Representation of Malays and Malay Culture in the Fiction of Lloyd Fernando and Che Husna Azhari

REPRESENTATION OF MALAYS AND MALAY CULTURE IN THE FICTION OF LLOYD FERNANDO AND CHE HUSNA AZHARI

WAN NUR MADIHA BINTI RAMLAN

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies)

Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia

JANUARY 2012

ABSTRACT

In terms of demographics, Malaysia possesses such diversity with the multiple ethnic groups that make up the population of the country. Malaysia is a country that promotes its national diversity, unity, and harmony, and recently, the government has been promoting similar values within the 1Malaysia concept, a formula that aims to “foster unity” among the peoples of the country. However, the relationship between the dominant Malays and other races has always been a sensitive and taboo subject, ever since the May 13 incident in 1969, a sensitivity that far transcends the superficial image of harmony in the country. The Malays, which make up roughly around 65% of the population, and their culture would be the subject of this qualitative study. This paper investigates the representation of the Malays and Malay culture in the body of Malaysian postcolonial literature in the English language. The research will not only look at how the other ethnic groups represent the Malays in literature, but this study also aims to investigate how the Malays look at themselves. To achieve this aim, this study will examine a number of short stories by Che Husna Azhari and Green is the Colour (1993) by Lloyd Fernando. Due to the different ethnic backgrounds of these two writers, one being Malay and the other a non- Malay, a certain balance and objectivity could be reached. The work of these writers would supply sufficient evidence on the shaping of identity and representation of the Malays. The premise of this study would centre upon representation, race and ethnicity, nation and nationalism and the subaltern It is hoped that this study would allow for a better understanding of how stereotyping and national identity are shaped in Malaysia, as well as observe the aspirations and attempts, successful or otherwise, for national integration as proposed by the 1Malaysia concept.

خالصة البحث

تزخر ماليزيا من حيث الرتكيبة السكانية بثقافات متعددة ومجاعات عرقية متنوعة تشكل سكان البالد. وتعزز الدولة يف هذا التنوع العرقي إىل القومية والوحدة واالنسجام الثقايف. من ذلك قامت احلكومة برتويج تلك القيم يف إطار مفهوم )ماليزيا واحدة(، وهو إطار يهدف إىل "تعزيز الوحدة"بني مجيع أطياف السكان. وعلى الرغم من ذلك، فإن العالقة بني العرق املاليو واألعراق األخرى دائما ما تشوهبا احلساسية وبعض احملرمات االجتماعية، السيما يف الفرتة اليت تلت حادثة 31 مايو 3191. وقد تتجاوز هذه احلساسية الصورة السطحية اليت رمست للبالد لنشر الوئام واالنسجام. لذلك تركز هذه الدراسة النوعية على ثقافة العرق املاليو الذي يشكل 96 باملائة من السكان. وحتقق هذه الدراسة يف كيفية تصوير املاليو وثقافتهم يف الكيان املاليزي، وذلك يف أدب فرتة مابعد االستعمار باللغة اإلجنليزية. ومل يقتصر البحث على النظر يف كيفية تصور األعراق األخرى للماليويني يف األدب، بل يهدف أيضا إىل التحقيق يف كيفية تصور املاليويني ألنفسهم. ولتحقيق تلك األهداف، يقوم البحث على دراسة عدد من القصص القصرية اليت كتبت بواسطة شي حسنة أزهري، وقصة "األخضر لون" للكاتب لويد فرناندو. ويأيت اختيار تلك القصص للللفيات العرقية لكتاهبا، فاألوىل ماليوية واخآخر غري ماليوي، وذلك يساعد على عملية التوازن واملوضوعية يف الطرح. وجسدت تلك األعمال بالشواهد الكافية يف تشكيل التصور واهلوية املاليوية. وترتكز الدراسة على فرضيات وهي التصور، والعرق، والطائفة، والقومية، والوطنية، واالتباع. وتتطلع الدراسة إىل تشكيل مفهوم أفضل يف كيفية تشكيل القوالب النمطية واهلوية الوطنية مباليزيا، إضافة إىل مراقبة جناح التطلعات واحملاوالت من عدمها يف االندماج الوطين على النحو املؤطر يف مفهوم )ماليزيا واحدة(.

