Miscellaneous Schools of Japan

KAKUSHU GAKKO: A STUDY OF THE NON FORMAL - MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF JAPAN

Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JERRY L. VANPELT 1975

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled KAKUSHU GAKKO: A STUDY OF THEANON-FORMAL MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF JAPAN

presented by

Jerry L. VanPelt

has been accepted towards fulﬁllment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education

Lag/M Major professor

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ABSTRACT

KAKUSHU GAKKO: A STUDY OF THE NON FORMAL MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF JAPAN

Jerry L. VanPelt

Currently, there has been a growing interest in educational modes outside of the regular or formal educational structures found in most countries. This interest has centered around non formal education, which usually exists outside of the formal school system and is more concerned with specific purposes and trainings than the formal schools have been.

There exists in Japan, a group of schools called the miscellaneous schools which fit this non formal category. During the summer of 1974, a descriptive, analytical, and evaluative study was undertaken on these schools in Japan.

Interviews were conducted with miscellaneous school owners as well as officials of the National Association of Miscellaneous

Schools, the official organization of the miscellaneous schools.

Written materials both in English and Japanese were collected, examined, and included in the study.

The miscellaneous schools have a long history. Their origin can be traced back into the feudal ages of Japanese history. Official Jerry L. VanPelt

recognition of the miscellaneous schools at the governmental level came

during the Meiji period as the Japanese government began laying the

foundation of a modern formal educational structure.

After World War II, the miscellaneous schools were again given

government recognition. The miscellaneous schools have served as sup-

plemental educational institutions to the formal educational system.

As such, they offer programs in vocational preparation, tutoring for

the rigid university entrance examinations, and domestic arts and enrichment programs primarily for women.

Though recognized by the governmental authorities, the miscel-

laneous schools do not belong to the formal educational structure and

therefore have little status as education institutions. The National

Association of Miscellaneous Schools has sought to improve this status and get formal school recognition and governmental financial support for the miscellaneous schools.

The miscellaneous schools as non formal modes, have been

important educational institutions in the total realm of Japanese education.

The miscellaneous schools have several points in their favor:

they (I) offer programs of educational training not available else- where, (2) help to carry on the cultural heritage, (3) are flexible

to meet changing needs, (4) offer further education and training to those not capable of university training, (5) offer training which can be taken at any period during one's life, (6) offer practical and directly usable skills, and (7) offer domestic arts and enrichment education to women for self improvement. Jerry L. VanPelt

The miscellaneous schools also have several disadvantages:

They (I) contribute to discrimination, against women, (2) contribute to the "examination hell" of the university examination system, (3) cover too wide an educational spectrum for adequate supervision and co-operation, (4) have possibly lessened reform of the formal education system, (5) have lacked trained teachers, (6) have not established uniform curriculum standards, (7) have finances which are uncertain, and (8) have few controls over the schools which causes lack of direction and duplication of services. KAKUSHU GAKKO: A STUDY OF THE NON FORMAL MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF JAPAN

Jerry t: VanPelt

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1975 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to give thanks to Dr. George Ferree, Dr.

Stanley Wronski, and Dr. Herbert Jackson for serving on his doctoral committee and for their general support and encouragement during his stay at Michigan State University.

To Dr. Carl Gross, goes special gratitude for his counsel and advice as chairman of the committee, as instructor and friendly critic and for his encouragement of the author's efforts over the past two years.

To the author's family, Joanne, Korinne, and Suzanne, thank you for putting up with an absentee father and husband.

Finally, special thanks must be given to Mr. Tatsutoshi Kiyomiya and Mrs. Hanoko Regier for their efforts as interpreters and translators without which this work might not have been completed.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES

Chapter

I. NON FORMAL EDUCATION AND MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS

Introduction Research Design . . Categories of Miscellaneous Schools

II. HISTORY OF MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS

Feudal Period. Meiji Period . . . Formal School Structure . Miscellaneous Schools Post- War Development of Miscellaneous Schools

III. MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF TODAY .

Introduction . Vocational Schooling . Medical, Health, Education .and Welfare Industrial Technical Education . Business and Commercial Education . . Dressmaking, Design, and Cooking Schools . Cultural- Enrichment Education . Preparatory Schools .

IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL REGULATIONS AND THE ATTEMPT TO IMPROVE MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL STATUS .

