coating? Both types of paper have their own 119 advantages (depending on the graphics/art work to be used), but the printing company, or the paper manufacturer, will have a decisive say in the costs they charge for the paper. Shall the publication feature a glorious full color cover that wraps around front and back or feature a special section of an artist's paintings in color? The printer will have a say in charging for every color separation. A few of the cost considerations are touched upon to show how intimately they are connected to the ultimate appearance, of the magazine. The editor or the sponsor must balance one factor against another and come to a set of conclusions with regard to the number of pages, the material they are made out of, what holds them together, and what appears upon them. In some of the interviews in the appendices, sponsors describe the financial constrictions placed upon them by their universities; or editors will describe the difficulties they have in issuing regularly. Their problems with production can ultimately be traced to some of the cost considerations just mentioned. Before a dummy or camera ready material may be sent off to be printed, a printer must be chosen. This decision can be as simple as choosing which copying machine to use or as complicated as acceptin bids from nationally known printing firms. Once the chosen printer is identified, the material is turned over and, if all goes well, printer's proofs of the magazine are soon returned for proof reading and final editing. Corrected proofs are returned to the printer; the magazine is printed and, again if all goes well, returned on schedule. Usually, editors work by a schedule which features the ominous sounding "deadline," a term for the point at which all work is cutoff. Illustrative of how important deadlines can become was the comment made to me by a student editor who told me that on one occasion thei magazine arrived back from the printer after the end of the Spring semester. One may appreciate the student editor's dismay in finding the audience had decamped for the summer.

Having met all the deadlines including the deadline for publication, the magazine must then be distributed to its regular subscribers (which for 121 many general audience magazines in this study consists importantly of libraries in addition to individuals), or sold, or given away. For private presses, distribution is a central issue, for their profit margin (or how nearly they come to having a profit) and their very life as a literary magazine may depend on gaining new readership. Finally, issues that may be distributed or sold later must be stored. The process then begins again. For university sponsored publications, the process often begins from the very ground up, since it is usually necessary to find a new student editor each year, and sometimes a new sponsor as well.

Shifting Focus The preceding chapter was a backward glance taken to learn of the circumstances surrounding the first literary magazines to balance a presentation of creative writing and graphics/art work. Though The Yellow Book and The Savoy eventually failed as publishing enterprises, the fundamental idea embodied in Beardsley's efforts, (visual art and literary art presented as roughly equal partners) lives on in literary magazines published in the 122 present time. Were Beardsley alive today, he would, I think, be pleasantly surprised to see that there are certain literary magazines who not only incorporate visual art with literature; they strive to be, in themselves, works of art. This contemporary idea of the entire publication being a work of art is not dissimilar in spirit to the publishing done by the nineteenth century men whose books influenced Beardsley (Morris and Whistler) and parallels the direction Beardsley had embarked upon before tuberculosis cut him down. The tactics used by the editors of some literary magazines to create personalized artifacts are vastly different from the book arts embraced by Morris and company; but they share a willingness to take risks, even to offend, that Beardsley would easily have recognized. What exactly is to be found in some of the literary magazines edited by men and women who have now advanced down the trail that Beardsley blazed? In order to delineate what is being done today within creative literary magazines, it is necessary to identify and describe some of what is currently being published. What follows is a description of the attempt to identify and then study certain literary 1 magazines being published in the last year.

PART TWO: THE STUDY OVERVIEW

How This Study Was Designed

In attempting to map out how visual art and visual artists have fared in the world of literary magazines, certain types of concerns seem inevitably to surface. Questions arise that deal with how visual art and artists are chosen, how the work is employed i within the magazine, what kinds of graphics/art work seem to be favored, etc. These un-focused questions are both necessary and desirable for they provide the novice cartographer with an initial frame of reference when charting unknown territory. They could be summarized as questions that surround the role of visual art within literary magazines. . .or its function. Determining the answer to the question of how art functioned demanded a source of study. Assuming satisfactory sources of data and information could be found, and the right means arrived at to answer the basic question, certain other questions followed. If there was a range of usage with regard to visual 124 material, it might be helpful to know its limits and its average. It seemed logical to interview not only editors on the phone and mail them questionnaires, but also to meet with them for interviews in person. If a way could be found to confidently describe these regions of inquiry, it was expected that the overall topography of visual art work as it functioned in literary magazines would reveal its true nature and could be firmly charted. To pursue answers to these fundamental questions, decisions had to be made concerning where data should be gathered and how it should be collected.

In Search Of A National Bench Mark In order to identify outstanding literary magazines in the United States that would prove useful as an initial standard against which to measure other publications, a list of literary magazines identified as particularly noteworthy was arbitrarily adopted from the Literary Magazine Review (Clift, 1986). The noteworthy literary magazines had been referred to as a "Preferred Titles" list by the editors. Basically, they said, the list of magazines 125 resulted from a published survey which was sent to 100 editors and writers around the country. The results of the survey comprised two parts, 16 magazines each, for a total of 32 magazines on the Preferred Titles list published by the Literary Magazine Review . But who among this list published graphics/art work on a regular basis? Answering this question without immediate reference to current copies of all the magazines on the list was not possible. However, the list of titles could be cross-checked against their own self-descriptions in the CCLM Directory of Literary Magazines (1986-1987). Cross-checking self-descriptions with the Preferred Titles list resulted in a second (reduced) list of eleven magazines. Simply put, about one third of the literary magazines on the Preferred Titles list for that time period proclaimed in the publication that they were interested in publishing graphics/art work in addition to creative writing. The depth of this commitment needed to be plumbed, but the Preferred Titles list provided an initial point of reference for beginning this study. 126

A Second Focus Other investigative sources of literary magazines were determined by pilot studies made in Ohio and in Texas. The majority of these sources of material might be regarded as regional in nature simply because they are self-limiting in circulation. Just as the preponderance of Preferred Titles were connected with universities, so these smaller publications also are nourished by their connection with universities, colleges, and junior colleges. Most, in this regional group, had smaller individual circulations because they were aimed at, and intended for, specific smaller campus audience, bearing in mind that, overall, the number of readers reached by all these regional magazines is substantial.

In pursuit of further sources of information in addition to the Preferred Titles list and regional magazines published in Ohio and Texas, each editor or sponsor was asked if they could identify other literary magazines that they felt did a particularly fine job of presenting graphics/ art work. Originally this question in the survey of editors and sponsors was intended as a cross check in case there existed a specific body of literary magazines 127

(highly regarded for their visual content) of which I was ignorant. It became evident during the conduct of the survey that no such specific body of magazines would be identified by these sponsors or editors. In the main, sponsors and editors of literary magazines in Texas and Ohio were not very aware of more nationally known literary magazines (in terms of their visual qualities), nor did they do well at identifying any other magazines whose graphics qualities they particularly admired. Only a few editors in Ohio and Texas were able to supply the names of additional literary magazines they thought had fine graphic qualities.

In contrast, several editors on the Preferred Titles list did urge the study of literary magazines which would not have been included otherwise; and they also twice nominated other individuals as sources for interviews. Tracing through these nominations and seeking additional sources from them also, I- eventually began to arrive at a body of literary magazines which, I suspected, would be generally esteemed for their graphics presentations and for their book arts qualities sufficiently that they would be worth studying. The magazines and 128 editors from across the country nominated by others comprise an important part of this study also. These nominated literary magazines are listed in Appendix D. I hasten to add that this section in no way comprises a list of overall best literary magazines in a visual, or any other sense. It should be regarded solely as an important part of the overall sample from which I drew my conclusions.

Ohio: A Pilot Study During the months of June and July of 1988, several editors of literary magazines published in Ohio were interviewed over the telephone. These editors were asked to respond to a list of questions concerning the function of art within literary magazines. The twofold reasons for this brief initial survey were to determine if the questions proposed in the larger survey were understandable and sufficient to the purposes of the overall study, and to temper whatever regional bias might have been inadvertently contained in a study of what promised to be largely Texas-based literary magazines.

The literary magazines in Ohio were originally identified from lists contained in the CCLM Directory 129 of Literary Magazines (1987-1988) whose self-descriptions identified them as publishing graphics/art work. Other names of literary magazines published in Ohio were discovered by an interview with a staff member of the Ohio Arts Council involved in funding literary magazines of all types. The results of the Ohio pilot study, while cursory, hinted at the shape of certain features on the literary magazine landscape which were subsequently confirmed during the larger study in Texas. As a result of these original interviews with Ohio editors, some questions were reconstructed and the questionnaire itself, shortened.

Texas: A Flawed Beginning An early conversation during the Fall of 1987, with Dr. Patricia De La Fuente, sponsor of the excellent university literary magazine Gallery, had convinced me that there were some literary magazines published in Texas. How many literary magazines were currently active was uncertain. I had also seen the collection of literary magazines at the Barker Center of the LBJ Library in Austin. As a consequence of these early efforts, at the beginning of this study, 1

20 creative literary magazines published by institutions of higher learning, and 10 creative literary magazines published by private presses in Texas were tentatively identified. The first projected step in this study was to obtain a current copy of each publication. Then, as a follow up, I planned to contact the editors or sponsors with a letter containing a self-addressed post card which would ask several key questions. One of these key questions asked if the editor or sponsor would be willing to respond to a written questionnaire or telephone interview. Moreover, I felt that there would be sufficient time to contact the editors and sponsors of the magazines on these lists and determine if there were additional magazines that might have been overlooked.

The editors of literary magazines on the Preferred Titles list were contacted for a sample copy, and subsequently mailed a postcard. As the study in Texas began to develop, it became obvious that the approach which had been successfully employed with Preferred Titles magazine editors was impossible with Texas editors or sponsors. Letters mailed to many of these magazines requesting a 131 current copy were returned with no forwarding address, or they were not returned at all. Primarily this was true with private presses, but also held true for some university sponsored literary magazines.

While investigating alternate means of obtaining copies of literary magazines, I discovered that a long-distance phone facility available to faculty members at Texas A & I University offered a potential solution to the failure of my letters to elicit a current copy. The Association of Texas Colleges and Universities publishes a directory, the Texas Higher Education Directory 1988-89 (Woolf, 1988), that lists phone numbers for the 131 institutions of higher learning in Texas. It became obvious that by phoning these institutions, I could query whether or not they sponsored a creative literary magazine, whether or not it carried graphics/ art work...and if the answer to the first two questions was affirmative, determine if current copies were available. This plan, carried out over September, October, and November of 1988, proved effective. The chief result of this query was to discover that my initial list of 20 creative literary magazines was woefully inadequate. There are 132

currently over 50 literary magazines produced by institutions of higher learning in Texas. This finding, nearly double the number of literary magazines in Texas that were expected, suggests the possibility that a similar telephone procedure employed in other states might also produce unexpected results.

It does not appear that my original listing of literary magazines privately published in Texas was accurate. Certain magazines'carried in the CCLM directory of 1987-88 did not respond to letters of inquiry and their telephones were no longer in service.

PART THREE: THE CONTINUUM

How To Count To determine the range of graphics/art works usage in all the creative literary magazines in this study, a count was taken of the number of visual art works contained within each magazine and compared to the total number of pages. In this count, covers were not included, nor was "concrete poetry," and the total number of pages was held to be only those pages 133 which were numbered. In discussions with editors about their presentation of graphics/art work, covers were almost invariably mentioned by them in their self-descriptions of how they dealt with art and artists. With the understanding that covers will be written about again in this report, what follows is my argument for not counting them in the continuum.

Not Counting Covers It is not unusual to find literary magazines with a visually intriguing cover and no graphics/art work within. The literary magazine Ploughshares will be discussed shortly as a specific example of this practice. The editors of magazines that feature only cover art (and a quick glance at any magazine rack will reveal many commercial publications who use a fine graphic cover and little graphic content) do not intend to feature graphics/art work as a part of their publishing philosophy although they may well put a great deal of effort, aesthetic judgment, and precious resources into the art work on the cover. An analogy might be useful in understanding the relationship between contents and cover by considering comic books. I bought comic books, in the 134 halcyon days of pre-adolescence, very much on the dramatic strength of the cover art. This was also true of most of the popular general magazines of my childhood. In a sense, the cover signalled something about what lay within the magazine and was therefore both a sign and a promise. There are magazines intended for an adult readership that do not feel constrained to continue the practice of picture presentations in the body of the magazine, for whatever reason; and there are also literary magazines that exhibit artistic covers without artistic contents. They are signing visually about the value of their contents, but the promise of presenting additional visual material is not operative. One cannot ignore the usage of art on the covers simply because an editor only uses it as a device to gain reader attention and not as an accurate indication of what visual wonders lie within. Some editors in this study take the covers they produce (in the sense of the cover as artistic expression) very seriously. The editor of The North American Review told me, with some pride, that they (the magazine has an art director) had obtained the same artist for their cover who had recently executed a cover for Time Magazine. Time subsequently did not run the artist's cover, but The North American Review did use this artist's work. An editor for the Carolina Quarterly told me that she had produced certain covers of which she was very proud. She pointed out that they were printed in color (much art within literary magazines is not in color because of costs), and that these covers were so exceptionally pleasing that readers sometimes solicited spare covers. This editor was proud of the artistic merits of the covers she had played a role in selecting and felt they signaled something about the distinction of the individual issues.

As responses to my survey showed, if artists are paid for their art work by the editors of literary magazines, it is likely to be pay for a cover. Probably more consultation and aesthetic judgment goes into selecting covers, for those magazines that present cover material, than any other portion of the magazine's graphics/art work content. Obtaining a visually striking cover has obvious benefits in arresting the gaze of a potential reader; 136 that is, striking covers answer a concern in the arena of circulation. Still, it would be wrong to consider this usage as purely a form of self-advertising. It is also a form of visual artistic expression. One of the editors of Ploughshares told me that they used art work solely for their covers. They describe themselves in the CCLM Directory of Literary Magazines (1988) as being interested in graphics/art work, yet do not feature visual art within their magazine. I am sure the editors of Ploughshares regard their self-description as legitimate, if for no other reason than because of the interest they have in producing artistically fine covers.

Restricting visual art work only to the cover of the magazine relegates art and artist to a single role. The thrust of this argument is that literary magazines that only employ visual art on their covers are deliberately not exercising (for whatever good reason) the opportunity to balance and engage graphics/art work with creative writing; and therefore, counting covers, no matter how handsome, as a part of the process of presenting visual art work must be approached with caution. 137

The other side of the coin, in the discussion of covers, is that some few literary magazines who do regularly publish graphics/art work may be found whose covers are so low-keyed in their graphics presentation that they give no indication of the interior riches they contain. Two literary magazines in this study, riverSedge and The Catalyst, have small-scale black and white graphics represented on their covers which serve as logos for the respective magazines. Yet the magazines contain sensitive drawings and handsome photographs within. In a sense, they are almost the reverse of the previous example, for their commitment to presenting visual art work does not include the self-serving element of advertisement.

My experience during the course of the study has been that most of the literary magazines committed to presenting graphics/art work with creative writing featured both, that is, cover art and graphics, within the body of the publication. Ultimately, I concluded, somewhat uncomfortably, that the literary magazine's approach to presenting graphics/art work could be most accurately gauged by measuring its internal usage. With respect to counting the usage on 1 numbered pages, the problem, while slight, should be dealt with. Almost all, but not every, literary magazine numbered its pages. Often, it will be found that preceding, or following, these numbered pages there are a few unnumbered pages of advertisements. These advertisements generally consisted of graphics/art work not thematically consistent with the appearance of the body of the magazine. I felt it was safer to err on the side of conservatism and not consider advertising graphics as part of the editor's commitment to graphics/art work. I am assuming that the advertiser had some say in the image associated with his or her product. Generally this approach seemed to work well; however the special case of the employment of graphics/art work in the magazine Meal, Ready to Eat proves it was not a flawless method of evaluation. The question of evaluation in the case of Meal, Ready to Eat is discussed again in the portion of Chapter IV when idiosyncratic literary magazines are annotated.

Lastly, the decision to eliminate concrete poetry as a consideration in counting was as subjective as the decisions presented above. Concrete poetry consists of words gathered (coalesced) into a 139 visual image. Had concrete poetry been a consistent feature of the magazines I studied, I might well have re-thought my method of evaluation; but there were very few to be found. The editors I specifically asked about this aspect of their publishing told me they expected the concrete poem under review to express some form of thought, to have some literary qualities. I believe this indicated that the concretion was being selected for reasons that lay beyond its visual appeal. I also guessed that artists whose orientation was visual rather than verbal would generally prefer other means of expression than arranging letter forms into the kinds of simplistic signs and symbols I had encountered when looking at concrete poetry. However, it well may be that these latter two beliefs reflect bias on my part; a bias which would not greatly effect the overall measure of usage in this survey as there were few samples of concrete poetry published in the magazines I looked at. (1)

With the understanding that the graphics counted in the continuum did not include covers or advertising graphics carried on unnumbered pages, and that concrete poetry was not included in the count of 140 graphics/art work, the results of the continuum follow.

The Continuum Explored The original idea of counting the number of occurrences of graphics/ art work against the numbered pages of the literary magazines being studied was to determine if there existed some common middle range among literary magazines; and also, what the outside parameters of such usage would be. During the course of the study, a form was used on which were recorded the number of pages, the number of graphics/art works, and the percentage of usage for each magazine that I could obtain for this study. In this inventory, it is important to bear in mind that the counting consists of one issue from among many and that the individual issue might vary considerably from what is generally done with that publication.

However, the results seem to be logically consistent with what one would expect in terms of numbers (of usage of visual art work). There are some interesting aspects of the continuum that invite speculation. There were 72 magazines included in the 141

continuum. Of these, 48 fell within the first 40 percent of usage. The highest number (12) of magazines fell inside the 15 percent category. If one were to envision the number of magazines along a vertical plane and the percentages along a horizontal plane forming a point, the resulting outline would look very like a topographical profile of the United States as viewed from Mexico. High western peaks on the left representing the vast number of literary magazines that fell within the forty percentage usage on the continuum, and then as one moved further to the right into the higher percentage of usages, a line analogous to the flat midwestern states would develop only relieved at the last by a small peak of a few magazines (4) that exceeded 100 percent on the continuum usage chart.

What sort of speculation is possible given these percentages of usage? For instance, would it be fair to say that if the magazine used less than 4 percent of its pages for graphics/art work, it was not dedicated to a balanced presentation of visual and literary art? The keen impulse to answer such a question in the affirmative must be blunted by the knowledge that only one issue is being considered 142

(previous and subsequent issues might vary in their percentage usage), and that even a small percentage usage might take considerable commitment. As the editor of The Cross Timbers Review told me, he considered the single, double-page spread of a pen and ink drawing printed in the Autumn 1987 issue as being provocative to a portion of his readership. His magazine customarily focused on the frontier ethic, a mystique which, in Texas, will not suffer mockery lightly. The editor, in his dedication to a piece of visual art' (a pen and ink drawing showing some cartoon-like figures shooting a buffalo), was willing to risk offending some of his readership in order to publish an art work by an artist whom he felt was important, and whose work, even though he knew it might be misunderstood, he thought deserved the light of day.

If the earlier question is turned on its head, and one asks if those literary magazines publishing above 10 percent of graphics/art work usage show a decided commitment to the visual arts, intuitive logic and numbers combine to reinforce the impression that this is so. Only 8 of the 72 magazines counted were below the 10 percent mark. If one threw out all 143 the magazines that carried less than 10 percent and more than 30 percent graphics, there would still remain 40 magazines within the ten to thirty percent range. Another way to express the size of the continuum that fell within the 10 to 30 percent range is to say that it was greater than half the study. If there is a value in having a rough idea of what percentage of graphics/art work is employed by creative literary magazines, this last figure of between 10 and 30 percent provides a range within which to work. As for the extremes of usage, I have already mentioned one literary magazine on the small end of the scale, Cross Timbers Review. On the other end, The Catalyst, Botticelli, and Thistles had percentage usages over 100 percent. This meant, in practical terms, that they had more visual images represented, no matter how they were distributed, than they had numbered pages. Without disparaging this admirable zeal for graphics/art work, the honors for the most effective usage of visual images in combination with text belongs elsewhere. In the section of this study reserved for critical evaluation, the instances of graphics usage by such 144

literary magazines as: The Georgia Review, Helicon Nine, Mississippi Mud , The Northwest Review, The Gettysburg Review, Pig Iron and ZYZZYVA and others merit a more careful evaluation. (2)

The conclusion of that phase of the study devoted to developing a continuum of percentage usage in creative literary magazines provided no absolute yardstick for determining what was or was not a balanced presentation of graphics art work. The continuum seems to indicate that the preponderance of creative literary magazines fell within a usage of graphics/art work of 10 percent to 30 percent. (3) Perhaps the ultimate value of the continuum was that while it proved numbers alone could not adequately provide a measure of the value of combining visual images with words, there existed a healthy number of literary magazines in the study willing to engage creative literary and visual forms of expression.

With the understanding of how much visual art work, in terms of percentage usage is being published in literary magazines, it now follows that the individuals responsible for its inclusion be surveyed. For, as common sense would have it, the impact of the visual art work depends more on its 1

quality and effective placement than it does on sheer quantity. What follows in the next section is a description of how the survey was undertaken and a highly condensed version of the responses.

PART FOUR: THE SURVEY UNDERTAKEN

Literary Magazine Editors And Sponsors Respond As sample copies of literary magazines were forwarded, and as post cards from the Preferred Titles list were returned, it became possible to employ the second phase of the study, namely the telephone interview and the mail questionnaire. It was hoped, when the entire study was proposed, that the telephone would prove to be an effective means of eliciting responses. This hope was rewarded, both within, and outside the state of Texas. My overall impression of editor responses was one of wholehearted cooperation. They cared about presenting graphics/art work and worried about the barriers they faced in publishing visual material. Many of the editors interviewed voluntarily mailed me back-dated issues of their publication, or copies of their covers. These, they felt, illustrated how 146 effective they had been in the arena of book arts or presentations of a particular artist or media.

In those instances where the interview concerned a literary magazine produced at an institution of higher learning, it seemed more valuable to speak to the magazine's sponsor than to student editors. The sponsor, in the majority of instances, had several years of experience connected with the magazine (in contrast to student editorships which were renewed every year); and many sponsors functioned as a sort of super editor. In some cases, the sponsor had started the literary magazine on campus and had a direct personal stake in its well being. Even in those cases where the magazine production was almost entirely in the hands of the students, faculty sponsors proved by their depth of knowledge concerning the publication to be valuable sources of information.

While a detailed listing of questions and response summaries has its own fascination for the compiler of the questionnaire, its charms may prove relative, even elusive, to the less involved reader, and for this reason, the data is in Appendix I. The determined reader who wishes to browse among these 147 responses is asked to remember that the summary is compiled from both telephone and mail questionnaires. It seems worth emphasizing that since these responses are summarized, and since the study uncovered such a large number of university sponsored literary magazines, the responses reflect, more than anything else, the views of literary magazines sponsors engaged in a laboratory process involving students. When the experiences of privately produced literary magazine editors seem to run counter to the summarized responses of university affiliated sponsors, I attempt to draw out the distinctions.

There were 36 results from university sponsored publications in Texas, 11 results from Preferred Titles editors, 6 results from literary magazines published in Ohio and 11 additional results from editors of literary magazines published in California, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, and Scotland, respectively, for a total of 64 respondents overall. When summarizing these responses, I sometimes found questionnaires in which no response was given to a particular question, and some in which multiple responses to the same question were found. In those 148 instances, I attempted to interpret the answers in the most informative way possible within the bounds of what I believed the respondents intended to state.

Combined Survey Responses The actual 28 questions and a summary of the responses to each question may be read in Appendix I. What follows are 9 key points discovered in the survey and characterized in brief assertions based on the responses:

1. Student editors make the ordinary selections of graphic/art work within institutionally sponsored literary magazines. The problems connected with this style of selection are developed later in the study. Methods of selection of graphics art work within Preferred Titles and nominated literary magazines were not quite evenly divided between the editor making the selection alone, or the editor in conjunction with some consultation... often an art editor.

2. Literary magazines do not commonly feature individual artists. Two thirds of the respondents 149 denied that it ever happened. Among the third who claimed the practice, some said it was occasional.

3. Literary magazines seldom feature one media. Of those that did, photograpy was more favored. In fact, photography was favored by a margin of over fifty percent.

4. Editors believe the inclusion of art work in their literary magazines has a positive effect on circulation, or sales. They believed this most strongly in the case of their covers.

5. There existed a phoenomena in which certain individuals created both literary and visual art. Those instances of doubly talented artists are explored in the site interview with Dimension (in appendices) and in the instances of artist's books in Chapter III.

6. While editors generally tended to give a certain weight to providing a forum for artists, they were equally interested in using graphics/art work to break up masses of print and to provide visual relief 150 for their readers.

7. Higher education plays an important role in the field of literary magazines. Editors believed their primary audience was college trained. They also very often indicated that their experiences with literary magazines began at some university; or the magazine, in fact, owed its existence to a university .

8. Editors and sponsors in Texas were seldom in touch with or aware of the efforts of other editors and sponsors of literary magazines. They had difficulty naming other magazines whose graphics art work they appreciated. This was somewhat true throughout the country for the editors in this study, although there were notable exceptions.

9. It appears that desktop publishing and its attendent graphic's potential will have an increasing effect on many of the literary magazines in this study in the immediate future. This effect will probably extend to all literary magazines within the next ten years. 151

A Final Observation On The Summary While these nine points just listed contain intriguing and valuable material, some of the answers given to me by editors and sponsors during site interviews were also fascinating and insightful. The site interviews made be read in the appendices for a sense of individual responses, and a sense of the unique individual, which is lost in a summation. Also, it is fair to point out the obvious, not all the respondents were in agreement when answering the questions on the survey. Some of the individual responses that differed from the consensus were fascinating and showed divergent thinking. For these reason, in Appendix I, in addition to the questions and responses from which the nine points are taken, there are also occasional interpretations offered.

A Compass Sighting Taken For The Study The nine assertions summarized from the survey contain certain points that require additional exploration and understanding. In order to develop further some of the ideas that surfaced, the chapters 152 that follow take up individual areas of concern and develop them. Specifically, the subjects of photography in literary magazines, cover art, and the issue of the doubly talented will be sifted with more vigor. Notes Chapter II (1) The editor of Calyx suggested that typesetting concrete poetry was a printer's nightmare... and horrendously expensive. Perhaps these difficulties offer another explanation why so few examples of concrete poetry were encountered. Editors may have been weeding them out for reasons of economy. (2) There were literary magazines obtained late in the study whose graphics usage was equally effecti Magazines such as Yellow Silk, and Granta were fou almost at the end of the study, but could have as easily been annotated for the interesting ways in which they approached graphics/art work,- had they been found earlier. Yellow Silk features a mild erotic approach to literature and graphics/art wor I was unab.le to obtain contact with the editor. (3) To discover how the various creative literary magazines compare in terms of percentage usage see Appendix H. CHAPTER III

VISUAL IMAGES AND TEXT

Introduction To Chapter III The first chapter presented the history of one of the first literary magazines to attempt to balance the presentation of graphics/art work and creative writing. The second chapter gave an idea of how much graphics/art work is currently being published by those literary magazines included in this study. It was also shown, in summary, how editors and sponsors responded to questions about their use of graphics/art work. This third chapter takes a closer look at some intriguing approaches to combining visual and literary art. Posters as a specific instance of image-text combination are examined, and it is shown that they bear a relationship to cover art. Other equally fascinating areas touched upon include artist's books, phototexts, the author as director, and the practice of matching.

154 1

PART ONE: TEXT AND IMAGE

Journalism Informs Literature The rewards of combining text with visual images effectively are obvious and self evident to journalists. Each form of expression, when the union is successful, supplements and strengthens the other. At the time I wrote these words, I had not yet read Hurley and McDougall's Visual Impact In Print (1971); but their teachings aimed at photojournalists so parallel my statement that I might well have borrowed it wholesale from their chapter on "The Editor." As the title of their text implies, it is the effective combination of visual and written images that comprises the heart of their concern. Literary magazines carry both text and visual image, but do • they combine them effectively? The answer, of course, is that the successful combining of image and text overall in this study was mixed. A few magazines, to be discussed shortly, did surprisingly well at combining text and visual image in various ways. Hurley and McDougall wrote their text as journalists; and it may strike many that the concerns of journalism lie far afield from the concerns of 156 literary magazines, but this impression requires additional attention. The thrust of the writing that follows will show why the lessons of effective journalism do contain a wisdom applicable to literary magazines containing visual images. When one thinks about ordinary life in our literate society, it seems the impulse on the part of writers and artists to link visual images with literary images is found throughout the spectrum of everyday reading experiences. It permeates every passage of our intellectual development from the picture books of childhood, and the comic books of adolescence, to the illustrated magazines and newspapers of adulthood. We are deluged with advertisements skillfully composed of text and visual image combinations designed to promote candidate's, products, or ideologies. In this visual world (of visual images and literary images) which we experience, combined and assembled in various ways, it should be no surprise to discover that some literary magazines have aspired to employ the two forms effectively, and that they have approached the problem of effective combination in a wide variety of styles (see Appendix K). How shall effective combinations of text and image be distinguished from the ordinary, or even ineffective, combinations? A simple rule, and a reasonable expectation, would be that the visual images not work against the text. If the text concerns the image, or they cover the same subject matter, then the image should not seem to undermine the message contained in the writing. One photograph of a bumblebee hovering above a flower, included as part of the essay, will effectively sabotage an entire treatise carefully explaining why the area of a bumblebee's wingspan is too small to allow it to fly. If the image is independent of the text, as much of the photography presented in literary magazines is independent of the literature (the author and the photographer did not intend to collaborate), then the reader should easily grasp that there is not intended to be a direct relationship between what is written and what is pictured. Some of these specific styles of assemblin visual and literary material may be seen in the annotated magazines included in Appendix K. Finally, the fruits of such unions between text and image can be intellectually powerful, socially persuasive, even sway us emotionally, as will be 158 shown in a comparison of Hemingway's and Agee's polemical combinations later in this essay.

Nemerov's Chasm Howard Nemerov, in a short essay found in The Language of Images (Mitchell, 1980), wrote about the powerful mental and spiritual nature of visual art and literary art and hypothesized about their potential reunion in the future. He drew attention to their shared origins, that picture making and picture writing we're once almost indivisible skills; humanity's earliest form of communication. In that former union, Nemerov felt there was some element regretfully missing from the two now divergent forms of communication; some element we need to return to. Nemerov wrote "...For push and pull as we may, writing and painting did separate off from one another. Might they ever come back together? Ought they ever to come back together? If their very different but immense powers were to fuse into something not really much like either—what then?" (Nemerov, 1980, p. 12).

Although Nemerov's essay is not lengthy, it touches exactly upon an important chord in this study. An observer in our society might conclude th visual artists and literary artists seem anxious to span the breach (fulfilling Nemerov's tentative prophecy), and this anxiety is expressed in a multitude of ways. It appears that the separation o which Nemerov writes has created a division truly unsatisfactory to both parties... but no one has yet managed to invent a new form of visual communicatio What seems to have happened in western society over the last hundred years (within the realm of visible communication) is that several variations of single image presentations combined with limited amounts o text have come to the fore. Central to the concerns of this study and foremost among these single image presentations are the category of magazine covers, but I want to approach them circuitously. There are other vistas that deserve at least a brief glance, other forms of single image and text combinations that deserve a brief written description.

I do not wish to write here of visual artists who have occasionally tossed a word or a sentence fragment into their art, thinking that the odd word or phrase might somehow magically connect two divergent art forms; although such a category might offer some interesting approaches to the problem of hermeneutics in visual art (how Sue Coe uses newspaper headlines in her paintings, for example, o how Duane Michaels uses handwritten poems in his photography). Nor does it seem desirable to trace al the examples in the world of artists who have folded a word, a number, or a phrase into their visual art, so that the meaning of the letter forms was shunted aside in favor of their glyphic nature. Finally, of course, there are examples of art work in which the meaning of" the work hinges on words or text but the text is not always present in the work. Jacques Dopagne in his book Magritte (1977) shows that the meaning of words, whether in the art or in the title are fundamental to an understanding of what the painter, Rene Magritte, was about. (1) Despite the seductive lure of Surrealism and Magritte as topics to dwell upon, with all the endless vistas of speculation about codes and philosophy that are possible, neither Magritte nor Surrealism are as close to the mark as we wish to hit. We want art in which the image and the word are bound together. I wish to suggest that there are som artists and art works in which the word and the visual image are part and parcel of the whole, and is this indivisible relationship that oblige us to regard them for what they might reveal to us about

the concerns that literary magazines face.

The contemporary artist Barbara Kruger has

fashioned an art form combining disparate words and

found photographs clipped from advertisements

(Kamimura, 1987). The resultant image is both word and picture. Putting words with pictures in visual

art works is, in its way, attempting to bridge the gap of which Nemerov spoke. And Kruger is not the

first nor the sole practitioner of an art form that

seeks maximum gains from the use of both text and

image. Should Toulouse-Lautrec's efforts at creatin a poster to advertise the Moulin Rouge (or the

terpsichore of Jane Avrill or Loie Fuller) be considered as unique simply because it has been enshrined in art texts? Far from it. There are, in

the context of western culture alone, a considerabl number of examples of how artists have employed individual images and text to make a statement.

Before examples of individual image and text combinations are taken up, it is necessary to recognize and state that there are an even greater number of artists who have, somehow or another, lent their gifts to the printed word as illustrators. If one were to ask approximately how many well known artists have bestowed their talents in such a fashion, a book printed to detail an exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston that covered one hundred years of collaboration between western artists and authors would serve as a good indicator. The book lists just over 200 separate names of artists whose works were in the exhibit ( The Artist & The Book, 1972). Many of these names, drawn from the great age of book illustration in Victorian England, are familiar from that period; names such as Beardsley, Morris, Tenniel, etc. and some of them familiar from our own time such as Baskin, Kent, Klee, Picasso, and Tamayo. There are surprises to be found in this book as well. While illustrators, painters, and printmakers are no surprise in such a list, there is an unexpectedly large number of sculptors (beyond Baskin) whose names are to be found in these pages. Such names of renowned sculptors as Barlach (to whom I will return), Brancusi, Calder, Moore, Manzu, and Marini are to be found among many other artists gracing the list of those who, in one way or another, got their art work down on the printed page. Such a list of sculptors seems to underline how widespread is the impulse to link pictures with words. The involvement of all these various artists with the printed word constitutes lengthy and honorable enterprise, but the exhibit! lists mostly artists who were illustrators or temporarily lent themselves to illustration. These various artists served a word already in existence What about artists who originate both word and ima or artists like Kruger, who construct a new image using found, or recycled, text and pictures? What follows are some art forms in which the visual artists was directly involved in the creation and placement of the text as well.

PART TWO: POSTERS

A Family Of Images If pressed to cite examples of a form of communication created by one person combining both text and visual image, posters suggest a tempting avenue. To do so means we must eschew some other intriguing commercial byways which would include: 164

book jackets, record album covers, match book covers,

post cards, calenders, billboards, etc. Without

straining for a rigorous definition of the refined

essence that all these word and image combinations

share as one property (usually it seems to be a form

of persuasion directed toward a mass audience), let

us agree only that they appear on the surface to

share some quality among themselves and that this

quality would encompass everything from Kruger's clip

art to the anonymous advertiser's billboards that

Walker Evans documented and collected (Thompson,

1982). It will, of course, include the posters which

I am going to examine in slightly more detail, and

even magazine covers...which will bring us back to

the main line of inquiry. Entertain, for a moment,

the idea that all of these combinations of word and

visual image possibly share some family kinships which we might attempt to grasp by tracing the origin

of one of its members.