iii

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

……..…………..…………… M.A. Quayum Abdussalam Supervisor

…….…………..…………… Ghulam-Sarwar Yousof Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

…….…………..…………… Zahariah Pilus Head, Department of English Language and Literature

This dissertation was submitted to the Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

.………………..…………… Badri Najib Zubir Dean, Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences (KIRKHS)

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Wan Nur Madiha binti Ramlan

Signature: ……………………………….. Date: ………………………

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

REPRESENTATION OF MALAYS AND MALAY CULTURE IN THE FICTION OF LLOYD FERNANDO AND CHE HUSNA AZHARI

I hereby affirm that The International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) hold all rights in the copyright of this Work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any form or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of IIUM. No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Affirmed by Wan Nur Madiha binti Ramlan.

…………………………… ………………. Signature Date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The realisation of this thesis would not have been possible without the support of many people, and therefore I would like to take this opportunity to say thank you. Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. M.A. Quayum whose encouragement, guidance and support enabled me to grasp a better understanding of the subject. To my parents, Ramlan Abdul Aziz and Nasibah Mohd. Ali, I am ever grateful for the unwavering love, support and wisdom they provided me throughout this trying albeit rewarding experience. Special thanks to all my friends who, over the years, have become my personal group of critics as well as cheerleaders. To my best friend, Zanirah Wahab, your friendship and infectious personality provided me with the energy and inspiration to forge ahead and complete this thesis. I am also indebted to the staff of the Department of English Language and Literature (DELL), IIUM for all the assistance they provided me during the course of my study. Lastly, my deepest gratitude is reserved for Allah S.W.T. for giving me the strength to persevere. Without His aid, I would not have been able to face and overcome the many challenges that I have experienced throughout my life.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………. ii Abstract in Arabic………………………………………………………………. iii Approval Page…………………………………………………………………… iv Declaration Page ………………………………………………………………... v Copyright Page …………………………………………………………………. vi Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………. vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………. 1 1.1. Background of Study………………………………………………………. 1.1.1 Introduction………………………………………………… 1 1.1.2 Malaysia’s Multiculturalism and the History of the 2 Malays…………………………………………………...... 1.2 Statement of Problem……………………………………………………….. 8 1.3. 1.3 Objectives of the Study……………………………………………………… 11 1.4 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………. 12 1.5 Scope of the Study…………………………………………………………. 13 1.6 Literature Review…………………………………………………………… 14 1.7 Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………….. 1.7.1 Theory of Representation, Signs and the Creation of Myths 17 1.8 Research Methodology……………………………………………………… 21 1.9 Organisation of Chapters……………………………………………………. 22

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ………………………….. 24 2.1 Representation ……………………………………………………………… 25 2.2 Nation and Nationalism …………….……………………………………… 34 2.3 The Issue of the Other: Edward Said’s Orientalism………………………… 38 2.4 Race and Ethnicity………….………………………………………………. 40 2.5 Concluding Comments…….………………………………………………… 43

CHAPTER 3: LLOYD FERNANDO…………………………………..……. 45 3.1 The Author and His Novel…………………………………………………... 45 3.2 Love, Acceptance and Awareness…………………………………...……… 49 3.3 Islam, Spirituality and Corruption………………………………………..…. 54 3.4 Self/Other in Malaysian Culture………...... 61 3.5 A Representation of Malay Culture………………………………………..... 70 3.5.1 The Kampung and Rural Area………………………………... 70 3.5.2 Language…………………………………………………...…. 72 3.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………..… 75

CHAPTER 4: CHE HUSNA AZHARI……………………………………….. 78 4.1 Che Husna Azhari and Her Fiction………………………………………….. 78 4.2 Religion and Tradition: The Malay-Muslim Dilemma…………………….. 81 4.2.2 Islam and Malays………………………………………...…… 82 4.2.3 ‘Adat and Malays…………………………………...………… 85 4.3 Sense of Community…..…………………………………………………… 91 4.4 Kelantanese- Malays as Subalterns ………………………………………… 95 4.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………...…… 100

