ENGINEEENGINEERR - Vol.Vol. XLVIII, XLVIII ,No. No. 01, 01, pp. pp. [71-81], [page range],2015 2015 © The Institution of of Engineers, Engineers, Sri Lanka 17. Southern highway corridor profile, Technical tributary mass loads”, Water Resour. Res.,Vol. 25, Assistance Consultant‟s Report, Asian 1989, pp. 1379 – 1389. Development Bank, Project Number: 26522-03 Coastal Investigations for Sustainable Development of (TA 7065), 2009. 28. Runkel, R. L., Crawford, C. G., & Cohn, T.A., Load Estimator (LOADEST): A FORTRAN program for Fisheries Infrastructure 18. Ishidaira, H., Takeuchi, K., & Ao, T. Q., estimating constituent loads in streams and rivers, “Hydrological Simulation of Large River Basins U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods, A. H. R. Ratnasooriya and S. P. Samarawickrama in Southeast Asia”, Proc., Fresh Perspectives on book 4, chap. A5, 2004, 69 p. Hydrology and Water Resources in Southeast Asia Abstract: Plans have been formulated by the government to increase the fish production and the and the Pacific, Christ Church, 21–24 November 29. Hooper, R. P., Aulenbach, B. T., & Kelly, V. J., national targets indicate significant increases in marine fisheries production. The expansion of the 2000, IHP-V Technical Document in Hydrology “The National Stream Quality Accounting No. 7, 2000, pp. 53–54. Network: A Flux-Based Approach to Monitoring marine fishing fleet and the development of appropriate fisheries infrastructure for the operation of the Water Quality of Large Rivers”, Hydrol. such craft would play a vital role in achieving the future targets for fish production. A number of 19. Takeuchi, K., Hapuarachchi, P., Zhou, M., Process., Vol. 15, No. 7, 2001, pp. 1089–1106. studies were thus conducted to assess the feasibility of developing sustainable fisheries infrastructure Ishidaira, H., & Magome, J., “A BTOP Model to in various parts of the country. The attention in these investigations was mainly focussed on related Extend TOPMODEL for Distributed Hydrological 30. Stenback, G. A., Crumpton, W. G., Schilling, K. E., coastal engineering aspects in order to minimise the adverse impacts on the facility as well as the Simulation of Large Basins”, Hydrol. Process., Vol. & Helmers, M. J., “Rating Curve Estimation of neighbouring coastline to ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of any proposed development. 22, 2008, pp. 3236–3251. Nutrient Loads in Iowa Rivers”, J. Hydrol., Vol. Attempts were made to assess, qualitatively, the exposure of the sites to the nearshore wave climate 396, No. 1-2, 2011, pp. 158–169. and the resulting coastal processes related to sediment (sand) transport in the vicinity. The forms of 20. Beven, K. J., Kirkby, M. J., “A Physically Based, coastal constructions required were identified and the severity of potential impacts due to such Variable Contributing Area Model of 31. De Silva, C. S., Weatherhead, E. K., Knox, J. W., & Hydrology”, Hydrol. Sci. Bull., Vol. 24, No. 1, Rodriguez, D. J. A., “Predicting the Impacts of developments was considered to assess the suitability of the sites for potential development. The 1979, pp. 43–69. Climate Change-A Case Study of Paddy details of selected investigations conducted in eastern, northern, south-western and southern regions Irrigation Requirements in Sri Lanka”, Agr. water are presented and the recommendations are elaborated. 21. Cunge, J. A., “On the Subject of a Flood manage., Vol.93, 2007, pp.19-29. Propagation Computation Method (Muskingum Keywords: Coastal, Fisheries Infrastructure, Sustainable Development. method)”, J. Hydraul. Res., Vol. 7, No. 2, 1969, 32. Walling, D. E., Webb, B. W., “Chapter 3: Water pp. 205–230. Quality. 1: Physical Characteristics”, In The rivers

handbook, Calow, P., Pettse, G. E., (eds.), Vol. 1, Plans have been made by the Ministry of 22. Jastram, J. D., Moyer, D. L., & Hyer, K. E., A Oxford, Blackwell, 1992, pp. 48-72. 1. Introduction comparison of turbidity-based and streamflow-based Fisheries and Aquatic Resources to increase estimates of suspended-sediment concentrations in 33. Yusop, Z., Tan, L. W., Ujang, Z., Mohamed, M., & Fisheries activities are carried out along almost the fish production and the national fish three Chesapeake Bay tributaries, U.S. Geological Nasir, K. A., “Runoff Quality and Pollution the entire coastline of Sri Lanka extending over production targets indicate significant Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2009– Loadings from a Tropical Urban Catchment”, 1,600 km. A large coastal population is increases in marine fisheries production. The 5165, 2009, 37 p. Water Sci. Technol., Vol. 52, No. 9, 2005, pp. 125- engaged in fisheries activities and, with more expansion of the marine fishing fleet and the

32. than 250,000 active fishermen [7], the fisheries development of appropriate fisheries 23. Lewis, J., “Turbidity-Controlled Suspended sector forms an important part of the national infrastructure facilities for the operation of Sediment Sampling for Runoff-event Load 34. Sri Lanka Standards for potable water – SLS 614, Sri such crafts would thus play a vital role in Estimation”, Water Resour. Res., Vol. 32, No. 7, Lanka Standards Institute, 1983. economy. It accounted for 1.8 % of the Gross 1996, pp. 2299-2310. Domestic Product of the country in 2013 [7]. achieving the future targets for fish 35. Proposed ambient water quality standards for inland Marine fishing, dominating the fisheries sector, production. 24. Rasmussen, P. P., Gray, J. R., Glysson, G. D., & waters of Sri Lanka, Central Environmental contributes to more than 85 % of total fish Ziegler, A. C., Guidelines and procedures for Authority, Sri Lanka, 2001. production [7] and is carried out by a variety computing time-series suspended-sediment of fishing crafts. These include smaller fishing concentrations and loads from in-stream turbidity- crafts-Beach Seine Boats (NBSB), Non- sensor and streamflow data, U.S. Geological Survey Motorized Traditional Boats (NTRB), Techniques and Methods, book 3, chap. C4, 2009, 52 p. Motorized Traditional Boats (MTRB), Outboard Motor Fibre Reinforced Plastic Boats 25. Wickramaarachchi, T. N., Ishidaira, H., & (OFRP) and larger fishing crafts-One Day Wijayaratna, T. M. N., “Streamflow, Suspended Boats with Inboard Engines (IDAY) and Multi Solids, and Turbidity Characteristics of the Gin Day Boats (IMUL)(Figure 1). The total marine River, Sri Lanka”, „Engineer’, Journal of the fishing fleet exceeded 53,000 crafts in 2012 [7] Institution of Engineers Sri Lanka, Vol. 46, No. 4, and is based in various fishery infrastructure Figure 1 - Different Types of Fishing Crafts 2013, pp. 43-51. facilities in the form of Fishery Harbors,