Regulations Administration Financial Support Chapter Page

Senshu Gakko Bill ...... 99 Teacher Training Program ...... lOl

V. SUMMARY, EVALUATION, AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 108

Summary ...... lO8 Evaluation ...... llO Further Questions in Research ...... ll7

SELECTED RESOURCES ...... 122

iv LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Ownership of Miscellaneous Schools . 27

Dominate Subject Areas . 27

Total Subject Area 28

Formal School Attendance 28

Number of Schools and Teachers in Japan 1973 42

Total Student Enrollment 43

Private Schools in Japan 43

Private/Public Education 44 Types of Miscellaneous OmNO‘UT-th School Classes by Size 0f Enrollment 46

10. Percentage of Classes by Length of Offering . 48

11. Secondary and Higher EduCation by Sex . 51

12. General High School Course for Employment 3 Years (3,570 Hours) ...... 54

13. Machine Course in Senior High School 3 Years (3,885 Hours) 54

14. General Training Course: Junior High Level 1 Year (1,700 Hours) . 57

15. General Training Course: High School Level 6 Months (850 Hours) ...... 57

16. Advanced Training Course: High School Level 2 Years (3,400 Hours) . . . . . 58

17. Miscellaneous Industrial Training Schools 1 Year (1,107 Hours) ...... 60 Table Page

18. Prefectural Spending in Yen 94

19. Prefectural Spending Paid Directly to Individual Schools in Yen . 95

20. Prefectural Loan Funds in Yen 96

vi CHAPTER I

NON FORMAL EDUCATION AND

MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS

Introduction

In talking about education and such topics as the role of education in economic and cultural development, we start with schools. Then we may say "Of course, schools are not the only educational agencies," and then return to our talk of schools. If someone asks about the educational system of a nation or a community we take them on a tour of schools. We do not take them into homes where language acquisition and primary-group socialization takes place, nor into the streets and country side where self concepts and socialization roles are acquired and tested, nor into market places where consumer skills and attitudes are formed, nor into the work places where occupational capabilities, class consciousness and patterns of economic thinking are formed. We do not take them to playgrounds, union meetings, shopping centers, cocktail parties, craftsmen's shops, military installations, farms, factories, courts of law or the other many places with major identifiable, educational dimensions. '

Many learning situations take place without an awareness or intent on the part of the learner and are commonly thought to be

"natural" or even "inherent." Despite this unknowingness, learning is, or was taking place under these conditions. This kind of learning has come to be called incidental learning by some of the writers in the field of non formal education.2

On the other hand, experiences, similar to the above may be furthered or put forth in an examined and deliberate method by conversation, explanation, interpretation, instruction, discipline, and the use of examples from elders, employers, and peers. These activities may be intended to be educative in a limited sense, and have been referred to as informal education.3

The "schooling" that most people think about, more often brings to mind visions of grades, classrooms filled with teachers, and students interacting through a hierarchy of step-like processes of many years duration, beginning at an elementary level of education and continuing on through the university level. For some, it may not include the university, and for still others, it may not include secondary education. The process is the same and is exemplified by the established educational system that these persons attend at one time or another.

This schooling might have taken place in public or private schools, but in both cases the structure was much the same. At the elementary level a general curriculum of basic skills was mastered.

It included reading, writing, calculating, and some teaching of the cultural heritage.

At the middle and secondary levels, new focus puts students into different categories as they are either forced or allowed to select programs of a vocational, general, or college preparatory nature. The whole process is extremely time consuming and the training or education is usually of a general nature not being directly related to job placement. This type of education is generally referred to as formal education.

Recently, a great deal of interest has focused on schooling which takes place outside of the formal educational structure. The Agency For International Development for example, has put investigation of non formal systems of education at the tap of its list of

priorities.4

Non formal education has been defined as ”any intential and

systematic educational enterprise (usually outside of traditional schooling) in which content, method, time units, admission criteria, staff, facilities, and other system components are selected and/or adopted for particular students, populations, or situations in order to maximize attainment of the mission and minimize constraints of the system."5

The Agency For International Development defines non formal education as; "That portion of the learning system within a society which is not organized within graded classrooms, not oriented toward fixed younger age categories, and not usually operated by the Ministry of Education or its equivalent agency of government."6

Non formal education is distinguished from incidental and informal education by the fact that it is intentional and systematic.

It is distinguished from formal education by its focus on purpose over form or structure.7

Non formal education seems to be that education which is planned for, but which operates and exists outside of the regular formal schools and is not confined by the various internal and external restraints that have to be coped with by formal systems.