The Origin Of Posters

Perhaps posters are best understood, not as a

form of information provided for the public, but as a form of visual persuasion "aimed" at a mass audience. 165

In pursuit of persuasion, as will be shown, posters have been used around the world for a multiplicity of purposes. Their various messages have been used to promote a multitude of ideas sophisticated in purpose far beyond the innocent arabesques Toulouse-Lautrec employed to celebrate and capture the naughty swirls of Loie Fuller. How did posters come into existence? John Barnicoat's A Concise History of Posters (1979) credits the first modern posters as the creation of a french artist, Jules Cheret. Barnicoat tells us that Cheret was originally a painter trained in the classic tradition. At the time he invented the modern poster Cheret was studying the art of lithography. Cheret traveled to England, and while there, was struck by, and borrowed, the visual language of popular folk art used to decorate circus programs. He enlarged and extended this visual language by working directly on the lithography stone. How was it that he stumbled upon circus programs as a source? While in England, Cheret had befriended clowns. From such a beguiling friendship was modern poster art born (pp. 267). 168

Barnicoat provides color illustrations of Cheret's Carnaval (1894) and Toulouse-Lautrec's Divan Japonais (1893) as a comparison of the close similarities between the two artists' work (pp.11-12). Barnicoat tells us that Cheret studied painting at the Beaux-Arts in Paris while serving as a lithographer's apprentice. Barnicoat says Cheret's posters (informed by this classical background) are not masterpieces of advertising put out into the street, but that they work as masterpieces of art which coincidentally happen to need the street as gallery. While this explanation for Cheret's original success is alright as far as it goes, the underpinnings of what it is that makes posters function so well, even in these contemporary times, needs to be mapped out a little further. First, let us look at posters as an art form, then attempt to discover how they are distinct.

Posters As Art Posters are now a widely recognized form of art, despite their commercial applications. Knowing how they began, it is easier to understand how they might be regarded as part of the public's art gallery. 169

Barnicoat is not the only author to regard them as an art form, as will be shown shortly. But to think of posters simply as art that happens to be hung in the street is to miss the point, as Barnicoat indicates. The poster hooks us and holds us because of the power of the visual image; and here I would argue that the visual images that work best are, like Cheret's, expressed in the form most commonly understood... a language peculiar to the culture and the times in which the poster is shown. To illustrate my point, Barnicoat writes of the untutored visual language of popular folk art that Cheret appropriated for his posters. Here is one key to understanding how Cheret's new form of expression took off like a man shot out of a cannon. Not only were the words simple and direct, the visual image (no matter how elegantly Cheret composed it, no matter how much of his classical training informed his draughtsmanship) was easily understood by the average citizen. The clue to the power of posters appears to lie in their ability to present an image that is visually riveting and easily grasped by the culture at whom it is directed. Posters are compared easily to fishing. The barb is planted by the text...after the visual hook. 170

Bureaucratic Art The poster as a government sponsored activity capable of communicating a party line is well documented in DeNoon's book, Posters of The WPA (1987). His book shows how a government agency, the Works Progress Administration, employed artists to create a form of visual propaganda that is both imperative and aesthetically dramatic. DeNoon also argues that these aged WPA posters, which were almost lost to posterity, are now to be regarded as an important branch of the art form of posters. Are WPA posters, big brother's edicts prepared for a mass audience and destined for the street, truly a form of art? If so, then all posters, no matter what their source, constitute potential art objects, a form that continues to seed, branch, and flourish, not in the rarefied air of museums and art galleries, but on the streets and walls of the common people. Many a college dormitory room, like some aesthetic hanging garden, has thus been cultivated with travel posters, or posters from a favorite film. They bide their time on these walls, waiting for their own DeNoon, like a hunter of truffles, to 171 harvest them and declare their promotion into the pantheon of high art.

Picasso and Art Noveau To debate the future worthiness of posters as art objects, be they commissioned by the federal government or the cinema is beside the point and after the fact. One does not have to haunt college dormitories to find examples of posters as art object. Library shelves groan under the weight of books celebrating poster art from the hands and lands of various artists. Among these many books, there is a book devoted to the poster art of Pablo Picasso, Czwiklitzer's Picasso's Posters (1971). Can any doubt remain when an artist as renowned as Picasso has a book exclusively dedicated to his posters? On this hypothetical book shelf containing real books, there is also a book featuring posters of the Art Nouveau age, Roger Sainton's Art Nouveau; Posters and Graphics, (1977). In Sainton's book we find that among the many masters who created memorable poster art in the time of Cheret and Toulouse-Lautrec, there is poster art by Aubrey Beardsley and a host of his imitators, a sort of Beardsley school...which brings 172 us around full circle, for in a sense this study began with Beardsley. Sainton (1977) credits Beardsley with two posters that are fine examples of the Art Nouveau style. As examples he shows a poster entitled The Forty Thieves: Ali Baba and a poster entitled A^ Comedy Of Sighs. While Sainton credits Beardsley with being widely influential in the field of poster art, he does not explain the astonishing impact on poster art that the poster Comedy Of Sighs exerted in Victorian London. For a better understanding of exactly how powerful Beardsley's poster art was, and the importance of his work, here is a quote taken from Bevis Hillier's book Posters (1969). In this quote, Charles Hiatt-a contemporary of Beardsley's, is describing the impact of Beardsley's theatrical poster A Comedy Of Sighs. "Nothing so compelling, so irresistible, had ever been posted on the hoardings of the metropolis before. Some gazed at it with awe, as if it were the final achievement of modern art; others jeered at it as a palpable piece of buffoonery; everybody, however, from the labourer hurrying in the dim light of morning to his work, to the prosperous stockbroker on his way to the 'House', was forced to stop and look at it. 173

Hence, it fulfilled its primary purpose to admiration; it was a most excellent advertisement." (Charles Hiatt, 1895, as quoted by Hillier, 1969, p.30).

Hillier says that Beardsley's poster made all the previous British advertisements seem "archaic relics" (p. 30). Not only was it the cause of much public notice, it was commented upon by Punch magazine, and parodied in amateur theatricals in Oxford. Beardsley was called "Weirdsley Daubrey" (p.30) in J. Hearn's parody poster, and his poster mocked in verse by Owen Seaman. Hiatt, according to Hillier, called Beardsley (recalling his illustrations for Salome, "Cheret's John the Baptist" (p.30). Hillier gives Beardsley credit for establishing the poster as an art form in Britain. As for the Avenue Theatre poster which caused all the uproar, it simply shows a female figure very typical of Beardsley, replete with pouting lips and side cast eyes, standing behind a curtain. Cheret's young poster females leap and laugh in gay abandon, thinly clad, their flying limbs clearly visible. Beardsley's young poster woman, partially concealed, immobile, and clothed in voluminous black, leers at something invisible to the viewer while she waits. 175

The books by Hillier and others under discussion, refuse the distinction that sets poster art in a lower celestial house, but rather celebrate certain posters for their aesthetic properties, treat them with the same exaggerated respect given to paintings and other high art, and honor them as if they had been originally intended to orbit in the lofty stratosphere of museums, not schlepp along with tattered corners and ragged edges hanging out in corner shops and furtive alley walls. For all their artistic creativity, posters are more than just visual images. Unlike some other hosts of high art heaven, they were not intended solely for aesthetic contemplation, or ornament and decoration for the idle rich. They have work to do. They carry words as well, and the words and the images team up together to persuade and motivate the masses. Posters are signs that are carefully manipulated to arrest our attention long enough to sock us with what the designers hopes will be an effective message. Barnicoat reminds us that the famous Uncle Sam poster ("Uncle Sam Wants You!") was preceded by a poster of a winsome girl wanting men for the same sacrificial purposes (to join the navy) and both of 17G these posters stemmed from a poster showing a stern-faced pointing Lord Kitchener reminding the young men of World War 1 England that their country needed them. Not only did Uncle Sam want men in World War I, he wanted them in World War II as well. Imagine, a poster that communicated so directly that it was still functional over the time span of a generation. Perhaps it is not surprising to learn that the sternly pointing Uncle Sam, one of the most successful posters in the history of the United States, started out as a civilian magazine cover illustration... then got drafted to serve its country as a poster.

Figure 19. MYour Country Needs You." A World War I poster used for recruitment in Britain. 178

Flagg Waving In The Great War James Montgomery Flagg created the long-lived Uncle Sam poster on February 15th, 1917, for Leslie1s, an illustrated weekly (Kery, 1982). He used himself as the model for the face. It is not only Flagg's visage, effective though it may be, but the composition of the entire poster that is of interest here. Robert Philippe, in his book Political Graphics; Art As A Weapon (1980) provides us with examples of five very similar war posters from as many countries. All employing the self-same devices Flagg used. Great Britain's poster of Lord Kitchener and Flagg's Uncle Sam have already been mentioned. In addition, there are posters from Italy and Germany during the same conflict, World War I, and one from Russia made during 1923. Four of these posters seem to work with extreme effectiveness in their power to catch and fix our attention. If the elements of these five posters were analyzed, what would they suggest; and what elements distinguish the four successful posters from the less successful? What follows is a count that attempts to answer these very questions. 180

This analytical tally will begin with a screening of the most obvious characteristics, as shown by Philippe (1980), and determine if any subtleties drop out (Philippe also details some of these elements on the facing page, but does not indulge in the depth of inventory that is used in this accounting). Each poster contains a man; and every poster, save the Italian poster, shows the man close up (as does the Italian poster as shown on page 199, but Philippe says that the actual poster is full figure). Two of the men, the German and the Italian, are apparently young, two of the men, Uncle Sam and the Russian, are fairly mature, and the man in the poster from Great Britain (Lord Kitchener) appears middle-aged. Each man is pointing a finger. Four of the men use their right hand to point with, the German uses his left. Each man is solemn faced; and three of the men have their lips tightly compressed (they are not visibly speaking), the Italian has his lips slightly parted, and the Russian appears to be shouting. The Russian features a full beard and long hair, Uncle Sam has a goatee and long hair. The Italian, the German, and the British men are all closely trimmed. In four of the posters, the pointing 181 man has his finger in close proximity to his face (the hand overlaps the face); in the German poster, the pointing finger is at chin height, but the hand does not cover the face. In each of the posters, the nationality of the figure pointing is readily identifiable by the type of head gear worn. The German and Italian men wear helmets, Kitchener a naval captain's cap, the Russian a sort of peasant's cap, and Uncle Sam wears his star-spangled stovepipe hat determinedly down over his head. In every poster save one, the eyes of the pointing man are mesmerizing, direct, and unavoidable. Lastly, in every poster save the Russian poster, the text is subordinate in scale to the image (Philippe does not show the entirety of Uncle Sam, but Kery (1982) does...and the famous message is well below the illustration).

The Visual Rebuke What then are the most important elements that seem to work successfully in four of the five images, all of them using almost the identical pose? First, in my opinion, are the eyes. Only the shouting Russian does not look out at us from his poster. His 182 grimace and the shadow of his cap obscure his direct gaze, and this lack of seeming eye contact detracts from the effectiveness of the poster. To the degree that the artist gives us the full benefit of the stare, to that degree is the riveting quality of the poster successful. Every school teacher, every parent, and every back street bully, has learned the coercive value of the direct, challenging stare. It seems to work quite well in poster art too. Of all the stares, it is that of Uncle Sam that is most threatening, for he also frowns directly at us. There is something about the expression that is reminiscent of being severely admonished by one's parents (or uncle), and it is that admonishment that leads to the second important factor. It is no accident that the hand in four of these visual images overlaps the face. Its directional and commanding digit are meant to be noticed immediately. One does not have to speak Italian, German, or Russian to understand that this figure is directing "you." But now comes the clencher. What is it that "you" are supposed to do? The temptation is to say "clean up that mess," or "hand it over," depending on whether one was more coerced by parents, teachers, or 183 bullies;, and in a sense that message is dangerously close. There is a mess that each of these countries was in when the poster was created, and the figures in the posters wanted "you" to clean it up. The actual messages are various. The Italian soldier was featured on a war bond poster. He wanted his countrymen to buy bonds (i.e., hand it over). All the other posters demanded enlistment, including the peacetime Russian peasant, who wanted his countrymen to join the Communist party...or to say it in another way, if you did as the poster wanted, you handed yourself over.

Finally, there is the matter of the text placement. In each of the four successful posters, the face and figure of the authoritarian figure confront us directly. In the Russian poster, besides the lack of direct eye contact, the figure itself is obscured by the cryllic text, letters so large they make it appear the Russian peasant is hedged in by them. While this poster shares all the elements that succeed with the others, it is fatally compromised by these last two compositional decisions. The other figures seem to reach out on some primitive level, the Russian peasant does not. As for the Uncle Sam 184

Wants You poster, it was so successful that it took on a life of its own. It has appeared in political campaigns. Uncle Sam wanted FDR for president, and it has (inverting its original purpose) also been used, during the Viet Nam era, as an anti-war device. I suspect it will continue to make appearances in the future. The visual rebuke is too effective a poster device to go long ignored.

Figure 22. A secondary use of the "Want You" type poster. 185

Gut Level Reactions It seems to me that those posters that seize us most skillfully appeal to some deeply rooted, visceral, emotion. As an example, on page 150 of his book, DeNoon (1987) shows a fire control poster, made at the beginning of the World War II era, that features a Japanese soldier. Apparently, one of the concerns at that period of time was the danger of wild fires. The poster addresses that concern by focusing on how wild fires were then thought to occur. The poster's text urges citizens to obtain a fire prevention device called a "fag bag" (in the common parlance, a device to hold burnt matches and cigarettes), but the message of the image is not nearly so benign as the text. Immediately behind a pine tree lurks a Japanese soldier. The face of the Japanese soldier has been transformed by the artist into a grinning pig-snouted monster. The text urges citizens to practice fire safety. The visual image plays on racial hatreds. The visual image is a direct appeal to our deepest fears, our worst instincts... the enemy is Japanese, the enemy is not human. When we were menaced by a foreign power, poster art made them seem to be monsters. 186

An acknowledged master of the polemical poster in its most extreme form; and an artist who must be mentioned in connection with the dark side of poster art is the German Communist, Helmut Herzfelde, alias John Heartfield (Philippe, 1980). Just prior to World War II, his photomontages fired salvo after salvo into the racial pretensions of Nazi Germans...and Adolf Hitler (Scharf, Art and Photography 1968). In a sense, his work, more biting and savage than Kruger's, anticipates hers in method and exceeds it in vitriol. Heartfield utilized a police photograph of a murder victim lying in the street (blood is everywhere). He then superimposed a photograph of a fat, jackbooted Nazi, with a shaved head and the party emblem, astride the victim. For a more complete visual explication of how visceral posters can become, one might turn again to posters found in Philippe's book. It covers a gamut of examples from humanity's troubled history, but among the multitude of images that leap off the page, sea gulls drowning in ocean water polluted with oil have a singular and timely resonance with current news (1989) of massive oil spills emanating from Valdez, Alaska (pp.305). 188

Tiger Eye Those familiar with the work of E. H. Gombrich will not be surprised to learn that he too has considered the poster (as a class of objects) for what it can tell us about how we see what we see. In his book The Image And The Eye (1982), Gombrich takes up his central concept that our survival skills as a species have attuned us to be visually alert for certain key elements in the environment. To use a familiar picture book example, Little Red Ridinghood noting that Grandma has suddenly developed sharp teeth is an obvious survival skill. Gombrich makes the same point using an eye-catching Pompeian mosaic that warns the potential intruder of a toothy watchdog. While developing his ideas about how our vision is fine tuned, Gombrich discusses several different types of posters, shows examples (p. 290-295), and dissects the meanings and approach of a poster for the London Zoo. Gombrich is quite taken with posters as forms of visual communication and uses several to develop his arguments.

There are two points worth mentioning here. In his writing, he makes it quite clear that he doesn't believe posters are a high art form. He may not be 1 aware that others in the institutional artworld have already nominated them as such. He seems to think that their overwhelming need to communicate clearly precludes them from the pantheon of art objects whose creators do not intend to be too easily understood. It is valuable, in this context, that the poster he analyzes, he selected first for its aesthetic qualities...and it is not a very easily grasped poster. One sees it is a stylized tiger readily enough, but not that it is also a schematic for the London subway system. In other words, Gombrich, in harmony with his own thesis, selected the object for its aesthetic resonance (with his atavistic survival skills) and then intellectually justified his choice. Secondly, Gombrich has not delved too deeply into all the available poster forms, and deliberately so. He makes his points about what works visually in the examples he produces, then moves on. Still, he has lingered within the domain of posters long enough to provide reinforcement for the idea that the best posters communicate viscerally. Gombrich, if he may be broadly interpreted, says the poorly defended human animal has survived these millenia because it is visually attuned to important visual markers 190 certain ways. These must be the visual markers that the best poster makers strive to employ.

Blithe Spirit Lest the reader feel the theme of posters as art has strayed too far from an examination of the current literary publishing scene, it seems worth mentioning that one of the magazines in this study, TriQuarterly, is now offering its readership the opportunity to buy an 18 by 24 inch poster of its Winter 1989 color cover created by Gini Kondziolka. The poster sells for nine dollars. Pie Iron and Yellow Silk also sell past covers as poster art. If posters may be used to induce the sacrifice of youth in wartime or fan the incipient flames of racial hatred, why may it not be used in a more benign endeavor? Let artists and literary magazines flourish through the beneficial art of posters as well. Somewhere surely, Cheret's ghost, wearing the painted face of a weary circus clown, must now be smiling. 191

PART THREE: COVER ART

From Cover To Cover We have thus far pursued a meandering path that led across several broad streams where image and word flow together. There are still other crossings yet to face, but for the moment we find ourselves halted alongside the subject of cover art for magazines. Certain of the editors in this study, when asked about the use of visual art in their magazine, framed their initial response in terms of the cover image carried on the current issue. They were interpreting a question about general art usage to mean a concern about the art on their covers. It says something about the importance to the editor and to the circulation of the magazine that their first impulse was to respond in this manner. They did this, I believe, because the covers of their magazines shared a common property already described with respect to poster art. That is, the cover of a magazine, like a poster, is aimed at a mass audience. Like a poster, the magazine cover's visual image has the power and the capacity to hook a 192 viewer's attention even at a distance. Also like a poster, the magazine cover carries with it a covert function to sell the magazine that carries it. There is reinforcement for these last two assertions. The Columbia Scholastic Press Association at Columbia University produces a brochure entitled Magazine Fundamentals. 3rd Edition (1984). The brochure was written by John Cutsinger Jr., an award winning high school magazine sponsor, and edited by various advisers and members of the Association's Board of Judges. The Columbia Scholastic Press Association offers a competitive contest each year which scholastic institutions may enter. The competition includes general magazines as well a literary magazines. In his brochure, Cutsinger sets out some guidelines for magazine editors to follow when producing the covers for their magazines. He states: "The cover of the magazine should catch the reader's attention and keep it" (p. 6). He goes on to explain that the magazine cover should tell the viewer with the first glance what the magazine is. He also states that the art or photograph on the cover should be the best art or photograph that the editor has for that issue. How applicable is Cutsinger's 193

view ot the importance ot' cover iii t to this studyf At least one of the literary magazines in this study ( Bayousphere ) has entered the contest on occasion, and won prizes in it. In that section of the appendices dealing with site interviews, when the sponsor of Bayousphere is being interviewed, there is a further explanation of the Columbia Scholastic Press Association's prize system. Suffice it to say now, that it is useful to know that in a contest for scholastically produced literary magazines, great importance is laid upon the effectiveness of the cover, and that this effectiveness is gauged by the quality of the photograph or art work. But while it is valuable to know that the editor of a brochure on magazines has devoted himself to the importance of covers, are there other individuals who support the concept of the magazine cover as a poster?

Patricia Frantz Kery has written a book whose title, Great Magazine Covers Of The World (1982), is indicative not only of its subject, but also of its author's passion for the artistic properties of magazine covers. While developing her theme of how and where these various great magazine covers appeared, she traces a history of magazine cover art 194 which is useful for the theme of this study. In it, she notes that many artists, among whom she specifically lists Toulouse-Lautrec, regarded magazine covers as a sort of small poster. To further underscore her point, she provides a full color, two-page example of a cover Toulouse-Lautrec executed for the magazine L'Estampe Originale (1893). The cover has as its central figure, Jane Avril, a close friend and occasional subject of the artist. Avril was a dancer, of whom Toulouse-Lautrec had once made a poster in which she stands on one heel, holding her other leg and petticoats aloft. In the cover for L'Estampe Originale she is portrayed now holding aloft, not a shapely leg and petticoats, but an issue of the very magazine itself just off the press (p.183). The cover image includes the printer and the printing press in addition to Miss Avril. It is executed in Toulouse-Lautrec's characteristically flat, vivid style. The magazine cover is no different in any respect than the celebrated posters that Toulouse-Lautrec created; many of which, including his poster of Jane Avril holding her leg 195 and petticoats aloft, now adorn the pages of art appreciation texts. (3)

Figure 24. L'Estampe Originale created as a' magazine cover by Toulouse-Lautrec. 196

If the reader will concede for a moment that there is at least a partial support for the concept of magazine cover as small poster, then the other assertion, that magazine covers, like posters, must implicitly sell the magazine, may be set in place. For a solid foundation upon which this assertion might stand, we must turn to a source whose hard won knowledge was forged on Madison Avenue. George Lois, an art director for several decades in New York City, has written a book entitled The Art Of Advertising, George Lois On Mass Communication (1977) dealing with this very issue. While the book is generally valuable for a number of reasons (its organization, use of bold type face, etc.), it is particularly useful because Lois provided the magazine covers for Esquire over a ten-year period. In one section of his book detailing his adventures in advertising, he identifies several of his triumphs with magazine covers in the marketplace, and describes why they were successes. Here is his formula for the function of a magazine cover. I never "designed" an Esquire cover. The worst covers of any publication, even a designer's journal, are always designs. Designed work has no place on a magazine's face. A design is a harmony of elements. A 197

cover is a statement. It should provoke, challenge, interest, entice, snare, grab, arouse, titillate, excite, shock, infuriate, seduce, motivate. It should give the reader an irresistible taste of the magazine's spirit. It should capture a reader. (Lois, 1977, p.66)

Clearly, Lois feels that it is the job of magazine covers to sell magazines. In his book, he describes his various coups while using his skills as an art director to build the circulation of Esquire magazine. Taking into account that this study concerns itself with literary magazines whose circulation is limited, and whose circulation strategies do not always include aggressive marketing, Lois's cogent observations seem applicable to the cover of literary magazines.

Lois wanted to capture "readers." Literary magazines on library shelves, and in book stores, compete for reader's attention as much as general magazines on vendor's news racks. Editors and sponsors of literary magazines desire to gain readers as much as any other publisher. Lois offers a key to gaining readers. He seems to treat magazine covers like posters. Before concluding this phase of the essay, it may be helpful to push the idea of 198 magazine cover as small poster yet further. Recall, that in posters, the visual image is dominant, that the text is restricted to the minimum necessary information and subordinated with regard to placement, and that the most successful visual images communicate at a visceral level using visual language appropriate to the culture of the times (the visual language of the common individual). Remember, also, that posters originated as a form of advertisement. With these things in mind, it is worthwhile to examine the covers of the literary magazines in this study in order to determine what editors are doing, and failing to do, with their covers. In other words, do the covers, as Lois would have them, "capture" the reader with a visual statement about their contents? What follows is an attempt to answer that question about the covers of the magazines in this study.

Cover Art In This Study What exactly can be described when examining the cover-cum-poster in the issues contained in this study? The most immediate observation is the low number of magazines who use color on their covers. Editors and sponsors of literary magazines appeared 199 to be well aware of the visual appeal of color images. Color printing, as a topic, came up often in telephone and mail responses by editors. Many of these editors and sponsors told me that color printing was so expensive (see Chapter V for a more complete explanation of color printing) that if they printed in color at all, it was on their covers. Out of some 78 literary magazines whose covers were inventoried, 20 carried color. Of these 20 color images, only 6 of the magazines used color photographs on their covers. The 14 color covers remaining consisted of 10 color graphic images and 4 images of paintings in color. Of the 58 black and white covers, 23 used photographs and 30 used a black and white graphic image. Three of the magazines had no visual image and two of them reproduced a painting in black and white tones.

To restate for clarity, almost three quarters of the magazines in this study did not use color on their covers. Failing to do so means missing an opportunity to entice readers. What about the use of photographs, another opportunity to attract readers?

Curiously enough, the use of photography on the 200 covers of literary magazine s is out'.veighed by the use of graphic images; some of them quite bland. This is at variance with the usage of photographs in the interior of these kinds of magazines (the use of photography in literary mag azines is developed further in the next chapter ), and again it seems to work against the central id ea of cover as poster,

Both Cutsinger (1984) and L ois (1977) wrote emphatically that magazine covers should be visually powerful...Cutsinger writin g that the best art in the magazine should be on the c over. I would assert that, taken as a whole, the liter ary magazines in this study failed to meet the cr iteria described by Lois

(he wanted covers that crea ted an impact on the viewer and made a statement about their contents, but most of all he wanted to "c apture" readers). I am guessing the failure (recal ling this statement is a generality only, there were a few dramatic exceptions, such as the cov er for ZYZZVA and

Botticelli ) is a result of editors ignoring the potential of the cover as a small poster. There is no secret to the fact that mag azine covers hook potential readers, and some literary magazine editors surely recognize the fact, a few of them said as much 201 during interviews. What appears doubtful is how ably they are using this knowledge to capture readers.

PART FOUR: BEYOND THE SINGLE IMAGE

Two Artists In One Depending on the skill of the artist and the craft of the writer, a single image linked with text can be a powerful communicator, particularly when artist and writer are one, as we have seen when considering magazine covers as posters. But, the single image combined in some fashion with a word or a phrase is not sufficiently appropriate to the scope of the problem either, for literary magazines have the potential to carry other sorts of visual and textual combinations. What happens when the creator of images and the author of writing are one and the same person? The editor of Dimension, Leslie Willson, has assured me that the phrase "doublyi talented" is apt and well understood in literary circles when applied to author/artists who combine the two forms of expression in works of some length. Willson had, some years back, published an issue of Dimension (Volume 13, Number 1, 1980) entirely devoted to 202

literature and visual image produced by author-artists (as discussed in the site intervi.ews, Appendix J ) .

Figure 25. The title page of Dimension (Vol. 13, No. 1, 1980. The identical image by Gunter Grass was on the cover. 203

It is noteworthy to have encountered artists who had, at one time or another, harbored the ambition to create in a totally different medium. Their listing will suffice to indicate this impulse exists, if not its scale. The photographer Walker Evans would have liked to have been a writer, as would Aubrey Beardsley. (2) Henry James would have liked to have been a painter; and even Ruskin and his opponent Whistler engaged, with varying success, both visual and literal images. Nor need the list end there. These are some artists who contemplated directing their energies in one direction, then chose another. But for artists who have not fallen back from the formidable obstacle of leaping Neverov's breach, of creating back and forth between two different disciplines, more information is needed. Those artists just mentioned were contemplating entirely separate activities, not synthesis. Ernst Barlach, the German sculptor, is at the center of a book which discusses the doubly talented in terms of literary criticism. Written by Hooper and entitled Ernst Barlach's Literary and Visual Art (1987), the book takes up the issue of visual artists who write and gives it a vigorous, if all too brief, shaking. 204

Barlach, a German sculptor, is Hooper's centerpiece, but he indicates that historically there have been a number of artists, some very well known such as Michelangelo and Blake, who took no notice of the spatial and temporal distinctions between the word and the visual image, but moved readily between them. Hooper's commentary traces the difficulties inherent in evaluating two separate activities whose strongest common bond is their creator. His book is useful because we may observe that there are visual artists who have been, for some time, engaged in creating both in literature and visual works. Hooper also shows that the category of the doubly talented has not been fully explored because of the difficulties inherent in finding a critical handhold for those who engage in literary criticism.

In the brief history of The Yellow Book that introduces this study, the name Dante Gabriel Rossetti occurs as a significant catalyst in both the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the founding of the publication The Germ. Rossetti was both painter and poet. I hold his book Rosetti's Poems (1883) in my hand, caress the stamped and embossed cover that more than a hundred years of wear and tear has dulled but 205 not yet destroyed and I wonder that his book has found its way to South Texas (and why they mispelled his name on the cover and spine of the book).

Rossetti, the poet, Rossetti, the painter, a Rosetti spelled by any other name would still be as doubly talented.

Nor was he the only doubly talented artist to be associated with literary magazines. Wyndham Lewis, both writer and painter, founded the literary magazine Blast in England in 1914. Kery (1982) describes him as the first English artist to use

Cubism in his work, a writer of novels and satires, and also the founder of The Enemy, an art magazine.

The doubly talented Lewis was promoting the ideas and rationale behind Vorticism (an art movement whose membership included Jacob Epstein and Gaudier

Brzeska) in Blast. Essentially, its mission was terminated by the onset of World War I, but it has been emulated by Bomb published in the United States, which like Lewis's magazine, carries articles by and about artists.

One facet of the urge to combine visual images and text by these same, doubly talented artists, is found in unique, one of a kind, or limited editions, 206 distinguished by the encomium, "artist's books." One of the literary magazines being critiqued in this dissertation ( Northwest Review ) regularly reviews and presents artist's books within the context of their magazine.

Figure 26. One page of Caren Heft's artist's book, as it was duplicated in The Northwest Review. 207

Artists And Books How are artist's books characterized? With so many variations in appearance, format, size and material, perhaps the overriding characteristics of the genre are the artist's insistence that the visual image play a powerful role in the presentation of ideas in book format. Which is not to say that I have defined the genre. That artist's books are not easily trapped in a box of definition is, perhaps, a part of their charm. Joan Lyons has edited a seminal text on the subject entitled Artist's Books: A Critical Anthology and Sourcebook (1985). Therein one may find various definitions by the contributors of what are so-called artist's books. In trying to get at what it is that defines an artist's book, some writers emphasize the genre's temporal structures, and some, their political posture toward the artworld. Some writers approach the problem of definition by defining the artist's books against the world of commercial bookselling, and some writers resort to calling for a more definitive term than "artist's book." All of which is indicative of the interest they attract as alternative art works, and the difficulty inherent in defining them. 2

Kate Linker (1978), a free lance critic, writes of artists book's as a political gesture; according to Linker, a gesture by which artists can circumvent the greedy machinations of the artworld. Artist's books are a worthy idea, but one which has not yet achieved the wide audience that other art forms have gained. George Gessert, Art Editor for the Northwest

Review and a regular reviewer of artist's books, has said (in a personal letter) that artist's books are not rare, simply poorly distributed. He also maintained that they were not expensive to acquire.

As political gestures, Linker's concept of them, they would be more effective statements if they gained widespread support. Is this failure of efficient distribution in the market place due to the limitations of reproduction, or because artist's book are generally more difficult for the average reader to encompass? The perilous gates of speculation yawn wide and it would be foolish to more than peer across the threshold. Perhaps the central ideas of an artist's book cannot be widely circulated or reproduced as readily as single instances of visual art; and as pure literature they appear difficult to critique, seeming to fall beyond the pale of the 209 publishing market place. I raised the issue of artist's books with the editor of Calyx, Margarita Donnelly. She indicated her magazine, edited cooperatively by several women, did not receive many artist's book submissions. She thought one of the reason for this lack of artist's books submissions was that most artist's books were too expensive to trust to the mails in the way a manuscript might be sent. One might conclude (writing only about the expensively made books of which Donnelly spoke) that their very qualities of being assembled by hand and made of unusual combinations of materials work against their widespread distribution. They are too rare a breed to be widely known in the popular market.

Speaking of the genre as a whole, artist's books, with some important exceptions, occupy a marginal cultural space. They appear firmly dug into the trenches of the art world, as Linker and Gessert emphasize, their defiant position surrounded by banners emblazoned with portraits of Blake, and hosts of medieval illuminators, supported by the cognoscente, but never holding the aesthetic highground, never fully bridging Nemerov's gap. 210

This is not to say that the disputed passage must be surrendered to single image and text combinations. The topic that follows introduces a kind of text in which words and images have played a powerful and persuasive role in our society.

PART FIVE: PHOTOTEXTS

Writers and Photographers Perhaps the most provocative means of mediating between the two forms of expression, images and words, is found within the arena of phototexts. Phototexts, as its name implies, are a genre of books whose text is inextricably bound up with photographic images. Unlike most artist's books, they are usually both reader accessible and readily sold in the literary marketplaces. Before advancing further, it should be noted that Alex Sweetman, in an essay found in Joan Lyons' book (1985), simply treats what I am calling "phototexts" as an extension of artist's books. Sweetman uses the term "photobookwork" to encompass the same material. While his term may be somewhat awkward, his idea that these books are closely related to artist's books is worth noting. 211

The genre is sufficiently seductive that a number of important writers of our own century have tried their hand at a phototext. Phototexts range in diversity from factual to surrealistic, from poetic to polemic. Jefferson Hunter's book Image and Word (1987) is an instructive explication of how various photographers and writers have purposefully combined visual images and written texts within the genre of phototexts. In his book, Hunter examines various phototexts and explains the author's intent, how they were received and how effective they were.

Literary magazines have occasionally employed an abbreviated form of the phototext (usually referred to as a photo essay) and when this study was proposed, I expected to find several examples. In fact, I found only two examples which might squeeze into the genre ( The_Paris Review. 1988 and The Massachusetts Review, 1988). Issue thirty four, 1989, of Mississippi Mud also contains a photo essay. Nevertheless, the field of phototexts is worthy of an exploratory detour for the light it sheds on one of the ways writing and photographs can function together. To understand how readily writers and photographers can collaborate (because many 212 phototexts are collaborations), or how effectively photographs and text can work together, I have employed one of the books, James Agee's Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941), critiqued by Hunter and compared it with a book, Ernest Hemingway's Death In The Afternoon (1932), not included in Hunter's examination of phototexts; but useful for some contrasts that can be drawn between the two. Both books are sufficiently important and well known that they may be characterized with brevity. Both books are polemical. Each one has a point of view which the author has carefully framed in order to convince the reader of the author's position. Each author has fortified his argument with photographs.

Agee's book describes the life of three sharecropper families living in the rural South. The text in his book is preceded by Walker Evans' untitled photographs which portray the three families, their homes, clothing, and nearby environment. Agee intends to convince the reader that the social/economic system of sharecropping is an injustice. Agee writes a convoluted prose much in contrast to Hemingway's spare style. Hemingway's book describes and defends the art of Spanish bullfighting 21 in the time shortly after World War I. Between the text of Hemingway's book, and its extensive glossary of bullfighting terms, there is a section of photographs for which Hemingway has written commentary. Hemingway intends to convince the reader that the Spanish bullfight can best be understood as a form of drama and that he, Hemingway, understands it well.

In partial defense of my choice of Hemingway as a source for comparison, I should indicate that Robert 0. Stephens' book, Hemingway's Nonfiction, The Public Voice (1968), reveals that Hemingway often approached the art of his ultimate fiction by first honing his expository skills upon a subject he intended to treat more artfully in his fiction. Stephens writes that Hemingway was greatly interested, as a writer, in describing without emotion what he saw. Emotionless description is a skill he was encouraged to hone by Gertrude Stein in order to develop his writing prowess. Another way of putting it is to say that Hemingway greatly wanted to appear to have the power to describe events as a camera records them... objectively. Nor was Death In The Afternoon Hemingway's only flirtation with the phototext. In the 1937, July 12th issue of Life magazine, Hemingway provided the written commentary in a photo essay entitled "Death in Spain" (pp.20-24). The final two images are essentially before and after shots of children who are accidentally killed in the line of fire. Hemingway's laconic irony is perfectly fitted to the medium of gritty black and white photographs. Of course, he ha already practiced this delivery with Death In The Afternoon.

The strategies various other authors and photographers have used (as shown by Hunter) cover a wide range of formats, but both Agee's book and Hemingway's utilized one of the simplest organizational plans. That is, the photographs were found in one separate section of the book and the text in another in Agee's case, and in Hemingway's, the photographs were located in a separate section from the text, but with commentary added. In Agee's book, the photographs precede the text. In Hemingway's book, the photographs could be viewed as coming last, but Hemingway follows the photographs with an extensive glossary that is almost the equivalent of a second text. Given that both books 215 share the same strategy with respect to divisible placement of text and photographs, there are as many differences between them as similarities. Agee, for instance, regarded his photographer, Walker Evans, as his equal in a joint enterprise. Hemingway's book briefly credits the photographs he used to two names, Vandel and Rodero, but whether these are men, women, or some other commercial source is not made clear in the credit lines. Evan's photographs from the tenant project have gone on to achieve a critical life of their own as an important aspect of his oeuvre (Puckett, 1988). The photograph's in Hemingway's book have, for the most part, all the bad features symptomatic of tabloid news shots. They are sometimes grainy, sometimes out of focus, or appear to be taken far from the action. It is Hemingway's prose commentary that gives them whatever importance they possess, but even their apparent origins as newspaper photographs work effectively for the ironic purposes that Hemingway seems to have had in mind. (4) These two books are notable for the effective way they manage to combine words with visual images. Neither of these men was tentative about his position. There was not, about either book, a sense 216 of doubt. Each man had a point of view and used his power with the written word to convince the reader of

the Tightness of the view being presented. The ultimate test of such polemical books is their effect on the public. There had been, before Agee's book, a number of phototext's whose fundamental arguments were intended to sway public opinion. Puckett's book

Five Photo-Textual Documentaries from The Great

Depression (1984) is useful in understanding the

background of polemical phototexts and it has the added virtue of comparing the photographic work of

Evans to Flaubert and Baudelaire. In notes contributed to a book entitled Walker Evans At Work

(1982) by Jerry L. Thompson, there is the observation

that Evans carefully referred to his photographs as

being in the "documentary style" (Evans' term on p.