Anchorages and Landing Sites along the 26. Littlewood, I. G., Watts, C. D., & Custance, J. M., Eng. A. H. R. Ratnasooriya, AMIE(Sri Lanka), “Systematic Application of United Kingdom coastline of the country. Smaller fishing boats are generally concentrated at a large number B.Sc.Eng.(Hons) (Moratuwa), M.Phil (Moratuwa), Senior River Flow and Quality Databases for Estimating Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Annual River Mass Loads (1975-1994)”, Sci. Total of Landing Sites scattered along the coastline. Moratuwa, Sri Lanka. Environ., Vol. 210-211, 1998, pp. 21-40. The IMUL Boats and IDAY Boats are generally based at various Fishery Harbors and Eng. (Prof.) S. P. Samarawickrama, C. Eng., MIE(Sri 27. Preston, S. D., Bierman, V. J.,& Silliman, S. E., Lanka), B.Sc.Eng.Hons.(Moratuwa), PhD(London), DIC, Anchorages. In 2012, 19 Fishery Harbors and Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of “An Evaluation of Methods for the Estimation of many Anchorages were in operation [6]. Moratuwa, Sri Lanka.

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Fisheries activities in the northern and eastern severity of potential impacts due to such regions of the country were severely affected developments was considered to assess the by the conflict that prevailed in the area for suitability of the sites for potential nearly three decades, but have recommenced development. and expanded since the end of the conflict in 2009. Many of the fisheries infrastructure 3. Fisheries Infrastructure and facilities in these regions are in a dilapidated Coastal Aspects state and are in need of restoration and expansion. A number of studies were thus The fisheries infrastructure facilities provide conducted recently, during the period 2009- essential shelter for mooring and/or beach 2011,to assess the feasibility of developing landing and loading/unloading activities of sustainable fisheries infrastructure in various fishing crafts and shore facilities for related parts of the country. support activities. Fishery Harbors mainly cater for the requirements of larger fishing In this paper, the methodology adopted in the crafts and such facilities usually consist of a investigations is presented first, which is basin area of sufficient size and depth usually followed by a discussion of coastal aspects protected by breakwaters, quay walls to associated with fishery infrastructure facilitate loading/unloading operations and development. The details of coastal aspects, shore facilities for other related activities. nearshore wave climate and coastal sand Fishery Anchorages and Landing Sites mainly transport and shoreline behaviour, are then cater for the requirements of smaller fishing presented. After a discussion on shoreline crafts but larger crafts could also use such response to coastal constructions in general, facilities depending on the depths in the the details of investigations conducted at four mooring areas. These facilities usually consist locations in different parts of the country are of a sheltered basin with natural or breakwater presented. The recommendations made by the protection for safe mooring and shore facilities investigations are then summarized under for other fisheries related activities. concluding remarks.

The level of coastal infrastructure requirement 2. Method of Investigations to provide the necessary protection is closely related to the nearshore wave climate of the The investigations were conducted at the sites area. Depending on its severity, the for which improved facilities were requested requirement may vary from enhancing the by the local fishing communities, relevant natural shelter provided by features such as authorities or other stakeholders. The attention headlands and reefs to full breakwater in these investigations was mainly focussed on protection. related coastal engineering aspects in order to minimise the adverse impacts on the facility as The coastal areas of the country are well as the neighbouring coastline to ensure predominantly sandy beaches and the the sustainability and effectiveness of any construction of fisheries infrastructure in the proposed development. In addition, socio- form of breakwaters, jetties etc could cause economic aspects, space requirements for alterations in sand movement patterns of the shore facilities and other aspects related to the area. Such alterations could lead to adverse development of fishery infrastructure facilities impacts in the form of coastal erosion and/or were also considered in these investigations. accretion in the area as well as siltation in the sheltered area, raising concerns related to the In the absence of recorded coastal engineering sustainability and the effectiveness of the information (primary data) at many of the development. locations considered, investigations were mainly based on field studies, analysis of 4. Nearshore Wave Climate available secondary information and local knowledge gathered through local community The wave climate in the coastal waters of consultations. Attempts were made to assess, Sri Lanka is characterized by two wave qualitatively, the exposure of the sites to the systems, the swell and the monsoonal waves. nearshore wave climate and the resulting The resultant wave climate inclines towards coastal processes related to sediment (sand) the more dominant system. The swell, transport in the vicinity. The forms of coastal approaching from southerly direction constructions required were identified and the