Concern for non formal education seems to be coming from at least two different sources. One source is a growing number of educators, economists, developers, and planners who are involved with education in the developing nations of the world. The second source of concern seems to be from critics like Ivan Illich who are attacking formal educational structures in all nations of the world.

The developing nations of the world find themselves in the difficult position of trying to provide education for all their people on limited financial budgets. Formal schools are expensive to build and take many years to develop. Alternatives have to be found to formal education in these countries if they are to educate and grow economically and socially in the years to come. Thus, non formal education is seen as one way of reaching more people in a shorter period of time and providing them with the skills needed for economic survival.

Ivan Illich sees formal education as institutional- discrimination which does not provide useful skills to consumers, but instead builds up useless credentials which can be traded for jobs.8

Illich, in Tools For Conviviality, states that universal

education through compulsory schooling is not possible. Alternative devices for the production and marketing of mass education are technically more feasible and ethically less tolerable than com— pulsory graded schools. Such new educational arrangements are on the verge of replacing traditional school systems in rich as well as poor countries. They are potentially more effective in the conditioning of job holders and consumers in an industrial economy.

Illich feels these new educational arrangements are more attractive for the management of the society, more alluring to the people, and more destructive to the fundamental values of the society.9 Whether one agrees or disagrees with much of what Illich has to say, one thing does seem clear. Programs of non formal education have provided, and are increasingly going to provide helpful and needed schooling to people of different nations in various stages of economic growth and social development. Too often this fact has been overlooked by writers in the field of comparative and international education who have focused attention on the traditional and formal aspects of education in the different countries of the world. It is with this inadequacy in mind that this study is being made of the Japanese miscellaneous schools.

The present constitution of Japan, which was adopted in

1946, defines the basic right and duty of the people to receive education. "All people shall have the right to receive equal education correspondent to their abilities, as provided for by law.

The people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their protection receive general education as provided by law. Such compulsory education shall be free."10

To meet these educational aims the Japanese government established the following types of schools. Elementary Schools (Sh59akk5): Children who have attained the age of six years must attend a six year elementary school.

This elementary school education is designed to give children (from the ages of six to twelve) a very general type of education.]] Lower Secondary Schools (Chugakka): Children who have completed elementary school are required to go on for another three years in a lower secondary school. They attend this school until graduation or the end of the school year when they reach age fifteen.12

Upper Secondary Schools (Kétégakkﬁ): Children who have completed lower secondary school may go on to an upper secondary school. Mandatory education stops at the lower secondary level and examinations are required for upper secondary entrance.

There are three types of upper secondary courses: full time, part time, and correspondence courses. The full time courses last three years. The part time and correspondence courses last four years or more. Part time courses consist of a day course and a night course.

According to content, upper secondary schools can be divided into two categories: general and specialized. The general courses provide education for those who want to attend institutions of higher education and those who will be seeking employment.

Specialized courses are intended to provide vocational or other specialized education for those students who have chosen a particular vocational area as a future goal. Courses are divided into such classifications as technical, commercial, agricultural, 13 fishing, domestic arts (home care), and other areas.

Universities (Daigaku): To attend a university, one must

have completed upper secondary school or its equivalent and have passed college entrance examinations.

These schools offer four year bachelor's degree programs and many have graduate schools offering master's and doctor's degrees.14 Junior Colleges (Tanki-daigaku): These schools provide upper

secondary graduates with two or three year programs in varying fields of study. Most courses offered are in the field of humanities,

social sciences, and home economics. Most of the junior college

students are women.15 Technical Colleges (K5t5-senmon-gakk5): Technical colleges require lower secondary school completion and offer a five year program for the training of technicians.

These schools offer courses in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, and 16 in other technical areas. Kindergartens (Y5chien): These schools aim at helping pre-

school children. They admit children from three to five years of age. Kindergarten education is not compulsory. Most kindergartens are privately owned and operated and are under control of national and local education authorities.

In addition to kindergarten, there are day nurseries (hoiku-jo) which also serve as pre-school institutions. This institution falls under the control of national and local welfare authorities.

Day nurseries care for children from birth to five years of age who need institutional care. Children from three to five years of age get about the same education as those attending kindergarten.