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION………………………………………………… 105

BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………… 115

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

1.1.1 Introduction

Representation is an aspect of life that is essential to our understanding of not only ourselves, but of other objects, people, and situations around us. It allows us to take into account both sense and social environment. It is a process that is highly multi-faceted and has the profound ability to create and maintain our perception towards reality through the use of symbolism and signs and is very much infused with the relation between self, self- other, and object (Jovchelovitch, 13). No more is representation viewed as a mirror of the world due to its consideration towards the issues and state of affairs relative to components that make up the representing system. What is important concerning representation is that it involves the state of perception, and it is this state that awareness in correlation to a particular focus that would be the heart of any representational study.

In the study of literature, representation has been used to approach literary works from a multitude of theories that include Marxism, feminism as well as postcolonialism.

Through postcolonial theory, representation is used to analyse the relationship between the “One” and “Other” of a society or community. In regards to Malaysian literature in

English, representation has been used to analyse several facets that include gender studies, urban spaces and cultural communities. The investigation of cultural communities in Malaysian literature in English has touched upon representation of the

Chinese, Indians, as well as the Orang Asli. Interestingly enough, there is a gap when it comes to studies pertaining to representation of the Malays and studies related to the culture of any community, an aspect that I will discuss further in the literature review section of this thesis.

Using the theory of representation, I choose to study how Malays and their culture are projected in Malaysian literature in English, specifically fiction. Although Malaysia’s multiculturalism is a boon to the country, relationship between Malays and other ethnic communities is never a smooth one and that factor has piqued my interest in regards to

Malay representation. Therefore, to embark on this endeavour requires an understanding of the relationship between the many ethnic groups in the country and this will be discussed in detail as the discussion unfolds.

1.1.2 Malaysia’s multiculturalism and the history of the Malays

As a young country that possesses multiethnic and multicultural diversities, Malaysia is confronted with the reality that the very elements that constitute her wealth, would also present many obstacles for her process of nation-building. This comes as no surprise as homogeneous countries also face similar problems in regards to nation-building, but for a country like Malaysia, these challenges would be greater amplified due to such diversity.

To deal with these obstacles, the current Prime Minister of Malaysia, Dato’ Sri Najib Tun

Razak, has proposed a new blueprint aptly called “1Malaysia”; a public relations campaign dedicated to promote positive relations among its people and consolidate the unity between them. Through the “1Malaysia” plan, the Prime Minister hopes that it would become a medium of dialogue for Malaysians to be more united while exploring

their identity, purpose and direction (1Malaysia, 2010.) The Prime Minister believes that this could be achieved by adhering to the eight values proposed in the plan; perseverance, a culture of excellence, acceptance, loyalty, education, humility, integrity, as well as meritocracy.

In Malaysia however, discussion of ethnic relations remains a sensitive issue. Most dialogues are limited to ones which are deemed “safe” and non-threatening to the security and stability of the country. This unofficial blanket on the issue is chiefly the result of the

Sino-Malay violence that erupted on 13 May 1969, when the initial politically-driven confrontations between Malays and the Chinese (and at some point, the Indians) turned bloody. Today, Malaysia’s attitude towards the relationship between the country’s ethnic groups is heavily influenced by what happened 42 years ago, as portion of the national policy reflects the need of preventive measures to avoid racial incitement. Incidentally, these policies also cemented the position of Malays in the country. The irony however, lies in the fact that policies that were amended to ensure the country’s stability, have also paved way for the troubles surrounding ethnic relations in the country to be ignored and become deeply rooted.

Criticism of this social contract has been raised throughout the years from several parties, local and abroad, but these however, were met with much chagrin and outcry primarily from the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and the Malay press.

Consequently, this imposition on such exchanges has led to the birth of a series of

Barthesian myths such as stereotypes, archetypes, and prejudices in regards to the perception that Malaysians have towards one another. Through these stereotypes and

prejudices, the projection of a particular group relies heavily on a warped and clouded understanding of another.