12). According to Thompson, Evans was using the term documentary style to highlight the fact that his picture was not a document but "a deliberately wrought visual poetry disguised as plain prosaic fact" (p. 12). Perhaps another way to understand this

statement of Evans' is that he wanted his carefully created images to appear as a strictly factual record. It is a desire not so different in kind from 217

Hemingway's wish to appear as an objective recorder.

It is also a desire that meshes perfectly with the presentation of an argument in which there is a felt need to persuade.

If Agee's book, with its visual poet collaborator, is allowed to stand briefly as a model for all the persuasive phototexts which aimed to shape, change, and humanize society, it might be said that Hemingway's book is its moral opposite. In his book, Agee argues against the tenant system because

(among other things) it is dehumanizing and ultimately cruel. Tenants become the unwitting victims of the tenant system in Agee's presentation.

Hemingway, in contrast, argues for the blood sport of bullfighting, with its deliberate cruelty, and excuses its intentional destruction (humans occasionally, animals always) as a necessary evil found within the greater theater of codified courage expressed and experienced as a dramatic art form.

Both writers were sufficiently gifted that they scarcely needed visual aids to get across their points. Yet both writers deliberately reserved a section of their books for photographs which they used in their different ways to buttress their 218 fundamental arguments. Both of these authors, and the whole genre of phototexts, are excellent examples of a small part of the continuing drive to link words with images; a drive which exists, in part, because when the linkage between the two forms of expression is successful, the arguments they support are advanced successfully. Allan Trachtenberg (1977) writing about the work of Lewis Hine (whose photographs brought about important reforms in America's work force practices, ie. the end of child labor, etc.), points out that it was not Hine's photographs in themselves that finally moved the authorities, but the photographs accompanied in a package of "irrefutable data" (p.128). (5) Words by themselves can be easily spun, but may not bear the weight of conviction, and photographs require some text as guide to what it is that we are seeing. Phototexts may not fuse Neraerov's chasm (the gulf between the meaning of words and pictures), but they form a kind of suspension bridge between visual image and text that the adventurous pilgrim can cross upon. 219

It is not a part of this argument that the

photographs used by these authors proved their

points. We already have been informed, thanks to

Susan Sontag's book On Phototography (1973), that

photographs in themselves can be made to prove almost

anything... or nothing. It is their apparent record of

reality, the fact that the viewing public accepts

them (despite Sontag) on their face value, that is so

attractive to writers. Photographs are the perfect

dance partner, flexible to any purpose to which the

skillful writer wishes to bend or twist them while waltzing with the facts. If Agee had wished to depict

his tenant families as mean-hearted racists, could he

not have done so with a different set of

photographs... for in his books he admits this flaw in

them. If Hemingway had wished to portray bull

fighting as cruel to animals and degrading to men, could he not have found photographs of horses, their

entrails dragging, or boorish peasants attending the

fights, both of which he mentions in his writing?

Author As Director

When Harland, Lane, and Beardsley decided on what authors to include in the first edition of The 220

Yellow Book, they chose as their leading literary figure, the author, Henry James. There is an irony in this choice, as Bogardus makes clear in his book Pictures and Texts (1984). That Henry James should have been the designated leading author in a literary magazine designed to balance the presentation of literature and visual art constitutes a mis-reading of how James really felt about the way his writing had been dealt with by editors who had it illustrated. Henry James was quite uncomfortable with the illustrations of his serious writings and when it came about that he was able to determine himself how his work was to be illustrated he acted precipitously. Bogardus details how James came to employ A.L.Coburn, the photographer, in the capacity of illustrator for James* epic 23 volume collection of his own writings. Why did James employ Coburn, or more accurately, direct him, in the pursuit of photographs for James' collected writings? The answer is germane to the problem of how literary magazines employ graphics/art work. According to Bogardus, James recognized that careless or shoddy graphic illustration of his work debilitated its force; and the vision he strove for in his writing could be 221 easily supplanted by the illustrator's choice of

image. James attempted to negate the problem by using

photographs as illustrations and carefully selecting

both a pliant photographer and photographic subjects

he himself often discovered by visiting specific

sites.

When words and visual images are paired, they

must pull together, each supporting and reinforcing

the other. It is the failure to achieve this mutual

reinforcement that leads to problems, and the writers

just named have, in their different ways,

acknowledged the problem and the need for

reinforcement. Agee made his picture taker (Evans)

his co-equal. He refers to himself and Evans as spies

(i.e, partners in an undercover mission). Hemingway

co-opted the photographs he used (perhaps culling

through files) and wrung his own interpretation out

of them. James became his own art director with the

photographer serving his (James') needs. Each of

these authors was successful to the degree that he was able to control and dominate the visual image

making process and bend it to his purpose. The

important strategy at work here is that the writer

needed to ensure that the visual images reinforced 222 the argument being made. Recall that most of the premier Victorian artists readily engaged in illustration for books. Some of these premier illustrators worked with books which were written for children. The realm of children's books is an area which could have easily been explored for the ways in which text and image work together. It was foregone primarily because artist's books and phototexts seemed to be more closely engaged with the activities of literary magazines. Without discussing specific works written and illustrated for children, it is still possible to find some parallels between the world of children's literature and books and magazines containing visual images.

Before advancing further, it is necessary that I reiterate a distinction already drawn by Kenneth

Marantz (1977) in his article "The Picture Book as

Art Object: A Call for Balanced Reviewing" between illustrated books and picture books. While both types of books are examples of the drive to link images with words, Marantz has made clear that picture books are distinguished by the fact that without the picture, the book is incomplete, amputated, and has lost an indispensable part of itself. Illustrated 223 books might have a complete life of their own if they had no illustrations, he points out, but picture books would not (Marantz fuses the two words to illustrate his conviction, i.e. "picturebooks"). A biological analogy is useful in that the relationship between text and image in picturebooks is symbiotic, life sustaining. Marantz goes on to argue that picturebooks comprise an art form of their own (one we should pay attention to), and both in support of his position, and as an example of how studies such as this one occasionally offer rewarding surprises, there are in the world of literary magazines certain publications that parallel this symbiotic relationship and would, their editors argue, fit within the work of art category. Specific instances of literary magazines as idiosyncratic objects will be dealt with in the next chapter, but to a degree, they seem to fit the requirement Marantz identified.

In these idiosyncratic literary magazines, the magazine seems to take on a visual quality that is an indispensable part of its existence as an object.

Marantz (1978) has, in another writing, taken up the issue of how words and visual images are read and how the entire publication contributes to an 224 aesthetic experience. Suffice it to say that the picturebooks, of which he writes, share the same concerns with these latter few types of idiosyncratic literary magazines. How do visual images and the text work best together? There are a multitude of possible solutions. The best answers are wary, elusive, and imminently suitable as a trophy for the editor sagacious enough, creative enough, to make the capture. Happily, every issue of every literary magazine that publishes graphics/art work has an opportunity within it to pursue this elusive quarry. Least it appear that I have attempted to slip the noose I fashioned with my own question, I deal with my own subjective responses to this issue again in the next chapter (IV), in the annotated section dealing with photography in literary magazines.

Engaging Two Forms Of Expression The material covered thus far seems to lead to the conclusion that the impulse to put words with pictures in some manner is a natural part of our overall visual experience. And it is sufficiently common in the world of visual art and literary art, that finding literary magazines without visual images 225 is somehow surprising, as if something fundamental had been left out of them by accident. Yet it is no accident. Some literary magazines do not include graphics/art work by deliberate choice. Why, precisely, this is so is not within the scope of this study. The survey I took, of editors, focused on those literary magazines who had already made some commitment to visual art. But even in the context of this study, there were certain suggestions as to why literary magazines might forego the visual arts. Some editors in this study have explained to me that the National Endowment for the Arts does not support the portion of their enterprise having to do with publication of visual art works, and that their publication of graphics/art works is even more so a labor of love when it is an unsupported expense. Perhaps some editors choose not to incur the expense whether they favor graphics/art work or not. Undoubtedly there are other good reasons as well, that range from the personal taste of the editors to the difficulties of obtaining material. But, however many literary magazines eschew the publication of graphics/art work, there are more, as listed in the CCLM Directory Of Literary Magazines (1988-1989), who have responded to the seductive impulse to bind together words with pictures. It can be, however, a siren impulse which, when answered, does not always give satisfaction in literary magazines anymore than it did in some of the phototexts Hunter(1987) criticizes. What follows in the next section is a description of how mixing visual and literary material can fail.

PART SIX: MATCHING

The Sinkhole Of Student Editors Many of the university sponsored literary magazines in this study were likewise marred because their student editors attempted to "match" literary and visual submissions. This raw assertion must be tempered with the realization that many university sponsored literary magazines are treated by the university department in question as laboratory experiences for their student editors. Every beginner, particularly those engaged in a difficult and complicated enterprise, is bound to make mistakes. Matching, however, is one of the mistakes that continues to be made, year in and year out. 227

Matching is the quicksand of student editors, drawing them deeper and deeper into error. How does the practice of matching work? It begins during the period when literary submissions have been chosen and visual submissions are being assembled to complete the body of the publication. Matching is founded on the unexamined premise that pictures should accompany, and be subservient to, text. Usually, in the laboratory experience, if the visual image has some element in it that could be broadly interpreted to link with the literary submission, the two are arbitrarily placed side by side on the page by student editors. In a perfect world, the student editor would have sufficient visual submissions, and these would be of a uniformly high quality, that for each article of creative writing there would exist a suitable graphic image. The literary magazine could be laid out in such a way that the reader, in this perfect world, would find the literary magazine visually entertaining and would, moreover, be drawn to read the writing. Each illustration for it would very clearly indicate the writing was worthy of his or her attention and would be as ultimately rewarding to the 2 reader as the illustrations seemed to suggest. Student editors may have in mind the kind of illustration commonly seen in general magazines. Or they may even be aware that there are nationally known literary magazines who frankly use their graphics/art work as illustration. The North American Review (1988), with its stunning large color covers, relegates interior art work to the role of illustration (according to the survey responses of its art editor). Moreover, it is art work executed by commercial art students given the assignment of illustrating particular stories. And, it should not be inferred it is wrong to have some correlation

f between the visual image on the page and the theme or the text, but it does reduce the visual artist to a secondary role. Illustration is not the only successful model for the display of graphics/art work. Editors of other highly respected literary magazines avoid matching like the plague. The editor of Sulfur made it clear that the one thing he wanted to avoid was giving the appearance that the art work somehow was included to illustrate creative writing. 229

In the real world of literary magazines

sponsored by universities, and compiled by student editors there are often difficulties in obtaining any kind of visual submissions at all, much less

submissions that match well. It is a difficulty that

extends beyond the groves of academe. Literary magazines as a group do not enjoy a bounty of visual

submissions from artists similar to the literary

submissions that flow in a never ending stream from authors. During the course of the survey, when asked how their literary magazine had come to be founded, most of the sponsors of university funded literary magazines said their magazine started in the English department. In the multitude of responses of how other types of literary magazines came to be founded, it was quite common to hear phrases such as "a group of university students," or "a group taking a university writing course," or a "university professor," or "while I was at university," etc. The term that kept popping into these explanations, even of how private presses started, was the term

"university." American universities have proven a fertile soil with most of the literary magazines in this survey. Their influence has been profound and is deeply rooted, but they have not successfully cultivated the integration ol visual art and text

because they have not properly exposed the visual artists to the light of the literary magazines... as forum for the promulgation of their own visual art.

Why is it that visual artists don't take

advantage of this forum? There is one major reason,

it seems to me. They are not encouraged to do so by

their mentors in the art departments. The habit of

submitting to literary magazines hidden in the

hedgerows of the literary marketplace does not occu

because the practice is not nurtured within the

groves of academia. There are various other reasons

to suggest why visual submissions to campus literar magazines are so sparse. Art students may not alway

be aware that a forum exists for their benefit in

literary magazines. Several editors told me they didn't think art students were very aware of the campus literary magazine as a place to gain an audience. When they are aware that such a forum exists, they may well choose not to submit if they feel that the art work will only be chosen because can service some other element of the magazine. In other words, the history of previous usage of 231 graphics/art work within the literary magazine in question may influence their decision, and matching raises its ugly head again, the serpent in the garden .

Just the act of submission can be expensive and troublesome. If the literary magazine requires, not the art work, but a high quality photograph of the art work, the burden on the student artist increases. Cactus Alley produced at the University of Texas, San Antonio, has the requirement that artists who may wish to be published in the magazine submit a black and white photograph of their work. Producing the art work and producing a photograph suitable for reproduction are two very different skills. Immediately, in cases like this one, the visual artist is faced with the problem of taking his/her own photograph or having it taken. Generating high quality photographs on the chance they may be used (without reparation) reduces the likelihood that the submission will be made at all. The sponsor (newly appointed) of Cactus Alley was surprised to learn, sometime after a predecessor's issue was out, that some of the photographs in the issue had featured works by the art faculty, not the art students (who 232 were the intended recipients of the forum). Was this a heinous plot by the art department to usurp student art and reign undisputed in the campus literary magazine? Probably not. The sponsor surmised, during our interview, that faculty photographs were more readily available in the short time available and, therefore, more readily submitted. What got submitted was what was available at the deadline. Even the timing of university sponsored publications needs to be considered to achieve a good supply of visual submissions .

Not only is obtaining a ready supply of visual submissions a problem, but their uniform high artistic quality is unlikely. The sponsor of Bayousphere, Gloria Morris, told me she thought that the quality of submissions was cyclical. There were, in her opinion, good years when many talented students submitted works, and bad years when not much seemed to be out there. Once the student editors embark on the practice of matching visual submissions to serve as illustrations with stories or poems they must find suitable visual material for each literary work of any length. The predictable results are that material not really suitable as illustration, or indeed worthy of publication, gets included because the graphic/art work has some element in it that fi with the remaining unaccompanied writing. Quite often, it became clear in such cases, good writing was robbed of its honest strength by poor graphics/art work or poor photography. The desired result, that the visual image support and guide the reader into the writing, was achieved only intermittently. Henry James1 sense of the vitiating effects of Victorian illustration was well founded and has its counterpart in mismatched visual and textual submissions printed in some literary magazines today.

Summary Of Chapter III What has been presented thus far are some of t areas in which image and text combinations may be observed. There appears to be a link between poster art and magazine covers which would be useful to editors were they to approach the cover as an opportunity to hook readers. It has also been suggested that some artists are doubly talented and produce art forms that contain image and text combinations that would be useful for art educators 234 and editors as models. Among these forms worthy of attention are artists' books and phototexts. A problem faced by some of these creators of image and text combinations is how to achieve a smooth mesh between the words and the picture. One answer to this dilemma, of which James, Agee, and Hemingway were used as examples, was for the author to become a sort of director in choosing images that support rather than compete with the text. A common instance of this latter difficulty (the image working - against the text) lies in matching, a scheme of linking visual images with text much employed by the literary magazines, in this study, published at universities as a laboratory experience.

A Compass Sighting Taken For The Study While phototexts or photoessays are useful as examples of image and text combinations, they were so seldom found in the study, and single image photography was so prolific that it is important to further develop the aspect of publishing photographs in literary magazines. In the next chapter, attention will be devoted to the use of photographs and the problems that such usage can engender. 235

Notes: Chapter III (1) Another author who has also written about Magritte's fascination with the relationship between words and images is A.M. Hammacher in the book for which he provided the text: Rene Mafiritte (no date-Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number:73-13789). Hammacher emphasizes how Magritte involved his poet friends, and others as well, in a search for appropriate phrases that he could use as titles for his paintings. Perhaps it is equally revealing of Magritte's love of the word that Hammacher says the first place Magritte visited, when he was on hand in New York City for a major retrospective, was the home of Edgar Allan Poe. (2) Originally, Puckett (1984) informs us, Evans went to France to be a writer. (3) Kery (1982) states the cover, as a collector's item, is now worth $10,000. Gilbert and McCarter (1988) state that Jane Avril is holding a proof of an advertisement for the Moulin Rouge. They call it "...a print about a print" (p. 27). Since the sheet Avril holds is blank and the lettering by Avril's hat identifies the publication, it seems less likely that Avril is portrayed examining a dance hall poster. (4) It is doing a disservice to Hemingway (1932) and to Stephens (1968) to fail to point out that Hemingway's agenda was complex and the use of intentional irony only one strata in his underlying motives. According to Stephens, Hemingway often adopted a stance, or tone, that permeated his writing. These stances varied from one work to another. Among other stances, Stephens notes Hemingway the authority, Hemingway, the older brother, Hemingway the guru toward right living, etc. Stephens says that one of the keys to these various stances is that Hemingway wanted to show himself, in his writing, as a man who understood how things worked, how the world really was. Stephens' explanation of Hemingway's motives fits the style in which Death In The Afternoon is written. 236

(5) Barbara Bader, in her book American PictureBooks from Noah's Ark to the Beast Within (1976) credits Hine with an enormously influential children's book entitled Men at Work (1932). Poorly received as a children's book, the photographs (the most familiar ones show the Empire State building being constructed) were widely appreciated as camera images in themselves and often reproduced in histories of photography. According to Bader, this children's book may have been responsible for initiating the boom in picturebooks. . . for the adult market. CHAPTER IV

PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE WORK OF ART

Introduction To Chapter IV Many of the literary magazines in this study featured photographs and photographers. No other visual art form was represented so often. In part one of this chapter a number of suggestions are presented for why photography is so widely used. Also, an argument is advanced for providing an educational framework in the special instance of presenting photography. Examples of critical writing by two critics are introduced to highlight the problem of what should be addressed when engaging in criticism of photography. In part two of this chapter some specific examples of magazines in the study whch presented photographs in various formats are subjectively annotated. Within these annotations may be found, by comparison, a problem of context that attends the publication of photographs. The argument for providing an educational framework is restated following these examples by comparing the way

237 238 literary magazines and museums provide contextual information. In part three of this chapter examples are given of literary magazines found in the study that seem to go beyond the presentation of ordinary graphics/art work. The examples are again annotated in such a way as to distinguish them from the other literary magazines in the study.

PART ONE: THE PHOTOGRAPH

Power And Honesty In Art Several reasons may be advanced as to why representation among the visual arts in literary magazines is so heavily biased towards photography. First, of course, is the great ease of usage. Black and white photographs work wonderfully well, when printed in literary magazines, under a variety of conditions and they can be reduced or enlarged, turned sideways, and even cropped to a limited degree, without doing violence to the power of the art form.

There are some problems in the reproduction of photographs, to be discussed in a moment, but they are not of the same caliber as the problems inherent in the reproduction of other kinds of art work. Printing reproductions of photographs as photographs may very well be among the most honest representation of any of the various art forms. Pen and ink and various forms of black and white printmaking are also easier to keep faith with, if the size of the reproduction is not a factor.

The differences between photography and other art forms, when it comes to reproduction, can be found in the way they occupy space within literary magazines (and obviously every other form of printed material, including art history texts and coffee table art books). Three dimensional art forms such as ceramics, sculpture, earthworks, environmental projects, kinetic art, etc. are all reduced to two dimensions on the printed page. If the art form was kinetic or temporal in nature, it is frozen from one angle when represented on the page. If the three dimensional art form, such as glass, jewelry, sculpture, or ceramic object, had color as an intrinsic part of its nature, but is reproduced in black and white, it suffers an even greater transformation. 240

It is often very difficult to evaluate the scale of an art work when an image of it is reduced to a slide or photograph. What is the difference between knowing the work through a photograph and knowing it in reality? It is almost a cliche of the art weary pilgrim that Da Vinci's Mona Lisa looks disappointingly small; Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling distressingly distant; Gericault's Raft of the Medusa disturbingly huge, in real life. In art history texts, it seems, they are all reduced to fit the standard page. Photography has given us, in Malraux's famous phrase, "...a museum without walls" (Malraux,

1978, p. 13). It has also distorted our conception of the museum's contents, as Malraux makes clear. To let one example stand for thousands, how many times have we seen Michelangelo's Pieta portrayed in an art history text, only from the front? Sculpture, pictured in the round, is seldom published. The long and the short of the problem is that the three dimensional art form is captured as a two dimensional image in a photograph, then published as such.

To reiterate a possible second reason why photographs are so often found in literary magazines is simply because they escape the gross distortions 2 inherent in publishing that the other forms, just mentioned, cannot. It is readily recognized that the photograph, as a work of art, does not escape distortion scot-free in the printing process. Victor Bonini, Managing Editor of ConnStruction magazine, writing in the December, 1988 issue of Small Press, describes how photographs are prepared for publication using the "halftone" process. Basically, according to Bonini, the photograph is re-shot through a crosshatched screen. The sharpness of the reproduction is determined by the number of lines pe inch in the etched-glass screen used to create the dot pattern. A 330-line screen will produce much finer dots than a 180-line screen and the resulting halftone will be closer in appearance to the actual photograph. In other words, the eye will more readil blend hundreds of tiny dots into an image that resembles the original photograph. However, if durin the printing process, the ink dots resulting from th many holes in the screen, are pressed onto a paper that is absorbent, the dots bleed together, and the resulting print is blurry. Paper choice makes a difference in how crisp a reproduction will be obtained for the photograph. Newsprint, a fairly 242 economical paper, will only support halftones of from 85 to 100 lines per inch. This means the image is grainy, at best. While Bonini goes on to write about additional cost factors in printing photographs, what professional printers charge for additional services in aligning the halftone, etc., the useful aspect of his article, in terms of photography, is that with a paper too absorbent, or a halftone line screen with too few holes, the aesthetic properties of the photograph can be readily diminished in the publishing process. Photography as a popular pastime is alive, vigorous, and the chosen means of expression of a large cross section of the population. Many a literary magazine reader who never kneaded a lump of clay, or wielded a paint brush, will have tripped the release on a camera and have his or her own idea about what constitutes a good or bad photograph. It is not so difficult to imagine this readership having some confidence in their ability to appreciate and approach a well- presented photograph in a literary magazine. Editors and sponsors who struggled with the survey response asking them to describe their readership generally believed their readers were college trained. It is also not too difficult to envision such a readership possessing a discriminating aesthetic when presented with reproductions of the work of gifted photographers. Indeed, such a readership may well be familiar with photo essays and the genre of phototexts already discussed. Cameras In The Curriculum. Vol. II (1983-84), publication sponsored by the National Education Association and the Eastman Kodak corporation, carries examples of curriculums organized, in the nation's various educational systems, around still photography. The curriculums described came from all parts of the country, and all grade levels, kindergarten to college. The curriculums varied according to what the teacher wanted to achieve with the photographs. The university students of Terry Barrett's Art Education classes at The Ohio State University, for instance, were given an overview of photographic theory and practice. Barrett wanted his students to "understand and appreciate the range of uses and importance of photography in society" (p.17). Several of the other curriculums used still photography as it was used by Catherine A. Lutz, teaching creative writing in Kingsville, Texas to naval personnel. That is, she simply used photographs "...as the basis for their themes" (p.50). There is evidence in these varieties of curriculums to suggest that the readers of literary magazines may well have been exposed to some formalized content, with respect to photographs, somewhere in their educational experience and therefore be both receptive and reasonably well prepared for it.

On its surface, at least, with all deference to Susan Sontag's (1973) objections to it as a obfuscating medium, photography appears to be thought of by editors as an understandable and approachable art form. In this study then, it was not surprising that photography appeared far more than any other artistic medium.

Context Before examples of effective usage by certain literary magazines are described, it seems appropriate to quote from an essay on photography by the distinguished author and photographer, Wright Morris (1982). It seems appropriate because Morris' theme touches on one of 245 the problems directly related to the display of photographs and indirectly related to every kind of image that is printed. That problem is the contextual information that accompanies or fails to accompany the printed image. As Wright suggests, the issue of how to present photographs is, despite the reasons advanced previously, somewhat complex.

In the article from which this quotation is taken, "Photographs And Words," Morris is developing how, in his view, photography and the way we regard photography have evolved in America. In the particular passage quoted here, he is discussing a book about Walker Evans entitled First and Last

(1978), which he uses to make a point about attaching contextual information to photographs.

Whenever we come upon a photograph that is not identified of captioned, the first thing we do is look on the back of it for what is not visible in the picture. In Evan's book we need words to clarify what it is we see and to inhibit much that we might imagine. The two photographs on the jacket are of Evans as a young man, at age twenty-nine, and as an old man, at age seventy-three. I would not have known that without the caption. There is identifying data at the back of the volume printed in type so small it discourages the curious. Words can be as intrusive in their absence as in their presence (Morris, 1982, p. 31). 246

The quotation is notable because Morris has it both ways, and rightly so. He wants Evans to have provided him with contextual information throughout the book, (the lack of which he argues causes the book to suffer) and he also is critical of the type size that provides some of the information that is provided. Who is Wright Morris, that he should brook so large an opinion? A.D. Coleman (1979) the photography critic, writing about Morris in his book Light Readings, credited him with being one of the pioneers in what Coleman called, "photofiction." By that term Coleman was recognizing that Morris had combined his formidable skills as an author with his equally formidable skills as a photographer in a trilogy of books in which photographs play a central role. Coleman was speaking of the following books: God's Country and My People (1986), The Inhabitants (1946), and The Home Place (1968). Morris used his doubly talented skills to first revisit his roots in, what Coleman called, "a moving text and haunted photographs" (p.244) that comprised The Inhabitants, and then two years later, still pioneering, doubled back on the same sites in a fictional work The Home Place. 247

It would be tempting to go on quoting Coleman's (1979) praises with respect to Morris, the artist, but Morris, the critic/philosopher, has some credentials as well. He has lectured in California on the nature of photography and is quoted by Thomas F. Barrow in the introduction to the book Reading Into Photography (1982). In answer to the previous question, Wright Morris is a doubly talented writer and photographer well able to comment on the relationship between photographs and words. What the literary magazines that are annotated later have done is grapple with, among many, the problems that frustrate Wright Morris. Namely, how much context is provided when a photograph is printed, and what form does the text take. Morris1 complaint is only the tip of the iceberg. Editors must decide whether to integrate the images within the text or isolate them; and when printing them, bleed them off the page or surround them with white space, etc. In other words, they are faced with all the same problems of presentation that they would face with any other kind of art work, with the additional burden, that their 248 readers, like Morris, may want to know about, or be told, what it is they are seeing.

Photojournalism And Hermes Certainly, when literary magazine editors publish photographs, they are not telling picture essays or picture stories in the journalistic sense. They may be using the photograph as a form of visual relief, or they may be providing a forum for a worthy photographer; but they are not in the news business. It passes without objection that photographs themselves are enormously important in the news business. Even in the era of television journalism, they remain a staple part of communicating the news to the public. Thus, it should be no surprise that texts have been written dealing with how journalists could best employ photographs and words to communicate news.

What may be a surprising proposal however is that editors of literary magazines might profit from a text written by journalists as a hermenuetic series of examples for photojournalists. In the book Impac t In Print (Hurley & McDougall, 1971), two editors from the world of newspaper journalism wrote a text that 249 described graphically various stratagems other editors could employ when using photographs as part of the story. In that section of their book dealing with words in relation to photographs (pp. 141-146) the two editors touch upon a theme that we have heard already. Very simply, they argue that in assembling material for publication, the pictures be selected prior to writing the story, and then that the words be chosen with care so that the correct amount of information is delivered to the reader. They write: The mating of pictures and words...the right words locking step with the right pictures...is what good photojournalism is all about. If the marriage is to work, neither should be subordinate to the other. Equal partners though they are, it is imperative that pictures fall into place first and words later. It is no coincidence that the page with visual impact usually has verbal impact also; good words are often a consequence of good pictures (Hurley & McDougall, 1971, p. 141).

Allan Sekula's (1984) photo essay, or "photo work," as he calls it, is an example of what it means to put pictures first, then write around them. School Is A Factory, constitutes an indictment of our educational system. Clearly, the explanatory words were written after the pictures were made. Hurley and McDougall's idea that pictures come before words seems almost to 250 magazines? What I show, in describing some of the literary magazines in the following section, is that however carefully the work of the photographer is presented, however lovingly the photographs are printed, the reader may well be frustrated, or if this is too strong a term, at least feel an unsatisfied craving, if there is no text to serve as guide. (1) There really should be no mystery to this idea. Most intelligent readers (which is what editors, in this study, say they have as an audience) want to know about what it is they are seeing. This desire to know extends to the cover image of the publication no less than to its contents, extends to other forms of visual imagery as well; but seems to me to be particularly acute in the realm of photography.

Imagine that before you is a copy of a newsmagazine featuring a large number of human-interest photographs. Perhaps a magazine similar to Paris Match. This imaginary magazine, like Paris Match is written in a foreign language unknown to you. As you thumb through the latest issue, one featuring photographs of rebellious Chinese students being crushed by the Chinese army, you realize that 251 you know of the depicted event from television. There is nothing new in the images before you; yet you discover yourself trying to puzzle out the meaning of the text boldly printed under each photograph. At the point where you feel disgusted with yourself for never having learned Serbo-Croation (the language in which this imaginary magazine is written) then you have arrived somewhat in the territory where you might begin to sympathize with the premise of this particular essay. Now suppose that as you continue to thumb through the imaginary news magazine, you encounter other photographs that are portraying some evocative event that is, in fact, totally new to you.

There may well be many who would be content to look at the photographs and never cast a second glance at the Serbo-Croation text. Some editors of literary magazines may be found among this group. But I suspect that the majority of viewers (myself firmly among them) would appreciate the help of a

Serbo-Croation translator. It is the thrust of Wright

Morris' complaint, it is the thrust of Hurley and

McDougall's teaching, that with photographs, there should be words and the words should inform the vxewer. 252

Or Maybe Not That there should be words with photographs is very much a subjective opinion. The example just used comes from within the realm of photojournalism. What about the work of photographers that is presented purely as art? There are many who would argue that nothing should be between the viewer and the art, and among these would be found both artists and influential photography critics. Andre Kertesz (1971), the much honored Hungarian photographer, produced a book entitled On Reading which has, aside from the title and the dedication to his brother, hardly a word. It is a book of 63 pictures only, all of people reading. But! On the 64th page, there is a list of where and when the photographs were taken, almost a biography of Kertesz's gypsy life. One takes what sustenance one can from this meager listing of dates and places, turning from image to page 64, the only refreshment in a desert of photographs, and back again, and again, as one tries to link words with image. Nevertheless, Kertesz's book, even if it is regarded as a rather lighthearted inside joke, is a book of photographs only. Whatever work of communication has 253 to get done in his book, must be done by the images themselves.

Szarkowski's Straw Kertesz's word-anemic book of photographs is hardly a rarity. In 1976, The Museum of Modern Art published a book of color photographs entitled William Eggleston's Guide. Eggleston is the photographer, allegedly guiding the reader through the heartland of the South with his photographs. John Szarkowskl, director of the Department of Photography at The Museum of Modern Art, wrote the essay that prefaces the eighty-odd color photographs. Szarkowski, writing in his preface, thinks that the photographs that follow his essay pretty much have to say whatever it is they're going to say on their own. He doesn't believe describing them is going to be helpful to the reader, and he doesn't trust Eggleston to give us a straight answer. Szarkowski provides an anecdote to illustrate why Eggleston may not be the best guide to Eggleston's work. The photographs (we are told) are taken in the deep South, and Eggleston is reported as saying they are formally organized around the radiating pattern of the Confederate flag. 254

Szarkowski believes such an answer is not meant to be taken seriously; is rather an example of how artists sometimes are defensively evasive. He writes that, not only can Eggleston not be trusted to speak about his own work, he is not sure anything can be said about it. He does attempt to describe one image, saying that such a description is "...a fool's errand, in the pursuit of which, no two fools would choose the same unsatisfactory words" (p.12).

Szarkowski then sets up one possible interpretation of the picture, admits such a interpretation might be helpful to some, but clearly distrustful of attaching his words to Eggleston's work, goes on to dismiss his own interpretation.

But the meanings of words and those of pictures are at best parallel, describing two lines of thought that do not meet; and if our concern is for the meanings in pictures, verbal descriptions are finally gratuitous (Szarkowski, 1976, p. 13).

We are left with about nine pages of text, in total, that tell us about Szarkowski's overview of photography; particularly the problems associated with color images. The title of the book William

Eggleston's Guide is misleading, we just have 255 been told that there will be no guide, save the photographs. It's a text book case of offering a straw to a drowning man: too little, too late. With such cold comfort, we turn through the-pages, noting the only text, the place names of where the tricycle was photographed, "Memphis," or a street at dusk, "Downtown Morton, Mississippi" and marvel at the color of the seemingly otherwise banal images. But when we turn to the image on page 95, a naked man scratching his head in a bedroom covered with spray painted graffiti, the word "God" scrawled just above his raised hand, how we clutch at Szarkowski's straw. Might we not want to know how the photographer ended up in the room of a naked, and perhaps, demented man? The knowledge that this photograph was taken in "Greenwood, Mississippi," which is its only text, will not keep us afloat in the quicksand of images in which Szarkowski has apparently abandoned us. Szarkowski's intent is for the photographs to speak for themselves, and he has good theoretical reasons for cutting us loose. There were literary magazines whose editors presented 256 photographs in exactly the same way Szarkowski has done. They give the image, the date and place the image was made, nothing more. The only difference being that Szarkowski did provide some historical sense of why banal, and ultimately private, color images might be important in the field of photography at the time in which he wrote (1976).

A Moment In Spain Max Kozloff, a photography critic, has published a book The Privileged Eye (1987), which is useful to know about, in the context of what should be provided to the reader when photographs are being presented. Kozloff's book is a series of essays discussing various photographers and their work, individuals widely known for their images. In his first essay, he discusses a picture by Cartier-Bresson entitled Alicante, Spain, 1932 which he uses as an example of the evocative quality of photographs for which there is no provided context. The photograph served up with nothing more than a place name, by Cartier-Bresson, shows three individuals, all glaring at the camera, and all clutching at each other's heads. 2

The image has a bizzare qu ality; one sense that the photographer has intruded into some peculiarly personal event. Not being able to qutie decipher wha is being portrayed is pain fully frustrating. Kozloff says he likes the idea tha t nothing is given beyond the site of the image. He writes that it allows him to enjoy a sort of revelat ion about the human condition that is more lik e a dream than a religious experience. He gives an ex ample of the sort of drama his dream state might imag ine would have provided a context for the image, sue h as "...three prostitutes were hasseling each other or horsing around" (p. 7). There is absolutely no clu e that these three persons of whom Kozloff writes, ar e prostitutes, or indeed that all three are females . The sex of the central figure is rather moot. One is reminded of the instance recounted by Gise le Freund, in her book Photography & Society (197 A), in which she describes the many outrageous interp retation which were attributed to a Robert Doi sneau photograph. As different magazines publis hed Doisneau's photograph of a man and a woman stand ing at a bar, the actions of the people within it we re variously described according to the nature of the publication. The image, Freund tells us, was interpreted to illustrate the abuses of alcohol in one publication, and in another, the sins of prostitution. The man at the bar, feeling his good name had been damaged, sued both Doisneau's agent, and the magazine. The court excused Doisneau as an innocent artist, but held the agent and the publication responsible for damage. Later, in a writing that may now pain him, Szarkowski (1973) wrote that "Regardless of historic fact, however, a picture is about what it appears to be about, and this picture is about a potential seduction ( Looking At Photographs p. 172). He went on to describe how the man in the photograph desired the young girl, but knew he was too old, and was also drinking more than he should. Szarkowski added to the Doisneau saga of abused interpretations. Ultimately, Kozloff admits in his own writing that the power of the image Alicante, Spain, while it excites his imagination to conjure up prostitutes or other fictions, must escape being defined in reality. Interestingly, what Kozloff does do is explain that Cartier-Bresson is a significant name in photography. He is the author of a famous theoretical statement about his photography, as summed up in the title of 259

his book The Decisive Moment, and that Alicante, Spain is to be regarded and understood as an example of Cartier-Bresson's canon. We understand that, like Szarkowski, Kozloff, not being able to frame the image he discusses in a garland of truthful words, because he does not know what the truth is concerning this image, resorts to framing it within the context of the development of photography and the development of the artist. Other artists included in his book receive essentially the same treatment. Joel-Peter Witkin's Androgyny Breastfeeding a Fetus (1981), whose title is not helpful for so disturbing an image, is explained in terms of what he's about. Kozloff offers his educated opinions to explain the work of Cindy Sherman, Mac Adams, Duane Michals, and others, all of whom have work that inspires him to write critically. In each

case, he appears to place the work in a larger ( context. Andy Grundberg (1982), picture editor of Modern Photography, wrote an essay entitled "Toward a Critical Pluralism" which throws some light on why Kozloff and Szarkowski may be writing in such a way 260 that the art and the artists are dealt with as threads in the greater tapestry of photography. Grundberg writes that he perceives two different approaches to criticism. He calls these "applied," and "theoretical" ( Reading Into Photography, p.247). As Grundberg explains it, applied criticism is directed at specific objects, or the individual work, as Kozloff, at first glance, appears to do with Alicante, Spain. The other, and to Grundberg, more useful approach is to employ a form of criticism:

based on conventions established by art-critical and art-historical writings. Such an approach... really a locus of approaches... focuses on specific works or bodies of work and attempts to locate their esthetic temporality, to define their relationship to other art works (inside or outside the medium), to explicate their formal means and, generally, to place them within the context of art culture (Grundberg, 1980, p.248).