Most day nurseries are run by the local government.]7

Special Schools_(Tokushu-ky6iku-gakk5): These schools aim at giving physically or mentally handicapped children special education adapted to their particular needs. There are schools for the blind, deaf, and mentally handicapped. 18

Miscellaneous Schools (Kakushu-gakko): In addition to the afore mentioned schools, the law allows for the development and institution of a variety of educational establishments known as "miscellaneous schools." 19 The greater majority of these schools are privately controlled and provide pe0ple with vocational and practical courses in'a host of courses including dressmaking, cooking, bookkeeping, typing, and drivers training.20

Research Design

In the summer of 1974, research was undertaken in Japan on these miscellaneous schools. Two months were spent in Tokyo and

Kanagawa Prefectures interviewing owners of these schools and officials of the "National Association of Miscellaneous Schools," an organization to which most of the miscellaneous schools hold membership. Written materials were gathered from the various schools, usually in the form of phamplets and brochures, explaining the various programs, curricula, entrance requirements, goals, and general information about the schools, teachers, administration, and students. A second source of written materials were publications in the form of books and periodicals published by the National

Association of Miscellaneous Schools. A third source of written materials were gathered from the Japanese Government Printing Office in Tokyo. These are the only materials that were printed in English, and dealt with the general educational setting in Japan. Some information in these materials did deal with the miscellaneous schools to a limited extent. A final source of written information were books and articles printed in the United States dealing with the formal education setting, history, and culture of Japan.

The interviews and written materials form the basic data from which this research was written. Little has been written about the miscellaneous schools outside of Japan. In Japan itself, the miscellaneous schools as

National and the various Prefectural Associations of Miscellaneous

Schools. Yet, miscellaneous schools are present practically every- where. The Japanese are like the rest of the world in this sense.

For many, the term schooling or education brings to mind the formal educational setting although forms of non formal education exist all around them carrying out their educational tasks largely un- noticed.

Categories of Miscellaneous Schools

These miscellaneous schools provide the Japanese society with a variety of educational experiences, many of which cannot be achieved through the formal public school sector.

In a broad and inclusive sense, miscellaneous schools can be divided into three separate categories. First, there is the area of vocational training. One of the functions of some of the miscellaneous schools is to train their students in particular skills with an emphasis on practical training that can be used directly by the 10

labor market. These skills are generally middle range in nature and include such things as typing, and bookkeeping. In addition many students receive professional training in areas of nursing, and architectural design. Some of the schools provide students with

training as technicians of various sorts. Therefore, a wide range of vocational, professional, and technical training is available

in the miscellaneous schools.

A second category that miscellaneous education falls under

is that of university preparation. Miscellaneous schools in some

instances help students at various levels of their formal school learning, through enrichment, refresher and examination preparatory classes, all of which are designed to aid students in higher achievement and in being more successful in the race to get into the better (in terms of social prestige) universities.

The third category might be termed cultural enrichment or adult education. Life long education, adult education, and continuing education are all familiar terms to American educators.

In Japan, social education, is a term used to describe a

similar educational philosophy. Social education means organized eduCational activities, mainly for youth and adults, other than those provided for in the curricula of elementary and secondary schools or institutions of higher learning. 2] The purpose of social education is fivefold in nature: enrichment for the older adult population, handling of leisure time, developing a sense of community cohesion, supplementing knowledge to outmoded education, and creating social awareness.22 11

Though not a part of the government's social education program, miscellaneous schools are involved in the social education concept and classes are offered by the miscellaneous schools for the personal growth and development for those of various age levels.

Not all offerings of the miscellaneous schools fall into only one category. For example, into what category does a class in English language fall? One person may take the language class for his or her own enjoyment and enrichment. A second person may take the language class because it will aid that person in getting a job. A third person may take the English language class to supplement the regular school English language class with the idea of improving his test scores. Therefore, an English language class may fall into each of the three categories depending upon the purpose of the person taking the class. Despite the problem of overlap, the three categories are useful ways of viewing the educational activities and goals of the miscellaneous schools.