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Fisheries activities in the northern and eastern severity of potential impacts due to such throughout the year, is characterized by waves of the diverse features in the coastal regions of the country were severely affected developments was considered to assess the of relatively large periods and low amplitudes. environment of the country. by the conflict that prevailed in the area for suitability of the sites for potential The monsoonal waves are characterized by nearly three decades, but have recommenced development. waves of relatively smaller periods and higher Seasonal erosion and the steepening of the and expanded since the end of the conflict in amplitudes. Two monsoonal periods are beaches during the monsoonal periods is also a 2009. Many of the fisheries infrastructure 3. Fisheries Infrastructure and dominant-the south-west monsoonal period common characteristic in many of the beaches facilities in these regions are in a dilapidated Coastal Aspects from May to September and the north-east in the country. Offshore movement and state and are in need of restoration and monsoonal period from November to March. deposition of beach sand take place during expansion. A number of studies were thus The fisheries infrastructure facilities provide The coastal areas extending from the western these periods mainly due to the action of conducted recently, during the period 2009- essential shelter for mooring and/or beach region to the south-eastern region are directly monsoonal waves. Beach recovery due to 2011,to assess the feasibility of developing landing and loading/unloading activities of exposed to the swell as well as the more onshore movement of sand under the swell is sustainable fisheries infrastructure in various fishing crafts and shore facilities for related dominant south-west monsoonal waves. The apparent during the non-monsoonal periods. parts of the country. support activities. Fishery Harbors mainly rest of the coastal areas are less exposed to the cater for the requirements of larger fishing swell and sheltered from the south-west 6. Coastal Constructions and In this paper, the methodology adopted in the crafts and such facilities usually consist of a monsoonal waves. The coastal areas extending Shoreline Response investigations is presented first, which is basin area of sufficient size and depth usually from the northern region to the south-eastern followed by a discussion of coastal aspects protected by breakwaters, quay walls to region are mainly exposed to the refracted The stability of the shoreline can be assessed in associated with fishery infrastructure facilitate loading/unloading operations and swell and relatively less severe north-east terms of the „sand budget‟ of a coastal cell development. The details of coastal aspects, shore facilities for other related activities. monsoonal waves. The north-western coastal considered in the area of interest. Coastal nearshore wave climate and coastal sand Fishery Anchorages and Landing Sites mainly region is relatively well protected from these erosion and accretion can be considered in transport and shoreline behaviour, are then cater for the requirements of smaller fishing wave systems. The presence of sand bar terms of sand imbalance due to changes in presented. After a discussion on shoreline crafts but larger crafts could also use such formations along the Adam‟s Bridge, shallow inflow and outflow rates. Such imbalances response to coastal constructions in general, facilities depending on the depths in the depths and the shelter provided by the caused by the disturbances to the longshore the details of investigations conducted at four mooring areas. These facilities usually consist Peninsula and the land masses of the islands transport have been identified as a major cause locations in different parts of the country are of a sheltered basin with natural or breakwater located on the western side of the peninsula for erosion. presented. The recommendations made by the protection for safe mooring and shore facilities have restricted the penetration of waves into investigations are then summarized under for other fisheries related activities. the north-western coastal waters in the Palk Coastal constructions, in the form of groynes, concluding remarks. Bay area. jetties or breakwaters could cause disturbances

The level of coastal infrastructure requirement of longshore sand transport. Such 2. Method of Investigations to provide the necessary protection is closely 5. Coastal Sand Transport and constructions in areas of high level transport related to the nearshore wave climate of the Shoreline Behaviour could lead to severe impacts associated with The investigations were conducted at the sites area. Depending on its severity, the erosion, accretion and siltation. These impacts for which improved facilities were requested requirement may vary from enhancing the Nearshore currents, both longshore and have become apparent in recent coastal by the local fishing communities, relevant natural shelter provided by features such as on/offshore, generated by the interaction of infrastructure developments of Kirinda authorities or other stakeholders. The attention headlands and reefs to full breakwater the approaching waves with the sea bed and Fishery Harbor, Oluvil Port/Fishery Harbor in these investigations was mainly focussed on protection. the resulting coastal processes of refraction, and the Loading Out Point. The related coastal engineering aspects in order to breaking etc, are the main causes of sand mitigation of the resulting adverse impacts minimise the adverse impacts on the facility as The coastal areas of the country are transport in coastal areas. In Sri Lanka, studies would usually involve the structural well as the neighbouring coastline to ensure predominantly sandy beaches and the conducted have revealed a general trend of net interventions in the form of series of groynes the sustainability and effectiveness of any construction of fisheries infrastructure in the sand movement northwards along the south- or offshore breakwaters or other interventions proposed development. In addition, socio- form of breakwaters, jetties etc could cause western and western coasts, eastwards along such as sand nourishment,all of which would economic aspects, space requirements for alterations in sand movement patterns of the the southern and northwards along the south- require substantial expenditure. shore facilities and other aspects related to the area. Such alterations could lead to adverse eastern and southerly parts of the eastern development of fishery infrastructure facilities impacts in the form of coastal erosion and/or coastline during the south-west monsoon. It is evident from these considerations that the were also considered in these investigations. accretion in the area as well as siltation in the During the north-east monsoon, a general assessment of the level of sand transport sheltered area, raising concerns related to the trend of sand movement southwards along the processes in a locality would play a vital role In the absence of recorded coastal engineering sustainability and the effectiveness of the eastern, south-eastern and western coastlines in identifying the suitability of sites for information (primary data) at many of the development. and westwards along the southern coastline fisheries infrastructure development with locations considered, investigations were has been revealed. coastal constructions. The infrastructure mainly based on field studies, analysis of 4. Nearshore Wave Climate developments at such locations would cause available secondary information and local However, the longshore sand transport rates relatively low levels of adverse impacts knowledge gathered through local community The wave climate in the coastal waters of depend on a number of factors including wave leading to the long term sustainability and consultations. Attempts were made to assess, Sri Lanka is characterized by two wave characteristics (height, period, angle of effectiveness of the facilities. qualitatively, the exposure of the sites to the systems, the swell and the monsoonal waves. approach etc), bathymetric features nearshore wave climate and the resulting The resultant wave climate inclines towards (influencing refraction, breaking etc) and Mathematical modelling techniques supported coastal processes related to sediment (sand) the more dominant system. The swell, beach characteristics (geometry, size and by detailed records of measured coastal data transport in the vicinity. The forms of coastal approaching from southerly direction availability of sand etc). Significant local can be used for a more quantitative assessment constructions required were identified and the variations of these factors are apparent in view of the level of coastal and transport and