According to Syed Husin Ali in his book Ethnic Relations in Malaysia: Harmony and Conflict (2008), ethnic relations in Malaysia are unique because the relationship in

Malaysia is founded upon the majority-minority paradigm. This paradigm is characterised by the dominance of the majority over the minority. In Malaysia’s case, Malays form the majority in terms of demography with an estimate 60.3% of the country’s population in

2010 (“Population” Department of Statistics Malaysia) and at the same time, Malays are dominant in national politics. Therefore, it will be interesting to observe how the dominant group of the populace is projected and represented and it would be noteworthy to examine the position of Malays and their interaction with other ethnic groups as this will also uncover the malady of the Malays.

Intellectual pursuit of all things “Melayu” roughly started during the 19th century, when the British were interested to record and learn about Malays. What came out of this was the establishment of a branch of scholarship dubbed ‘Malayistics’ (Andaya, 2004), or known today as ‘Malay Studies’, although some have pointed out that this endeavour was least likely pursued due to the want of cultural understanding. Despite the argument over the motivation of the British, Malay studies saw a steady growth of productivity and interest, especially the origins of Malays. In relation, the concern over the origin of

Malays had scholars proposing a number of different theories that would explain their appearance in the region. In the article “The Search of the ‘Origins’ of Melayu” (2004),

Leonard Y. Andaya begins the discussion on “Melayu” by charting its origins from an

area in modern day Taiwan, where Proto-Austronesian speakers resided around

4000BCE.

Another historical reference pointing to the existence of a Malay community could be found in the historical records of China, where it specifies a kingdom north of

Srivijaya and referred to is as “Malayu”, which in the 680s became part of the Srivijaya

Empire. Anthony Reid in his article “Melayu as a Source of Modern Diverse Identities” stresses that even in Malay-language documents, references to the origin of “Melayu” is very obscure. Reid also explains that the the only few references of “Melayu” in the

Malay Annals are of a small river in Jambi called “Malayu”, adjectives used for royalty, and references to local custom.

During the Melaka sultanate, the Melakans and the Malays were differentiated by the terms “Orang Melaka” and “Orang Melayu”, which are found in many instances throughout historical sources, but after Melaka became a Muslim kingdom in 1414, the two terms were used interchangeably. This fact suggests that the Malays were different form the Melakans, either in terms of geography or social status. Today, Malays belonging to a group called “Bumiputera”, or “sons of the soil.” However, this term is also used to classify people of indigenous ethnicity in the country such as the Orang Asli,

Kadazan, Iban, Bidayuh and other various tribes.

There is a diverse range of communities which make up the Malays, such as the

Kelantanese Malays in the Northern part of Peninsula Malaysia, the Banjar Malays in

East Malaysia, and the Minangkabau descendants in Negri Sembilan. However, most people today holds the notion that Malays are members of one specific ethnic group, and this is established through the Malayness of its members. To “masuk Melayu” or to

“enter the Malay ethnicity” means more than just a simple initiation process due to a number of requirements that was established to define the group. Article 160 of the

Federal Constitution of Malaysia states that Malay means:

A person who professes the religion of Islam, habitually speaks the Malay language, conforms to Malay custom and (a) was before Merdeka Day born in the Federation or in Singapore or born of both parents of whom was born in the Federation or Singapore, or was on that day domiciled in the Federation or in Singapore; or (b) is the issue of such as person

(Article 160 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia)

Accordingly, the requirements that define ‘Malay’ are in reality free from any ethnic basis, as cited above, with the most important constituent being their conviction to the

Islamic faith. If we were to follow this definition of “Malay”, it would be understood that

Malays who convert to other faiths would no longer hold the privilege to be called so.

The Constitution’s definition of a Malay is to put it simply as very problematic, as demonstrated by the Lina Joy case in 2006, where the latter’s request to change the details on her national identification card after her conversion to Christianity, was met with much difficulty due to the conflict that arose in the Civil Court and the Syariah

Court (Barry, 2009). This exhibits that the integral part of Malay identity is very much entrenched more in Islam than being ethnically Malay.