Most of the miscellaneous schools are established to provide education in only one of the three categories of offerings, since most are small educational operations. For example, the Asahi

Cultural Center, although not small, is a cultural enrichment- social education type of school in which students can learn a variety of things including different types of cooking, traditional dance, tea ceremony, and various types of art-craft type skills.23

Occasionally, some of the larger miscellaneous schools might be classified as "comprehensive" in that they include activities in the three categories just discussed. The Yokohama Academy is such 12

a school. It offers a variety of vocational classes and includes

preparatory and enrichment-social education types of classes.24

The description of the miscellaneous schools to this point

has been a discussion of function based on observation of what kinds of things miscellaneous schools do. Trying to define the miscel-

laneous schools in a legislative-legalistic sense is a little more difficult, because the legalistic definition of these schools has

historically been vague. The School Education Act I, which was

initiated after World War II, established the basic framework for

publically supported, regular, school structure. It was established on the American model of a 6-3-3-4 system; meaning there are six years of elementary education, three years of lower secondary or middle school, three years of upper secondary, and four years of

education at the university level. As previously stated, there are in addition to this, various other schools such as technical colleges, junior colleges, and "special schools" which deal with

such areas as retardation and physical handicaps. The purpose and

function of these schools have been clearly defined and spelled out

in Article I. This has not been true of the miscellaneous schools.

The miscellaneous schools have fallen under the vague legalistic

position of being those schools which engage in educational activities

not of the kind belonging to the Article I schools. Thus, the title miscellaneous schools; they are what is left over. 25 As such, miscel-

laneous schools do not perform as part of the formal educational

system. They fall under the previously discussed non formal edu-

cational category. 13

In the descriptive and analytical study to follow the legal status problems, legal regulations, history, contemporary activity, and the role of the miscellaneous schools in the Japanese educational and social setting of today will be discussed. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER I

1Marvin Grandstaff, "Educational History and Non Formal Education: A Methodological Strategy," Non-Formal Education Dis- cussion Papers, No. 3, NFE And The Structure of Culture (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1974), pp. 13-14.

2Russel F. Kleis, Case Studies in Non-Formal Education (East Lansing: Michigan State University Institute for Inter- national Studies in Education, 1974), p. 6. 31bid., p. 7.

4Agency For International Development, Priority Problems in Education and Human Resources Develppment--The Seventies (Bureau for Technical Assistance, Office of Education and Human Resources, November, 1970), p. 1. 5 Kleis, Case Studies in Non-Formal Education, p. 8.

6Harry Case, "Paper on Educational Planning," Paper presented at Seminar on Educational Planning, East Lansing, Michigan State University, Summer, 1971, p. l. 7 Kleis, Case Studies in Non-Formal Education, p. 8.

8Ivan Illich, "Abolishing Schools," New York Times, May 3-4, 1971, pp. L37, L47.

9Ivan Illich, Tools for Conviviality (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), pp. 9-10.

10Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan (Japan: Government of Japan, 1972), p. l. HIbid., p. 3. 12Ibid., p. 3.

‘3 H bid.. pp. 3-4.

‘4 bid., p. 4. H 151b1d., p. 4.

14 15

onhese schools might be compared in the American educational setting to barbers schools, mechanic schools, business training schools and a host of other private educational institutions outside of the formal educational structure. Some of these schools also offer programs which are similar to the "community schools" concept of the American public school sector.

211bid., p. 8. 22Ministry of Education, Education in 1968-70: Japan (Japan: Government of Japan, July, 1971), p. 25.

23Interview with Staff, Asahi Cultural Center, Tokyo, Japan, July, 1974.

24Interview with Kiyoshi Sakai, Yokohama Academy, Yokahama, Japan, July 16, 1974.

25National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book (Teikoku Chiho Gyosei Gakkai, July 20, 1973), p. 48. CHAPTER II

HISTORY OF MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS

Feudal Period

The miscellaneous schools were legally established during the

Meiji period (1868-1911) of Japanese history. The roots of the miscellaneous schools did, however, exist for many years before official recognition was granted.

The Japanese feudal period existed for over three hundred years prior to the Meiji Restoration. This feudalism is reminiscent of the European Middle Ages. There were large numbers of feudal

lords under the control of the Shogunate. The Shogunate was a military dictatorship that controlled Japan, during this period, under the guise of authority granted by a powerless figurehead monarch. Feudal lords held feifs, called hapg, The most numerous of the feudal royality were the samurai. The samurai did not hold lands, but lived in settlements around the castle of the lord

(Daimyo) and received support in the form of a stipend.1

The society was arranged into four horizontal social classes.

The samurai were the top social class; they were followed by the farmers, craftsmen, and the merchants in order of prestige.2

The Shogunate government, with its absolute power had eliminated much of the warring between various Daimyo and their

16 17 samurai. Eventually, the warring ways of the samurai decreased. The samurai became a group of "literate" and studied the Chinese classics and some of the Japanese writings. The major learning of the samurai was the Doctrine of Confucius. The Confucian way became the way of the samurai.3

Education came to be encouraged of all samurai children.