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potential impacts of coastal constructions (in the attention focused on the possibility of spite of the limitations in simulating complex constructing coastal structures required in the coastal phenomena associated with sediment form of jetties, groynes, quay walls, transport). However, due to the absence of breakwaters etc. relevant primary data and other constraints, the investigations were mainly based on field studies and analysis of available information of shoreline behaviour with the deductions confirmed through local community consultations whenever possible. The details of such investigations conducted at the locations listed below and shown in Figure 2 are presented. i. Vakarai Area on the Eastern Coast Figure 3 - Location of Vakarai Central (Source of Image: Google Earth Website) ii. Area on the Northern Coast of As indicated, the site is located at the outlet of a lagoon near the centre of a coastal cell iii. Galbokka on the South-WesternCoast formed by two natural headlands. The coastal area is characterised by wide sandy beaches iv. Suduwella on the Southern Coast and sand deposits in shallow areas of the lagoon near the outlet and a wide sand bar across the outlet. The sand bar blocks the (ii) outflow from the lagoon but breaches during the north-east monsoon to release flood waters. Once breached, the outlet remains open for a few months. Marine fishing is carried out in the area by a large number of (i) smaller crafts which are usually beach landed in the vicinity. Due to shallow depths in the channel through the breached sand bar, only the smaller crafts are able to access the sheltered areas in the lagoon for mooring (iii) purposes. Lagoon fishing is carried by a large

(iv) number of smaller fishing crafts. Beach seine fishing is also carried out in the sandy beaches of the area. Figure 2 - Locations of Investigations

The site is located away from the areas 7. Investigations in Vakarai Area on sheltered by the headlands and is seasonally the Eastern Coast exposed to both swell and north-east monsoonal waves as indicated in Figure 3. 7.1 Investigations in Vakarai Central Significant seasonal variations of coastline Vakarai, with a significant fishing community, positions and steepening of beaches indicate is located between Valachchenai and high level of longshore and on/offshore in an area where no Fishery sediment transport in the vicinity. In spite of Harbor or Anchorage facilities are located [2]. small tidal range in coastal waters of the With expanding fisheries activities since 2008, country, a potential exists for ebb and flood a proposal has been made to develop a Fishery tidal currents through the channel across the Harbor/Anchorage facility in the area to meet breached sand bar formation with the emerging needs of fisheries sector. Vakarai accompanying sediment transport patterns. Central has initially been identified for this Significant variations in the form of the outlet purpose. The location of Vakarai Central is and the lagoon sand deposits in the vicinity shown in Figure 3. Investigations were were also evident. The abundance of sand and conducted with the objective of assessing the the dynamic and complex nature of coastal feasibility of developing appropriate fisheries processes and the high level of sediment infrastructure facilities at this location, with

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potential impacts of coastal constructions (in the attention focused on the possibility of activity in the vicinity became clearly evident the site in Palachanai was identified as the spite of the limitations in simulating complex constructing coastal structures required in the by the investigations. most suitable site for development. coastal phenomena associated with sediment form of jetties, groynes, quay walls, transport). However, due to the absence of breakwaters etc. Coastal constructions in the form of jetties or relevant primary data and other constraints, breakwaters in such dynamic coastal the investigations were mainly based on field environments would most likely lead to high studies and analysis of available information levels of adverse impacts. These impacts in the of shoreline behaviour with the deductions form of severe erosion/accretion and siltation confirmed through local community due to the disturbance caused to natural consultations whenever possible. The details of transportation processes could also affect the such investigations conducted at the locations nearby beach seine and beach landing listed below and shown in Figure 2 are operations. Any structural interventions, presented. usually in the form of groynes, to maintain an uninterrupted lagoon outlet throughout the i. Vakarai Area on the Eastern Coast year in order to provide mooring facilities for Figure 3 - Location of Vakarai Central (Source of Image: Google Earth Website) fishing crafts in the lagoon, are also likely to ii. Point Pedro Area on the Northern Coast cause similar impacts leading to issues of Jaffna Peninsula As indicated, the site is located at the outlet of concerned with effectiveness and a lagoon near the centre of a coastal cell sustainability of the development. The changes iii. Galbokka on the South-WesternCoast formed by two natural headlands. The coastal in mixing patterns of sea water in the lagoon area is characterised by wide sandy beaches due to such interventions could severely affect iv. Suduwella on the Southern Coast and sand deposits in shallow areas of the the fishing activities and ecological aspects Figure 4 - Alternative Locations of lagoon near the outlet and a wide sand bar associated with the lagoon. In view of these Investigations across the outlet. The sand bar blocks the considerations, the site in Vakari Central was (ii) (Source of Image: Google Earth Website) outflow from the lagoon but breaches during not recommended for fishery infrastructure the north-east monsoon to release flood developments in the form of Fishery Harbors 7.3 Investigations in Palachanai waters. Once breached, the outlet remains or Anchorages. Palachenai is located in a bay formed between open for a few months. Marine fishing is two headlands, next to the northern headland carried out in the area by a large number of 7.2 Investigations in Alternative Sites formed by a rocky formation extending into (i) smaller crafts which are usually beach landed In view of the complexities involved with the the sea, as shown in Figure 5(a). in the vicinity. Due to shallow depths in the site identified in Vakarai Central and the need channel through the breached sand bar, only to develop Fishery Harbor/Anchorage the smaller crafts are able to access the facilities in the Vakarai area, the possibility of Northern Headland sheltered areas in the lagoon for mooring selecting an alternative site was also explored. Palachenai (iii) purposes. Lagoon fishing is carried by a large Investigations were thus conducted at a

(iv) number of smaller fishing crafts. Beach seine number of locations in the area. These sites, fishing is also carried out in the sandy beaches functioning as landing sites with minimal Bay Area of the area. facilities, had been identified by fishery sector Figure 2 - Locations of Investigations authorities to explore the possibility of further

The site is located away from the areas development. The locations are listed below 7. Investigations in Vakarai Area on sheltered by the headlands and is seasonally and shown in Figure 4. Southern the Eastern Coast Headland exposed to both swell and north-east monsoonal waves as indicated in Figure 3. i Kathiraweli (a) 7.1 Investigations in Vakarai Central Significant seasonal variations of coastline ii Mahaweli River Outlets (North of Northern Headland Vakarai, with a significant fishing community, positions and steepening of beaches indicate Kathiraweli) is located between Valachchenai and high level of longshore and on/offshore iii Palachenai Palachenai Trincomalee in an area where no Fishery sediment transport in the vicinity. In spite of iv Kandalady Harbor or Anchorage facilities are located [2]. small tidal range in coastal waters of the v Vakarai With expanding fisheries activities since 2008, country, a potential exists for ebb and flood vi Panichankerny a proposal has been made to develop a Fishery tidal currents through the channel across the vii Pethalai Harbor/Anchorage facility in the area to meet breached sand bar formation with the emerging needs of fisheries sector. Vakarai accompanying sediment transport patterns. Investigations, similar to those conducted at Central has initially been identified for this Significant variations in the form of the outlet Vakarai Central, were conducted for these sites purpose. The location of Vakarai Central is and the lagoon sand deposits in the vicinity as well in order to assess the potential for Rocky Formation shown in Figure 3. Investigations were were also evident. The abundance of sand and development of fisheries infrastructure. Based (b) conducted with the objective of assessing the the dynamic and complex nature of coastal on a comparative evaluation of the level of feasibility of developing appropriate fisheries Figure 5 - Location of Palachenai processes and the high level of sediment potential for development at these locations, (Source of Images: Google Earth Website) infrastructure facilities at this location, with