Additionally, as important as the history of the Malays is the history of Malaysia’s multiculturalism. The arrival of Chinese and Indians to the Malay Peninsula was first recorded centuries ago when during the 2nd century CE, Indians were already using

Kedah, or then known as Kataha in Sankrit, as a trading route (Andaya, 2008). Moreover, the many Hindu kingdoms that were established in the peninsula, such as the remnants of

the Bujang Valley kingdom and the Hindu influences on Malay customs are evidence of the early arrival of Indians.

Following the arrival of Indians in the region, the Chinese also made their way to the peninsula some time during the 15th century when Melaka hosted Admiral Cheng Ho and his fleet on a stop-over during one of his expeditions. Through Admiral Cheng Ho,

Melaka established a political relationship with China’s Ming Dynasty, in exchange for annual tribute to the Emperor. Simultaneously, Melaka was also ensured of their safety with China agreeing to provide aid lest attacks by rival kingdoms were to take place. In subsequent years, a large number of Chinese came to settle in Melaka in an area dubbed

“Bukit Cina’ or “Chinese Hill”.

Despite the early arrivals of Chinese and Indians to the region, none of these arrivals had a considerable influence on the topography of the land. Nevertheless,

Malaysia’s multicultural setting today is very much attributed to British economic and labour efforts during the 19th century. Recognizing the peninsula’s potential for rubber plantations, its natural wealth, as well as the discovery of tin, the Chinese were brought in by the British and Malay chiefs (Kuhn, 2008:85) to toil in their mines, and Indians

(Singh, 2008:152) as indentured labourers to assist with Malaya’s agriculture. This influx of workers to the peninsula changed the face of the country and coupled together with the indigenous tribes and the settlement of Malays, Chinese and Indians, diversity was established in Malaysian society. Judith Nagata in her book, Malaysian Mosaic (1979) explains that this ethnic tapestry in Malaysia has resulted in the foundations of local politics and other aspects of Malaysian life to be heavily based on communalism and ethnicity. Therefore, parties such as the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO),

the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), and the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) exist due to the emphasis on ethnicity.

Regardless of the diversity, issues pertaining to ethnicity still linger within the threads of society, and these produce tension in Malaysian society and hamper efforts for better interracial relationships. Writers who are affected by it and are sensitive and conscious of such stirrings in their society have explored this tension in their writings.

Although much scholarship is done on the literature concerning the issue, much is explored on how this has affected the image of the “other” in Malaysian postcolonial literature. Taking a page from that book, this thesis will explore a similar area, but the focus now shifts to how the majority, in this case Malays and Malay culture, are represented in Malaysian postcolonial literature, particularly English-language fiction.

Representation of Malays according to Zawiyah Yahya, in her article “Portrayal of the

Malay in Novels in English written by Malaysian and Singaporean writers” (1986), has been lacking in postcolonial Malaysian English-language fiction, both in terms of quantity as well as quality.

Thus, for the purpose of this thesis, the works of Lloyd Fernando and Che Husna

Azhari are selected for the process of exploring how Malays are characterised as this thesis suggests that the fiction of these two writers would provide an insightful endeavor on Malay literary representation.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Through this thesis, I intend to explore how Malays and their mores, traditions, and customs are portrayed and how this representation is discussed in the fiction of Lloyd

Fernando and Che Husna Azhari. Largely due to the fact that this area of study has not been explored, this research would present a significant perspective on the issue of representation. Moreover, a comparison between authors of different backgrounds, such as that of Lloyd Fernando and Che Husna Azhari, would give us a fresh outlook on literary representation and allows us to value the scholarship on postcolonial Malaysian literature.

My argument will be centred upon Lloyd Fernando’s novel Green is the Colour

(1993) and two volumes of short stories by Che Husna Azhari: Melor in Perspective

(1993) and The Rambutan Orchard (1993) and how their contributions have provided us with another angle on understanding Malaysian English-language literature. Using these stories as markers, it would aid the research to exemplify and clarify the points that will be presented in this thesis. Although it may be argued that the genres of the works by these two writers are different, other factors have been taken into account in the selection process. In order to observe the issue holistically, the best option is to gather works of fiction from writers of different ethnicity, faith, and gender as to provide variety, as well as potential objectivity to the study.