At first, scholars were invited by feudal lords to teach them the

Chinese classics.4 Then schools were established to serve the educational needs of the young samurai. Occasionally, schools were put under the control of the hans, where military arts and literary 5 arts were taught. Schools were developed in the hans by the Shogunate and through private initiative. This was a forerunner of the public and private educational conglomerate of today.6

The Shogunate government had its schools as well as the hans.

The most successful was the Prosperous Peace School (Sh5hei-k5). It

became the center of the "orthodox" teachings of the empire. This school was the forerunner of the present Tokyo University. There were, as well, many other schools run by the Shogunate government for the education of the samurai.7

Education for the masses did exist during this feudal era.

Farmers, though ranked second highest in feudal society, found themselves in the poorest situation educationally. Merchants and townspeople had it somewhat better in this regard. Though of lower social position, they had more freedom than the farmers, and were able to accumulate large sums of money. Education was seen by them as a practical necessity for their children if they were to carry 18 on trade responsibilities. The merchants in large towns used private schools as well as the few han schools which were open to them.8

The formation of two distinct philosophies of education can be seen developing at this stage. The samurai schools of the government were classical or liberal arts in their orientation.

The lower social classes education was vocational and practical in their orientation.

The Terakoya schools were at first temple centered education.

However, laymen eventually ended up teaching the three "R's" in these schools to merchants and interested townsmen. As farmers prospered, they would send their children to these schools.9

Occasionally, samurai attended Terakoya schools, but not the same ones attended by the other youths. Boys and girls were taught separately and paid fees for the service. Merchants, after sending their children to Terakoya schools would usually send their children to be apprenticed under merchants, a system similar to that found in Europe during the Middle Ages. Farmer's children learned their 10 trade at home.

The Needle School (Ohariya) was a school which taught girls

sewing, flower arranging, and tea ceremony. It was generally attached to the Terakoya school and was an important source of girls' education of the time. 1] It could be argued that this type of schooling was a direct forerunner for contemporary miscellaneous schools which still engage in the same type of activities.

The latter part of the Shogunate or feudal period saw some changes that were to be furthered during the Meiji Restoration. 19

Common education and desegregation of the different social classes was tried to a limited extent. The géggkg_were schools where commoners and samurai attended together.12

The practical-liberal arts dichotomy mentioned earlier is an example of further changing emphasis in the later feudal period.

There had been complaints that the Confucianists were nothing but

"rice eating dictionaries."13 The Dutch, who visited Japan during this period, may have had something to do with this change for it was they who referred to science, experiment, observation, and technical training as practical education.14 Practical-vocational education had by this time spread among the common people, and merchants and artisans had already set up and supported practical education.

The pre-Meiji, feudal Japan had set the scene for the modern Japanese educational situation. Millions of Japanese families had by the restoration assimilated routines needed to form the modern system. These routines included spending several hours a day for

part of the year away from the home with non-kin, entering into relations with special adults, and following a sequence of educational steps.15 In fact, what was happening was that education had long been changing over from an incidental and informal system to that of a formal and non formal type with the development of government and privately supported schools and with general and vocational learning taking place. 20

Meiji Period

In July of 1853, Commodore Perry steamed into Tokyo Bay and delivered a letter from the President of the United States requesting the inauguration of trade relations. The Japanese government was thrown into a crisis. Two factions emerged; conservatives, who wanted to expel the foreigners, and the realists, who saw that there was not much Japan could do but to give in.16 Under the threatening guns of the American ships, the Edo government signed a treaty with the United States. Other European powers soon made similar agree- ments, and the once closed off Japan was now open.17

The Tokugawa government realized that it was because of their military impotence that they could do nothing to stop the foreigners. They then initiated reforms to modernize their army and navy. 18 A cry was heard throughout the Empire to get rid of the foreigners. The Tokugawa regime ruled (in theory) as the military arm of the Emperor's government. However, the Shogunate was now unable to defend the government. A rebellion broke out in

1866 in which rebels beat the Shogunate forces. The Tokugawa

Shogunate had been swept away.19

The rebels and new leaders were a small group of court nobles and samurai from a few of the Western domains and had no eXperience in running a national government. The government centered around the Emperor, for it had been the revived theory of empirical rule which had caused the overthrow of the Tokugawa rule. This event became known as the Meiji Restoration, and

21 officially started in 1868.20 The young fifteen year old emperor posthumously was given the name Meiji.