There are additional modes of criticism that Grundberg writes about, but to address them immediately may obscure my point. It seems to me that in the two cases cited, of Kozloff and Szarkowski, we can now understand why they sheered away from attempting to deal critically with individual images, of which they knew nothing directly, and instead 261 attempted to provide a framework of photography within which the individual work could rest. Kozloft' and Szarkowski might appear to want to discuss the object, (applied criticism), but apparently realize that their only valid approach is to locate their writing within the boundaries of theoretical criticism.

Grundberg's argument for valuing multiple approaches to criticism comes at the end of Reading Into Photography. In the introduction that prefaces the collection of essays, Thomas F. Barrow bemoans the fact that there is not a sufficient amount of photographic research, scholarship, or even good criticism. He freely admits the difficulty faced by critics who must find some footing on a medium being constantly pushed by artists, yet with a quicksand nature. Grundberg's argument that there are multiple valid approaches to the task of criticism is a partial response to Barrow's observation. Grundberg does not admit all forms of criticism are valid; he dismisses what he calls "Connoisseurship" (p.248), the judgment of taste, those kinds of criticism based on how the critic feels about the work, and importantly, those criticisms that are mostly 262 exercises in word play. If the editor of a literary magazine were looking for a critic to evaluate the work of an artist published in that magazine, what form of critical evaluation would Grundberg sanction? Grundberg lists several. He has no qualms with the standard art-historical approach which asks: "How does this fit into the history of the medium as we know it?"(p. 248). Other models that seem equally acceptable include using political and cultural yardsticks (Marxism is one listed by Grundberg) which view photographs as useful for revealing societies structure. He also describes semiotics as a useful tool, although he does not give it that name (Roland Barthes's few semiological analysis of photographs are cited as examples). Finally, Grundberg favors the technological approach to criticism which he credits Beaumont Newhall as developing in his book History Of Photography . Here may lie a valuable clue for editors who have hesitated to address the issue of what exactly should be written about the visual art work presented. The positive aspect of Grundberg's article is that there are available to editors of literary magazines a variety of worthwhile approaches 263 to commenting upon the photographs they publish, if they wish to so avail themselves.

A Critical Principal Without exception, all of the photographs presented in the literary magazines to be described are presented as though the photograph is a work of art. The distinction meant to be drawn here is between a photograph presented as a piece of reportage and a photograph that, like any other art work, is presented because the editor feels it has aesthetic merits. Despite this distinction in treatment, both sorts of photographic images are taken from the world, and both contain information about the world in them. Images are polysemous. Grappling with the nature of photographs is one of the difficulties faced by critics. We all bring different backgrounds, even cultural understandings, to visual imagery. Gombrich (1982) has written that we are all capable of looking at an image and deriving different meanings from it (depending on our cultural backgrounds). What is it that we are to understand, or appreciate, from what the editor is presenting? 264

We, the readers, must blindly grope our way along the labyrinthic byways of meaning, hoping to arrive at some sense of understanding. Words and text, these are the channel markers that appear most likely to allow the reader to proceed along the path of enlightenment. Providing words and text that guide and influence readers is very much an educational process. If lessons can be drawn from the literary magazines described below, it is that images very often need words to complete their intended purpose. There were, in this study, a few literary magazines that provided textual information with the photographs they published, and many literary magazines that did not. Of the two means of presenting photography, it would appear that context provided in close proximity to the image, and the kind of information which sets the photograph within the larger framework of photography, or the artist's canon, is the more satisfying (to the reader) and, hopefully, illuminating.

Editors, reading this, may object to my idea that photography invites additional information. They may argue that they never intended to be art journals. Their interests lie in presenting the best 265 literature, not exposition or criticism. This essay does not ask that editors radically change what they are now doing. Providing some material to guide the reader when viewing photographs would meet a perceived need. Editors who reject such an approach out of hand must, in fairness, ask themselves if those literary magazines ( Bomb for example, which publishes interviews with artists) are somehow less literary if they include non-creative writing; writing which might even be considered educational for the reader.

PART TWO: PHOTOGRAPY IN LITERARY MAGAZINES

Examples Of Format With Photography In this section of the chapter, specific literary magazines taken from the study are sub jectively described. They were chosen from the study solely because they presented photographs in a variety of ways that appeared intriguing.

Images (Volume 13, No.2, 1988) The magazine Images is published by Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio. The editors are Gary and 266

Dorothea Pacernick. The magazine is printed in a large (11 1/2 by 15 inch) newspaper style format on newsprint stock. This issue had 12 numbered pages which carried 10 visual images for a usage percentage of about 83%. The visual images, all photographs, are distributed randomly on the pages. The photographer, Roger Phingston, is credited in large type just below the contents box on the inside page. The images themselves are random, no theme appearing in them save that they often have an intriguing quality, and the individual pictures are neither titled nor is any contextual information given. The single virtue of printing these images lies in the accident of format size. Newspaper trim size formating, in addition to its economy, allows the presentation of relatively large visual images. The editors seized the one advantage they had, and the photographs printed on a large scale are the better for it. If any rule may be extracted from the example of Images, it is that faced with restricted means an editor would do well to consider presenting black and white photographs on a large scale. 267

The Massachusetts Review (1988) The magazine The Massachusetts Review is published by the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts. The editors are Mary Heath, Paul Jenkins, and Fred Robinson. The art editor is Lisa U. Baskin. The magazine is printed in a medium format (6 in. by 9 in.) on uncoated stock. The Fall issue had 181 numbered pages of which about 7% was devoted to visual images. The visual images, all photographs, were located in the center of the magazine and were printed on coated stock (as distinct from the rest of the magazine pages). The black and white photographs were taken by Roy DeCarava and depict the life of black men and women living in an urban environment. Among photographers, aficionados of photography, and students of the phototext, Roy DeCarava is a famous name. Hunter discusses him in his book Image and Word (1987); while describing the phototext entitled The Sweet Flypaper of Life (1955) DeCarava co-authored with Langston Hughes. The presentation of DeCarava is treated as we would expect Wright Morris to have wanted it, in one sense. There is, at the beginning of the 268

presentation, a biographical profile written by Sherry Turner DeCarava. She credits him with his seminal work, describes the Hughes book as the point at which DeCarava's reputation began to ascend, and also highlights his subsequent awards and recognition. The cover also belong to DeCarava (a photograph entitled "Man With Clasped Hands") who is clearly being both honored, featured, and reviewed in this treatment of his work. The photographs in the body of the magazine are arranged vertically or horizontally (meaning the viewer must turn the book) depending on how the work would be best presented. The titles, the particular city or urban environment, and the date the photographs were made are all printed in a small type face (we can hear Morris groaning) in the lower left hand margin. One of the complexities faced by editors in printing photographs is how much to say about them. What The Massachusetts Review has done is tell us about the significance of the artist and the art in addition to displaying the images. The Spirit That Moves Us (Volume 9, No. 1. 1988) The magazine is published by the Spirit That Moves Us Press, a nonprofit organization located in 2

Iowa City, Iowa. The editors are Morty Sklar and Mary

Biggs. The copy under consideration comprises one of a series of thematic issues, each of which carries its own title ( Men & Women, Together & Alone ) in addition to being printed under the imprimatur of the press. It is printed in a small format (5 1/2 in. by

8 1/2 in.) with a glossy cover and perfect binding.

It has 176 numbered pages, of which about 8% carry graphics/art work. Photographic images are not

identified in any way, except by the name of the photographer. The graphics/art work in this issue

(including the photographs) appear to have been chosen not only for their relative merits as works of

art, but also for their ability to support the theme

of the issue. The visual images are integrated with

text so as to fall fairly evenly throughout the body

of the magazine. Of all the visual images used (nine

of the thirteen visual images presented are black and white photographs) to support the theme, the

photographs do so in the most intriguing fashion.

Nowhere is this more true than on the cover, where a

photograph of a bearded man playing a piano, outside,

possibly on the sidewalk, is viewed somewhat

apprehensively by a black woman standing slightly at 270 a distance. Something in her gesture resonates in memory, and we are reminded of the apprehensive face-touching of the woman found in Dorothea Lange's photograph Migrant Mother. It is even possible that the piano player, lost in his music, unaware of his incongruous outdoor setting, shares something with a drawing by Beardsley of a piano player ( The Later Works of Aubrey Beardsley (1967), plate 42); but here the strain between distant relationships is too much and the association snaps. I draw these parallels not so much to rhapsodize about the editor's sagacious employment of a cover illustration, but to underline how evocative and effective photographs can be when they are well chosen and well presented...and also how far at sea it is possible to drift without a contextual anchor.

The editors of this issue have also published an anthology entitled Editor's Choice II (1987). Sklar had earlier co-edited an anthology of writing and graphics/art works entitled Editor's Choice (1980), thus the roman numeral in the former title. Both of these anthologies feature graphics/art works by visual artists as well as selections by writers. Editor's Choice II employs the same strategy of 272 integrating images with print throughout the magazine as used in Men & Women (1988). Also, Editor's Choice

II features a dramatic and moody photograph of a parked airplane on the cover. It became obvious when editing their responses to the survey questionnaire that both editors had invested considerable thought in the selection and publication of visual art works.

In Sklar's case, I learned that his aesthetic judgment was bolstered by a background in photography which may, in part, explain the evocative quality of the photographs carried on the covers of the magazines under discussion.

Sulfur (Spring, 1988)

The magazine Sulfur is published by Eastern

Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan. The editor is Clayton Eshleman. The magazine is printed in a medium format (6 in. by 9 in.) with a glossy cover and assembled with a perfect binding. The cover carries a photograph of the late artist Ana Mendietta by Dawoud Bey. There are 247 numbered pages which carry 15 graphics/art works for a percentage usage of about 5%. In part, this magazine is a tribute to the artist, Ana Mendietta, and carries photographs of her art works. It is also a cry for justice. Reading the 273

essays in this issue of Sulfur will convince the

reader that some of Mend lettn ' s friends feel strongly

that she was killed by her hiisb«ind; and that he

escaped justice. In addition to the photographs of

the artists' works, there are n number of written

tributes for the artist, and to some degree, about

the art work. It was one of the few literary

magazines in this study that carried reviews of the

artist's work; but given the violent circumstances of

the artists' death, they constitute an understandable

exception that proves the rule.

Figure 28. The cover photograph for Sulfur. 274

The editor has chosen to display, in a separate

section, photographs by Ben Watkins. His name is captioned at the beginning of the section and each

photograph is titled with the location and date the

picture was taken. The strategy is simple and

economical, the results not quite effective. The

editor presents photographs in two separate sections.

The first set of photographs are images of the earth mother art of Ana Mendietta and, in all fairness to her art, only hint at what it was in her work that her mourners found so promising. The second set of

images honors the work of a living artist, Watkins,

but so sparsely that it is difficult to see what it

is in his art that entitles him to the distinction.

Here, perhaps, the trim size of the magazine matters most; for some of Watkins1 photographs (for example a

boa constrictor on a stairway beside a dozing youth), hint that, printed on a larger format, they may have fulfilled their promise. Somehow the information that

the picture was taken in Boston in 1987 on West

Canyon Street does not contribute to my understanding... or is it meant to be the title of the art work? My deliberate obtuseness, as will eventually be seen, has an object beyond mere 275

carping. Even so, it should be said that Sulfur has managed to present and honor two artists in the same manner in which some literary magazines manage to feature only their writers. ZYZZYVA (Vol.IV, No.3. 1988)

The magazine is published by ZYZZYVA, inc., a nonprofit organization located in San Francisco, California. The editor is Howard Junker and the art editor is Heather Hendrickson. The magazine -is printed in a medium format (6in. by 9in.) with a glossy cover and assembled with perfect binding. This issue carried 134 numbered pages of which a minimum 20% were devoted to graphics/art work. Estimating the percentage of graphics/art work usage presented something of a conundrum here. I did not begin counting graphics until page 32 because the prior pages were devoted to advertising or credits. In all fairness to the magazine, the advertising graphics were an exception to most literary magazine advertising. They were, in themselves, fascinating images and seemed to blend well with the overall tone of the issue. Had I not remained consistent with the method used elsewhere in estimating usage, this issue would have had an even higher percentage. 276

The main body of visual images printed in the magazine were black and white photographs made by Marsha Burns. This issue employed these photographs in a manner much favored by the editors and sponsors I interviewed. That is, the photographs were integrated with the text in such a way that visual art works were regularly interspersed with literary works. The visual art work did not serve as illustration, nor was it obviously thematic; but examples of Burns' photographs were introduced every few pages from front to back. Many of the editors and sponsors included in the study survey responded to a question about usage by describing this integrated system of utilizing graphics. They indicated that its virtue lay in providing the reader a kind of visual relief from vast stretches of print. However, there is a subtlety in this particular presentation that deserves attention. Burns, the artist, has been very carefully dealt with here. Most of the editors and sponsors in this study used multiple submissions to provide the viewer relief from a sea of print. In this instance, Burns has the cover, and then her work can be found exclusively 27 more times within the magazine. She is being generously showcased as an 277 artist, which, it must be emphasized, is something more than being used as a visual change of pace. Burns' work is titled beneath each photograph with the name of her subject, the locale, and the date the picture was made. It is the same amount and type of information as that provided by Sulfur and TriQuarterly for their artists, and it is nearly empty of content. In telling us something, it leaves out more than it puts in. Here is a genuine dilemma for any literary magazine that presents photography and photographs. Perhaps we see before us only the information that Burns wished to supply. In other words, she may have choosen to be deliberately cryptic. How does the editor balance the information supplied by the artist with the needs of the audience to whom the work is presented?

To push this example further, some of Burns work features young men and women dressed (and undressed) in the latest radical fashion, some of it consists of young girls posed frontally nude. Portraying young maidens with hairless pudenda is not the traditional stuff of sugar and spice. Where is Burns' coming from, and where is she going, with her chosen 278 subjects? Inquiring minds want to know. Since her work is black and white photography, and the smooth coated stock on which the images are printed give some sense of the quality of her photographs in their smoothness and tonal range, my feeling was that her work was fairly and generously presented by the editors. In the case of Burns, the style of presentation may be deliberately cool and reserved. A reserved presentation is ultimately the editor's choice. Editors might consider the argument stated below before automatically assuming that the abscence of context is in keeping with art world modes of presentation.

Literary Magazines As Museums In the case of the last two literary magazines, Sulphur and ZYZZYVA, both editors presented photographs that, it could be argued, needed additional information on the basis that photographs derive their artistic imagery from the real world, and are therefore subject to be more readily misunderstood. It is true that in some art history books, art education books, art galleries, and art museums, almost all the art work, including 279 photography, is presented in exactly the way these magazines do, in one sense. The image is presented on the page, or on the wall, with the artist's name, date, medium, size, and a title, if any. There is usually not much more immediately near the image than the small amount of information just described. They do, and traditionally have done, exactly what literary magazines are doing when they present photographic images for inspection.

However, it would be rare to find an art history book, or an art education book, that did not tell us more about the art images somewhere else in the body of the text. It will almost always be found that there is explanatory text that refers to, and expands upon, the image and its place in the world of art, or its place in the canon of the artist. Art galleries are known to pass out brochures at the door containing information about the art work or the artist (often a sort of vitae of the artist), and if they do not, the gallery dealer will offer suitable information upon request. Even Andre Kertesz, whose book On Reading was devoid of anything to read, when he was down to the serious business of producing a book about himself Kertesz On Kertesz (1985), found 280 something to say about every image he printed... and much more besides. The most sacred art spaces, art museums, invest a considerable effort in training docents, and also printing brochures and flyers, all with the object in mind of providing the viewer with more information about the art work than is contained in the name, date, title, etc. that is found on the card beneath the art work. Museums educate docents, so that docents may educate the viewing public. What is being advanced here is the notion that art is not presented in a vacuum or with a minimal amount of information, especially in these traditional settings, despite the initial impression that it may be.

If the editor of a literary magazine is modeling the presentation of art work on these other publications and institutions (as one editor so informed me in a private letter), then the editor ought to follow the course these art world publications and institutions have set to the end. In the course of educating the reader, the editor must tread carefully. Providing information about the intent of the artist, or what the artist meant to say can lead to error. This position, concerning error, has been developed by William Wimsatt, Jr. and Monroe

Beardsley (1958) in their paper The Intentional

Fallacy, which originated in a criticism of literature, but applies also to visual art. The fallacy of appealing to an artist to apprehend their intentions underlies Szarkowski's (1976) objections to Eggleston (who claimed his motif was the

Confederate flag) being a truthful guide to his own work. Reduced to simplest terms, the artist, for a variety of good reasons, (candor, availability, change of mind after the fact) is not the court of last resort when addressing that artist's work.

Trying to correctly interpret what seems to be happening in the photographic image can also lead to grave mistakes, as was shown with the example of

Dosineau's photograph.

In the search for what to say, and how to say it, when informing the reader about the photograph, one choice of literary magazine editors might be to provide the viewer with the informed viewpoint of a second party. Critics interpret art works, set them in the context of their times, wring meanings out of them about the larger field of photography, and all the while offering the reader, a basis for 282 apprehending the art work. One of the most useful things a critic can do is help the reader understand the framework within which the art work fits. As in the case of any other art work, photographs are amenable to criticism. But, as already suggested, photographs need informed comment even more than other art works because they appear to some viewers to be derived from reality.

It is, naturally, necessary to review the art work contained in the literary magazine concurrently with its presentation, not in a later issue. Timely reviews, even miniscule reviews, provide the reader with a basis for understanding... and they further emphasize the importance of the material presented, while suggesting that the publication is an elite forum for artists. The drawback may be in finding established critics available to review the work.

Without deprecating the difficulty, this drawback might be circumvented in any number of ways. Editors can cultivate critics by inviting reviewers from academia (often eager to publish) or by soliciting the names of critics from the artist familiar with their work (or the gallery who represents them, if any) or by providing an editorial review. This idea of an editorial review is only fair, the editor, or

the art editor, chose the work based on some factor,

if no other critic is at hand to do the job, let the

choice be explained by the person most responsible

for its presentation. It would not be surprising,

given the fascinating range of visual objects on

display in the pages of the magazines in this study,

that editors offer the most trenchant informed comment.

The ordinary urban subjects of Roy DeCarava as displayed in The Massachusetts Review and the trendy punkers portrayed by Burns in ZYZZYVA, a continent and a generation apart, share only their humanity and the need we have to know more about their presentation within the pages of these two magazines.

Is it fair to propose that one idea near the heart of educating about art is that with acquired knowledge, understanding will grow, and with understanding, so with appreciation? Editors and sponsors might consider letting us read informed comment about photography in literary magazines. The acquired knowledge will be soothing as a drink from a clear spring. 284

PART THREE: LITERARY MAGAZINES AS WORKS OF ART

The Magazine As Personal Vehicle Certain literary magazines seem to escape the boundaries of the expected. The literary magazines that follow go beyond the ordinary, historical task of reviewing the arts; they appear to have become, in themselves, art works of a kind. The devices they have employed in this transformation are worth evaluating because they well may herald the next step in the evolution of literary magazines. The subordination of the entire contents in the interest of presenting a personalized artifact is the key to understanding all the magazines in this grouping.

Mississippi Mud (1987) The magazine Mississippi Mud is published in Portland, Oregon. The editor is Joel Weinstein. This issue was printed in a 17.5 inch by 11 inch format. To put the scale of the trim size in perspective, this issue was nearly double the height of most other bound literary magazines and in many cases nearly three times as high. The only competitor in terras of 285

scale was the literary magazine Bomb. Whatever else it may be, Mississippi Mud is not small. The magazine cover was printed in loud, primary colors on glossy stock, with a staple binding; and there were 23 numbered pages of which about 65% carried graphics/art work. Like the literary magazine ZYZZYVA the advertisements in Mississippi Mud are in character with the visual appearance of the rest of the magazine and had they been counted, the visual usage percentage would have been even higher. The theme of this issue was: "Just say no" and carried writing, poetry and graphics about our drug ridden society. The tone of the literary and visual contents of the magazine borders between high camp and insouciance. Throughout the magazine, there are visual images which reflect the theme and serve both as illustrations to the writing and visual corollaries to the distorted hallucinations that we imagine drugs might induce. Someone might protest that the artist's only business in these pages is to provide illustrations for the writing, but almost all of the visual images had entire pages to themselves. This scope, combined with the large scale of the presentation, clearly made the art works (and the 286 artists) partners in the theme of the magazine. If, as Marantz (1978) has suggested, on of he essential qualities of a picturebook is that it is inseparable from its art, I suppose the writing in Mississippi Mud could exist in some sort of half life; but if, as Marantz writes: "...Unlike a work of literature, a picturebook is not read...it is experienced" (p. 86), then this literary magazine comes narrowly close to his definition. Holding it, thumbing through it, letting the mass of typeface and the entire presentation of vivid illustrations take effect is to experience what, I believe, Joel Weinstein, editor of Mississippi Mud meant when he claimed work of art status for his publication.

Pig Iron (Number 14, 1987) The magazine Pig Iron is published in Youngstown, Ohio. The editors are Jim Villani, and Rose Sayre. This issue was printed in an 8 1/2 by 11 inch format with a glossy cover and it was perfect bound. It had 95 numbered pages of which about 76% carried graphics/art work. While the artists are identified (24 of them, many with multiple entries), the medium is not. However, it appears as if pen and 287 ink illustrations comprise the major portion of the graphics, if not its entirety.

With 24 different visual artist's represented, the theme of the magazine (humor) is dealt a number of glancing blows and an occasional direct hit. "A Day At The Beach With Picasso" by Jeffrey Hopp, which begins on page 68, is an interesting example of the magazine's contents.

Figure 29. Picasso at the beach as drawn by Jeffrey Hopp. 289

It seems to me that when we have literary magazines that are carrying comic strip illustrations (and Pig Iron was not alone in this practice), we have come far afield from the stereotypical, staid presentation of literature with an occasional illustration for visual relief. The reason for this willingness to explore the outer reaches of the literary magazine domain lies, I suspect, in the personal involvement of the editors. The magazine becomes an extension of the editor's persona, and his or her individual creativity eventually fashions a magazine that represents them to the public. In this manner of creatively presenting a unique viewpoint to the world through an artifact, are they not somewhat like the artists whose work they publish? Their literary magazine has become their art work. I first began to suspect this was so when I read some of the responses the editor of Pig Iron had written to the questions in my survey. Jim Villani wrote:

Circulation and sales is a never ending, uphill battle. And frankly, I'm in this business because I like to create books. I don't really care if they sell or not, and that attitude has probably done more to limit sales than anything else--I just don't give over very much time to promotion and distribution. The whole marketing game 290

just turns me off. I think that PI is packaged in a format that could be successful commercially, but I can't motivate myself to pursue the commercial aspect. I just want to create beautiful, artistic, meaningful books (Villani, 1989 in a private letter).

In his disdain for the necessary buying and selling of the marketplace, and his expressed desire to create what is beautiful, artistic, and meaningful, his attitude seems to resonate in harmony with the creative artists he publishes; and his magazine becomes what he has called a "collectible icon."

If the argument that certain literary magazines approach the status of works of art is accepted, temporarily, it follows that there must be other magazines which would exhibit the same idiosyncratic characteristics of Pig Iron and Mississippi Mud.

Having already learned that the state of Texas contained far more literary magazines than was expected, it might be assumed that other regions of the country must also have similar literary magazines, perhaps obscure, but that fit the idiosyncratic mold. To make this assumption more clear, it seems fair to guess that among the numerous literary magazines published nationwide, certain 291 magazines would be found whose character is unique in many ways. If examined, there is, it seems, a key to identifying them. All the contents in the magazine, described next, appear to have been subordinated to achieve a personal expression by the editor.

Nancy's Magazine (Volume 5, Number 1, 1988) The magazine is published in Columbus, Ohio.

Nancy Bonnell-Kangas is the editor. This issue was printed on uncoated stock with a pen and ink cartoon drawing on the cover. It is 7 by 8 1/2 inches in format and uses a two staple binding. It has 36 un-numbered pages which carry about 26 instances of graphics/ art works for a percentage usage of 72%.

The issue has no color, no photographs, and the graphics, often clip art (or uncopyrighted art, usually of a commercial origin) are arranged in the kind of random look that seems to owe as much to chance and gravity as to any sort of formal graphic design. Nevertheless, the magazine has a great deal of whimsical charm; and it includes, as a bonus, a small picture book as a tip in. There is a theme to this magazine issue, the Dewey Decimal System, no less, and in a wonderful oddball way, it works just 292 fine as a theme. When the reader is inside Nancy's Magazine, the reader is given the sense of being inside Nancy's imaginary world. The entire publication becomes an experience.

There are other literary magazines that offer this same combination of literature and visual art work organized in a highly idiosyncratic form of personal expression. Two other examples follow. They are, candidly, not easy to evaluate.

Ratatosk (Number 2, 1988) The magazine Ratatosk is published in Austin, Texas with some support by the University of Texas at Austin. The editor is Liz Henry. This issue of the magazine is printed on uncoated stock with a black and white abstract design on the cover. The magazine is organized on a 7 by 8 1/2 inch format and bound with staples. It has 22 numbered pages carrying about 7 visual images for a percentage usage of 31%. I was never able to interview the student editor (Liz Henry); however she sent me a letter describing her underlying philosophy of encouraging writers and supporting comic strips as a literary format worthy of a wider and more serious forum. Within the 293 magazine, there is creative writing; and true to the editor's philosophy, a kind of raw, underground comic strip art that more closely parallels the visual art found in Mississippi Mud than any other. I do not know if the magazine has survived into its third printing. The life of some literary magazines is not long as Michael Anania (1978), writing in Anderson and Kinzie's The Little Magazine In America, has made clear. Anania says that many literary magazines have a natural life span, only a given number of years of existence, and then exhibit the art of dying gracefully. To substantiate Anania's position, two of the editors in this study intended to terminate their publication at the end of this year. It may be that the two issues of Ratatosk I now have, are the only two that will see the light of day. My point in mentioning Ratatosk in this section of my study is twofold. It has all the idiosyncratic characteristics to be considered a creative artifact in its own right, and it is useful to point out that literary magazines are often both short-lived and very obscure.

There are, in this study, some literary magazines whose genealogy is famous, and lengthy. The North 294

American Review has, in its files, a letter from Thomas Jefferson requesting back issues he has not received. To have survived on the literary magazine landscape for so long is no mean achievement, even if printing was interrupted for a time. (3) In contrast, the literary magazine to be described next seems imbued with a death wish.

Meal. Ready To Eat (Volume 2, Number 1, 1988) The magazine Meal, Ready To Eat is published in West Lafayette, Indiana. The editor is Richard Sater. This issue was printed on 5 1/2 by 8 1/2 inch uncoated stock with photographic images on the front and back covers. It had 14 un-numbered pages which carried about 11 graphic images for a percentage usage of 78%. Like the other magazines under discussion in this issue, the magazine disregards reader expectations in its random distribution of graphics and text. Most of the graphic images appear to be clip art or photographs (the covers) appropriated from old magazines. However, they support the campy horror theme of the issue to a degree. Apparently two of the photographic images are real images provided by one of the contributors 2

(listed as a houseguest); and some of them may by derived from advertisers. What makes Meal, Ready To

Eat difficult to describe is that it appears that th editor has employed chaos as his format. Text and images appear printed on the side of the page and upside down. In its deliberate flouting of viewer expectations and its inaccessibility, it seems to be deliberately mocking the usual expectations of the genre of literary magazines.

The literary magazine Meal, Ready To Eat is as idiosyncratic as any of the previously mentioned magazines. Is it a personal view of the world, an exercise in whimsy, or a post-modern artifact? When trying to sort out what one is viewing when examinin

Meal, Ready to Eat, confusion reigns and description is humbled. What this magazine shares in common with the others, primarily, is its total presentation as an artifact produced by the editor. Everything else, the creative writing, the photography, the graphics, all have been subordinated into creating an intended effect. While the magazine itself may seem fun, zany sophomoric, or maddening, depending on one's persona tastes, it is useful in understanding a particular approach to literary magazine publishing and the 296 employment of graphics/art work.

The Idiosyncratic Approach Tomorrow In Chapter V, there is material presented which suggests that desktop publishing with microcomputers will herald a new growth in literary magazine publication. It might not be too bold a step to predict that many more future publications, which originate from microcomputers, will be as idiosyncratic as these last magazines discussed. The future may hold more and more of these objects of self-expression masked in the guise of literary magazines.

Summary of Chapter IV The subject of why photography is widely used in literary magazines, has been touched upon. A quote from Wright Morris (1982) was used to establish the idea that photographs should be accompanied by additional information beyond that which is traditionally provided for works of art. Examples of criticism were presented which showed how two contemporary critics, Szarkowski (1976) and Kozloff (1987), have fallen back upon presenting a historical 297 framework when writing about the photograph as object. An essay on critical pluralism by Grundberg

(1982) was employed to suggest why critics would respond in this manner, and also to suggest certain other acceptable approaches to commenting about photographs. A few subjectively chosen literary magazines were discussed in terms of how they presented photographs. A comparison was made between the way literary magazines present information about photographs and the way art history books and museums present art work. From their examples, it was argued that literary magazine editors should provide a base of understanding for their readers when presenting the work of photographers. One way of providing this base of understanding, it was suggested, is informed commentary.

In addition to annotating literary magazines that carried photography, certain literary magazines were annotated whose idiosyncratic format and personal style seemed to indicate they were distinct from the other literary magazines in this study. The key to understanding these latter magazines lay in the fact that they subordinated everything in the magazine toward an intended effect. A Compass Sighting Taken For The Study The questions that framed the contents of this study have now to be addressed. In the sense that the study covers a portion of the past (the brief history of The Yellow Book, ) and also the present (how editors responded in surveys and interviews concerning their approaches to art, and inventories and annotations of selected literary magazines), sufficient responses suggest themselves that the questions may be answered. But responding to the study questions should not close the door on the study.

There is left the need to outline possible developments in the future of literary magazine publishing. Some of the survey responses and site interviews hinted at future developments in the field with implications for the appearance of visual material. In particular, desktop publishing needs to be examined, and some conclusions drawn with respect to potential technological breakthroughs in color printing. Current lack of knowledge about the full extent of graphics/art work publication by literary magazines in the nation, and potential developments in desktop publication, seems to have implications 299 for the field of art education now and, possibly, in the future. These aspects of the study are taken up in the following chapter. 300

Notes Chapter IV (1) Gombrich, in his book The Image And The Eye (1982), states that reading photographs is a learned response that is based as much on what we already know (understand) about the event portrayed as it is based on the visual clues in the photographic image. I do not feel it is too far a leap in logic to argue that, with unfamiliar subject matter, we need to be given a textual orientation. (2) The last example of the misinterpretation of Doisineau's photograph, by Szarkowski (1973), was developed in a class on criticism taught by Dr. Terry Barrett at The Ohio State University, and not in G. Freund's (1980) other examples.

(3) Publication of The North American Review was interrupted in 1940 when its, editor, Joseph Hilton Smyth, confessed to being a paid agent of the Japanese government. It resumed again in 1964 under the editorship of Robert P. Dana and continued on in 1969 under its current editor, Robley Wilson, Jr. (Martin, 1978). CHAPTER V

TRENDS AND SUGGESTIONS

Introduction to Chapter V In the first part of this chapter, I review the questions that precipitated this study and deal with them. The way graphics/art work functions is developed by describing an imaginary magazine rack which contains magazines identical to the ones in this study. In the second part of this chapter, I develop the potential impact of microcomputers. This is done because it became apparent during the survey that microcomputers and their probable effects on graphics/art work would be felt in the future of literary magazine publishing. I also speculate about what effects desktop publishing will have on the graphics/art work produced in university sponsored literary magazines.

In part three of this chapter, a concern related to desktop publishing, the potential of economically producing images in color is suggested. Contemporary

301 302

color printing practices are outlined so that potential advances in color printing can be grasped. In part four of this chapter, the implications of the study for the field of art education are suggested. A summary overview of the material discussed in the previous four chapters is presented in terms of material that seems potentially fruitful for art education.

PART ONE: ANSWERING THE QUESTIONS

A Review By now the reader has ingested four chapters of material, some of it tenuously related to literary magazines. It may be helpful to review the problems that instigated this study. Fundamentally, the study was designed to describe the manner in which visual art was used in literary magazines. The central question became: How does art function within literary magazines?

Other sub-problems arose which were so closely related to the central question that they were included in the study also. It seemed desirable to 303 develop something of the early history of the kind of literary magazine that published both visual and literary art. The sub-problem was stated as: What would an examination of the beginnings of literary magazines that published graphics/art work reveal?

After the groundwork had been laid for the manner in which artists and writers had contributed to the early history of literary magazines, it seemed important to take a measure of what was being done by certain literary magazines in the United States today. One concern was finding a general measure of the amount of visual material being published in literary magazines. This concern was referred to as a

"continuum" and the numerical inventory which fell along it were expressed in terms of percentage. The sub-problem asked: What is the usage of such art if described on a continuum?

It also seemed important to survey editors in order to determine how they perceived the various roles of art within their publications. The approach to this area of the study involved telephone interviews, a questionnaire document, and site visits with randomly selected editors. The sub-questions that dealt with editor perceptions were phrased as 304 follows: How do editors perceive the functions of graphics/art work in literary magazines? What would site interviews with editors reveal about the functions of graphics/art work?

Perhaps the best way of responding to the central question and, all the sub-problems, is to work through them, last to first, starting with photography .

Photography In Literary Magazines

Almost half the literary magazines examined incorporated photography. The photography could be found in several guises, doing several different kinds of jobs. It was used in advertisements, in illustration, and in the portrayal of other art work.

There were clip art images taken from old movie star stills, and photographs of contemporary artists being interviewed. With all that versatility, the photograph was, nevertheless, most often presented as an object worthy of contemplation in its own right.

Photo essays and color photography were seldom found. In the main, what the readers saw were single black and white images. For reasons already described, in Chapter IV, black and white photographs 3 work very well in literary magazine formats. It was not unusual to find photographs organized around a

theme. As argued, a weakness of all these various presentations of photography, as art, lay in the

failure of the editors to capitalize on the reader's need for a frame of reference...a framework that can

only be provided by information. It is useful to

think of this information as education. It was

proposed, in Chapter IV, that one way to provide readers with such an educational frame of reference is through informed comment, or criticism.

Editor Responses

In this writing, no distinction is intended between the responses of editors and sponsors of university funded literary magazines. Most editors said they intended to balance the importance of the visual art with the creative writing. This intention was hedged with some practical reservations, and it was not the universal response. A few editors said openly that art was a secondary consideration in their publishing philosophy. To these editors, visual art work had its place, and that place was secondary.

But the vast majority felt that visual art was 3 equally important, and they meant to present it as such. Significantly missing from almost all the literary magazines surveyed, in which a balanced presentation was intended, were critical reviews of the art work in the magazines.