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The site is partially sheltered by the rocky 8. Investigations in Point Pedro headland from north-east monsoonal waves. Area on the Northern Coast of Northward sand transport is also curtailed by Jaffna Peninsula the headland as evident by the small scale seasonal coastal erosion on its northern side. Prior to the conflict that prevailed in the The bay extends over a length of region, Jaffna Peninsula had been one of the approximately 3.5 km and no large water most productive fishing regions in the country. bodies drain into the bay area. A small rocky Its contribution to the national fish production formation, shown in Figure 5(b), exists at had declined since mid-1980s due to the approximately 750 m from the northern disruptions caused to the fisheries activities by headland. It restricts sediment movement and the conflict[3],[4]. The fishery infrastructure forms a smaller coastal cell in the vicinity of facilities in the region are in a dilapidated Palachenai. Even if a reasonable level of state, due to damages caused by the conflict sediment activities is envisaged in the larger and years of neglect and are in need of bay area, sand movement in the vicinity of restoration and development. Since the end of Palachenai could be restricted due to the the conflict in mid-2009, the fishing sector in possible trapping of sediments at this rocky the northern region has shown signs of formation. recovery with increased fish production. The

fishing fleet in the area, soon after the end of Based on these considerations, the site at the conflict, consisted of only smaller boats. In Palachenai was identified as suitable for spite of the potential for offshore fishing by fishery infrastructure development. The larger boats, such boats were not in operation existence of rocky outcrop providing natural due to the restrictions imposed by security protection during the north-east monsoonal conditions and the absence of adequate period and a smaller bay area giving a facilities in the region. However such boats relatively low level sand movement are the have recently commenced operations and a positive factors for such a development. The need exists for the development of appropriate construction of a fishery infrastructure facility fisheries infrastructure facilities. Point Pedro is unlikely to aggravate coastal erosion on the region had been one of the most productive northern side of the headland. However, a fishing areas in the peninsula [3],[4] and small scale coast protection scheme can also be investigations were conducted to assess the recommended together with any fishery potential for fishery infrastructure infrastructure development. The conceptual development in the area. The investigations layout of a fisheries infrastructure facility were conducted in the Divisional Secretary shown in Figure 6 was proposed for further (DS) Division of Point Pedro (Vadamarachchy investigations. North).

Sheltered Breakwater Basin

Groyne

Figure 7 - Area of Investigations in Figure 6 - Conceptual Layout of Proposed Point Pedro Development (Source of Images: Google Earth Website)

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The site is partially sheltered by the rocky 8. Investigations in Point Pedro 8.1 Coastal Characteristics and Fisheries a number of naturally sheltered basins in the headland from north-east monsoonal waves. Area on the Northern Coast of Activities area suitable for mooring of fishing craft. Northward sand transport is also curtailed by Jaffna Peninsula the headland as evident by the small scale The coastline of the area of investigations Many of the Landing Sites in Point Pedro DS seasonal coastal erosion on its northern side. extends from Thondamanaru along the Division are located in such basins along this Prior to the conflict that prevailed in the The bay extends over a length of northern coastline of the peninsula towards part of the coastline as indicated in Figure 9. region, Jaffna Peninsula had been one of the approximately 3.5 km and no large water the northeastern edge of Munai and along the These include the Landing Sites in most productive fishing regions in the country. bodies drain into the bay area. A small rocky eastern coastline beyond Kathkovalam over a Thondamanaru, Valveddithurai, Athikoviladi, Its contribution to the national fish production formation, shown in Figure 5(b), exists at length of 20 km as shown in Figure 7. Polikandy West, Polikandy East, Sakkodai, had declined since mid-1980s due to the approximately 750 m from the northern Imparsiddy, Suppermadam, Koddady and disruptions caused to the fisheries activities by headland. It restricts sediment movement and The coastline on the eastern side of peninsula Munai. Mainly smaller fishing boats are the conflict[3],[4]. The fishery infrastructure forms a smaller coastal cell in the vicinity of is directly exposed to north-east monsoonal operated from these Landing Sites. However, facilities in the region are in a dilapidated Palachenai. Even if a reasonable level of waves and difficulties in mooring/beach depending on the depths in sheltered areas state, due to damages caused by the conflict sediment activities is envisaged in the larger landing of fishing boats are experienced by the behind the seaward edge of the reef formation, and years of neglect and are in need of bay area, sand movement in the vicinity of fishing communities. As a result, relatively a some of the larger boats, which have become restoration and development. Since the end of Palachenai could be restricted due to the lesser number of Landing Sites are located operational recently are also based in some of the conflict in mid-2009, the fishing sector in possible trapping of sediments at this rocky along this coastline. A wide, straight, sandy the sites, in spite of the absence of proper the northern region has shown signs of formation. coastline exists in the area and investigations facilities for the operation of such crafts. recovery with increased fish production. The revealed significant seasonal variations of the fishing fleet in the area, soon after the end of Based on these considerations, the site at beach profile indicating level of sediment the conflict, consisted of only smaller boats. In Palachenai was identified as suitable for transport. Under such dynamic conditions of spite of the potential for offshore fishing by fishery infrastructure development. The the coastline, construction of coastal structures larger boats, such boats were not in operation existence of rocky outcrop providing natural is likely to cause coastal erosion/accretion due to the restrictions imposed by security protection during the north-east monsoonal problems and such constructions without conditions and the absence of adequate period and a smaller bay area giving a extensive investigations were not facilities in the region. However such boats relatively low level sand movement are the recommended. have recently commenced operations and a positive factors for such a development. The need exists for the development of appropriate construction of a fishery infrastructure facility The coastline along the northern side of fisheries infrastructure facilities. Point Pedro is unlikely to aggravate coastal erosion on the peninsula in Point Pedro is characterized by Figure 9 - Landing Sites along Northern region had been one of the most productive northern side of the headland. However, a rocky/sandy beaches and a reef formation Coastline in Point Pedro Area fishing areas in the peninsula [3],[4] and (Source of Image: Google Earth Website) small scale coast protection scheme can also be located close (< 300 m approximately from the investigations were conducted to assess the recommended together with any fishery coastline) and parallel to the coastline as potential for fishery infrastructure 8.2 Current Status of Fisheries infrastructure development. The conceptual shown in Figure 8. development in the area. The investigations Infrastructure and Recommendations layout of a fisheries infrastructure facility were conducted in the Divisional Secretary shown in Figure 6 was proposed for further (DS) Division of Point Pedro (Vadamarachchy The Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 has caused investigations. North). significant damages to the reef formation along the northern coast and spreading of broken rock in sheltered basins has caused (a) difficulties in using the Landing Sites due to reduced depths and partial blockage of access channels. The cyclone in 2008 has caused Sheltered Breakwater further damages and significant hardships are Basin experienced by fishing communities due to the dilapidated state of many of the facilities. Groyne Attempts have been made to rehabilitate the (b) facilities by clearing the basin areas and access channels to facilitate navigation and mooring of boats with varying degree of success. Figure 7 - Area of Investigations in Figure 8 - Northern Coastline: Point Pedro Figure 6 - Conceptual Layout of Proposed Point Pedro The improvement of fisheries infrastructure at Development Area (Source of Images: Google Earth Website) Landing Sites, for the operation of mainly the (Source of Images: Google Earth Website)