The inclusion of Lloyd Fernando’s novel Green is the Colour (1993) in this study is not an arbitrary choice. Fernando’s novel will be used due to his inclusion and portrayal of many types of Malay characters, as well as the significant amount of allusions to elements of Malay culture. Set during the aftermath of the May 13 riots in Malaysia, the novel focuses on the lives of a group of individuals who struggle to make sense of their reality amidst chaos and confusion. With no shortage of Malay characters, this novel is

ideal because the characterisation of Malay characters is solid and effectual for the focus of this thesis.

Being Kelantanese Malay, Che Husna Azhari’s short stories will bring to the table another perspective on Malay representation, as we are allowed to observe how the writer projects the image of her community, as well as her culture. The first collection of short stories that we will be studying in this thesis is Melor in Perspective (1993); this collection illustrates the life of a small rural community in Kelantan. The second volume of short stories, The Rambutan Orchard (1993), follows a similar pattern and depicts the adolescent memories of a woman, set in an unspecificed rural locale. It is interesting to note that these volumes mainly focus on Malays and rarely address characters outside the community. The works of these two writers will be analysed by investigating the portrayal of Malay characters in their story. These characters will be scrutinised by inspecting their speech patterns, clothing, movement, social interaction and other behaviour patterns which are culturally-induced.

As both writers deal with the issue of Malay representation in their own unique way and despite the differences of their background and approaches, their works are key in understanding the different perspectives on ethnic relations in Malaysia and shed more light on identity formation in Malaysia, especially towards the development of its national identity.

Also important to the context of this research is the understanding of the progress and state of English-language writing in Malaysia. Through better comprehension of the evolution of Malaysian literature, it will draw attention to how the Malaysian social

milieu and its language policies have impinged on and affect the writings of these two writers.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

For this thesis, I have chosen the works of Lloyd Fernando and Che Husna Azhari, as suggests of the research, in order to firmly grasp an understanding of the different experiences and perspectives of writers in relation to Malays and Malay culture. Through their interaction with Malays and living in a society that is largely populated by them, the experiences of these two writers are useful to establish the portrayal of Malays and the projection of Malay culture. Having migrated to Singapore (and then Malaysia) from Sri

Lanka when he was 12, it can be said that Lloyd Fernando was a true Malaysian, with a deep love for the country he has come to know as home. Despite the challenges he has countered being a Malaysian, as well as writing in English, Fernando braved through them to advocate the issues that were close to his heart. His love and concern for

Malaysia, as well as his understanding of Malays and Malay culture, are reasons why his work is selected for this research.

Likewise, Che Husna Azhari possesses a deep connection and familiarity with her

Kelantanese-Malay heritage and her immediate community. This would be a touchstone for comparing her projection of Kelantanese Malays as well as Malays outside that group.

The thesis will therefore include several important works by scholars pertaining to representation, culture, and identity politics and how these areas of study are utilised for a contextual understanding of the works of Fernando and Che Husna. The primary objectives of this research are:

(i) To observe and analyse how Malays and Malay culture are represented in

Malaysian fiction in English by both non-Malays and Malays of other sub-cultures.

(ii) To shed light on the current cultural milieu in Malaysia and to see whether a dichotomy exists in the country’s cultural scene.

(iii) To scrutinize how works of fiction by the selected writers contribute to a cultural understanding and the strengthening of ethnic ties in the country.

It is the chief aim of this thesis to achieve these objectives by the end of this discussion by substantiating the analysis of the works of Fernando and Che Husna with the works of critics specialising in postcolonial and sociological studies. Simultaneously, this work will also provide leverage for further expansion on the scholarship done on

English-language literature in Malaysia as literature plays a role in reflecting the lives of the members of a society, its history, its joys and its ills.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Although the study of representation is not particularly new, it is imperative to many disciplines such as sociology, psychology, politics, as well as history. In the field of sociology for example, the study of representation deals with the crisis and traditions of representation in different societies, while in politics, proportional representation is used to assess how political power is divided. Parallel with the development of these issues in other disciplines, representation as a point of discussion in literature has been utilised in other works such as gender representation and minority representation. However, this

research differs in three aspects: (i) it analyses the representation of a major group, in this context, Malays, (ii) it takes into account how culture is represented, and (iii) it considers every aspect of the subject matter to highlight Malay representation.