While some magazine editors did provide interior color presentations, the preponderance of the editors and sponsors restricted color to the cover, and even then it was not used often. Editors and sponsors felt color printing was prohibitive and either sought art work in which color was not central, or printed color work in black and white. Color, as an issue in literary magazine publication, is examined further in this chapter.

While they realized that their covers were important to their circulation (to the editors, one of the important functions of art), the intellectual connection between the magazine cover and the art form of posters as a visual hook to catch readers did not appear to be have been fully grasped. Some magazines in the study ( The North American Review,

Pig Iron, and Yellow Silk ) advertised past covers for sale as posters, but in a study of some seventy odd magazines, they were clearly in the minority. 307

Some editors, when asked if they printed extra covers for sale as posters (to gain extra revenue) clearly had not ever thought of the idea.

Few editors included "tip ins" (the art work glued only along one edge), or "slipped in" (the art work inserted without binding); and few editors

believed their readers disassembled the magazine to

remove the art work. Many editors had never heard of

the idea of tip ins, but several, once they had the

term explained to them, thought it was an exciting

idea.

While editors and sponsors could often indicate

a favorite of their own publication in terms of

graphics/art work, they were less likely to be able

to name other literary magazines in the field whose

use of graphics/art work they admired. This

unawareness was more marked by sponsors of literary

magazines in Texas than it was among editors of

nominated or Preferred Titles magazines.

Most editors and sponsors believed that an

important function of publishing graphics/art work in

their magazines was to provide a forum for the

artist. Some editors presented the art work in

special sections of the magazine, but the 308 preponderance of editors, again being practical, integrated the graphics/art work throughout the body of the magazine. They did this to provide visual relief for their readers. One important function of art, as far as editors were concerned, was visual relief.

Site interviews with editors and sponsors of literary magazines tended to reinforce the general conclusions listed above. These site interviews showed that the visual qualities of the literary magazines were independent of the size of the student population, being more determined by the available funding and motivation of the sponsor than any other factor. These sponsors and editors also confirmed the existence of a sub-strata of doubly talented artists who occasionally submitted (if not published) both literature and visual art work.

The Continuum

The literary magazines in this study included a wide range of percentage usage of graphics/art work.

The method of counting this usage depended on comparing the number of visual images against the number of numbered pages. For the most part, this 309 method was satisfactory, but became problematic in cases where the magazine did not number its pages or seemed to incorporate its advertisements with its graphics/art work. A few literary magazines had a graphics/art work percentage higher than 100. This meant, in practical terms, that they were publishing one image, sometimes more, on every page of the magazine. The preponderance of literary magazines who said they were committed to balancing the importance of graphics/art work with creative writing fell within a usage of 10 to 30 percent.

This finding must be tempered with the realization that among the many literary magazines whose usage fell within the 10 to 30 percent range were publications whose student editors practiced matching; they paired submitted visual art work with submitted literary work. The continuum was not a useful tool for determining that the editor(s) attempted to strike a balance in the importance of the presentations. Such a determination depended more upon how the visual art work and the artist were presented within the magazine than the number of times the art work appeared. One way literary magazine editors could distinguish their visual 310 artists, or provide them a special forum, was to gather their work in a separate section. This strategy was employed by a number of literary magazine editors who said they felt publishing visual art was as important to their purposes as publishing literary art. Other means employed to achieve something of the same purpose included providing a brief educational statement (seldom done), providing a biographical listing for the artist on the contributor's page, or simply providing flysheets, or glossy stock for the artist's images to distinguish it from the ordinary printed material.

The Function of Art In Literary Magazines

One way of developing the general manner in which graphics/art work functions in literary magazines is to imagine that one is standing before a rack of such magazines. It may be possible, in an imaginary setting, to describe the characteristics of magazines actually found in the study; and to summarize some of the ways art functioned within them. If we imagine that we sort through the magazines in this rack, what outstanding characteristics would we notice about them? The covers of most of these magazines would carry a visual image. Surprisingly, not very many of these cover images would be in color. For those magazines carrying graphics/art work on the cover, the editor hoped that this image would arrest and engage the viewer on both the emotional and intellectual level. Put another way, they hoped the visual art on the cover of the magazine would serve two functions. It would serve to sell the immediate issue, and it would also serve to make a symbolic statement about the worth of the entire publishing enterprise. While these literary magazine covers would shar something of the quality of posters, this similarity would more likely be the result of a happy accident than a deliberately realized campaign on the part of the editors. Not only would the cover most likely no be in color, but the image on the cover might not be the best graphic image (in terms of artistic skill, or visual impact) to be found in the magazine. Very few of these magazine covers would appear (based on the study) to have images that could capture the reader. 312

Thumbing through the pages of one of these magazines, one might find that, fairly regularly throughout the magazine, there would be found visual images. Integrating graphics/art work with text is one way of breaking up a sea of gray print, and in the survey, editors said that they rely on art work for just this purpose. In some of these magazines, the art work would be inappropriately matched as illustration for creative writing, particularly if the magazine being examined were produced by a university from Texas where matching is a common practice. If not, often enough, within the magazine there would be found at least one and sometimes as many as three artists whose work was being honored . If the reader was not familiar with the artist, very few clues would be offered as to why this particular individual was being selected.

The attentive viewer would also be likely to notice that the art work in privately published magazines tended to flow with the underlying philosophy of the magazine. If the magazine was dedicated to feminist issues, the art work would, in all likelihood, be by a woman artist, and might well include art work by icons of the feminist movement 313 such as Berthe Morisot, or Georgia O'Keeffe. If the magazine was dedicated to science fiction, the art work would have a futuristic appearance. If the reader attempted to discover some common quality that guaranteed they could separate literary magazines produced in one region from those magazines elsewhere, judging purely by the appearance of the magazines, he or she would discover that this task was not readily accomplished. Trim size, format, quality of paper stock, use of color photographs, or even the sophistry of the art images would not prove useful as a method of sifting out literary magazines. Perhaps, only in the practice of matching random image with text, and in the choice of relatively safe visual themes would the attentive reader believe they had found any margin of difference between university sponsored literary magazines and magazines published by private presses. Last, one might note among the some seventy literary magazines, a few that seemed sufficiently different, even bizarre, that one would be puzzled by their appearance; but might guess they were as much artifacts of personal expression by the editor as anything else. While the role of the editor would be 314 dominant in the creation of the literary magazine as object, it might be useful to think of the way the editor worked, as an architect, or the director of a symphony, rather than an artist working alone. Possibly a good way to end our experience at the imaginary magazine rack is to choose the titles which are annotated in Appendix K, and explore their contents at leisure.

Turning To The Future While we have now some sense of the quantity of art work used in literary magazines, and a fair idea of what might be found within and upon the covers, it should not be presumed that the functions of art within literary magazines will remain fixed and unchanging. During the course of the survey, many sponsors of literary magazines produced by institutions of higher learning indicated that they were turning to microcomputers for use in producing their publication. What follows next is a discussion of this usage in terms of eventual effect on graphics/art work. 315

PART TWO: DESKTOP PUBLISHING

Current Technology Desktop publishing no longer flickers distantly on the horizon of the literary magazine realm, it looms at the threshold. (1) In many of the universities in this study, microcomputers and laser printers are already a reality in the publishing laboratory; or they were being installed at the time of the interview. As the survey also showed, the touchstone for most of the literary magazine editors in this study was their university experience. If those editors carried away from the university certain attitudes concerning the production of the literary magazine (what was valued, what was acceptable, etc.), it seems evident that "editors to be" who are connected now with university sponsored literary magazines as undergraduates will carry away an unquestioned acceptance of microcomputers, both for use in word processing and in graphics/art work.

Charles Robinson (1978) wrote a gloomy article about literary magazines published by universities. Basically, he found little good in the practice of literary magazines sprouting up in the groves of 316 academe, for a number of reasons. Robinson felt that academia, with its established funding, had an unfair advantage in the market place, tended to publish too much mundane material for reasons of self-promotion, and because of inherent academic conservativeness, hesitated to publish truly radical material. In other words, literary magazines published at universities promote the university first, political causes last, or not at all. Robinson also felt the comparative richness of academically sponsored literary magazines allowed them sufficient funds to display graphics/art work in a fashion disadvantageous to the independents.

Based on my findings, and granting that the evaluation of visual art work is a subjective experience, I would take issue with Robinson on this last assertion. Several of the literary magazines annotated in Chapter IV, as well as some of those annotated in Appendix K are privately produced. The quality of their graphics/art work was, in no way, inferior to the presentations found within university sponsored literary magazines. In some cases, it seemed, the reverse. 317

The future, however, may fulfill Robinson's complaint. While the passion for microcomputers in the United States cuts across the board, universities appear more likely to have available funding for the exotic computer features that will allow even closer proximity to the visual standards of commercial publishing houses. Will those university publications which have opted for microcomputer usage improve the visual output, or will they be content to accept a lessor product visually, in the greater service of economy and ease of production? It should be intriguing to see whether noticeable changes take place in the future appearance of the academically funded literary magazines in this study when so much of their layout and production is going to be determined by microcomputers. (2) However, while the future remains murky, there are some available clues presented in the next section which allow a sense of the possible.

A National Passion When the essays that comprise Anderson and Kinzie's The Little Magazine In America; A Modern Documentary History (1978) were compiled, neither the 318 concept, nor the implications of desktop publishing were envisioned. In fact, the microchip had just made its debut at the beginning of the same decade, i.e.

1970 (Culberton and Cunningham, 1986). There are to be found throughout the Anderson and Kinzie book references to the "mimeograph revolution," which, with cheap offset printing and- the increasing number of college educated citizens in the country, are given as the reasons for the estimated thousand percent increase in the number of little magazines over the previous three decades covered. As the results of this study have shown, and common sense would indicate, the national passion for microcomputers has already had an inevitable effect in the world of literary magazines because of their word processing abilities. The end of the changes precipitated by microcomputers is not in sight. Why

this is so, and what lies ahead, are questions which deserve some examination, for it is a possibility, at

least, that the thousand percent increase previously mentioned in Anderson and Kinzie's book may be a mere warmup for the coming literary magazine explosion.

Perhaps it is not difficult to imagine that all those who once repaired to mimeograph machines when they 319 felt the irresistible urge to issue a quarterly review, will soon be sitting glassy eyed in front of microcomputer keyboards. In the next section, some evidence is presented to indicate that market forces have already imagined a similar image.

Meeting The Future

There are magazines that cater to microcomputer owners who wish to become their own publishers. A few examples should suffice to suggest something of the range of support for those who are now able to see their typing immortalized in print. For Apple microcomputer owners, there is a house magazine called Incider. The issue of February, 1989, (Vol.7,

No.2) addresses itself to the various ramifications of publishing that owners of this particular brand would encounter while getting words on paper. The cover of the magazine carries the prophetic banner

(in bright red letters) "Desktop Publishing, The

Future Is Here." Of course, the contents of the magazine are properly enthusiastic and serious; but somehow, "the future is here" has a worrisome ring.

The articles in this particular Incider issue are freighted with implications which touch on some of 320 the concerns of this study. For instance, there are prizes offered for the best designed publication. Does this mean that there is a sort of computer aesthetic different from the ordinary standards of crispness and legibility? To me, a competition restricted to computer produced publications has the flavor of such a suggestion, as if a publication produced by more traditional means would be rejected as having an unfair advantage. There were also articles on how to publish in the business world (with the implication that the passion for publishing by computer cuts across all lines), a how to publish article for the classroom (with the implication that every teacher can be a publisher too), and articles celebrating various aspects of the company's latest technology (the implication that the truly complete desktop publisher will have all the latest up to the minute gadgets). As an accurate weather vane, these implications may be only generally true; but they seem to point in the general direction of the winds of change.

A second magazine that caters to the same needs is titled quite simply and significantly... Publish. Rather than being a house organ for a particular 13 2 1 company, the magazine keeps Its readers abreast ol the latest technology available from a host of suppliers. It also reviews various softwear publishing programs and discusses ways to apply I lie technology at hand. The February, 1989, issue of

Publish carried an article that told how a group ol the nation's top graphic designers and art directors were introduced to the joys of electronic illustration via Macintosh computers at Stanford

University. While the interviews with various individuals who underwent the workshop were somewhat more reserved than the euphoric tone of the magazine lead-ins, the hand writing on the wall, or the page format on the monitor, was visible to all. These particular professional illustrators nnd art directors could see a place for microcomputer art in their publishing work and they said so.

Finally, the April, 1989, issue of Small Press

(Vol.7, No.2) carries an article by Richard D.

Johnson entitled "On The Desktop." Fundamentally, the article is devoted to the increasing complexity of softwear programs for the microcomputer of choice,

the Macintosh. (3) Early in the article Johnson discusses the widespread usage of the Macintosh 322 computer and how it has been transformed from a relatively simple device (user friendly) to one of sophistication. Johnson didn't say so, but the expression "user hostile" comes to mind. The remainder of the brief article deals with the concomitant difficulty in learning the myriad Macintosh softwear applications now available and how to use various listed publications and tutorial aids to achieve mastery. While the discussion of Macintosh computers as the editor's choice of technology reinforces the responses given by editors and sponsors in this study, the article has about it other minor implications that are intriguing. Small Press is very much a publication devoted to the book arts. Desktop publishing must be a considerable phenomena for it to be noticed by a magazine whose philosophy appears to be basically conservative.

There is an additional minor implication. Johnson points out that microcomputer technology is growing increasingly sophisticated. Johnson is the director of libraries at State University College in Oneonta, New York, and co-author of a book on using desktop publishing in libraries. His experience seasons his opinion sufficiently that one might 323 conclude an additional adventure lies in wait for the young "editors to be" first stepping across the literary magazine laboratory threshold. It appears that learning time formerly spent on the magazine itself will now be spent on understanding and practicing the complex, and no longer "user friendly" programs necessary to compile the completed publication.

Technology Update

What will the sponsors and student editors in this study do with their new microcomputers? Perhaps the easiest way to answer the question of what is possible at the moment in the realm of desktop publishing, given an unlimited budget, is to examine the advertisements carried in these magazines. In the pages of Publish you may learn that a softwear program is available which will allow the desktop publisher to design layout, or one to design type faces, or to render illustrations, or to copy (with a device called a scanner) photographs and artwork, and even simulate up to 700 colors. There are advertisements for clip art, for font catalogs, for laser printers and toner cartridges, and even for publishing advice (how to do it books) by professionals in the field. What this informs us is that there is plenty of technology available now for creating snappy looking literary magazines; and more important, the technology is going to continue to improve. The only drawback to the new technology is the old problem of money, because the hardware is expensive. As an example, within the Last two years, laser printing has bridged the gap between letter quality (too slow) and dot matrix (poor legibility). The bastions erected by purists of the crisp type face and the pure letter form continue to be assaulted, surmounted, and surrounded by the hosts o microchip technology. Not that many do not consider what is currently available unacceptable; but that there seems to be a continuing user pressure to improve the output, and a willing response on the part of industry to meet the demands. Presently, according to the preponderance of the editors interviewed in this study, the state of desktop publishing is not a match, visually, for more professional methods of publishing. But if the trend indicated in these magazines continues, this last bastion may also crumble. Will the currently 325 expensive hardware, such as the laser printer just mentioned, soon come within the price range of literary magazine publishers? Since they presently cost thousands of dollars, it is difficult to imagine them becoming suddenly inexpensive. Because student editors now do not appear to have a sufficient supply of graphics/art work submissions to work with, and because microcomputers lend themselves to the introduction of clip art and (in my subjective judgment) simplistic graphic images, I believe the quality of graphics/art work in many of the literary magazines (university sponsored, who are going to microcomputers) in this study will slip, or dip, in the near future. I believe student editors will begin to substitute microcomputer images, or clip art, for submissions. This substitution will, I believe, be to the detriment of the student artists and the visual appearance of the magazine. But student editors are fond of changing the layout and design of their magazines and after they have gone through this phase of experience with their microcomputers, the visual quality of the magazines a few years down the road should improve greatly. This will be true, particularly, if color 326 printing programs continue to improve, and the cost of scanners eventually comes down. If these last two events should occur it is possible to envision a future where student art is submitted, scanned, and printed in color. Because color is an important issue in the type of graphics/art work that is published within literary magazines, in the following section, aspects of printing in color are more fully developed.

PART THREE: COLOR

Printing In Color The May, 1989, issue of Publish has an article that sparkles with seductive promise for those oracles tempted to consult their crystal spheres. Helene Eckstein (1988) describes the current and much improved technology for using microcomputers to print in color. Conveniently, in her development of how computer printing works, she also details how normal half-tone printing is done. She explains that the printed color image is really a matter of printing dots which the eye blends when viewing the image. Halftone printing in black and white has already been 327 covered in Chapter IV. There are three colors pLus the black and white of the page which comprise the entirety of every colored image in a so-called "full color publication." According to Eckstein, a full color publication has about 133-150 dots per linear inch; and it constitutes the industry norm. Reducing color images into color separations accounts for the expense of printing in color which so deterred editors of literary magazines.

Eckstein also explains that the colors on the video monitor are additive (created by a light source) and the colors used in printing (cyan, magenta, yellow and black) are subtractive. The fundamental difference in nature between the two systems of reproducing color means that what computer users see on their screens is not what they are going to get on the printed page.

Beyond that, Eckstein recommends three different approaches publishers can take who want to publish in color images. Simply put, publishers can have an expert do it totally, can do part of it by themselves, or they can look to the high tech end of desktop publishing and invest (currently about 35,000 dollars) in a Macintosh IIx and 24-bit color slide 328 scanner. Other articles in the same magazine, whose theme was color printing, make it clear that microcomputer publishing of color images is not yet up to professional standards; on the other hand, it is not bad, and it presages the prospect of rapid improvement.

Forecasting Considering all that's been indicated about the functions of graphics/art work in literary magazines, where does that leave us? Or another way to approach prognostication in the field of literary magazine publishing is to find a suitably high limb, a sufficiently sharp saw and climb out to the end as far as the weight of the study will allow before becoming first a sawyer, then an aerialist. What follows has the faint aroma of sawdust, the sensation of vertigo.

If it is getting easier and cheaper to desktop publish graphics/art work (as indicated by advertisements in Publish, 1989), and if there is an irresistible tendency to publish literary magazines (as described by Michael Anania in Anderson and 329 then the easiest drawn conclusion would be that there is going to be more, not less, of visual art work included in the world of literary magazine publishing. Because the current technology is not on a par with the average work done by professional printers, the finest literary magazines (those that willingly support additional expenses so that art work and artists might be fairly presented) will, for the near future, eschew desktop publishing. If technical advances do solve the vexing problem of color printing on a reasonably economical basis, (color printing that approaches professional standards) then the anti-microcomputer bias on the part of the finer magazines will change; and what could be characterized as a field of gray print with an occasional bright spot in it may suddenly blossom into glorious color. Moreover, all the "editors to be" who are now learning about literary magazines at the university level will have no trouble reconciling the publishing of graphics/art work with microcomputers. It would seem inevitable that art work, and artists, published in literary magazines produced by microcomputers a few years into such a future would be affected by this new technology. 3

How It All Fits One of the surprising things discovered in this study was that there were a considerable number of institutions of higher learning in the state of Texa that were publishing literary magazines; far more than were expected. Could the same be said for every state? Michael Anania, writing in 1978, guessed then, eleven years ago, that there were about 1500 literar magazines being published in America. I suspect, based on my Texas study, that every state (when counting literary magazines published by institution of higher learning) has a greater number than hitherto known, and Anania's guess of eleven years ago has been sigficantly surpassed. While it remains to be tested, there exists the strong suspicion that there are, among this uncounte number, many literary magazines such as the ones described in this study. By that I mean literary magazines publishing graphics/art work on a regular basis. I also have the suspicion that this little recognized aspect of using art work in literary magazines extends to the public schools. These last 331 two suspicions would need to be tested by a much larger survey to determine more accurately how widespread this form of circulating examples of visual art really is. Moreover, I suspect the number of literary magazines that also publish art work is going to increase. The growing use of microcomputers, and the growing sophistication of microcomputer publishing, promises that however much is being done now, even more literary magazine publishing with graphics/art work will see the light of tomorrow's dawn. One readily accomplished potential of the bright new microcomputer toy is the production of literary magazines. The study shows that the move toward microcomputer publishing in Texas is even now underway. But will this usage lead to better visual presentations? If a more economic color printing, and economic scanner technology, eventually becomes available, I believe it, in the long haul, it will.

This study has also shown that, for Texas, editors and sponsors are not in touch with each other. There is not an effective means of educating each other concerning developments in their own sphere of activity. In my opinion, if sponsors of 332 literary magazines will begin to interact, and exchange publications with each other, the best ideas in publication layout, and the best appearing magazines, will have the educational effect of exemplars. Having attempted to guess at the future of literary magazine publishing in the United States in the near future, and having also attempted to predict what the presentation of graphics art work will be like in these future publications, I am left with the task of attempting to tease out some of the ways in which this study, and its predictions about the future, may touch the field of art education.

PART FOUR: IMPLICATIONS FOR ART EDUCATION

What This Study Does An important thing that this study has done is point at, and draw attention to, a form of publication in which there is a body of visual art work being publicly circulated. This body of visual art work is, often as not, being presented for purely aesthetic reasons. Editors would say: "Because art is important." Such an activity, given the serious 333 intent of the editors, and the scale of the publishing, should be of concern to art educators. I will attempt to suggest some specific areas that might prove productive, with a proviso. I do not intend to suggest that the study of literary magazines is a panacea for all art education problems. All I intend to do is suggest that some of the topics to be mentioned carry a tantalizing scholarly aroma. From a proper distance they appear to have some meat on their bones.

Isms Literary magazines are often thematic. Not only do editors choose themes around which to organize their productions (which is a standard device in the field) but also that the published literary magazine is grounded in a philosophy which determines the choices of literary and visual material. The range of these publishing philosophies is broad and intriguing. The various interests being expressed in print may be readily identified in the self-descriptive statements included in the CCLM Directory of Literary Magazines (1989). Descriptions of magazines that focus on a wide variety of 334 equally fascinating concerns are all liberally sprinkled throughout the directory. Some of these interests would appear to link with current issues in art education (the fields of feminism, Marxism, deconstructionism, for random examples) and both the literature and the visual imagery chosen to support the underlying philosophy of the magazine might be of value to art educators.

Stages of Development In Texas there were many literary magazines that carried the winners of sponsored art contests. Some of these contests are open to the community, or to the public generally. The Palm's Leaf (1989), a literary magazine published by Southwest Texas Junior College, publishes entry winners of all ages from the community. The published results look as if they might be a textbook example of the stages of development of child and teenage art. Perhaps there are other literary magazines in the country engaging in the same sorts of contests that offer an alert art educator further opportunities for longitudinal studies. Also, the concept of the literary magazine as an artifact, in which all its contents are 335 channeled into a personalized and idiosyncratic statement by its editor, would seem to offer some potential for study.

Criticism If arenas where visual art work is being solicited, presented, modeled, and occasionally commented upon are of interest to art educators and to art education (and we know they are), then the arena of literary magazines with their obvious and subtle modes of presenting visual art should be of interest, even concern. These literary magazine presentations do not have the authority and apparent sacredness which characterizes museums and fine arts galleries (although some of these magazine editors aspire to it), but they are engaged in somewhat the same business. Fundamentally, they put art on view for public appreciation.

I also believe that most editors have misapprehended how important it is for visual art to be given a context. Editors provide the art, but have not seen a need to provide the informed commentary (or art education) that should, I believe, accompany it, despite the fact that almost all the editors and 336 sponsors of literary magazines have universities as a touchstone, I suspect that the need to accompany visual art with informed comment needs to begin with modeling at the university level.

Cultural AnthropoloRy I found two literary magazines in Texas that were directed to a bi-lingual, hispanic audience. Each magazine published in both Spanish and English, and both featured art that was intended to be hispanic in flavor. I would strongly suspect that there are more bi-lingual literary magazines along the Southwestern border. There was also a bi-lingual magazine published in German and English. Perhaps other minority cultures in the United States also produce literary magazines with a bi-cultural aspect.

Pictures And Words Finally, as a last suggestion that literary magazines might deserve the attention of art educators, the relationship between image and text discussed earlier in this dissertation should be considered. The subject of the doubly talented, the subject of artist's books, and even the subject of 3 literary magazines as idiosyncratic artifacts appear

to offer some tantalizing arenas for investigation.

When two parallel symbol systems, each one modeled a having creative worth, are presented within one

publication, those art educators who find the study

of semiotics valuable, may discover literary magazines to be a rewarding locus of investigation.

Boxing The Compass

At one point early on, I likened this study to

voyage of exploration, a sort of charting of terra

incognito. Like many early explorers I have only

touched land in a few widely spaced points. More

remains to charted about this curious literary magazine landscape, a country filled with men and women of letters firmly occupying so much of the art

territory we thought reserved to ourselves.

A Last Sighting And A Conclusion

I would suggest that art educators might find i

rewarding to be aware of literary magazines because

of the following reasons:

The Historical Past: Artists have played an

important historical role in literary magazines. 338

Artist's such as Rossetti, Beardsley, and Whistler were involved in literary magazines, and Beardsley helped establish the concept that the artist and the art work were of equal importance to the literature and the author. Literary magazines have been on the cutting edge of art movements and may well do so again. Both Art Noveau and Vorticism are ready examples to be found of art movements being promoted through literary magazines. The Present: Literary magazines are currently engaged in publishing art work in a number of guises. The publishing of this art work is widespread and has a serious intent. Literary magazines are commonly to be found linked with learning institutions. How widespread the activity is at the public school level remains to be determined. At the level of colleges and universities, literary magazines that publish art works are deeply rooted; they constitute an important training ground for future publishers of privately produced literary magazines.

The Future: The possibility exists that the on-going microcomputer revolution will profoundly effect the number of literary magazines being published and the design and art quality within the 339 magazines. There is a prospect that microcomputer technology will allow literary magazines to more widely print visual images in color. The Common Thread: The link between visual images and text seems to be an on-going theme in much contemporary art; (4) and literary magazines exhibit valuable facets of its expression. The direct link between image and word could be found, within the pages of literary magazines, in a number of categories. Artist's books, photoessays, picturebooks, comic strips, and idiosyncratic magazines as artifacts, are all parts of the realm of publishing literary magazines. 340

Notes Chapter V

(1) According to Davies and Shane, in their article "Computers and The Educational Program"(1986), there were, in the year 1956, only about 600 computers in existence in the United States. In 1966 there were 30,000, and in 1976, there were 400,000 computers in existence. In 1986 (when the book was published) there were six million, and by 1990 they predicted that more than half the households in America would have invested in a computer system.

(2) The preface to Microcomputers and Education (Culberston & Cunningham,1986) describes the increase of microcomputers in the nation's public schools. The unidentified authority in the preface states that in 1981 there 33,000 computers in schools. In 1984 there were 640,000 computers in schools. This suggests that any producers of literary magazines in public schools will share at least some of the problems faced by producers of literary magazines at the university level...with respect to microcomputer technology.

(3) The Macintosh computer is relentlessly referred to as the "Mac" in the public ations cited in this study. There are also "Mac II 's", and "Mac Draws" in advertisements and articles, In fact, all the articles in the magazines cit ed use such shorthand in combination with other comput er jargon; assuming a familiarity and competence on the part of the reader which may be imaginary. It is the kind of writing that tends to exclude novices ; and its usage further emphasizes Johnson's (1989) p osition that microcomputer softwear progra ms, with a similar distain for the uninitiated, are growing more difficult to decipher.

(4) The assertion that there is an on-going link between visual artists and words requires some evidence as argument. If three brief examples will be allowed to stand for a wide range of artists and artistic activity, then the three artists described below effectively span the early, middle, and contemporary periods of this century. 341

Pablo Picasso (considering all his rich involvement with illustration, words and letter forms in his art) was, while still a student in Spain, the art editor of Arte Joven (Kery, 1982). In the biographical section of The Artist And The Book (1972), the description of Pablo Ruiz Picasso reads, in part: "Some of his finest graphic work created for books; the most prolific major illustrator of our times" (p. 152). Dopagne (1977) writes about the work of Rene Magritte in such a way that I believe his oeuvre is best decoded in his native language, for according to Dopagne, Magritte's visual images derive from his own internal philosophy and that ultimately depends on word play and the association of words and images in Magritte's mind. How complex this play between word and image could become in Magritte's work is amply illustrated in Michael Foucault's This Is Not A Pipe (1983). In his book, Writing About Art (1989), Henry Sayre comments about the way words and images can sometimes resist each other, or slide past one another, neither system of communication completely in touch. As example, he cites the work of the painter Arakawa, in collaboration with the poet Madeline H. Gins, in their book, The Mechanics of Meaning (1988). Sayre has found a sure model of how artists can push words (often commands or instructions in Arakawa's book) over the edge of rational understanding and into the poetic void. While it is useful for Sayre to show how two artists have toyed with the different sign systems in a creative way, it is equally valid for the purposes of this study to indicate by means of this same book that contemporary artists continue to explore the interrelationships between words and images. If we consider photography in the mix, the argument becomes more substantive. Hunter's Image and Word (1987) documents, as the sub-title indicates, "the interaction of Twentieth-Century Photographs and Text." Hunter's examples single out some of the major names in photography. Paul Strand, Dorothea Lange, Walker Evans, Wright Morris, and Alfred Stieglitz are among the artists whose work is discussed by Hunter. APPENDIX A OHIO LITERARY MAGAZINES

Botticelli (1989, Volume 4, Number 3). Columbus, Ohio: Published by The Columbus College of Art And Design

Images (1988, Vol. 13, No.2). Dayton, Ohio: Published by Wright State University.

Kaleidoscope (1988, No. 16). Akron, Ohio: Publish by Kaleidoscope Press Nancy's Magazine (1989 Vol. 5, No. 1). Columbus, Ohio: Published by Nancy Bonnell-Kangas.

Pig Iron (1988, No. 14). Youngstown, Ohio: Publis by Pig Iron Press and The Pig Iron Literary an Art Works.

River Wind (1988). Nelsonville, Ohio: Hocking Technical College.

The Plough: Northcoast Review (1988). Huron, Ohio Published by Bottom Dog Press.

* Note: This list only contains the literary magazines contacted for the pilot study.

342 APPENDIX B UNIVERSITY SPONSORED TEXAS LITERARY MAGAZINES

A Sample Of Ingenuity (1988, Spring). Longview, Texas: Published by LeTourneau College. April Perennial (1988, No. 7). Gainesville, Texas: Cooke County College. Aries (1988, Spring). Fort Worth, Texas: Published by Texas Wesleyan College. Bayousphere (1988). Clear Lake, Houston: Published by the University of Houston, Clear Lake. Cactus Alley (1988). San Antonio, Texas: Published by the University of Texas at San Antonio. Cardinal View (1988, Spring). Orange, Texas: Published by Lamar University at Orange. Chrysalis (1988, Spring). El Paso, Texas: Published by the El Paso Community College. Collage (1988). Temple, Texas: Published by Temple Junior College. Corral (1988). Abilene, Texas: Published by Hardin Simmons University. Cross Timbers Review (1987, Autumn). Cisco, Texas: Published by Cisco Junior College. Espejo (1988). Dallas, Texas: Published by Southern Methodist University. Everyman (1988). Austin, Texas: Published by St. Edward's University. Expressions (1988, Vol. 2). Port Arthur, Texas: Published by Lamar University. Gallery (1988). Edinburg, Texas: Published by the Pan American University.

343 344

Las Calaveras (1988, Vol. 6, No. I). Laredo, Texas published by Laredo State University.

Muse (1988). Kerrville, Texas: Published by Schreiner College.

Personna (1988). San Marcos, Texas: Published by Southwest Texas State University.

Phoenix (1988). Waco, Texas: Published by Baylor University .

Pickwicker (1988, Vol. 47, No. 2). Abilene, Texas: Published by Abilene Christian University.

Review Of The Arts (1987-88). Canyon, Texas: Published by West Texas State University

Rio Grande Review (1988, Vol. 7, No. 1). El Paso, Texas: Published by The University of Texas El Paso.

Sandstorm (1988). Odessa, Texas: Published by The University of Texas of the Permian Basin.

Seaspray (1985-86, Vol. 10). Galveston, Texas: Published by Texas A & M University at Galveston. Southwestern Magazine (1988). Georgetown, Texas: Published by Southwestern University.

Swingers of Birches (1988). Paris, Texas: Published by the Paris Junior College.

Tableau (1987, Autumn). Midland, Texas: Published by Midland College.

Touchstone (1986, Vol. 7). Irving, Texas: Published by the University of Dallas.

The Catalyst (1988). Brownwood, Texas: Published by Howard Payne University.

The Galleon (1988, Spring). Abilene, Texas: Published by McMurray College. The Green Fuse (1988, Spring). Donton, Texas: Published by North Texas Stale University.

The Palm's Leaf (1988). Garner, Texas: Published Southwest Texas Junior College.

The Prism (1988). Houston, Texas: Published by Sa Jacinto College North.

The Sage (1988, Spring). Sul Ross, Texas: Publish by Sul Ross State University.

The Thing Itself (1987-88, Vol. 17). San Antonio, Texas: Published by Our Lady Of The Lake University of San Antonio.

The Trinity Review (1988, Spring). Published by Trinity University.

Thistles (1988). Big Spring, Texas: Published by Howard College.

Weathered Reflections (1987-88, Vol.2). Jacksonville, Texas: Lon Morris College. Voices & Images (1988). Laredo, Texas: Published the Laredo State University APPENDIX C TEXAS PRIVATE PRESSES Dimension (1988, Vol-. 17, No. 1). Austin, Texas: Published by A. Leslie Willson. Ratatosk (1988, No.2). Austin, Texas: Published by Liz Henry. riverSedge (1988, Vol. 3, No. 3 & 4). Edinburg, Texas: Published by riverSedge Press. Riverside Quarterly (1988, Vol. 8, No. 2). Waco, Texas: Published by Leland Sapiro. Salt Lick (1980, Vol.3, No. 1 & 2). Austin, Texas: Published by James Haining. The Americas Review (1988, Vol.16, No. 2). Publishe by Nicolas Kanellos. Sulphur River (1987, Vol. 4, No.2). Commerce, Texas Published by Sulphur River Poetry Review.

346 APPENDIX D

NOMINATED LITERARY MAGAZINES

Ailanthus (1987, Vol.1, No. 2). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Published by Wendy Hesford.

Bomb (1989, No. 27, Spring). New York: Published by New Art Publications.

Boss (1988). New York: Published by Boss Books.

Calyx (1987, Vol. 10. No. 2 & 3). Corvallis, Oregon: Published by Calyx.

Gargoyle (1988, No. 35). Bethesda, Maryland: Published by Paycock Press.

Granta (1989, No. 26, Spring). New York: Published by Granta U.S.A. Ltd.

Helicon Nine (1988, No. 19). Kansas City, Mo.: Published by Helicon Nine, Inc.

Margins (1988, No. 6). Dunning, Scotland: Published by Common Margins Ltd.

The Gettysburg Review (1989, Vol. 2, No. 1). Gettysburg, Pennsylvania: Gettysburg College.

The Massachusetts Review (1988, Fall). Amhearst, Massachusetts: Published by The Massachusetts Review, Inc.

The Missouri Review (1988, Vol. 11, No. 3). Columbia, Missouri: The University Of Missouri.

The Owl (1988, Vol. 76, No. 1). Santa Clara, California: Santa Clara University.

Meal, Ready To Eat (1988). West Lafayette, Indianna: Published by Richard Sater.

347 348

Mississippi Mud (1988). Portland, Oregon: Published by Joel Weinstein.

Primavera (1988, Vol. 11 & 12). Chicago: University of Chicago.

River Styx (1988, No. 27). Saint Louis, Mo.: Published by the Big River Association.

Visions (1988, No. 28). Arlington, Va.: Published by Black Buzzard Press.

Yellow Silk (1989, No. 29, Spring). Albany, CA.: Published by Verygraphics.

ZYZZYVA (1988, Vol. 4, No. 3). San Francisco: Published by ZYZZYVA, Inc. APPENDIX E ORIGINAL STUDY LIST

Baylorian

Cactus Alley

Corral

Descant

Duck Soup

Espejo

Everyman

Hippocrene

Persona

Phoenix

Sam Houston Literary Review

South Western Magazine

The Galleon

The Pickwicker

The Strayed Reveler

The Texas Review

The Texas Literary Journal

Trinity Review

Voices

* Note: This was the original list of literary magazines proposed for the study. Some did appear in the study, some were no longer publishing.