smaller fishing crafts, in the area could Although the coastline, by its orientation, is generally be achieved by strengthening the potentially exposed to north-east monsoonal natural protection provided by the reef waves, protection against coastal erosion due formation. Raising the crest level of reef to wave action is provided by the reef formation and strengthening of its seaward formation along most of the coastline. The slope with the use of larger armour may be presence of reef formation has also resulted in needed to provide effective protection.The

6 777 ENGINEER clearing of scattered rocks from the access 9. Investigations in Galbokka on the channels and sheltered basins would also be South-western Coast needed. Deepening of access channels and the basins may also be required at some of the An investigation was conducted to assess the sites. In such situations, due attention needs to feasibility of developing a Fishery Landing Site be paid for any adverse environmental issues in Galbokka in Rathgama in the District. associated with dredging of reef formations. A The site had been identified based on the possibility also exists for the use of excavated availability of land to develop shore facilities and cleared material for the use in the due to the relocation of a school severely strengthening of protection measures. damaged by the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 [5]. The location of the site is shown in Figure In addition, a socio-economic need also exists 11. for the development of appropriate infrastructure facilities, in the form of a Fishery Harbor or Anchorage, to cater for operations of larger fishing crafts. The only Fishery Harbor facility in Jaffna Peninsula is located in Myliddy on the northern coast of the peninsula to the west of Point Pedro. Fishery activities are not currently carried out at Myliddy. Even if it is operational, the potential exists for other Fishery Harbor developments in the region, mainly due to the relatively smaller size of the Figure 11 - Proposed Site in Galbokka harbor basin in Myliddy which may not be (Source of Image: Google Earth Website) capable of meeting the needs of the expanding fleet of larger fishing crafts in the area. In view The site is located in a wide sandy beach next of these considerations, recommendations to a rock outcrop as shown in Figure 11. From were made for the development of a Fishery the rock outcrop, the beach extends Harbor/Anchorage facility in Point Pedro area uninterrupted for a few kilometres in the at an appropriate location, to be identified direction of Dodanduwa. based on socio-economic, environmental and coastal engineering considerations. The investigation revealed a significant Appropriate protection measures, usually in seasonal variation in the beach, in the order of the form of breakwaters would be required in up to 40 m in the vicinity of the project site, such a development to provide a sheltered indicating high level of sediment activity. A basin of adequate extent and depth against beach profile with a steep gradient is formed at north-eastern monsoonal waves. A typical the site during the southwest monsoon, which, conceptual layout in the form of that shown in together with adverse wave conditions, makes Figure 10 can be recommended for such a it difficult for landing/mooring of fishing development. No severe adverse impacts crafts. Due to the orientation of the beach at associated with coastal erosion are envisaged the site, as indicated in Figure 11, it is directly due to such a development in view of the exposed to the south-west monsoonal waves protection provided by the coastal reef and no sheltering effect is provided by the rock formation in the area. outcrop.

In view of the exposed nature of the site, it is evident that appropriate costal structures are required in any proposed development to provide a safe mooring and landing environment at the site. The layout of such structures will depend on local bathymetric and wave conditions but, based on the site conditions observed and considerations of exposure and protection requirements, a conceptual layout in the form of that shown in Figure 12 can be identified for further Figure 10 - Conceptual Layout of Proposed investigations. Development (Source of Image: Google Earth Website)