This thesis will also pay attention to how the idea of “Malayness” is played out in the works of both writers and through the diverse selection of the works, genres, and of the writers’ background where this would hopefully be achieved. Thus, the study would contribute greatly to the advancement of criticism on not only Malaysian English- language literature, but also to the study of postcolonial literature in the region, particularly concerning the study of fiction.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This thesis will explore the issue of representation in respect to Malays and Malay culture in Lloyd Fernando’s novel Green is the Colour (1993) and Che Husna Azhari’s Melor in

Perspective (1993) and The Rambutan Orchard (1993). The stories have been carefully chosen not only to reflect diversity, but also to aim for complete objectivity concerning the findings of the study. Due to a large number of shorts stories in both volumes of Che

Husna’s short stories, some of the prospective short stories are as follow:

(a) Melor in Perspective (1993)

(i) “Mariah”

(ii) “The Country Doctor”

(iii) “Of Bunga Telur and Bally Shoes”

(iv) “Mek Teh, Mother Andam”

(b) The Rambutan Orchard (1993)

(i) “The Mascot

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW

The development of Malaysian Anglophone literature picked up momentum during the

1950s and after more than half a century later, Malaysian writers are able to produce a significant number of literary works in all genres of literature despite the difficulties that arise from a rigid language policy, as well as lack of appreciation for non-Malay literature. Unfortunately, not the same could be said about the state of criticism on

Malaysian Anglophone literature as the momentum only started to pick up during the second half of the 1990s. Today, there are only a relatively small number of critics and scholars who are pursuing research in this area.

One of these people is Mohammad A. Quayum, an academic who has published extensively in the field of Malaysian Anglophone literature. Although he does not deal entirely with Malaysian literature, his works concerning the multiple issues inherent in

Malaysian literature could be considered a touchstone for Malaysian literature and its criticism. In his article “Self-refashioning a Plural Society: Dialogism and Syncretism in

Malaysian Post-colonial Literature”, published in the New Zealand Journal of Asian

Studies, he explores five different novels and their writer’s stand and different approaches on reconciling differences and the use of dialogism as the best option for the process of forming a nation. The books that he has co-authored/edited such as Malaysian Literature in English: A Critical Reader (2001), One Sky Many Horizons: Studies in Malaysian

Literature in English (2007) and Writing a Nation: Essays on Malaysian Literature

(2008) have covered different aspects and areas of study concerning Malaysian literature in English through the collection of different articles from prominent critics such as

Faridah Abdul Manaf, Koh Tai Ann, Wong Soak Koon and Peter Wicks. However, the primary focus of this thesis has yet to be explored in these books and therefore, it is of the benefit of Malaysian literary criticism to address the theme of Malay representation. The end product of this research would assist us to have a clearer picture on the psyche of

Malaysian society comparative to the creation of a national identity.

Another scholar who has a keen interest on the same area of study is Zawiyah

Yahya. Her article “Portrayal of the Malay in Novels in English Written in English by

Malaysian and Singaporean Writers” (1986), has addressed an aspect similar to the focus of this thesis. Her article comments on how Malay characters are often projected as flat characters who are “faceless, nameless, voiceless, and characterless” (87). While she argues for a more dynamic representation of Malays, she also acknowledges a few exceptions to this case: Sabran in Lloyd Fernando’s Scorpion Orchid (1976) and Rahim in Mohd. Tajuddin’s The Price Has Been High (1984). Additionally, Zawiyah’s article also comments on the literary and sociological images of Malays and she explains that when constructing a Malay character in literature, non-Malay writers should take into careful consideration the socio-cultural world of their character as stereotypes such as poverty, idleness, dedication, and penchant for all things melodramatic, which are the usual fare for the representation of Malays in many works. However, Zawiyah’s article is limited to the portrayal of Malays in novels, whereas Malay characters in other literary genres such as the short story are not explored. Moreover, due to her focus on writers from two different countries, Zawiyah keeps her commentary on the malaise of Malay