349 APPENDIX F TELEPHONE SURVEY FORM Sample of Phone Questionnaire Telephone Record: Title of Journal: Date: Call Back Time: Name and Position of Person Being Interviewed: Introduction: (I give my name and my university affiliation). I'm studying creative literary magazines that include visual art work and creative writing in the same issue. Would it be possible for us to conduct an interview at this time? (If yes, proceed). (If no, determine a suitable call back time and date). May I record the answers? (If yes, proceed). (If hesitant, or no, offer further explanation). 1 Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work submissions? 2 Does your publication ever feature a particular visual artist? 3 Does your publication ever exclusively feature certain types of art work, such as wood block prints, pen and ink drawings, or photographs? 4 Do you feel that the trim size of your publication is a factor in your choice of graphics/ art work?

350 351

Do you feel the inclusion of artwork in your journal increases sales? 6 Do your writers ever supply graphics/artwork or photographs? 7 How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed? 8 Do you identify the artist, or the title, or the medium when featuring art work? 9 Do you integrate visual images with text throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section of the issue. 10 Do you provide biographical data about your writers? 11 Do you provide biographical data about your artist? 12 Do you ever commission writers for your publication? 13 Do you ever commission visual artists for your publication? 14 What would you say is the main purpose of including visual art within your publication? 15 Who do you identify as your primary audience? 16 Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your journal as creating an audience for literary artists? 17 Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentation of graphics/art work/photography? 18 Which creative literary journal(s) published in the United States do you feel do the best job of presenting graphics/ artwork? 19 Do you ever tip-in art work, or slip it in? 20 How did your literary journal come to be founded? 21 Do you think your readers collect the art work you publish? 22 Has your circulati on/sales increased, decreased, or remained the same? 23 Do you foresee any new changes in technology that would affect the a ppearance of yo ur journal in the future? 24 Do you ever includ e critical eval uations of the visual art work pu blished within the creative literary journal? 25 Do you ever employ visual art work on the cover of your publication? 26 What do you think are the greates t strengths of creative literary journals when i t comes to presenting visual art work? 27 What do you think are the greates t weaknesses of creative literary journals when i t comes to presenting visual art work? 28 Are there any comm ents you would like to make with regard to any of t he subjects tou ched upon in this interview? APPENDIX G CONTINUUM SAMPLE FORM

CONTINUUM PAGE OF PAGES Name of Journal: Number of Art Works: Number of Pages: Percentage

353 APPENDIX H PERCENTAGE USAGE BY MAGAZINE Literary Magazines In The Continuum

1. Ailanthus 22% 2. Americas Review 2% 3. April Perrenial 1% 4. Aries 4% 5. Bayousphere 84% 6. Calyx 23% 7. Cardinal View 3% 8. Carolina Quarterly 6% 9. Catalyst 75% 10. Chyrasalis 12% 11. Collage 63% 12. Corral 105% 13. Cross Timbers Review 4% 14. Dimension 14% 15. Espejo 46% 16. Everyman 47% 17. Expressions 29% 18. Galleon 22% 19. Gallery 35% 20. Georgia Review 4%

354 355

21. Green Fuse 15% 22. Helicon Nine 32% 23. Images 80% 24. Kalaidoscope 60% 25. Las Calavaras 20% 26. Margin 7% 27. Massachusetts Review 8% 28. Meal, Ready To Eat 78% 29. Mississippi Mud 65% 30. Missouri Review 5% 31. Muse 41% 32. Nancy's Magazine 73% 33. New Letters 12% 34. North American Review 12% 35. Northwestern Review 23% 36. Owl 27% 37. Palm's Leaf 95% 38. Paris Review 12%

39. Personna 24% 40. Phoenix 15% 41. Pickwicker 23% 42. Pig Iron 76% 43. Plough 13% 44. Primavera 15% 3 56

45. Prism 80%

46. Ratatosk 31%

48. Review Of The Arts 26%

49. Rio Grande Review 10%

50. Riverside Quarterly 9%

51. River Styx 14%

52. Sage 71%

53. Salt Lick 52%

54. Sample of Ingenuity 13%

55. Sandstorm 23%

56. Sea Spray 11%

57. Southwestern 50%

58. Spirit That Moves Us 8%

59. Sulphur 22 5%

60. Sulphur River 20%

61. Suspension 16%

62. Swingers of Birches 50%

63. Tableau 45%

64. Touchstone 13%

65. Trinity Review 6%

66. TriQuarterly 4%

67. The Thing Itself 33%

68. Thistles 114%

69. Visions 53% 357

70. Voices & Images 28% 71. Weathered Reflections 15% 72. ZYZZYVA 15% APPENDIX I

COMBINED SURVEY RESPONSES

These are a compilation of responses taken from telephone interviews, mail surveys, and site interviews. There were 64 editors or sponsors questioned. There are 28 questions in the survey. Since there were, often, a variety of responses to the same question, the summarized answers are broken down by answer with the number of respondents giving the particular answer. If the respondent did not, or could not, answer the question, the response is listed as "uninterpreted." Beneath some responses there is an "analysis" which contains commentary appropriate to the particular question's response.

Question 1. Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work submissions?

Answer to question one: Co-editors making a joint decision. 7 responses.

358 359

Answer to question one: An editor making sole decisions. 10 responses.

Answer to question one: An advisory board making democratically decided aesthetic choices. 15 responses.

Answer to question one: Student editor, or student editors with the general supervision of the sponsor

17 responses.

Analysis: The preponderance of sponsors of those

literary magazines being funded by institutions of

higher learning leave much of the editorial

decision-making with regard to graphics/art work in

the hands of their student editors. The sponsors

(without exception) reserved the right to intervene

in cases of problematic material. In fact, in some

instances, sponsors told me they felt they had a

responsibility to curtail material that might be

considered provocative to the general community. The

sponsor of Bayousphere accepted literary submissions

from a nearby prison population but was ready to 360 intervene if the material submitted was excessively raw. She knew that the stories being forwarded from the prison population were grounded in a special reality, but felt the delineation of this reality had to be regulated with some care. The sponsor of

Bayousphere was more immediateJy involved in the publication process than were most other sponsors.

In many other instances, the sponsor was only distantly involved in the selection of material.

There are seductive reasons for leaving the basic aesthetic choices in the hands of student editors.

Faculty sponsors are pressed for time and have other kinds of responsibilities within their departments.

Allowing student editors wide latitude fosters learning, independence, problem solving and frees the sponsor to address other tasks. But allowing student editors to choose graphics/art work with no other standard than a regard for community mores has pitfalls already developed in this study and accounts for the single largest flaw in the design of creative literary publications... the practice of attempting to match literary and visual submissions. 361

There were additional means of selection of visual art work mentioned in individual instances by university sponsored literary magazines. These were: rotating judges, letting a student services organization make the selection of visual material, the sponsor doing the choosing, and even in one instance, letting the printer choose what to include.

Perhaps the only other significant means of selection lay with those literary magazines who treat exposure in the publication as a principal reward in an art contest. Three different university sponsored magazines used the art competition approach; and in those instances whomever triumphed in the juried art show was given exposure (and identified as a winner) in the literary magazine.

Answer to question one: The editor in conjunction with the art editor, or the art editor alone. 8 responses.

Analysis: This answer was often given by editors on the Preferred Titles list and the editors of publications produced by private presses. In publications with a small (or one person) staff, the 362 particular editor was required to act in every capacity to some extent; but even so, many of these publication editors managed to consult at least one person whom they relied upon for aesthetic advice.

Question 2. Does your publication ever feature a particular visual artist?

Answer to question two: Yes. 22 responses. 1 response not applicable.

Analysis: Many respondents emphasized that this was an occasional event in their publishing history. Some of the respondents elaborated by describing the means they arrived at to select an individual artist, such as juried shows, contests, etc. The end result was that they employed some method of featuring an individual artist. In examining the magazines I did not find many that featured one artist in the entire body of the magazine. 363

Answer to question two: No. 41 responses.

Analysis: The editors of Preferred Titles magazines split nearly down the middle on this aspect of publishing. Six of the editors said they featured an individual artist, five did not. I gained the impression that literary magazine editors whose publications had been nominated by others (as being significant in terms of their visual qualities) were most likely to be familiar with individual visual artists, photographers, etc. To the degree that the literary magazines depended on so called "over the transom" (unsought) graphics/art work submissions, featuring one artist presents, in their view, an additional burden.

Question 3. Does your publication ever exclusively feature certain types of art work, such as wood block prints, pen and ink drawings, or photographs?

Answer to question three: No limitation on media. 47 responses. 1 response not applicable. 364

Analysis: This was the overwhelming response of most university sponsored publications (34 responses). The only exception was a publication that featured photography. Given that these magazines most often accept submissions of graphics/art work from a campus wide population, it is not surprising that they do not feature a particular media. Many sponsors, in responding to this question, wanted to point out the expense and difficulties of reproducing work in color, a difficulty which restricted them to media not color dependent for their aesthetic qualities. Another way of looking at the responses is to say that while these literary magazines were open to all graphics/art work submissions, they felt more comfortable with graphics/art work submissions in black and white for their interior usage simply because the printing more accurately represented the original art work...and it was feasible economically. It is only fair, in this context, to point out that some editors and sponsors said they had trouble getting sufficient graphics/art works submissions of any kind to become very selective about art quality. In a following question concerning the apparent weaknesses of literary magazines (question 27), 365 editors and sponsors mentioned problems of reproduction quality frequently, and often expressed a wish that they could print in color economically. An accurate and economic means of printing in full color is a technical innovation that editors would profoundly welcome. Among the magazines nominated for this study, there were a few who employed color in a dramatic and effective way.

Answer to question three: Yes. 16 responses.

Analysis: Of the respondents who answered in the affirmative, 13 were not university sponsored presses in Texas. Five editors said they favored the medium of photography, and three exclusively ran work of one artist they were featuring in the particular issue. The Georgia Review exhibited a handsome solution to the special problem of featuring paintings of the one artist they were featuring. Given the prohibitive cost restrictions of printing all color copies of the artist's work, this magazine printed the artist's work in black and white within the interior, then ran the magazine cover with one example of the artist's 366 painting printed in full color. The result was a magazine that featured a painter, gave a sense of her painterly qualities on the cover, her draftsmanship within, and also fulfilled the implied promise made to its readers.

Question 4. Do you feel that the trim size of your publication is a factor in your choice of graphics/art work?

Answer to question four: Yes. 39 responses. 1 undecided.

Analysis: In the main, these were literary magazines whose trim size was less than 8 x 10 inches.

Answer to question four: No. 24 responses.

Analysis: Literary magazines with an 8 x 10 inches trim size, or larger, felt less constricted in their presentation of graphics/art work and often mentioned their trim size in response to this question. One editor pointed out that any graphics/art work could be reduced or enlarged photographically prior to 367 printing. Some respondents described specific remedies (turning the image side ways, bleeding off the page, printing across to the opposing page) employed in dealing with graphics/art work that did not fit readily within a single page format.

Question 5. Do you feel the inclusion of art work in your journal increases sales (circulation) ?

Answer to question five: Yes. 50 responses. 4 undecided.

Analysis: As the study progressed it became evident that many of the university sponsored literary magazines were given away after publication. When sponsors answered in the affirmative to this question, they were speaking of circulation and multiple readers of a single copy. Several sponsors explained to me that their publications were funded from student fees and could not legally be sold back to students. After a time, I began to add the word

"circulation" to this question to avoid misunderstandings. 368

More importantly, it became clear that neither the editors and sponsors in Texas or elsewhere had a very firm idea of what it was in their literary magazines that attracted readers in the first place.

They had the strong suspicion that the quality of the literary material was important to a certain kind of reader (most likely college trained); and they obviously felt, based on the large number of affirmative answers to this question, that the quality of the visual work was important. One private press editor told me it was "the icing on the cake."

I also had two editors and one art editor inform me

that including graphics/art work within the literary magazine was not done to affect sales one way or the other. The inference being that the graphics/art work was included for it's own sake.

Probably the most insightful response was that

given by an editor who told me that the cover art

played a role in catching the reader's eye; and

therefore, had an important role in sales. The answer

is not strictly responsive to the question, but it

underlines one of the functions of art in the arena

of literary magazine publishing. The responses given when asked about the "main purpose" of including art 369

(see question 14), are also revealing for their insightful answers.

Answer to question five: No. 10 responses.

Analysis: Among these respondents were several who also explained that their publication was given away The problem with the question's construction remains and was simply interpreted differently.

Question 6. Do your writers ever supply graphics/art work or photographs?

Answer to question six: Yes. 13 responses. 2 responses not applicable.

Answer to question six: Yes, qualified by some word such as "occasionally," or "rarely," or "sometimes." 35 responses.

Analysis: It is only logical that editors would not have the preponderance of their literary submissions accompanied with visual materials; yet, very few of these respondents answered with a flat negative. The 370 suspicion is that the impulse of writers to express themselves visually, and the impulse of artists to commit themselves to print is one that simmers below the surface and bubbles up in literary magazines, to quote one editor: "occasionally but not very often."

One of the literary magazines in the study,

Dimension is a bi-lingual (German/English) magazine.

The editor told me he had, a few issues back, brought out an issue which featured entirely literary and graphics/art work done by the same artist/authors.

Perhaps the strength of this impulse of writers to express themselves visually, and visual artists to express themselves in writing, finds its fullest expression in the sort of artist's books reviewed by the art editor of the Northwest Review, and in enterprises such as phototexts.

Answer to question six: No. 14 responses.

Question 7. How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed?

Answer to question seven: Often. 27 responses. Uncertain. 6 responses. 2 not applicable responses. 371

Analysis. The preponderance of the respondents who said they changed their layout often were university sponsored publications. As new student editors took over the publication for the year, they experimented with its appearance.

The number of uncertain responses (6) reflected answers by individuals who did not know if the layout was changed regularly or were new to the position of editor or sponsor.

Answer to question seven: Never. 12 responses.

Answer to question seven: Occasionally-rarely. 17 responses.

Analysis. Over half the Preferred Titles respondents approached changes in their layout with great caution. Unlike student editors, they felt no need to produce a magazine that had a totally new look form the previous issue. They also felt, for the most part, that they had settled on a style with which they were comfortable. Question 8. Do you identify the nrtist, or the titl or the medium when featuring art work?

Answer to question eight: We identify the artist always. 61 responses. Depends on the fame of the artist. 2 responses. 1 not appropriate response.

Answer to question eight: We identify the artist an the title. 53 responses

Answer to question eight: We identify all three, 41 responses. 1 undetermined.

Analysis. The underlying importance of this latter response is the number of editors and sponsors who make a point of giving full credit to the artists whose graphics/art work they feature. A few editors told me they included whatever, and as much, information as the artist cared to submit. Another way of understanding the responses to this question is to note that of the 64 editors and sponsors interviewed, 41 of them identified the artist, the title of the artist's work, and the medium. 373

Question 9. Do you integrate visual images with text throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section of the issue?

Answer to question nine: Integrate. 40 responses. 1 not applicable response.

Analysis. Twenty seven of these responses were from, literary magazines sponsored by institutions of higher learning in Texas. Several sponsors and editors told me that they used visual images to break up the mass of print. While this practice is acceptable, even desirable, the high response rate also reflects the pernicious tendency among student editors to force match graphics/art work submissions as illustrations for literary submissions.

Integrating visual images with text does not imply, necessarily, that the image was matched with the writing; but it could include such usage. Some editors were careful to explain that they did not match visual image to creative writing, but meant they were answering the question about the integration of image with text because they wanted to 374 provide the visual images simply for relief of the reader's eye.

Answer to question nine: Reserved section. 17

responses.

Answer to question nine: We do both. 6 responses.

Analysis. A small number, only six, editors and

sponsors preserved one section of their magazine to

feature graphics/art work, while also integrating

graphics with text. It appeared to be an uncommon

practice.

Question 10. Do you provide biographical data about

your writers?

Answer to question ten: Yes. 37 responses.

Answer to question ten: No. 25 responses.

Answer to question ten: Sometimes. 2 responses. 375

Question 11. Do you provide biographical data about your writers?

Answer to question eleven: Yes. 34 responses.

Answer to question eleven: No. 25 responses.

Answer to question eleven: Sometimes. 5 responses.

Analysis. The high correspondence between the answers to question ten and question eleven indicates that, in this respect, editors and sponsors balanced the importance of visual arts and literary arts in providing biographical data about their literary and visual contributors.

Question 12. Do you ever commission writers for your publication?

Answer to question twelve: No. 51 responses. 2 not applicable responses.

Answer to question twelve: Yes. 10 responses. 1 award

to faculty writer. 376

Analysis. Many editors pointed out to me that they

paid in copies, a standard practice. They also said

they solicited work from writers whose work they

admired. They also occasionally told me that they

solicited the work of artists whose work they

admired, but this was less common.

Question 13. Do you ever commission visual artists

for your publication?

Answer to question thirteen: No. 48 responses.

Answer to question thirteen: Yes. 16 responses

Analysis. The thrust of questions 12 and 13 is that

neither writers nor artists are much financially

rewarded for their contributions within the pages of

literary magazines. Rather, the editors and sponsors

regarded the inclusion of these creative works within

their literary magazines (and the ensuing

recognition) as reward enough. When editors gave me

an affirmative response to the question, they often

added the explanation that they paid the artist who 377 created the graphics/art work for their cover.

Question 14. What would you say is the main purpose of including visual art within your publication?

Answer to question fourteen: Publishing graphics/art work contributes to the artists recognition and to the magazine's appeal. 20 responses.

Answer to question fourteen: Visual art enhances the aesthetic quality of the magazines. 20 responses.

Analysis: It is not possible to summarize all the answers to this question. Sufficient responses fell, in certain broad categories that some of the answers could fairly be grouped into the two summaries just mentioned. Many editors/sponsors expanded on their answers. Several editors developed the idea that graphics/ art work and literature were natural allies. One editor insisted that art was in his magazine only to illustrate the literature. Another editor insisted that the art showcase strictly Texas artists. Yet another editor felt the main purpose of

including the graphics/art work in his magazine was 378 to showcase the art on the cutting edge of new art movements. The responses to this question were revealingly varied. One editor simply said "Beauty."

It was not an easy question to answer and perhaps some of the editors had never before tried to put into words the various reasons why they thought they had graphics/art work in their magazine. I suspect, in most cases, if they had more time to think about their response, they would have said, at some point in their answer, that it served two purposes, contributing to the look of the magazine and honoring the visual arts, more or less in that order.

Question 26, in the survey, asked editors to describe an important strength of literary magazines with respect to graphics/art work, and the answers many of them gave parallel the responses to this question. One private press editor told me that he regarded all the arts as seamless, indivisible, and equally important. Question 15. Who do you regard as your primary audience?

Answer to question fifteen: Students and the campus population. 28 responses.

Answer to question fifteen: College educated reader or members of academe. 8 responses.

Answer to question fifteen: Both the student campus population and the general public. 5 responses.

Answer to question fifteen: Artists, writers, criti or some combination of these. 12 responses.

Analysis. This question was added to the survey aft the Ohio pilot study. In many of the telephone interviews with editors of Preferred Titles and editors of privately published literary magazines, this question caused the respondent to pause and think about the answer. They were clearly tentative about who comprised their readership (which would b difficult to know), whereas sponsors of literary magazines published on higher education campuses 380 never doubted the identity of their targeted readership. Moreover, many of these latter editors and sponsors felt they were introducing, perhaps for the first time, fine arts to their student body readership.

Question 16. Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your journal as creating an audience for literary artists?

Answer to question sixteen: No. 30 responses. 8 uninterpreted response.

Answer to question sixteen: Yes. 26 responses.

Analysis. Negative answers to this question were

sometimes qualified with explanations that indicated

the editor felt strongly about the art work, and had a serious purpose in presenting it, but also felt

that the magazine naturally presented literature with more ease. Sponsors of literary magazines on campus

tended to answer in the affirmative on this question.

Contrasting these responses with the responses given

in question 14 reinforces the sense that publishing 381 graphics/art work is not an entirely altruistic acL on the part of many editors/sponsors, but rather providing a forum for the artist is slightly less important, perhaps even serendipitous in some instances. It would be unwise to make such a suggestion without acknowledging that a few editors were extremely assertive about the importance of the visual arts; and the preponderance, by far, of the sponsors of university published literary magazines definitely intended that student artists be provided a forum of some kind.

Question 17. Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentation of graphics/art work?

Answer to question seventeen: Most recent issue, or a back issue (which they named). 33 responses.

Answer to question seventeen. No idea. 20 responses.

11 uninterpreted responses.

Analysis. Believing that one's most recent effort is the most successful is a healthy sign of involvement with the publishing enterprise. Several editors who felt their magazines were continually improving also told me that they had several back issues that were still particular favorites. I interpreted this sort of response as a good indicator that editors were valuing past issues for the graphics/art work qualities as well as the merit of their literary content.

Question 18. Which creative literary journals published in the United States do you feel do the best job of presenting graphics/art work?

Answer to question eighteen: Could not name a publication. 35 responses.

Answer to question eighteen: Named a specific publication. 23 responses.

Answer to question eighteen: Named themselves. 3 responses. 3 not applicable responses.

Analysis. Responses to this question comprise one of the surprises in this study. The preponderance of th 383 respondents who could name a specific publication were from literary magazines located outside Texas.

Sponsors from literary magazines published by Texas institutions of higher learning gave the impression of being uninformed about what was going on in the greater world of literary magazines, and this was true even to being unable to name literary magazines published within other institutions in Texas. There does not appear to be a satisfactory means of exchanging copies with other institutions in Texas, except on an individual arrangement basis. Most editors and sponsors were surprised to learn of the number of literary magazines being produced in the state. I interpreted the responses to this question to mean, among other things, that Texas sponsors of literary magazines (for whatever reason) were not studying, or even aware, of how other editors went about solving the same problems they were facing. I do not mean this assertion to sound accusatory, and so another way of expressing it is to say that the opportunity for networking among sponsors of literary magazines is being neglected.

Three of the publications named did not carry graphics/art work and two were not literary 384 magazines. Eighteen of the publications named are a part of the study.

Question 19. Do you ever tip in art work, or slip it in?

Answer to question nineteen: No. 56 responses. 1 uninterpreted response.

Answer to question nineteen: Yes. 7 responses.

Analysis. The question is framed to allow an answer accounting for an occasional occurrence. Among all the literary magazines being studied, only two Salt Lick, and Nancy's Magazine, contained a tipped in art work within the time frame of this study. Helicon Nine contained a floppy recording, and the editor told me that the inclusion of floppy recordings were a constant practice. Most of the editors or sponsors were unfamiliar with the practice, although several of them found the idea intriguing. This question was added after the Ohio pilot study; but the issues I obtained from that phase of the study did not contain tipped in art work 385 either, with the exception of Nancy's Magazine. I gather it is an uncommon practice among university sponsored literary magazines in Texas and suspect it is an uncommon practice among literary magazines generally. Simply as a point of interest, one of the non-literary magazines ( Lightworks ), nominated by an editor for this study), contained three tipped in art works.

Question 20. How did your literary magazine come to be founded?

Answer to question twenty: Through the efforts of faculty within the English department or the

Journalism department. 26 responses. 4 uninterpreted responses. 3 not appropriate responses.

Answer to question twenty: Informal exchanges which were eventually regularized in a literary magazine. 9 responses.

Answer to question twenty: Origins now lost or unknown. 8 responses. Answer to question twenty: Through the efforts of a single individual. 13 responses.

Answer to question twenty: Through the efforts of a faculty member in the university art department. I. response.

Analysis. Although several editors or sponsors told me they worked with art editors or with art department faculty, only one literary magazine had originated from an art department. There were severa editors whose literary magazine's early beginnings were unknown to them.

Question 21. Do you think your readers collect the art work you publish?

Answer to question twenty one: No. 40 responses. 1 not applicable response.

Answer to question twenty one: Yes. 14 responses.

Answer to question twenty one: Unknown. 9 responses. Analysis. Many editors hedged their affirmative responses by pointing out that it was specifically the covers that their readers collected. However, both the editor of Mississippi Mud and the edito of Pig Iron viewed their entire publication as a collectible art work.

Question 22. Has your circulation/sales increased, decreased, or remained the same?

Answer to question twenty two: Increased. 43 responses. 1 uninterpreted response.

Answer to question twenty two: Remained the same. responses.

Answer to question twenty two: Decreased. 3 responses.

Analysis. Many of the resppondent s answering in the affirmative qualified theii r response by pointing o that the increase was veryy gradual. No one reporte sharp increase in circulattion . Those respondents, whose publications were giive n away, judged their 3 circulation by the number of issues left over from the last printing.

Question 23. Do you foresee any new changes in technology that would affect the appearance of your journal in the future?

Answer to question twenty three: Desktop publishing and computer printing. 38 responses. 6 not appropriate responses.

Answer to question twenty three: No. 13 responses.

Answer to question twenty three: Individual changes in printing methods. 2 responses.

Answer to question twenty three: Expressed an awareness of desk top publishing and printing techniques but refused to contemplate using it as the current state of the art in desk top publishing does not meet the level of the product they currently obtain through other means. 3 responses. 389

Answer to question twenty three: Unknown. 2 responses.

Analysis. The high rate of respondents who indicated computer related technological changes in their responses signals an important change in the field of university sponsored literary magazines. Many of the sponsors of university funded publications indicated they were already acquiring computers and related printers and that their student editors were practicing on them. Specifically, they most often mentioned Macintosh computers in combination with a layout softwear program (Pagemaker)and laser printers.

Those literary magazines whose editors felt the appearance of their magazine was important in book arts terms (the type face, quality of the paper, etc.) apparently viewed the desk top publishing artifact with some scorn. Its completed product did not have the quality they could obtain from commercial printers. Some editors and sponsors designed the layout of their magazine on a computer,

then sent camera ready copy to a commercial printing firm to obtain a more handsome publication. 390

Question 24. Do you ever include critical evaluations of the visual art work published within your literary magazine?

Answer to question twenty four: No. 57 responses.

Answer to question twenty four: Yes or occasionally.

7 responses.

Analysis. Clearly, editors were not involved in printing critical evaluations of their published art work. Some had not thought of it, some did not think it was appropriate. They wanted to publish creative writing, not writing about visual art. Additional light is thrown on this high rate of negative response in question 26.

The object of publishing such critical writing would be to inform the reader (educate them), and draw attention to the visual artists and the art work contained within the literary magazine. The question was framed to reflect on the strength of commitment towards balancing the presentation of graphics/art work with the presentation of creative writing. In 391 the special case of Sulphur, which reviewed the art work and something of the life and personality of Ana

Mendietta in an issue dedicated to her, I believe the critical writing was aimed more at redressing the injustice of her untimely death than drawing critical attention to her art. Informing the reader about her art was a natural outcome of writing about her life.

Among the literary magazines that clearly drew attention to the work of the artist, in an educational or informative sense, these were notable:

Helicon Nine, The Georgia Review, The Massachusetts

Review, Kaleidoscope and The Gettysburg Review.

Question 25. Do you employ visual art work on the

cover of your publication?

Answer to question twenty five: Yes. 60 responses.

Answer to question twenty five: No. 4 responses

Analysis. Among the negative responses were three

magazines that contained visually rewarding

graphics/art work inside the magazine. Among the

affirmative responses were several magazines whose approach to graphics/art work was partially

decorative (a great deal of clip art). This response

reinforces the sense that the literary magazine's

commitment to graphics/art work cannot be measured b

the existence of, or the aesthetic qualities of, its

covers alone.

Question 26. What do you think are the greatest

strengths of literary magazines when it comes to

presenting visual art work?

Analysis: The responses to this question were quite

varied and some answers refused a summation. Many

editors and sponsors gave multiple answers.

Answer to question twenty six: Literary magazines

provide a forum and gain an audience for visual

artists. 21 responses. 9 uninterpreted responses. 8

responses not summarized.

Answer to question twenty six: Literary magazines

provide a setting for two art forms (writing and

graphics) that work well together. 10 responses. Answer to question twenty six: Using visuaL art work in literary magazines serves to enhance the quality and the appearance of their presentations. 9 responses.

Answer to question twenty six: Literary magazines don't do a good job of presenting graphics/ art work

4 responses.

Answer to question twenty six: Literary magazines supply material for a visual society. 2 responses.

Answer to question twenty six: Literary magazines ar effective pedagogically.

2 response.

Answer to question twenty six: Literary magazines present visual material on the cutting edge of the newest trends. 2 responses.

Analysis. The question came late in the interview an many respondents answered in terms they had already used in answer to other questions, or they floundere when attempting the question. It is interesting that 394 only two of them felt they were publishing what was new and significant (the cutting edge) in the visual arts. This reinforces the sense Lhat university sponsored publications are not printing what is new.

Since there often are, on campus, artists and art teachers who are familiar enough with the art world to identify graphics/art work that is original or in a new vein, the reasons for not putting it before the public must lie within the realm of editor's choice.

Relying on submissions is unlikely to unearth cutting edge art work without help beyond Journalism and

English departments. Moreover, there is probably an innate conservatism among the student editors of many of these magazines when it comes to selecting graphics/art works because (as survey responses indicate) they look for graphics/art work that is a handmaiden to literature, not an independent entity.

As the sponsor of The Trinity Review told me, students who tend to serve as editors are more comfortable with the written word, than the visual object, and inclined to make more conservative choices with respect to visual art work. 395

Question 27. What do you think are the greatest; weaknesses of literary magazines when it comes to

presenting visual art work?

Answer to question twenty seven: The poor quality of

reproductions of graphics/art work or the lack of

financial support for better visual art

presentations. 27 responses. 10 not appropriate

responses.

Answer to question twenty seven: The poor quality of art published by the literary magazine. 6 responses.

Answer to question twenty seven: The poor quality of

art submitted to the magazine. 6 responses.

Answer to question twenty seven: The trim size of

literary magazines is a negative factor in the

presentation of graphics/art work. 5 responses.

Answer to question twenty seven: The lack of

understanding of printing processes and the lack of

imagination of editors. 5 responses. 396

Answer to question twenty seven: Literary magazines are presenting graphics/art work to the wrong audience, ie. literary rather than visual. 2 responses.

Answer to question twenty seven: Visual art work often works against the idea contained in the text. 1 response.

Answer to question twenty seven: Multiple reproductions of a single art work reduces the power of its impact upon us. 1 response.

Answer to question twenty seven: Graphics/art work is often used as a visual filler in the way poetry in the past was used by newspaper editors, i.e. to fill a blank space. 1 response.

Analysis. Many of the respondents gave multiple answers. Problems of reproduction and financial difficulties involved in printing graphics/art work were the two most common. 397

Question 28. Are there any comments you would like to make with regard to any of the subjects touched upon in this interview/questionnaire.

Answer to question twenty eight: Respondents enlarged upon the publishing philosophy they encouraged as part of their teaching responsibilities. 7 responses.

Answer to question twenty eight: Respondents explained how graphics/art work was,obtained for magazine. 4 responses.

Answer to question twenty eight: Respondents detailed problems connected with publication of the magazine such as lack of funds, limited art work, production costs, etc. 3 responses.

Answer to question twenty eight: Respondents expanded upon concerns with production of visually exciting covers. 3 responses.

Answer to question twenty eight: Respondents reiterated their need for more visual art submissions. 2 responses. 398

Answer to question twenty eight: Respondent emphasized the difficulty in printing art work and the expense. 1 response.

Analysis of question twenty eight: The majority of respondents appeared satisfied with the areas touched upon by the questionnaire, or they were ready to terminate the interview. Of those who wished to re-cover some concern that arose during the survey, the majority of sponsors wanted to discuss the pedagogical aspects of what they were doing. APPENDIX J

SITE INTERVIEWS

Introduction

A part of this study involved interviewing

editors and sponsors on site. The following section

of the study details these interviews in the order in which they occurred. While the interviews were

generally useful for developing points of interest more fully, none of them took place when a literary

magazine was being laid out, and none of them

involved watching the editors or sponsors actually

taking part in the processes described above (with

the possible exception of the editor of Salt Lick ).

When editor's or sponsor's answers differ from what

is apparent, or if their answer appears to be

significant, I have appended an analysis following

their comment. While the responses following the

questions are written in my own words, paraphrasing

responses I recorded, except where quotation marks

are employed, I tried to hew as closely as possible

to the terms in which the answers of the individuals

399 k 00 concerned were framed.

Trinity Review : Results of an Interview with Dr.

Judith Fisher

Dr. Fisher is a faculty member of the English

Department at Trinity University and the appointed sponsor of the literary magazine, The Trinity Review

. The copy of the literary magazine sponsored by Dr.

Fisher as a part of this study was produced during the Spring semester, 1988. The magazine is 5 1/2 by 8

1/2 inches in trim size. It is printed on soft, ivory colored paper with a heavy brown cover stock. The issue was staple bound and consisted of 77 numbered pages which carried 5 black and white photographs for a percentage usage of about 6 %. This issue of the magazine had no cover art.

The interview took place in Dr. Fisher's office,

January 25th, 1989. Responses to questions made by

Dr. Fisher have been paraphrased and are not exact quotes except where quote marks may appear. Her responses, in summary, follow below: 401

1. Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work submissions?

Response: Student editors were responsible for editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work decisions. Dr. Fisher retained a final vote of approval with regard to their selections (literary and visual). Dr. Fisher noted that she was speaking with regard to her tenure as a faculty sponsor, and that the position as sponsor of the magazine rotated every few years.

2. Does your publication ever "showcase" a particular visual artist?

Response: While literary artists were showcased by the magazine, in the sense that one of the submissions was awarded a cash prize, none was offered to the visual artists. Dr. Fisher pointed out that she felt the student editors were generally more comfortable with literary and verbal art forms, less comfortable with visual art forms.

3. Does your publication ever exclusively feature 402 certain types of art media, such as wood block prints, pen and ink, drawings, or photographs?

Response: The editors accepted submissions in all art media and did not exclusively feature any particular visual form. They did not print in color as it was too expensive.

4. Do you feel that the trim size of your publication is a factor in your choice of graphics/art work?

Response: The matter arose quite often. Dr. Fisher had some background in layout and art history, which she felt allowed her to offer some advice in the technical matters affecting layout of visual art works.

5. Do you feel the inclusion of art work in your journal increases sales/circulation?

Response: The magazine is given away. She felt the inclusion of art work did increase the circulation of the magazine; it opened it up to a wider audience.

She was not certain of the number of issues printed, 403 but felt it ran between three and five hundred.

6. Do your writers ever supply graphics/art work or photographs?

Response: No.

7. How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed?

Response: Every two to three years depending on the student editors.

8. Do you identify the artist, or the title, or the medium when featuring art work?

Response: Yes.

Analysis: Actually, the photographs in this issue were not identified by title, although the artists were credited.

9. Do you integrate visual images with text

throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section?

Response: The visual images arc integrated throughout. Sometimes the magazine has a thematic organization.

10. Do you provide biographical data about your writers?

Response: Yes.

11. Do you provide biographical data about your artists?

Response: Yes.

12. Do you ever commission writers for your publication?

Response: No.

13. Do you ever commission visual artists for your

publication? 4 0r)

Response: No.

14. What would you say is the main purpose of including visual art within your publication?

Response: It encourages variety. It opens up student participation. She felt students probably felt it was more interesting, even esoteric, because they were, for the most part, unfamiliar with the visual arts.

15. Who do you identify as your primary audience?

Response: Mainly the student body. To some degree, the magazine also was seen by the administration and the faculty. She believed it was used for recruitment

purposes.

16. Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your magazine as creating an audience, for literary artists?

Response: She felt that it was. She had some question

about the world views of her students. She felt that

in the main they were verbal, not visual. Only 20 out 406 of 200 would be visual.

17. Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentation of

graphics/art work, or photography?

Response: She named the Fall, 1987 issue.

18. Which creative literary magazines published in

the United States do the best job of presenting

graphics/art work?

Response: None came to mind.

19. Do you ever tip-in art work, or slip it in?

Response: No.

20. How did your literary magazine come to be

founded?

Response: The magazine began in the English

department. It had featured some graphics from the

start and gradually began to acquire student art 407

submissions.

21. Do you think your readers collect the art work

you publish?

Response: No.

22. Has your circulation/sales increased, decreased,

or remained the same?

Response: The same, the magazine is given away.