ENGINEER 788 clearing of scattered rocks from the access 9. Investigations in Galbokka on the Fishery infrastructure facilities are usually The sandy beach at the site extending from the channels and sheltered basins would also be South-western Coast developed in locations with a certain degree of outcrop is interrupted by another smaller needed. Deepening of access channels and the natural protection and lower levels of outcrop nearby (Figure 12) forming a smaller basins may also be required at some of the An investigation was conducted to assess the sediment movement. The developments coastal cell in which relatively lesser extent of sites. In such situations, due attention needs to feasibility of developing a Fishery Landing Site enhance the natural protection while causing sediment movement is apparent. The larger be paid for any adverse environmental issues in Galbokka in Rathgama in the Galle District. minimum disturbances to sediment transport outcrop provides partial protection from associated with dredging of reef formations. A The site had been identified based on the patterns to limit the adverse impacts in south-west monsoonal waves which can be possibility also exists for the use of excavated availability of land to develop shore facilities surrounding areas. enhanced by a coastal structure extending and cleared material for the use in the due to the relocation of a school severely from the outcrop as shown in Figure 12.From a strengthening of protection measures. damaged by the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 coastal engineering point of view, it is [5]. The location of the site is shown in Figure apparent that this site is more suited for In addition, a socio-economic need also exists 11. development of fisheries infrastructure but, for the development of appropriate similar to the proposed site, detailed infrastructure facilities, in the form of a Fishery investigations are required to assess the Harbor or Anchorage, to cater for operations development potential in detail. of larger fishing crafts. The only Fishery Harbor facility in Jaffna Peninsula is located in 10 Investigations in Suduwella on Myliddy on the northern coast of the peninsula the Southern Coast to the west of Point Pedro. Fishery activities are not currently carried out at Myliddy. Even Suduwella in Kottegoda Bay was a Landing if it is operational, the potential exists for other Figure 12 - Conceptual Layout(s) for Further Site in the Matara District [1]. The expansion of Fishery Harbor developments in the region, Investigations fishing operations into deep sea with larger mainly due to the relatively smaller size of the Figure 11 - Proposed Site in Galbokka (Source of Image: Google Earth Website) fishing crafts has led to the need to provide harbor basin in Myliddy which may not be (Source of Image: Google Earth Website) adequate infrastructure facilities for safe capable of meeting the needs of the expanding The costs associated with developing the mooring and loading and unloading fleet of larger fishing crafts in the area. In view The site is located in a wide sandy beach next facilities and providing impact mitigation operations of such crafts operated in the area. of these considerations, recommendations to a rock outcrop as shown in Figure 11. From measures can be kept relatively low by The Kottegoda Bay (Figure 13) bounded by were made for the development of a Fishery the rock outcrop, the beach extends selecting appropriate locations for two headlands and facing southeasterly Harbor/Anchorage facility in Point Pedro area uninterrupted for a few kilometres in the development. direction, had been identified as a suitable at an appropriate location, to be identified direction of Dodanduwa. location for such a development. The southern based on socio-economic, environmental and However, no such natural protection exists at part of the bay, Suduwella, (Figure 13) is coastal engineering considerations. The investigation revealed a significant the site in Galbokka, located in a sandy beach relatively sheltered due to partial protection Appropriate protection measures, usually in seasonal variation in the beach, in the order of with high levels of sediment movement. The provided by the southern headland against the form of breakwaters would be required in up to 40 m in the vicinity of the project site, protection for mooring and landing and south-west monsoonal waves. However, wave such a development to provide a sheltered indicating high level of sediment activity. A loading/unloading operations needs to be breaking and overtopping on a shallow steep basin of adequate extent and depth against beach profile with a steep gradient is formed at provided entirely by coastal structures which faced reef, located closely and to the northeast north-eastern monsoonal waves. A typical the site during the southwest monsoon, which, could disturb the sediment transport patterns of the southern headland, have resulted in an conceptual layout in the form of that shown in together with adverse wave conditions, makes leading to potential coastline changes and offshore directed current which has adversely Figure 10 can be recommended for such a it difficult for landing/mooring of fishing erosion problems. In such a case, coast affected the in and out navigation as well as development. No severe adverse impacts crafts. Due to the orientation of the beach at protection systems, usually in the form of mooring of larger fishing crafts within the area associated with coastal erosion are envisaged the site, as indicated in Figure 11, it is directly groynes, may need to be included in the sheltered by the rocky outcrop. Due to shallow due to such a development in view of the exposed to the south-west monsoonal waves overall development plan. In view of these water depths, navigational difficulties and the protection provided by the coastal reef and no sheltering effect is provided by the rock considerations, it is evident that the costs absence of shore facilities, loading and formation in the area. outcrop. associated with any proposed development at unloading activities of larger fishing crafts the site proposed in Galbokka are likely to be were carried out away from the shore using In view of the exposed nature of the site, it is significantly higher than the costs involved smaller boats during the period of evident that appropriate costal structures are with a development of similar nature at a site investigations in 2009. required in any proposed development to with some form of natural protection. provide a safe mooring and landing environment at the site. The layout of such 9.1 Investigations in the Alternative Site structures will depend on local bathymetric In view of the potential adverse impacts and wave conditions but, based on the site associated with the developments at the conditions observed and considerations of proposed site, as an alternative, the technical exposure and protection requirements, a feasibility of another site was investigated. It is conceptual layout in the form of that shown in located next to the proposed site on the Figure 12 can be identified for further opposite side of the rock outcrop, as shown in Figure 13 - Location of Suduwella in Figure 10 - Conceptual Layout of Proposed investigations. Figure 12. Kottegoda Bay Development (Source of Image: Google Earth Website) (Source of Image: Google Earth Website)

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The bay had been subjected to severe coastal extending the southern breakwater beyond the erosion over the years which has necessitated rock outcrop. the construction of a long revetment to protect the coastline. A fragile sandstone reef fronts In the layout of the Option 2 (Figure 14(b)), a the revetment, which is indicative of the severe harbor confined to the southern part of the loss of sand due to wave action. The only bay, where fishery activities were beach area within the bay exists at the concentrated, was conceptualized. The southernmost corner in Suduwella, within the proposed harbor area is protected mainly by a shelter of the southern headland. southern breakwater which originates at the southern headland, connects with the rock Investigations were conducted to assess the outcrop and extends further in a northeasterly feasibility of developing a Fishery Harbor of direction. The harbor entrance faces the adequate capacity, which should provide safe northeasterly direction and is located in the navigational access and shelter throughout the gap between a secondary breakwater/groyne year with minimal maintenance requirements the main breakwater. Neither of these options and adverse environmental impacts. had been implemented due various constraints associated with development. Investigations were thus conducted to identify a suitable development option within the constraints imposed to meet the stakeholder requirements. After extensive studies, in which attention was focused on coastal and harbor engineering, socio-economic and environmental issues, a conceptual layout, which is a modification of the Option 2 proposed earlier, was recommended for detailed design studies.It wasto be implemented in two stages, if (a) Option 1 necessary in view of any financial constraints. The designs were subsequently carried out and a Fishery Harbor facility was constructed (first stage) which is currently in operation (Figure 15).