23. Do you foresee any new changes in technology that

would affect the appearance of your journal in the

future?

Response: Student editors will employ Macintosh

personal computers and a program called "Pagemaker"

to do design the layout of the magazine.

24. Do you ever include critical evaluations of the

visual art work published within the creative

literary magazine? 408

Response: No.

25. Do you ever employ visual art work on the cover of your publication?

Response: Sometimes.

26. What do you think are the greatest strengths of creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: It gives student artists an audience. It's a good laboratory experience. It's good for students to think about visuals...it broadens their experience .

27. What do you think are the greatest weaknesses of creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: The range of things that may be presented is limited. There is no color. Beyond The Questionnaire

After concluding the formal part of the interview, Dr. Fisher reviewed some of the topics previously touched upon. She felt that the student editors tended to be verbal, not visual, and therefore were not as secure in their visual choices

She characterized the tastes of her students as

"neo-nazi," i.e. highly conservative. They were not, she said "artsy,""liberal,""funky,"or "fun." This deeply conservative trend was reflected in the stilted appearance of the magazine (she said her students wanted a "professional" looking type face), and their approach to visual presentations in the magazine.

Including student art in the magazine was an attempt to give the magazine greater scope on campus

It was, she thought, perceived on campus as

"insular," a creation of the English department for the English department. Moreover, there was little, or no constructive interaction between the fine arts department and the editors of the magazine.

Gaining the quality and quantity of graphics submissions that Dr. Fisher would like to have was 4 problem. In answer to a question, she did not feel that a back-file of student art work was appropriate because she wanted the magazine to stay current in its publication of student submissions. The magazine was funded by the university at a fixed amount, ther was not enough money for color reproductions, and this limitation to black and white reproductions may have discouraged some artists from entering their work. She did add that next year's edition would hav graphics/art work on its cover. Dr. Fisher made the point that alumni from the university sometimes submitted material (including graphics), and she described an alumnus living on the west coast who continued to submit photographs regularly.

Conclusion Of The Interview With Dr. Fisher The responses given by Dr. Fisher fit the pattern of responses given by other sponsors of university funded magazines very closely. The lack o interaction with the campus art department, the fact that Dr. Fisher could not identify other literary magazines whose graphics content was well executed (she did name two other literary magazines published in Ohio), and the fact that she was unfamiliar with 411 the Texas Intercollegiate Press Association (which has a contest for literary magazines) reinforced the sense that she and her students were not informed about how other literary magazines were approaching the same problems of presenting visual material.

I had the impression that if Dr. Fisher had been editing the magazine instead of serving as its sponsor, the appearance of the magazine and its utilization of graphics/art work would be much different, and possibly far more lively. -Perhaps this subtle tension between the aesthetic views of Dr.

Fisher and her student editors was suggested obliquely in a comment found in that section of The

Trinity Review (1988) entitled "From the Editors" which contained notes by and about the editorial board and the co-editors. The comment read: "DR.

FISHER wasn't there to hate things" ( Trinity Review

1988, p. 76).

Cactus Alley : Results of an Interview with Dr.

William Oliver

Dr. Oliver is a faculty member of the English

Department at The University of Texas, San Antonio and the appointed sponsor of Cactus Alley. The copy 412 of the literary magazine sponsored by Dr. Oliver and a part of this study was Volume VIII, produced during 1988 in 400 copies. The magazine is 8 1/2 by 11 inches in trim size. It has a glossy, cream colored cover carrying a black and white art work. The issue is staple bound and contains 51 numbered pages. There are 10 visual images integrated throughout the text for a percentage usage of about 19 %. The interview was conducted in Dr. Oliver's office January 25th, 1989. Both Dr. Oliver and a student editor were in attendance and responded to questions. I initiated the interview by employing the questionnaire used in the survey of editors and sponsors. Responses to questions by Dr. Oliver and the student editor have been paraphrased and are not exact quotes except where quote marks may appear. Their answers follow:

1. Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/artwork submissions?

Response: Someone in the art department selected the art work and sent the photographs, prepackaged to the editor. 4

Analysis: This response developed into a crucial point in the interview later and will be expanded upon during the conclusion to these notes.

2. Does your publication ever "showcase" a particula visual artist?

Response: No.

3. Does your publication ever exclusively feature certain types of art media, such as wood block prints, pen and ink drawings, or photographs?

Response: No.

4. Do you feel the trim size of your publication is factor in your choice of graphics/art work?

Response: Yes...but there is no hard evidence to support the feeling.

5. Do your writers ever supply graphics/art work or photographs? 414

Response: No.

6. How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed?

Response: It is changed every year with every new student editor.

7. Do you identify the artist, or the title, or the medium when featuring art work?

Response: The artist.

Analysis: In six of the eleven instances credited, all three were mentioned.

8. Do you integrate visual images with text throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section?

Response: They integrate visual images because it increases readability. 415

9. Do you • provide biographical data about your writers?

Response: Yes.

10. Do you provide biographical data about your artists?

Response: Yes.

11. Do you ever commission writers for your publication?

Response: No.

12. Do you ever commission artists for your publication?

Response: No. There is a possibility that photographers for the next issue will be sought out and paid in copies.

13. What would you say is the main purpose of including visual art within your publication? 416

Response: Readability.

14. Who do you identify as your primary audience?

Response: The student body, alumni, and some copies are sold to a general readership.

15. Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your journal as creating an audience for literary artists?

Response: Yes.

Analysis: This response is interesting considering the responses to questions 8 and 13 in which "readability," was listed as the primary concern.

16. Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentations of graphics/art work, or photographs?

Response: Dr. Oliver explained that he had only recently come on board as a faculty sponsor (it was a 4 part of his job assignment) and his answer was necessarily qualified. He then said that his preference of the magazines he was familiar with was the last issue...with some reservations.

17. Which creative literary magazines published in the United States do the best job of presenting graphics/art work?

Response: The Missouri Review, The Black Warrior

Review, The Vanderbilt Review, and The North

American Review. Dr. Oliver also said he particularly liked The Vanderbilt Review because their graphics usage kept the reader going through the magazine.

Analysis: Dr. 01 iver s response was one of the few which a sponsor could readily name other literary magazines whose graphics/art work they admired.

18. Do you ever tip-in art work or slip it in?

Response: No. 418

19. How did your literary magazine come to be founded ?

Response: It started in the English department as a forum for students.

20. Do you think your readers collect the art work you publish?

Response: He was not sure.

21. Has your circulation/sales increased, decreased, or remained the same?

Response: The magazine is sold publicly. There has been a slight increase.

22. Do you foresee any new changes in technology that would affect the appearance of your magazine in the future?

Response: The editors were going to use Macintosh personal computers. 419

23. Do you ever include critical evaluations of the visual art work published within the literary magazine?

Response: No.

24. Do you ever employ visual art work on the cover of your publication?

Response: Yes.

25. What do you think are the greatest strengths of literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: Photographs and line drawings are best presented because they are closer to the actual form of artistic expression.

26. What do you think are the greatest weaknesses of literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: Art work can interfere with the literature, 420 actually work against it.

Analysis: This was an insightful comment by Dr. Oliver and fit not only with observations made in some cases by editors in the survey, but also fit with the views described in the section on authors as directors.

Beyond the Questionnaire There was considerable discussion both before and during the interview between the student editor and Dr. Oliver concerning the problem of obtaining quality student art work. Neither one of them felt that the current method of being issued a packet of photographs representing visual work selected by a faculty member of the art department was satisfactory. In my own opinion, the visual art work in Cactus Alley seemed quite sophisticated for student work, but this assumption of mine was proved incorrect. It soon became apparent that Dr. Oliver had been surprised to learn that some of the images in the current issue were photographs of faculty art work, not student art work. He felt this had come about because meeting the deadline was more expedient for the individual responsible for submitting the material (using faculty art work), but that the magazine was intended as a forum for student artists

The editorial policy with regard to visual submissions is that they be submitted in the form of black and white photographs. The student editor seemed to be leaning toward the idea of soliciting student newspaper photographers on campus to submit their work for the upcoming issue.

Dr. Oliver also said that his budget had been cut $500.00. He hoped to recoup the amount. The magazine is sold locally but they are not allowed to carry advertisements. They publish 400 issues for a student body of about 13,000. When asked if the administration was sympathetic to the publication,

Dr. Oliver was uncertain. He felt that it might be inadvertently linked with the student newspaper whic had been critical of the administration.

When asked about censorship, Dr. Oliver and the student editor described the number of desks (I believe they alluded to four) that Cactus Alley had to pass over for approval prior to being sent to the printers. 422

Conclusion Of The Interview With Dr. Oliver Dr. Oliver was newly appointed to the position of faculty sponsor. He explained that the sponsorship was a necessary part of the job description when he had interviewed for the position. He was familiar with several literary magazines whose graphics qualities he admired. He was not familiar with other literary magazines in the state (nor should he have been), and indeed, was surprised to learn that Dr. Fisher (whom he knew personally) sponsored a literary magazine at Trinity University. Neither he nor the student editor had heard of T.I.P.A., but they copied the address in order to investigate it. This sense that both Dr. Oliver and his student editor were interested in learning more about how other literary magazines dealt with the presentation of graphics/art work was buttressed, both by their comments during the interview, and by the fact that they followed me out to the parking lot to scan copies of other literary magazines I had obtained. 423

Bayousphere : Results of an interview with Gloria Morris Gloria Morris is a faculty member of the University of Houston Clear Lake and the sponsor of Bayousphere. The copy of the literary magazine sponsored by Gloria Morris as a part of this study was produced during 1988. The magazine is an annual, open to residents of the University of Houston Clear Lake community. It is 8 1/2 by 11 inches in trim size. The cover of the copy in this study is in color and features a photograph of a sculpture; front and back views representing the front and back of the magazine. The magazine is staple bound. It has 32 numbered pages, on which there were printed 26 visual images for a percentage usage of about 84 %.

The interview began in MS.Morris' office and continued off campus the first of February, 1989. Responses to questions by MS. Morris have been paraphrased and are not exact quotes except where quote marks may appear. Her responses follow:

1. Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work submissions? Response: There is a first screening by the student editor. There are usually not sufficient visual submissions to screen very much. As part of editorial policy, copy is not returned, but all photographs and art work are. The magazine receives a great deal of excellent photographic submissions. I retain the right of veto on any material that I believe would be offensive to community tastes... recognizing that what is acceptable now seems to have changed, become more liberal. Since we have a nearby prison population that contains writers who submit material... and they have the time to rewrite and edit their work, so some it is very good...but also, some of it is too graphic for our community readership. I feel it is in the best interests of the magazine to check submissions carefully.

2. Does your publication ever "showcase" a particular visual artist?

Response: No. The magazine does recognize honors winners among its student contributors. 425

3. Does your publication ever exclusively feature certain types of art media, such as wood block prints, pen and ink drawings, or photographs?

Response: No.

4. Do you feel that the trim size of your publication is a factor in your choice of graphics/ art work?

Response: No.

5. Do you feel the inclusion of art work in your journal increases circulation/sales?

Response: Yes.

6. Do your writers ever supply graphics/art work or photographs?

Response: No. Moreover those who submit written material object to visual art work that illustrates or matches the subject of the creative writing. As a part of our editorial policy we strive to avoid using visual material as illustration. 426

Analysis: Here we see a sponsor aware of the pitfalls of attempting to match visual submissions with literary text. MS. Morris also appears to share the same position expressed by Dr. Oliver, that illustration can weaken text.

7. How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed?

Response: Every year.

8. Do you identify the artist, or the title, or the medium when featuring art work?

Response: The artist and the title.

9. Do you integrate visual images with text throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section?

Response: Visual images are integrated throughout, but our center spread this year featured all photographs. 427

10. Do you provide biographical data about your writers?

Response: We will do so in new issues.

11. Do you provide biographical data about your artists?

Response: Yes.

12. Do you ever commission writers for your publication?

Response: No. We depend on submissions.

13. Do you ever commission visual artists for your publication?

Response: We depend on submissions also.

14. What would you say is the main purpose of including visual art within your publication? 428

Response: The visual art contributes to the aesthetic appearance of the magazine.

15. Who do you identify as your primary audience?

Response: The student body of the university and professors. We have about 7000 students. They are a fairly sophisticated readership, many of whom are older, are working, and have had interesting and valuable life experiences beyond the university.

16. Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your journal as creating an audience for literary artists?

Response: I would like to see a better balance.

Currently literature takes first place, because of the problem of submissions. One of the graphics teachers in the art department is now developing

Bayousphere as an outlet for student artists. Until this time, obtaining graphics/art work submissions from the art department has been problematic. There have been difficulties in the past with the way some images were cropped by student editors and this has 429 colored the willingness of the art faculty to encourage submissions. I'm optimistic that this is going to improve.

17. Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentation of graphics/art work, or photography?

Response: The last one. The one prior to this last one was good also. We received numerous favorable comments, even from as far away as Japan. In 1987 we received a Silver award from Columbia University, and in 1988 we received a Gold award from Columbia

University.

Analysis: The Columbia Scholastic Press Association of Columbia University sponsors a magazine competition (not limited to literary magazines) each year for any school or institution wishing to enter the competition. The Gold Crown Award is the higher of the two awards MS. Morris speaks of. The brochure produced by the Columbia Scholastic Press

Association, the Magazine Fundamentals, 3rd Edition

(Cutsinger, 1984) describes Gold Crown Awards 430 as being given for superlative excellence in student publishing. They are given to about one percent of the total entries received for evaluation in a given year .

18. Which creative literary magazines published in the United States do the best job of presenting graphics/art work?

Response: None stand out.

19. Do you ever tip-in art work, or slip it in?

Response: No.

20. How did your literary magazine come to be founded?

Response: It originally began in a poet's creative writing class twelve or thirteen years ago. It had graphics in it from the beginning, but was not always issued regularly.

21. Do you think your readers collect the art work 431 you publish?

Response: I'm not sure, but I do know that copies are collected by some.

22. Has your circulation increased, decreased, or remained the same?

Response: It's the same. We publish 1000 copies of the magazine.

23. Do you foresee any new changes in technology that would affect the appearance of your journal in the future?

Response: I'm hoping for a more sophisticated method of printing graphics.

24. Do you ever include critical evaluations of the I visual art work published within the creative literary journal?

Response: No. 4

25. Do you ever employ visual art work on the cover of your publication?

Response: Yes.

26. What do you think are the greatest strengths of creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: They provide aesthetic pleasure.

27. What do you think are the greatest weaknesses of creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: The general quality of submissions is poor

Quality art work seems to come in waves, good and ba alternating. The real problem is scarcity of good submissions.

Beyond the Questionnaire

M.S. Morris explained that the name Bayousphere was a pun on the word "biosphere" which at one time had great currency in the community, because so many of the student body of The University of HousLon,

Clear Lake, are closely connected with the Houston based space agency, N.A.S.A. The poet who had starte the magazine still writes a foreword to it and had recently contributed an elegy for the victims of the

Challenger disaster. She said that the magazine had set number of pages (32) and her budget was fairly tight. She had her magazine printed off campus by

Walsworth Publishing, a firm located in in Madeline,

Missouri. In addition to sponsoring the magazine, sh also taught photography and sponsored the student newspaper. In response to a question about phototexts, she said she had never run photo essays in the magazine but was willing to consider it. A prohibiting factor would be the space limitation of

32 pages. She liked the size of the magazine and thought it worked well for the presentation of graphics/art work but would like to have seen 2 issues per year. She said that there was very little matching of visual and literary work in the magazine

When asked about the awards and recognition the magazine had gathered, she was not certain of the criterion used by Columbia University in its award system. She also had tried, but had been unable, to determine what system the judges in the Texas Intercollegiate Press Association used when evaluating the visual qualities of literary magazines. She also expressed some frustration about the lack of a satisfactory means of exchange among university sponsored literary magazines.

She thought Walsworth Publishing did a superior job of printing. Their representative in the Houston area was available as a consultant and the appearance and professional appearance of her magazine were enhanced by the care taken by this firm. Having the printing jobbed out was a practice that she admitted was relatively expensive, but she thought the costs were worth the trouble, and she would recommend the practice and the firm to other sponsors.

Conclusion Of The Interview With Gloria Morris The literary magazine Bayousphere stood out as well produced visual object among the other university sponsored literary magazines produced in Texas (within the time frame of this study). My personal critical evaluation is buttressed by the awards that the magazine has received in the past. There are at least three fundamental reasons why this 435 is so. First, M.S. Morris is willing to suffer the costs of having the magazine printed by a commercial printing establishment (as opposed to a local, or on campus duplicating service). The net effect is that the graphics/art work is crisp and well printed. In addition, Morris' other duties (journalism, photography, sponsorship of the student newspaper) dovetail very neatly with the production of a literary magazine. It is as if a university sponsored literary magazine had the good fortune to have a full time professionally trained and experienced editor at its disposal.

Morris made the point in our interview that the students she worked with were older, more mature, and had extensive and useful experiences in the outside world (many of them came from N.A.S.A. which has facilities near Clear Lake) which contributed a great deal to the literary magazine.

Finally Morris' own background in teaching photography undoubtedly contributed to the generally high quality of the photographs found in the magazine. Morris felt she was on solid ground when she was evaluating the visual qualities of photographs that were submitted to the magazine. The 436 fact that a commercial printer reproduced them on hard, glossy stock also contributed to their excellent appearance.

The difficulties in achieving a harmonious cooperative spirit with the art department was mentioned by Morris, but she felt the outlook for overcoming this difficulty was good. As a consequence, she hoped for more and better visual submissions.

The Americas Review : Results of an Interview with

Dr. Kanellos

Dr. Nicolas Kanellos is the publisher of The

Americas Review. His .office is located on the campus of the University of Houston in Houston, Texas. The editor is Julian Olivares. The Americas Review was formerly called Revista Chicano-Riquen a and is a bi-lingual (Spanish and English) magazine dedicated to the promotion of hispanic artists in the field of

literature and visual arts. The copy of the magazine

(Vol. 16, No. 2), in this study was published during

the summer of 1988. The magazine is 5 1/2 by 8 1/2

inches in trim size. It is printed on thin white

paper with a glazed cover stock. The issue was 437 perfect bound and consisted of 104 numbered pages which carried 3 black and white images of visual art work for a percentage usage of about 2 %. This issue of the magazine carried a black and white cover photograph credited to the coLLection of the editor.

The interview took place in Dr. Kanellos1 office,

February 2nd, 1989. Responses to questions made by

Dr. Kanellos have been paraphrased and are not exact quotes except where quote marks may appear. His responses, in summary, follow below:

1. Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work submissions?

Response: The editor (Julian Olivares) and myself.

2. Does your publication ever "showcase" a particular visual artist?

Response: Yes.

3. Does your publication ever exclusively feature certain types of art media, such as wood block prints, pen and ink, drawings, or photographs? 4 38

Response: No. We do not print in color because of costs. We focus on what reproduces well.

4. Do you feel that the trim size of your publication is a factor in your choice of graphics/art work?

Response: No.

5. Do you feel the inclusion of art work in your journal increases sales/circulation?

Response: I don't know. The cover art is important... the cover art helps sell the magazine.

6. Do your writers ever supply graphics/art work or photographs?

Response: Rarely.

7. How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed?

Response: Once every five years. 439

8. Do you identify the artist, or the title, or the medium when featuring art work?

Response: The artist, the title and the medium also.

9. Do you integrate visual images with text throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section?

Response: We usually integrate them. On occasion they are printed in a reserved section of the magazine.

Analysis: The current copy of The Americas Review contains integrated graphics/art work. Among the gratis copies given me by Dr. Kanellos after the interview were copies that contained reserved sections.

10. Do you provide biographical data about your writers?

Response: Yes. 4

11. Do you provide biographical data about your artists?

Response: Yes.

12. Do you ever commission writers for your publication?

Response: Yes.

13. Do you ever commission visual artists for your publication?

Response: Yes.

14. What would you say is the main purpose of including visual art within your publication?

Response: It is a traditional part of the task of reviews to cover the visual arts, and in that sense, we are respecting the tradition. In addition, the incorporation of visual art work adds to the aesthetic appeal and the overall design of the magazine. 441

15. Who do you identify as your primary audience?

Response: Mostly scholars of hispanic literature. They are probably our primary audience. Also libraries.

16. Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your magazine as creating an audience for literary artists?

Response: No.

17. Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentation of graphics/art work, or photography?

Response: Number two.

18. Which creative literary magazines published in the United States do the best job of presenting graphics/art work?

Response: There is a review out of New York, a review 442 of latin American literature, and also Helicon Nine.

19. Do you ever tip-in art work, or slip it in?

Response: No.

20. How did your literary magazine come to be founded?

Response: I founded it in 1972.

21. Do you think your readers collect the art work you publish?

Response: That's unknown. There is a demand for the covers.

22. Has your circulation/sales increased, decreased, or remained the same?

Response: It's remained about the same.

23. Do you foresee any new changes in technology that would affect the appearance of your journal in the future?

Response: Computers are being used more frequently now. I have some question with regard to their ability to network.

24. Do you ever include critical evaluations of the visual art work published within the creative literary magazine?

Response: Yes.

25. Do you ever employ visual art work on the cover of your publication?

Response: Yes.

26. What do you think are the greatest strengths of creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: The artist has a captive audience.

27. What do you think are the greatest weaknesses o 444 creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: There is no money to spend for color printing. The visual art is not given the extra quality of printing that it deserves. For instance, the quality of the paper is not as suitable for printing graphics/art work.

Analysis: I had the sense from the general tone of the interview and this last question specifically, that Dr. Kanellos felt somewhat defensive about the visual images published in his magazine. He never said so directly. Later, when I wrote him asking for permission to reproduce one of the images from his magazine, he refused.

Beyond The Questionnaire The views expressed by Dr. Kanellos were consonant with similar views expressed by editors of other literary magazines. While he is now listed as the publisher of The Americas Review, he was formerly listed as editor and since his office is located 445 immediately next to the office of the editor, and he gave orders even during our interview, I felt that his responses reflected an immediate involvement in the production of the magazine.

The magazine is devoted to the exclusive promotion of hispanic writers and artists. Given the long standing tension that has existed (with varying

degrees of intensity) between Mexico and Texas, and

people who take some of their cultural clues from

Mexico but who live in Texas, this makes the

publication of The Americas Review something of a

political statement as well... perhaps an assertion of

hispanic pride. Dr. Kanellos was formally honored

during the Reagan administration for his work with

The Americas Review. The inside cover of the issue

studied contains a listing of granting agencies who

helped fund the magazine. They include the National

Endowment for the Arts, the Texas Commission for the

Arts, Tenneco Oil and Exploration, Inc. and the

Cultural Arts Council of Houston. This listing

suggests that there are several agencies interested

in supporting a review that gives new world hispanic

artists a voice...and I would guess these grants are

forthcoming because the perception exists among the granting agencies, as it seems to among hispanics, that their voice (in cultural and other matters) has been overlooked.

I deliberately brought up the issue of funding

by the Texas Commission on the Arts for literary magazines in Texas. Dr. Kanellos felt it was inadequate and offered specific reasons having to do with personnel. The basic thrust of his concerns

being that the Texas Commission on the Arts could do a better job of supporting literary magazines. He felt that the Commission was changing. In that

portion of the study dealing with an interview with

Salt Lick, this complaint was reiterated by another

editor.

Conclusions To The Interview With Ur. Kanellos

While The Americas Review and its predecessor

Revista Chicano-Riquen a are clearly and deliberateJy not attempting to balance the presentation of graphics/art work with literature, there are some

interesting tid-bits that may be gleaned from the artists and visual art work presented in the magazine. Volume VIII, No. 3 published during the

summer of 1980 under the imprint of Revista 447

Chicano-Riquen a contains examples of art work by Lwo very well known hispanic artists in Texas. The reserved section in the center of the magazine has photographs of a Luis Jimenez sculpture entitled Vaquero sited in front of the National Collection of Fine Arts in Washington, D.C. Just preceding this photograph are two examples of Amado Pena's art work in his lucrative pueblo indian manner. These are works from a period of time when the artists in question had gained a degree of recognition, but in a copy of the magazine from a year earlier, one may find earlier works by these two artists that illustrate (particularly in the instance of Mr. Pena) their very different starting points.

It may be that, in the fullness of time, other important hispanic artists will be published in The Americas Review, but I would like to suggest why the magazine carries a self-imposed burden in the presentation of graphics/art work. The Americas Review may be doubly hindered in its ability to present graphics/art work, because, as the former title suggests, it was once a magazine devoted to Chicano and Puerto Rican writers and artists. Given the close proximity and association of the publisher 448 with the editor, and with the production of the magazine, one might conclude thai the name had changed, but not the philosophy. Not unlike other magazines, obtaining suitable graphics/art work from visual artists is always burdensome, but when these artists also must hurdle a racial barrier, i.e., those visual artists who are encouraged must possess a new world hispanic connection, the flow of available visual material would be substantially checked. Why, do you ask, must the artist pass a racial litmus test and not a language test? Framing what is admittedly only a conjectural response requires a brief diversion. Many of the people living in Texas who have new world hispanic roots (I refer here to former immigrants from Mexico, Central America, etc.) have only retained some portion of their original cultural inheritance; perhaps the latin surname and a few of the deeply ingrained cultural attitudes. Those among us with other backgrounds will do well to reflect that there were hispanic settlers in Texas long before Texas independence. Indeed, despite popular misperception (i.e., John Wayne's film The Alamo ), there are latin names among the fallen defenders of 449 the Texas shrine. Some of the descendants of these earliest pioneers employ the title "Tejanos" to emphasize their primacy. But this is not to say that these Tejanos, or the greater influx of refugees from the revolution of 1910, have not been subject to the cultural influences of the American melting pot.

Those of us who have taught in areas where the population is heavily hispanic are no longer surprised to encounter hispanic students who can neither write nor speak Spanish. Their ability to write or speak Spanish has been sadly diminished, or it has lapsed altogether. Even this loss is somewhat beside the point since visual artists employ a different sign system than spoken or written language. Thus, for these artists to have their sign system prove acceptable to a publisher only interested in promoting hispanics of new world origin, they must possess (if they have retained it) an acceptable hispanic surname, or their visual sign system must contain sufficient cultural cues that it is unmistakably hispanic. Such restrictions constitute a sort of philosophical burden on the ability of The Americas Review to publish graphics/art work in addition to the other ordinary 450 restrictions mentioned in the interview.

Dimension : Results of an interview with Dr. Willson

Dr. Leslie Willson is the editor of Dimension , a non profit, bilingual (German-English) literary magazine published in Austin, Texas. Dr. Willson also teaches German at the University of Texas, and for a time the magazine was published by the university.

The magazine in this study was Volume 17, No. 1. It measured 6 inches by 9 inches in trim size. It is perfect bound and carries a pen and ink drawing on the cover. The issue in this study had 149 numbered pages with 22 visual images for a percentage usage of about 14 %.

The interview took place in Austin, Texas on

February 17th, 1989.

His responses, in summary, follow below:

1. Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work submissions?

Response: I do.

2. Does your publication ever "showcase" a particular 451 visual artist?

Response: No.

3. Does your publication ever exclusively feature certain types of art media, such as wood block prints, pen and ink, drawings, or photographs?

Response: No.

4. Do you feel that the trim size of your publication is a factor in your choice of graphics/art work?

Response: No.

5. Do you feel the inclusion of art work in your journal increases sales/circulation?

Response: No.

6. Do your writers ever supply graphics/art work or photographs?

Response: Yes. 4r>2

7. How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed ?

Response: Never.

8. Do you identify the artist, or the title, or the medium when featuring art work?

Response: The artist. Partly it depends on what information the artist provides.

9. Do you integrate visual images with text

throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section?

Response: I've done both...if the artist is also a writer .

10. Do you provide biographical data about your

writers?

Response: Yes. 11. Do you provide biographical data about your artists?

Response: Yes.

12. Do you ever commission writers for your publication?

Response: Rarely.

13. Do you ever commission visual artists for your publication?

Response: Rarely.

14. What would you say is the main purpose of including visual art within your publication?

Response: It's a personal preference.

15. Who do you identify as your primary audience?

Response: It's worldwide. My magazine goes all over

the world. Wherever there are people who work with 454

German literature or wherever there are German writers. I don't know for certain, but I've always had the feeling that my magazine ended up as a teaching aid in a lot of German language classrooms.

16. Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your magazine as creating an audience for literary artists?

Response: No. It's an adjunct... except for those who are doubly talented.

Analysis: Dr. Willson described his earlier publishing venture with artist/writers. The issue, to which he refers in the next response, had been so successful that he no longer had copies available.

17. Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentation of graphics/art work, or photography?

Response: Volume 13, No. 1 which was published in 1980. That one used the theme "Authors/Artists." It had Gunter Grass' drawing of himself and a Halibut on 455 the cover. I printed that picture as a wrap around, front and back cover.

18. Which creative literary magazines published in the United States do the best job of presenting graphics/art work?

Response: The New Orleans Review does a good job.

19. Do you ever tip-in art work, or slip it in?

Response: No.

20. How did your literary magazine come to be founded?

Response: I founded it years ago.

21. Do you think your readers collect the art work you publish?

Response: Yes.

22. Has your circulation/sales increased, decreased, 456 or remained the same?

Response: It has decreased. At one time I had a circulation of about 1200 copies. I'm currently down to 800.

23. Do you foresee any new changes in technology that would affect the appearance of your journal in the

future?

Response: Computer related technology. I use an Apple

computer, a softwear program, and a laser printer to

produce camera ready copy which I send off to a

printer in Michigan.

24. Do you ever include critical evaluations of the

visual art work published within the creative

literary magazine?

Response: No.

25. Do you ever employ visual art work on the cover

of your publication? 457

Response: Yes.

Analysis: Dr. Willson had brought additional copies of magazines to the interview and we discussed the cover illustrations.

26. What do you think are the greatest strengths of creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: There is a natural relationship between visual art work and literature. Also, literary magazines provide a forum for the artist.

Analysis: At this point in the interview, Dr Willson

and I began to discuss the issue of the doubly

talented again and the last question (#27) with which

I normally concluded the formal part of the interview was not asked.

Beyond The Questionnaire

There were three aspects of Dr. Willsons'

interview that were of interest. He spoke of his 458 difficulty in finding financial support for the magazine, but he also developed his responses to these financial problems. He relied on his personal computer to prepare camera ready copy for the printer. Willson was the first editor of a privately produced literary magazine who had anything good to say about copy produced by computer. It may be that Dr. Willsons' practice of sending the copy to a printer in Michigan, and-thus obtaining a professional printing job (good paper and crisp appearance of copy) ameliorated some of the complaints ordinarily lodged against computer produced copy. At any rate, he appeared content with the physical product.

In addition to alleviating some his financial burden by relying on the personal computer, he also had obtained a classification from the United States Post Office that allowed him to bulk mail the magazine at a cheaper rate. In the contributor's notes, Dr. Willson lists Jeanne R. Willson as translator and provider of other editorial services. I presume another financial innovation has been reducing costs by finding readily available recruits to help with the editing and production. 459

Finally, Dr. Willson developed the theme oC doubly talented authors/artists. He was particularly proud of the edition of his magazine that had been devoted exclusively to the doubly talented. It is interesting, in terms of this study, that no copies of the doubly talented issue were available. The issue was so popular that Dr. Willson was sold out.

He told me that Gunter Grass (featured on the cover of the doubly talented issue, Volume 13, No. 1) used the pen and ink drawings he developed as tests for his writing. Grass believed that if the drawing he made of his metaphor was successful, then it would work as writing.

Conclusion To The Interview With Dr. Willson

While Dimension makes no attempt to balance the presentation of graphics/art work with literature, its usage of graphics/art work, like The Americas

Review has some interesting facets. Importantly, the editor has focused on, and published, one issue devoted to doubly talented artists. As I have mentioned, many of the editors in this study indicated that they occasionally received submissions that contained both visual and literary art work by 460 the same individuals. With so many different editors indicating that such submissions blossom occasionally, one is drawn to the conclusion that a part of the forest canopy of publishing in literary magazines involves intertwining visual and literary art work. A conclusion that this editor felt some sympathy with, as can be seen in his response to question 26, and his past and present actions.

The issue used in this study contains work by

Conrad Borovski in which the stories are illustrated with whimsical pen and ink drawings by the author.

Dr. Willson has chosen to print one page in German, the opposing page in English. Interestingly, he has also chosen to duplicate the visual imagery. What this means is that the editor felt the visual image in question had a specific place that it had to go on the page with respect to the writing that surrounded it. Dr. Willson confirmed that at the risk of appearing to duplicate every image twice, he felt such a method of utilizing the visual imagery was the only proper way to employ it.

Two final points need to be touched upon with respect to this magazine. It is not, as I originally supposed, aimed primarily at the large 461

German-American population residing in Texas. The editor draws his writers from the various German

speaking countries in Europe (East and West Germany,

Austria and Switzerland) and other countries who happen to have writers who write in German. The

editor believes his circulation includes teachers and

students of German, libraries, and of course, German

authors.

Must visual artists who submit to Dimension pass

a German litmus test? Presumably not, but the

suspicion resides that having a German connection

would greatly help. Despite this potential impediment

to graphics/art work usage, the editor has found a

mother lode in doubly talented artists, and mined it

quite successfully.

Salt Lick : Results of an Interview with James

Haining

James Haining is the editor and publisher of

Salt Lick. His office is located in his home in

Austin, Texas. Prior to moving to Texas, Haining

published Salt Lick in Quincy, Illinois. The magazine

has been published (irregularly) for twenty years. 462

The copy of the magazine (Volume III, Numbers 3 & 4), in this study was published in Quincy, Illinois in

1982. Haining continues to distribute it upon request. He is currently at work on the next issue.

The magazine is 8 1/2 by 11 inches in trim size. It is printed on white paper with a heavy cover stock.

The issue is staple bound and consists of 46 numbered pages which carry about 25 images of graphics/art work for a percentage usage of about 52 %. Counting the number of visual images with more precision was difficult. Some of the images are clip art, some primitive American Indian geometric figures which may or may not be linked. Perhaps another way of describing the amount of graphics/art usage in this issue is to say that on just about every other page the reader will find visual imagery of some kind.

This issue of the magazine carried a black and white cover credited to Daniel Castelaz.

The interview took place in Mr. Haining's home,

February 18th, 1989. Responses to questions made by

Mr. Haining have been paraphrased and are not exact quotes except where quote marks may appear. His responses, in summary, follow below: 463

1. Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work submissions?

Response: I do.

2. Does your publication ever "showcase" a particular visual artist?

Response: Yes. Many of the previous issues have carried an artist's portfolio. The portfolio speaks for the artist.

3. Does your publication ever exclusively feature

certain types of art media, such as wood block

prints, pen and ink, drawings, or photographs?

Response: No.

4. Do you feel that the trim size of your publication

is a factor in your choice of graphics/art work?

Response: Yes. It goes back to what one can afford to

do. I have printed some larger things. Magazines that

were saddle stitched with a larger middle section. 4

I've also done some broad sheets.

5. Do you feel the inclusion of art work in your journal increases sales/circulation?

Response: Sales are not part of the concept. My philosophy is to get the magazine into the hands of the people. I'd like it to be given away. I'd like t send it out in bundles... put literature into the hands of the people.

6. Do your writers ever supply graphics/art work or photographs?

Response: Rare. My tendency is to say no, but perhap

"sometimes" is more correct.

7. How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed?

Response: Every issue.

8. Do you identify the artist, or the title, or the medium when featuring art work? 465

Response: The art work is recognized.

Analysis: Mr. Haining's comment is somewhat cryptic.

The visual images on the cover and some of the visual images inside the magazine are listed by artist in the table of contents, but the method for doing this is simply to list a name, then a page number. There is no cue as to whether the reader is going to find text or visual image on the page listed. Salt Lick shares the characteristics of other idiosyncratic literary magazines in which the editor marshalls all the visual elements to create an expressive object.

9. Do you integrate visual images with text throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section?

Response: It's integrated.

10. Do you provide biographical data about your writers?

Response: No. 466

11. Do you provide biographical data about your artists?

Response: No. I do provide addresses in case someone wants to reach them.

12. Do you ever commission writers for your publication?

Response: No.

13. Do you ever commission visual artists for your publication?

Response: No.

14. What would you say is the main purpose of including visual art within your publication?

Response: I prefer to do it. It's a matter of personal preference only. I like the mix. I like the relationship of visual and written text. My graphics on the page are a visual response to the poem and may 467 enhance the reader's appreciation.

15. Who do you identify as your primary audience?

Response: Those who submit material and those who are subscribers... and also writers I admire. I issue 1500 copies and give away many of them. Distribution is the hardest thing.

16. Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your magazine as creating an audience for literary artists?

Response: I don't differentiate between them. It doesn't matter.

17. Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentation of graphics/art work, or photography?

Response: The next one will be the best.

18. Which creative literary magazines published in the United States do the best job of presenting 468 graphics/art work?

Response: Salt Lick.

19. Do you ever tip-in art work, or slip it in?

Response: Yes. Constantly. Including some handwork in every issue is an important facet of what I do. And of course, I include artist's portfolios in almost every issue.

Analysis: At this point in the interview, Haining took me into his office and showed me examples of past portfolios and handmade objects that he had included with each issue of Salt Lick. Obviously, the inclusion of tipped in art work (or some hand made object) formed an important and vital part of

Haining's publishing philosophy.

20. How did your literary magazine come to be founded?

Response: I founded it when I was going to college, along with two other visual artists. I was just nineteen at the time. We decided to enclose a portfolio, even though the magazine had illustrations. They left the magazine shortly after we began it, but I've continued the tradition. I think its important for the magazine to contain something made by hand in each copy. I hand stamp every cover, and have personalized hand work in eve copy.

21. Do you think your readers collect the art work you publish?

Response: yes.

22. Has your circulation/sales increased, decreased or remained the same?

Response: It has increased. Of course there are problems with irregular publication. Hand built copies limit circulation.

23. Do you foresee any new changes in technology th would affect the appearance of your journal in the future? 470

Response: I use a computer in my office. Desktop publishing is obviously becoming more and more important. Particularly with the use of scanners, which are still expensive, but even so the price of them will come down enough so that they will be widely available. I prefer to scan slides. The Hill or Crossfield scanners can go to the pixel level.

24. Do you ever include critical evaluations of the visual art work published within the creative literary magazine?

Response: No.

25. Do you ever employ visual art work on the cover of your publication?

Response: Always.

26. What do you think are the greatest strengths of creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work? 471

Response: It's a question of distribution. I think that visual art work in literary magazines is seen by a receptive audience.

27. What do you think are the greatest weaknesses of creative literary magazines when it comes to presenting visual art work?

Response: Again, distribution. The audience isn't wide enough. I see a need to get out to a larger public...to break down the concept of a precious audience that reads literary magazines. I want to get my magazine into a larger public culture. I want to

put art into this culture, and freely available, not a condition of the market place.

Analysis: In an earlier conversation, Haining had also mentioned the expenses connected with publishing art work.

Beyond The Questionnaire

I brought up the issue of costs, and asked how

Haining paid for the publication. He described the

support and encouragement he had received while 472 publishing in Illinois, and then his disappointment at being unable to find a similar level of help when he moved to Texas. He described his attempts to obtain support from the Texas Commission For The

Arts, characterizing them as practicing "safe funding." He felt that literary magazines were not politically safe in the eyes of this body and were the reason he had not been helped. He described two interactions he had with the staff of this agency and declared them unhelpful. As a consequence, he had fallen back on creating his own foundation to pay for the publication of his magazine and was going it alone. Now, he said, he wouldn't take the help of the commission if they offered it to him. He described

Texas as being somewhat parochial and behind other states in its support of culture.

I also asked him if he maintained contact with other literary magazine publishers in Texas. He said that,in his work he had been in contact, at one time, with many of the important publishers of small presses in Texas, but was not now in touch with them, nor was he in touch with the writing community in

Austin. 473

Conclusion To The Interview Willi James Haining

Among the site interviews taken as a part of this study, Salt Lick was unique for a number of reasons. The magazine produced by Haining shares many of the characteristics of the type of idiosyncratic publication described in the study. Also, it is a magazine unsupported by any institution and it has no political axes to grind, save the curious and noble notion of the editor that art belongs in the hands of the people. Haining publishes with a philosophy in mind. The magazine reflects this philosophy in several ways (the emphasis on the magazine being for writers Haining admires as an example) and no less so in the way he employs art. Hand stamping, hand coloring, the inclusion of portfolios and delightful., even breathtaking, examples of oriental paper cutting, all contribute to the conclusion that the magazine is a curious original. There is even a real poignancy at work here. The last issue of the magazine came out seven years ago, and yet the editor continues to publish limited edition books, continues to support writers and artists he believes in, continues to work on the next edition of the literary magazine, continues to carry on a one man crusade in 474 the name of cultural democracy.

Corral : Results of an Interview with Mr. Howell

Mr. Robert (Bob) Howell is one of two sponsors listed for Corral, a literary magazine published by

Hardin-Simmons University in Abilene, Texas. Mr.

Howell is the art sponsor and Dr. Robert Fink is the

literary sponsor. The copy of the magazine in this

study was published during 1988. The magazine is 8

1/2 by 11 inches in trim size. It is printed on

glazed white paper with a color cover. The front

cover carries a photograph of ceramic sculptures by

Marie David. The back cover carries an untitled oil

by Kerry Graham. The issue was staple bound and

consisted of 39 pages (the first two and the last two

pages go unnumbered, the page numbers begin with

number 5), which carry 42 color and black and white

images of visual art work for a percentage usage of

about 107 %. The interview took place on campus at

the student union and continued off campus, March

3rd, 1989. Responses to questions by Mr. Howell have

been paraphrased and are not exact quotes except

where quote marks may appear. His responses, in

summary, follow below: 475

1. Who makes editorial decisions with regard to graphics/art work submissions?

Response: Student editors. It hasn't been a problem for me to oversee their selections.

2. Does your publication ever "showcase" a particular visual artist?

Response: No. We choose from a broad base of media and student artists. Our department is small and I know quite well what's being done by students in the department. I make it a point to contact students whose work I would like to see represented in the magazine.

3. Does your publication ever exclusively feature certain types of art media, such as wood block

prints, pen and ink, drawings, or photographs?

Response: No, it's open.

4. Do you feel that the trim size of your publication 476 is a factor in your choice of graphics/art work?

Response: No.

5. Do you feel the inclusion of art work in your journal increases sales/circulation?

Response: We issue about 400 copies which are given away. We put them out here in the student union...and they go fast. J'm definitely sure that the inclusion of art work in the magazine increases its circulation. We also include copies of Corral in a form letter that we send to students, along with some other material.

6. Do your writers ever supply graphics/art work or photographs?

Response: No. A few years back there was some concern expressed from the English department about the fact that we were dominating the magazine... so we split it down the middle. I get about half the pages, they get half the pages. 477

Analysis: The current issue has about 14 pages (39 total pages), dedicated to literary content.

7. How often is the layout of your literary magazine changed?

Response: The layout gets changed every 4 to 5 years, up to last year. The cover was separate. This year, the cover and some of the color pages were printed together as a savings feature.

8. Do you identify the artist, or the title, or the medium when featuring art work?

Response: All three. This issue has the

Hardin-Simmons student competition award winners identified on the color pages.

9. Do you integrate visual images with text throughout the issue or are visual images featured in a reserved section?

Response: We integrate images as much as possible.

The color images printed on the front and back pages 478 were separated as a matter of savings.

10. Do you provide biographical data about your

writers?

Response: No.

11. Do you provide biographical data about your

artists?

Response: No.

12. Do you ever commission writers for your

publication?

Response: No.

13. Do you ever commission visual artists for your

publication?

Response: No.

14. What would you say is the main purpose of

including visual art within your publication? 479

Response: It helps the students get their art out to a wider audience... so it can be seen outside the department and the school. Also, it adds to the appearance of the magazine. The two things in combination increase our audience.

15. Who do you identify as your primary audience?

Response: Students.

16. Do you feel that creating an audience for visual artists is as important a role for your magazine as creating an audience for literary artists?

Response: Definitely.

17. Which issue of your publication do you feel was most successful in terms of its presentation of graphics/art work, or photography?

Response: I've liked the last five or six issues. I prefer the color images to be integrated in the magazine. This last year we got a very good deal with Taylor Publishing in San Angelo. They re publishing our year book and we just went along for the ride...so to speak.

18. Which creative literary magazines published in the United States do the best job of presenting graphics/art work?

Response: I'm not that familiar with other literary magazines in those terms.

19. Do you ever tip-in art work, or slip it in?

Response: No.

20. How did your literary magazine come to be founded?

Response: I think it started in 1907 in the English department. It was strictly literary then, no visuals. To the best of my memory I inherited the sponsorship of the magazine when I took my position here. I've been sponsor for about 9 years now. 481

21. Do you think your readers collect the art work you publish?

Response: No.

22. Has your circulation/sales increased, decreased, or remained the same?

Response: It's remained the same.

23. Do you foresee any new changes in technology that would affect the appearance of your journal in the future?

Response: Not specifically. I believe that there will be more high tech printing in the future. Right now

Taylor Publishing suggests the layout we use, although our student editors often choose the typeface in which the material will be printed.

24. Do you ever include critical evaluations of the visual art work published within the creative literary magazine? 482

Response: No.

25. Do you ever employ visual art work on the cover

of your publication?

Response: Yes.

26. What do you think are the greatest strengths of

creative literary magazines when it comes to

presenting visual art work?

Response: First, it increases the audience for the

art department.

Second, it provides students an opportunity to

publish.

27. What do you think are the greatest weaknesses of

creative literary magazines when it comes to

presenting visual art work?

Response: The cost of printing art work is the main

problem. Also the quality of the photographs are

often poor and don't represent the art work very

well. 483

Beyond The Questionnaire Howell explained that in practice he was not much involved with the actual layout of the magazine. His main contributions were twofold. He appealed through administrative channels when the magazines appropriated budget was not adequate for their needs (a task at which he had been successful in the past), and he ensured that the magazine had a supply of visual art work representing talented students from his own department. Rather than rely on submissions, he sought out students whose work he felt was worthy of publication. Otherwise, he felt somewhat distanced from an involvement with the magazine. He asked me if I had interviewed other sponsors who were not much involved with their magazines. Sometimes, he said, he had no idea what the magazine would be like until it landed on his desk. He was also interested to learn that some sponsors of literary magazines in other universities provide extra copies for their president so that the president might distribute them to the governing board of the university.

Howell said that the city of Abilene had been hard hit by falling oil prices and this depression in 484

the economy had affected both the enrollment and the funds available for the literary magazine. Howell felt the region was isolated from much contact with the fine arts and was conservative in its tastes. Howell knew that other institutions of higher learning in the area produced literary magazines, but he was not in touch with them, nor was he aware of what other sponsors and literary magazines editors did with their magazine in terms of displaying graphics/art work.

Conclusion To The Interview With Mr. Robert Howell At first blush, a magazine staff having two sponsors, one from the English department, one from the Art department, would seem to be the ideal arrangement. In the sense that Corral has a high percentage of graphics/art work inside the magazine, does not have Lo depend on submissions for quality material, and the art work reflects well on the art department, this is true. But there are also disadvantages. While Howell supplies the art work, he intentionally chooses not to have a voice in how this art work is displayed. No doubt letting the publishing company make those sorts of choices 485 dispenses with a fair amount of trouble. Perhaps because there are two sponsors, each man has allowed a kind of demilitarized zone to develop between them...a sort of academic neutral ground which allows peace to exist at the price of disengagement.

Howell is an award winning ceramicist. There are a high preponderance of ceramic pieces in the magazine. Obviously, the students, the department, and even his own prowess as a teacher gain (as weJl they should) by exhibiting student work in the public forum provided by the magazine. The loss of engagement with the literary side of the magazine is not a large price to pay measured against all these gains, but it is, for all that, a penalty that might be avoided if the two sponsors agreed to a new working arrangement.

Final Thoughts From The Interviews The primary reason for conducting interviews in person with editors and sponsors of literary magazine was the hope that a combination of formal and informal questions during a personal interview would lead to greater insights concerning the use of graphics/art work in their literary magazines. 486

Another way of saying this is that site interviews were another aspect of this survey that appeared promising when it was designed. At the time, I had the hope that I would be able to watch at least one of these magazines being assembled, but after the interviews were concluded, I realized that the assembly process goes on over a period of weeks, even months, and my initial hope was illogical. However, the site interviews were rewarding. These interviews were chosen randomly and yet the magazines discussed and the editors interviewed above exhibited a number of interesting similar aspects. Two of the editors knew their magazines ( Dimension and The Americas

Review ) were widely distributed, but the magazines produced by universities and colleges seldom go much beyond the region in which they are published. This is a disservice to their sister institutions and a pedagogical loss to student editors across the state.

Other than confirming in interviews that editors of literary magazines in Texas don't communicate, what else was gained? My own feeling was that the interviews contained several gems that were worth the effort of excavation. Two of the editors (Oliver and

Morris) appeared to confirm my suspicion that 487 matching visual submissions to literary submissions was a poor practice. They, in their own words, said so. One of the editors (Willson) proved quite knowledgable concerning the doubly talented and had produced an issue of his magazine Dimension that actually was devoted to those individuals. It was also valuable to see the range of effectiveness in sponsoring a literary magazine. Not all these individuals interviewed were equally skilled .in obtaining funding or achieving cooperation among their cohorts. Even the stories of failures and misfires provided valuable insights for my study, and by sheer good fortune and the luck of the draw, one of the sponsors (Morris) was involved in publishing an award winning literary magazine. APPENDIX K

LITERARY MAGAZINES ANNOTATED

Selected Magazines: Basic Strategies

The following, subjectiveJy chosen, literary magazines used a wide variety of approaches for including graphics/art work in the pages of their publications. They appear to be worth considering because the people who designed the layout of these magazines avoided the more obvious pitfalls that lie in wait for the unwary. The graphics/art work is not used randomly in matching, it is not a handmaiden to literature, and it is presented to the viewer in such a way that it achieves its potential eloquence.

Beyond the manner in which graphics/art work is displayed in these magazines, becoming familiar with them will provide a guide for art educators, sponsors, and editors who would like to become more aware of how other editors have approached the task of balancing graphics/art work with text. They are annotated with the audience just mentioned in mind,

488 489 but the best approach to learning from these magazines is to subscribe to them. Discovering how a magazine deals with artist's books, or feminist art issues by displaying art, or how the artist is provided a forum in print, can best be appreciated by

tracking the magazine through more than one issue.

The reader should think of this appendix only as an initial guide that will enable them to choose their selections wisely.

Bomb (Spring 1988, No.XXVII)

The magazine Bomb is published by New Art

Publications in New York. The Editor in Chief is

Betsy Sussler. The Associate Editor is Craig Gholson.

The magazine is an anomaly in several ways. It has a huge format (14 3/4 by 11 inches) with a glossy color cover featuring a photograph of an art work by John

Divola. It carries an equally large vodka

advertisement, in living color, on the back cover. It

is staple bound and has 88 pages (some pages at the

end are not numbered) which carry about 55

photographs and graphic images for a usage of about

62%. The magazine also carries a number of

advertisements in the body of the magazine which 490 feature graphic images and some of the photographs in the body of the magazine seem to be more reportorial than aesthetic. By reportorial pliotography, I mean that there were photographs of the artists who were being interviewed.

Beyond the unusual aspect of its size (and the impression it gives of being well supported), the magazine also provides an important forum for the artists featured within it. That is, the artists in several fields (art, writing, theater and film) are interviewed and provided with the opportunity to talk about their art. This is a mixed, but important, blessing. Artists, who may be quite verbal and impassioned about their art, don't always read welJ in print. Indeed, reading their expressed thoughts may be almost painful, despite the format of the

interview. But, this impediment is a small obstacle

to pass. For once, the artists, for good or ill, are not held at a remove. The reader sees their faces in photographs, quite possibly views examples of their work, and is able to read the artist's comments on

their work directly. Bomb was inspired in format and artistic forum by Wyndham Lewis' Blast. 491

Botticelli (Volume 4, Number 3, 1988)

The magazine Botticelli is published by the

Columbus College of Art and Design in Columbus, Ohio.

The sponsor is Dr. Edward Lense. It has a large, square format (11 1/4 by 11 1/4 inches) with a glossy cover featuring a full-color graphic printed across the front and back covers. It is staple bound and has

32 un-numbered pages carrying approximately 66 visual images for a usage of about 206%. The magazine is a rarity for a number of reasons. Only three magazines in the study chose square formats. Few, about fifteen, printed on the back cover. Also, as shown in

the section describing continuum usage, the number of visual images per page is very high.

The reasons for all these singular features resides in the fact that Botticelli is published with

the express intent of showcasing the creative work of

its talented student body. The magazine has a

deliberately restricted circulation (it's not sold

off campus), and it serves the college that publishes

it as an aid in student recruitment.

In this issue, there is no indication printed on

the cover as to the name of the magazine, for reasons

that will be shortly explained. The entire cover is a 492 visual color image in the manner of some of the work of M.C. Escher. Those familiar with Escher's work will recall that he often played with the idea oT

illusionistic depth. Thus, on the cover of

Botticelli, the visual image offers no clue as to what is up or down, left or right. In the cover

image, a series of grinning, leering people

intertwine and grasp, mouth, bite and tug at each

other. If the reader is lucky, he or she opens the magazine at the front and proceeds on, unaware that a

surprise awaits them in the middle of the magazine.

There are no page numbers to serve as guides. At the

middle of the magazine, the reader finds a large,

center spread, black and white graphic that again

offers no cues as to left or right, up or down. The

graphic owes something to Dante's Divine Comedy,

something to clip art, and is an accurate visual

metaphor for being completely lost. Proceeding past

this center page, the reader discovers the magazine

is now upside down, all the pages from the center

onward being printed as if the reader should have

begun from the other end. Does confusion reign?

Deliberately so; but this playful device also

highlights the fact that Botticelli, while containing 493 creative writing as well as visual art work, is not attempting to balance the presentation of each. Here, like a very few others magazines in the survey, graphics/art work is given precedence over literature, but the results are delightful.

Calyx: A Journal of Art and Literature By Women

(Volume 10, Numbers 2 and 3)

The magazine Calyx is published by a non-profit corporation located in Corvallis, Oregon. It is a feminist literary magazine that employs a collective decision-making process. The managing editors are

Margarita Donnelly and Lisa Domitrovich. The managing art editor is Debi Berrow. This issue was a retrospective entitled Florilegia. It has a medium, square format (7 inches by 7 inches) with a glossy color cover and a perfect binding. There are 254 numbered pages carrying 64 graphic/art work images for a percentage usage of about 24%. Retrospectives carry within them the danger that, like group shows, the individuals get swallowed up in the greater cause of census taking. The editors have avowed equality for all, competitiveness for none; and to a marked degree, in the presentation of so many intriguing 494 images, they manage it. The graphics/art work presentations are staged at five intervals. There are very few weak visual images, and quite a few that call out for an in-depth review of their work. Eacli image is identified with the title, name of the artist, medium, size, and issue identification where the work was first displayed. Of course, the common theme has to do with womanhood (Frida Kahlo, artist, martyr, patron saint of feminism, is reviewed); but the work is so varied, and yet so fascinating, that the editor's organization of material will serve as an example for other literary magazines who must review a hodgepodge of styles and artists.

The Georgia Review ,(Winter 87, Volume XLI, Number 4)

The magazine The Georgia Review is published by the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia. The editor is Stanley W. Lindberg. It has a medium format

(6.5 inches by 10 inches) with a glossy cover and is assembled with perfect binding. This issue had 181 pages of which about 4% carried visual art works. The method employed by The Georgia Review in the current issue is to devote a central portion of the magazine to the work of one artist. Eight pages in the center 495 of the magazine are devoted to reproductions of Lynn

Davison's art. These eight pages are preceded by a

single page describing Davison's life and work. The

reproductions are printed in black and white, but

this drawback is partially compensated for by the

printing in color of one of Davison's paintings on

the cover of the magazine. One must look on the

copyright page to discover the title of the cover

painting (Jester's Head), but the center pages

reserved for Davison's work carry the medium, the

size, and the title beneath each reproduction. While

The Georgia Review is preponderantly devoted to

literature, its care with visual art and its fine

means of distinguishing both the artist and the art

work are worthy of emulation.

The Gettysburg Review (Volume 2, No. 1, Winter 1989)

The magazine The Gettysburg Review is published

by Gettysburg College in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It

is printed in a medium format (6 3/4 in. by 10 in.)

with a glossy cover, and assembled with perfect

binding. This issue had 182 pages, of which 6%

carried graphics/art work. Both the cover and eight

pages in the center of the magazine are devoted to 496 examples of the art of Ephraim Rubenstein. The publication is recent in the literary magazine arena, but it has achieved a sufficiently dramatic entrance

that it was mentioned to me as a source of study by

other editors. The magazine is professionally

designed (by Rich Hendel); and employs, in the copy

that is a part of this study, the art work of Mr.

Rubenstein very effectively. The art comprises oil on

canvas in a style more reminiscent of the 19th century than our own time, but a style rich in color,

and filled with sensitive, harmonious passages of

tone. How close the printer came to accurately

reproducing what Mr. Rubenstein has created it is not

possible to judge, but that the magazine has honored

him in a reserved section and made his art a central

and important part of their presentation is beyond

dispute.

Helicon Nine (Summer, Number 19, 1988)

The magazine Helicon Nine is published by a

non-profit organization located in Kansas City,

Missouri. It is a feminist literary magazine. The

editor is Gloria Vando Hickok. It is printed in a

medium format (7in. by lOin.) with a glossy cover, 497 and assembled with a perfect bind Lug. This issue had

96 numbered pages, of which about 32% carry graphics/art work. It also offers its readers a rare aesthetic experience, color photographs of the visual art work. Perhaps only another editor will truly appreciate the significance of publishing color photographs. Color printing requires four color separations, and sometimes a fifth press run for a clear coat, a process which is both difficult to produce and prohibitively expensive. In this issue, we see why many hazard the attempt; color illustrations are also eye catching and visually rewarding. The strategy for employing these particular illustrations in color is twofold.

Suzzanne G. Lindsay has written an article on Berthe

Morisot entitled "Berthe Morisot & the Poets" and subtitled: "The Visual Language of Woman." In a sense, the pictures accompanying this article are there to illustrate certain specific points the author is touching upon. However, in another sense, they serve to celebrate the artist, Morisot, who painted them.

In a later section of the magazine, having honored a woman artist of the previous century, there 498 is included a review (five pages of color reproductions) of paintings by contemporary female artists from a Kansas Arts Commission exhibition.

Their work also is as vividly presented as the work of Morisot. Had Helicon Nine simply used color illustrations of Morisot's work to buttress an author's argument, the viewer might be both enlightened and grateful; but the rewards of experiencing some color sense of what painters can do with paint would have ended with the article.

Happily, the magazine also contains the additional strategy of presenting artist's art works of our own time with the same "damn the expense" enthusiasm. We are obliged to take note.

Northwest Review (1988)

The magazine Northwest Review is published at

the University of Oregon in Eugene, Oregon. The

editor is John Witte, the art editor is George

Gessert. It is printed in a small format (6x9

inches) with a glossy cover and assembled with a

perfect binding. This particular issue had 165

numbered pages, of which about 23% carried

graphics/art work. Specifically, the graphics/art 499 work consisted of individual examples from artist's books (which were being reviewed in this issue by

George Gessert), and in the center of the magazine, a reproduction of an entire artist's book.

The strength and power of this instance of creative visual images combined with text nearly beggars description. Thirty-four pages of the magazine are devoted to replicating the linked images produced by Caren Heft. Before venturing further into the difficult realm of description, it is necessary to make a distinction between the pages of the literary magazine itself and the pages of Caren

Heft's book. The artist's book is obviously produced on hand made paper, which would offer the immediate viewer, could he or she hold it, a sense of texture, weight, and color that could not be replicated on the pages of the literary magazine. But the art editor did the next best thing; that is, Gessert has arranged the format of the magazine so that as we turn a page of the literary magazine, we are in effect turning the pages of the artist's book. Each page, including the blank pieces of paper that the artist has not marked on, is duplicated on the corresponding pages of the magazine. The result is 500 that the heart of Caren Heft's book with all it's subtlety, sensitivity, and mystery of life's passage remains. It is given as fair a play in the printing as could be wished.

It must be recognized that the Northwest Review is particularly blessed in its choice of subject matter. The serendipitous meshing of artist's books as a subject, with the ability to duplicate a sense of them on the printed page, is a coming together of two forms that seem made for each other.

Nevertheless, the question of balancing the importance of visual art with literary art is beautifully answered in this issue. APPENDIX L

AN INVENTORY OF LITERARY MAGAZINES SPONSORED BY TEXAS INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING

Area codes (in parentheses), ordinary phone numbers, and tex-an phone numbers (both numbers in parentheses) are derived from J. Woolf (Ed.) (1988) TEXAS HIGHER EDUCATION DIRECTORY published by The Association of Texas Colleges and Universities at The University of Texas at Arlington, ph: (817) 273-2560. Institutions which publish literary magazines i.n which there are no graphics/artwork are noted with a double asterisk beside the title.

ABILENE CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY NAME OF MAGAZINE: PICKWICKER NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. JACK WELCH ANGELO STATE UNIVERSITY (845-0111)/ (915) 942-2131 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CONCHO RIVER REVIEW ** NAME OF SPONSOR: TERENCE DALYRIMPLE AUSTIN COLLEGE (214) 892-9101 NAME OF MAGAZINE: SUSPENSION NAME OF SPONSOR: BOB BERRY

501 502

BAYLOR UNIVERSITY (817) 755-1768 NAME OF MAGAZINE: PHOENIX 1988 NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. WM. McDONALD CISCO JR. COLLEGE (817) 442-2567 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CROSS TIMBERS REVIEW NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. MONTE LEWIS CLARENDON COLLEGE (806) 874-3571 NAME OF MAGAZINE: SIDEWINDER NAME OF SPONSOR: NOT CURRENTLY PUBLISHED CONCORDIA LUTHERAN COLLEGE (512) 452-7661 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CROSS ROADS NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. TOM MANDEVILLE COOKE COUNTY COLLEGE (817) 668-7731 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE APRIL PERENNIAL NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. ONA WRIGHT EAST TEXAS BAPTIST COLLEGE (214) 935-7963 NAME OF MAGAZINE: BEACON NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. HARRIS EAST TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY (214) 886-5000 NAME OF MAGAZINE: SULFUR RIVER SPRING 1982, SPRING 1987. NAME OF SPONSOR: JAMES MICHAEL ROBBINS EAST TEXAS STATE AT TEXARKANA (214) 838-6514 NAME OF MAGAZINE: ANTHOLOGY NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. DORIS DAVIS EL PASO COMMUNITY COLLEGE (915) 594-2000 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CHRYSYLAS NAME OF SPONSOR: MR. JOHNSON HARDIN SIMMONS UNIVERSITY (915) 677-7281 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CORRAL 1988 NAME OF SPONSOR: BOB HOWELL (ART SPONSOR) ROBERT FINK (LITERARY SPONSOR) HILL JR. COLLEGE (817) 582-2555 NAME OF MAGAZINE: MINDSTREAMS NAME OF SPONSOR: ROBERT LYSTER HOUSTON COMMUNITY COLLEGE SYSTEM (713) 868-0700/869-5021 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CHANNEL ** NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. FRANK THORTON HOWARD COLLEGE AT BIG SPRING (841) 267-6311 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THISTLES NAME OF SPONSOR: SUSAN KING HOWARD PAYNE UNIVERSITY (915) 646-2502 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE CATALYST NAME OF SPONSOR: EDGAR DASS- DR. EVELYN ROMIG INCARNATE WORD COLLEGE (512) 828-1261 NAME OF MAGAZINE: EXPRESSIONS NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. JILL LE-COUER LAMAR UNIVERSITY-ORANGE (409) 883-7750 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CARDINALVIEW NAME OF SPONSOR: BETTY JO SPENCE LAMAR UNIVERSITY AT PORT ARTHUR (409) 727-0886 NAME OF MAGAZINE: EXPRESSIONS NAME OF SPONSOR: SUE WRIGHT LAREDO STATE UNIVERSITY (512) 722-8001 NAME OF MAGAZINE: VOICES AND IMAGES NAME OF MAGAZINE: LAS CALAVERAS NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. NORMA CANTU LE TOURNEAU COLLEGE (214) 753-0231 NAME OF MAGAZINE: A SAMPLE OF INGENUITY NAME OF SPONSOR: REBECCA LETA FAE ARNOLD LON MORRIS COLLEGE (214) 586-2471 NAME OF MAGAZINE: REFLECTIONS NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. JANE PURTLE MARY HARDIN-BAYLOR UNIVERSITY (817) 939-5811 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE BAYLORIAN MC MURRAY COLLEGE (915) 692-4130 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE GALLEON NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. GERALD MCDANIEL RECORDED INTERVIEW 12/1/88 MIDLAND COLLEGE 3600 N. GARFIELD MIDLAND, TEXAS 79701 NAME OF MAGAZINE: TABLEAU NAME OF SPONSOR: REBECCA WATSON MIDWESTERN STATE UNIVERSITY (817) 692-6611 NAME OF MAGAZINE: VOICES NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. HOFFMAN NORTH HARRIS COUNTY COLLEGE (713) 443-6640 NAME OF MAGAZINE: LITERARY MAGAZINE ** NAME OF SPONSOR: MIKE MCFARLAND-S.BALLYON NORTH LAKE COLLEGE (214) 659-5229 NAME OF MAGAZINE: DUCK SOUP NOT CURRENTLY PRODUCED NAME OF SPONSOR: NANCY JONES NORTH TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY (834) 565-2000 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE GREEN FUSE NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. RICHARD SALE OUR LADY OF THE LAKE UNIVERSITY AT SAN ANTONIO (512) 434-6711 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE THING ITSELF NAME OF SPONSOR: SISTER ROSE MARIE GALLATIN PAN AMERICAN UNIVERSITY (826) 381-2101 NAME OF MAGAZINE: GALLERY NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. PATRICIA DE LA FUENTE PARIS JR. COLLEGE (214) 785-7661 NAME OF MAGAZINE: SWINGERS OF BIRCHES NAME OF EDITOR: DWIGHT CHANEY NAME OF ART EDITOR: KATHY TYLER SAINT MARY'S UNIVERSITY AT SAN ANTONIO (512) 436-3011 NAME OF MAGAZINE: LITERARY MAGAZINE NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. PEGGY CURET ST. EDWARD'S UNIVERSITY (512) 448 8400 NAME OF MAGAZINE: EVERYMAN NAME OF SPONSOR: STEVE HALL SAM HOUSTON STATE UNIVERSITY (858) 294-1013 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE TEXAS REVIEW ** NAME OF EDITOR: PAUL RUFFIN SAN JACINTO COLLEGE CENTRAL CAMPUS (713) 476-1501 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CHYRSALLIS ** NAME OF SPONSOR: TOM GORZYCKI SAN JACINTO- NORTH CAMPUS (713) 458-4050 NAME OF MAGAZINE: PRISM NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. MARY KAY JENNINGS SCHREINER COLLEGE (512) 896-5411 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE MUSE NAME OF SPONSOR: DR.KATHLEEN HUDSON 506

SOUTHERN METHODIST UNIVERSITY (214) 692-2000 NAME OF MAGAZINE: ESPEJO NAME OF SPONSOR: MARSHALL TERRY NAME OF MAGAZINE: SOUTHWEST REVIEW ** NAME OF SPONSOR:WILLARD SPIEGELMAN SOUTHWEST TEXAS JR. COLLEGE (512) 278-4401 NAME OF MAGAZINE: PALM'S LEAF NAME OF SPONSOR: DAVID ENGLAND SOUTH WEST TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY (512) 245-2111 NAME OF MAGAZINE: PERSONA NAME OF SPONSOR: LISA LUNDSTEDT SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY (512) 863-6511 NAME OF MAGAZINE: SOUTHWESTERN MAGAZINE NAME OF SPONSOR: BEVERLY COUZENS-DORITA HATCHET STEPHEN F. AUSTIN (713) 569-2011 NAME OF MAGAZINE: RE:AL ** NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. SCHULTZ SUL ROSS STATE UNIVERSITY (915) 837-8011 NAME OF MAGAZINE: SAGE NAME OF SPONSOR: BARBARA RICHERSON TEMPLE JR. COLLEGE (817) 773-9961 ' NAME OF MAGAZINE: COLLAGE NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. GWEN HAUK TEXAS A & I UNIVERSITY NAME OF MAGAZINE: WRITERS BLOC NAME OF SPONSOR: NOT CURRENTLY PUBLISHED TEXAS A & M UNIVERSITY AT GALVESTON (713) 766 -3200 (858-4400) NAME OF MAGAZINE: SEA SPRAY NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. STEVE CURLEY 507

TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY (817) 921-7000 NAME OF MAGAZINE: DESCANT ** NAME OF SPONSOR: CLAUDIA KNOTT TEXAS LUTHERAN COLLEGE (512) 379-4161 NAME OF MAGAZINE: WOMAN HOLLERING CREEK REVIEW ** NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. JUAN RODERIQUEZ TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY (806) 742-2011 (862-2011) NAME OF MAGAZINE: HARBINGER NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. WALTER MACDONALD TEXAS WESLEYAN COLLEGE (817) 534-0251 NAME OF MAGAZINE: ARIES NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. MIRIAM ESPINOSA TRINITY UNIVERSITY (512) 736-7011 NAME OF MAGAZINE: TRINITY REVIEW NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. JUDITH FISHER TYLER JR. COLLEGE (214) 531-2200 (892-2111) NAME OF MAGAZINE: TJC TOUCHSTONE NAME OF SPONSOR: NOAMIE BRYAM UNIVERSITY OF DALLAS (214) 721-5000 NAME OF MAGAZINE: TOUCHSTONE NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. JOSEPH RICE UNIVERSITY OF HOUSTON-CLEAR LAKE (713) 488-7170 NAME OF MAGAZINE: BAYOUSPHERE 1988 NAME OF SPONSOR: GLORIA MORRIS UNIVERSITY OF HOUSTON (CENTRAL) (713) 749-1011 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE AMERICAS REVIEW NAME OF EDITOR: JULIAN OLIVARES 508

UNIVERSITY OF HOUSTON-DOWNTOWN (713) 221-8013 NAME OF MAGAZINE: BAYOU REVIEW NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. DAN JONES UNIVERSITY OF SAINT THOMAS (713) 522-7911 NAME OF MAGAZINE: LAURELS, SHADWELL SAMPLER NAME OF SPONSOR: MARIA SPURGEON-BOB SALVADOR UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS (AUSTIN) (512) 471-3434 NAME OF MAGAZINE: TEXAS QUARTERLY ** NAME OF EDITOR:HARRY H. RANSOME UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS (DALLAS) (839) 690-2111 NAME OF MAGAZINE: MUNDUS ARTIUM ** NAME OF EDITOR: RAINER SCHULTE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS (EL PASO) (915) 747-5000 (846-5000) NAME OF MAGAZINE: RIO GRANDE REVIEW NAME OF SPONSOR: JOE GARCIA UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS (SAN ANTONIO) (828) 691-4011 NAME OF MAGAZINE: CACTUS ALLEY NAME OF SPONSOR: BILL OLIVER UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS (ODESSA) (915) 367-2011 NAME OF MAGAZINE: THE SANDSTORM NAME OF SPONSOR: PAM PRICE WAYLAND BAPTIST UNIVERSITY (806) 296-5521 NAME OF MAGAZINE: WBYOU NAME OF SPONSOR: RETA CARTER NOT IN CURRENT PUBLICATION WEST TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY (806) 656-0111 NAME OF MAGAZINE: WTSU REVIEW OF THE ARTS NAME OF SPONSOR: DR. JERRY CRAVEN REFERENCES Abse, J. (1980). John Ruskin. London:Quartet Books. Ades, D. (1984). The 20th-century Poster; Design of the Avant-Garde. New York: Abbeville Press. Agee, J. & Evans, W. (1941). Let Us Now Praise Famous Men. Boston:Houghton Mifflin Co. Alpert, B.S.(1971).The Unexamined Art:Ezra Pound And The Aesthetic Mode Of The Little Magazine. Dissertation Abstracts International, 72 , 11498. Anania, M. (1978). Of Living Be.Lfrey And Rampart: On American Literary Magazines Since 1950. In E. Anderson & M. Kinzie (Eds.), The Little Magazine In America: A Modern Documentary History. (pp.6-23). Yonkers, New York: Pushcart Press.

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