(b) Option 2 Figure 14 - Development Options for Suduwella (Source of Images: Google Earth Website)

Studies had been carried out previously and two alterative layouts of development, one Figure 15 - Suduwella Fishery Harbor contained within the southern part of the bay (Source of Images: Google Earth Website) and the other incorporating the entire bay, had 11. Concluding Remarks been considered for further investigations.

In the layout of the Option 1 (Figure 14 (a)), the The details of investigations conducted entire bay area was incorporated into a harbor recently to assess the feasibility of developing protected by two breakwaters. The entrance sustainable fisheries infrastructure in various was placed between the large rock outcrop parts of the country are presented. These towards the southern end of the bay and the investigations were conducted in Vakari area head of the northern breakwater to facilitate on the eastern coast, Point Pedro area on the the fishing crafts to use the path followed northern coast, Galbokka on the south-western earlier by the fishermen. It was subsequently coast and Suduwella on the southern coast. In revised to provide safer access conditions by the absence of recorded nearshore data at many of the locations considered, the

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The bay had been subjected to severe coastal extending the southern breakwater beyond the investigations were mainly based on field Lanka by Uni-Consultancy Services, University of erosion over the years which has necessitated rock outcrop. studies, analysis of available secondary Moratuwa, October 2009. the construction of a long revetment to protect information and local knowledge gathered 2. Feasibility Study for the Development of Fishery the coastline. A fragile sandstone reef fronts In the layout of the Option 2 (Figure 14(b)), a through community consultations. Although Harbor/Anchorage at Vakarai in harbor confined to the southern part of the the revetment, which is indicative of the severe socio-economic aspects, availability of land for District, Final Report submitted to United Nations loss of sand due to wave action. The only bay, where fishery activities were shore facilities and other related aspects were Office for Project Services (UNPOS) in Sri Lanka by beach area within the bay exists at the concentrated, was conceptualized. The also considered in assessing the feasibility, Uni-Consultancy Services, University of Moratuwa, southernmost corner in Suduwella, within the proposed harbor area is protected mainly by a attention was mainly focussed on related January 2010. shelter of the southern headland. southern breakwater which originates at the coastal engineering aspects to minimise the southern headland, connects with the rock adverse impacts on the coastline in order to 3. Fisheries Infrastructure Development in Jaffna Investigations were conducted to assess the outcrop and extends further in a northeasterly ensure the sustainability of the proposed Peninsula, Final Report submitted to United Nations Office for Project Services (UNPOS) in Sri feasibility of developing a Fishery Harbor of direction. The harbor entrance faces the development. As the investigations in Vakarai Lanka by Department of Civil Engineering, adequate capacity, which should provide safe northeasterly direction and is located in the area revealed that the site identified initially is University of Moratuwa, September 2009. navigational access and shelter throughout the gap between a secondary breakwater/groyne not favourable for development, based on year with minimal maintenance requirements the main breakwater. Neither of these options further investigations, a location in Palachenai 4. Pre-Feasibility Study for Fishery Harbor and adverse environmental impacts. had been implemented due various constraints was identified as more suitable for further Development in Point Pedro, , associated with development. Investigations investigations for development. Investigations Final report submitted to Japan International were thus conducted to identify a suitable in Point Pedro area revealed that many of the Cooperation Agency (JICA) by Uni-Consultancy development option within the constraints existing Landing Sites can be developed Services, University of Moratuwa, July 2011. imposed to meet the stakeholder requirements. further by enhancing the natural protection 5. Samarawickrama, S. P., “Pre-Feasibility Study After extensive studies, in which attention was offered by the reef formation in the area. The for Proposed Galbokka Landing site at focused on coastal and harbor engineering, need of a Fishery Harbor/Anchorage facility Rathgama in Galle District for the use of Smaller socio-economic and environmental issues, a for the area was also became evident and the Boats”, Final Report submitted to Ceylon Fishery conceptual layout, which is a modification of form of constructions required for such a Harbor Corporation (CFHC), October 2010. the Option 2 proposed earlier, was facility was identified for further recommended for detailed design studies.It investigations. The investigations conducted in 6. http://www.cfhc.lk, Visited 28 April 2014. wasto be implemented in two stages, if Galbokka revealed the potential for significant (a) Option 1 necessary in view of any financial constraints. adverse impacts due to coastal constructions at 7. http://www.fisheries.gov.lk,Visited 28 April 2014. The designs were subsequently carried out the site initially identified for development, in and a Fishery Harbor facility was constructed view of which, an alternative site next to it was

(first stage) which is currently in operation identified for further investigations for (Figure 15). development. For the site in Suduwella, an initially proposed development option was modified to meet the stakeholder requirements within the constraints imposed and recommended for design studies. These were subsequently conducted and a Fishery Harbor facility was constructed which is currently in (b) Option 2 operation. Figure 14 - Development Options for Suduwella (Source of Images: Google Earth Website) Acknowledgement

Studies had been carried out previously and The authors wish to thank the officials in the two alterative layouts of development, one Figure 15 - Suduwella Fishery Harbor Ceylon Fishery Harbor Corporation (CFHC), contained within the southern part of the bay (Source of Images: Google Earth Website) Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources(DFAR), United Nations Office for and the other incorporating the entire bay, had 11. Concluding Remarks been considered for further investigations. Project Services (UNPOS) in Sri Lanka and Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA) In the layout of the Option 1 (Figure 14 (a)), the The details of investigations conducted for providing assistance to conduct the entire bay area was incorporated into a harbor recently to assess the feasibility of developing relevant investigations on fisheries protected by two breakwaters. The entrance sustainable fisheries infrastructure in various infrastructure development. was placed between the large rock outcrop parts of the country are presented. These towards the southern end of the bay and the investigations were conducted in Vakari area References head of the northern breakwater to facilitate on the eastern coast, Point Pedro area on the the fishing crafts to use the path followed northern coast, Galbokka on the south-western 1. Feasibility Study for the Development of Fishery earlier by the fishermen. It was subsequently coast and Suduwella on the southern coast. In Harbor/Anchorage at Suduwella, Kottegoda, revised to provide safer access conditions by the absence of recorded nearshore data at Matara District, Interim Report submitted to United many of the locations considered, the Nations Office for Project Services (UNPOS) in Sri

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