The Meiji emperor came to be an influential force in the government, but as before, he and those to follow, were basically symbols of authority. The real authority was in the hands of the young samurai who led the rebellion from the Satauma and Choshu provinces.2]

The new leaders wanted a Japan capable of defending herself against Western powers. To do this, they would need to create a strong military and bring about political, economic, social, and intellectual changes. The Meiji leaders did away with the feudal system, initiated universal military service, decreed legal equality for all Japanese, and initiated many other reforms.22

Educational reform ranks as one of the key measures in the transforming of Japan from a feudal to a modern unified national 23 state. The Japanese decided that their hope lay in adopting the learning and methods of the Western powers if they were to be free of their economic, military, and political control. 24 These goals may be summarized in terms of national unification, loyalty, the acquisition of modern scientific and economic techniques, and the perfection of national defense.25

On April 6th, 1868, the Emperor Meiji took the "Imperial

Oath of Five Articles" which established the principles by which the Imperial rule was to be guided. I. Deliberative Assemblies shall be established and all measures of government shall be decided by public opinion. II. All classes, high or low, shall unite in vigorously carrying out the plan of the government. 22

III. Officials, civil, and military, and all common people shall, as far as possible, be allowed to fulfill their just desires, so that there may not be any discontent among them. IV. Uncivilized customs of former times shall be broken through, and everything shall be based upon just and equitable principles of nature. V. Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the worgd so that the welfare of the Empire may be promoted.2

Article V. became the guide to educational policy from the

date of its inception and acceptance by the Emperor.27

The first years of the Meiji period were years of experiment. In 1870, the schools that had existed were closed by the

government while it established a new department to handle educational matters. Monbusho, or the Ministry of Education, was given full

powers relating to public education and the supervision of private

schools. Monbusho controlled all levels of education. It had the

power to make and change regulations, open, close, unite, construct,

hire teachers, and regulate expenses. The Monbusho also controlled

the licensing and regulation of publishing books and periodicals.28

The administrative model for the new educational system was

taken from France. The French system seemed to fit the centralized 29 ideas of the young Meiji leaders. Under this centralized control of the Ministry of Education, the country was divided into eight

university sectidns. Each university was to control thirty-two middle

sections. Each middle school was to control two-hundred and ten 30 primary schools. At a ratio of one school for each six hundred

people, a tremendous financial burden resulted and the desired

educational goals were not met.31 23

Monbusho as originally set up was divided into the following three bureaus.

I. Bureau of Special Education Imperial Universities Kato Gakko higher schools or colleges preparatory to the Imperial Universities Senmon Gakko or special colleges Miscellaneous schools of same grades Students and teachers sent abroad Libraries and museums Astronomical and meterological observatories Encouragement of arts and sciences Earthquake investigation commission Imperial Academy Scientific, literary and other learned societies Degrees and honorary titles Medical and pharmaceutical honors examinations II. Bureau of Common Education 1. Normal Schools Middle Schools Elementary schools and kindergarten Girl's high schools Schools for blind and deaf-mutes Miscellaneous schools of lower grades Educational museums Popular education and educational societies School attendance

tomNO‘U'l-DWN III. B reau of Technical Education Industrial and technological education Agricultural education Commerical education Public and private navigation schools Apprentice schools and technical supplementary schools Miscellaneous schools of similar grades Government subsidies to technical schools 32

Cowman-puma: Training of teachers for technical schools.

It can be noted that miscellaneous schools were included in each of the departments. Under the School Education Law #83, section

II, the miscellaneous schools were recognized in the category of others to be established in addition to the formal educational structure. It was at this time that the term miscellaneous schools 33 was used to designate the schools that this study is focusing upon. 24

Formal School Structure

During the first few years of the Meiji period the Japanese copied and borrowed educational practices from the United States.

As time progressed, however, this pattern was changed at the secondary level of education. The secondary level of education developed into a highly selective system of the European type rather than the American pattern.34

After 1908, six years of elementary school was provided for all the students. This was followed by one of several different channels. The higher schools lead to the universities. Girl's high school prepared them to be wives, mothers, and eventually clerks and teachers. Normal schools prepared teachers. Technical schools gave vocational training and from 1935 onward youth schools provided full and part time vocational and military training for manual 35 workers.

Academic track for boys: The academic track was most prestigous.

It consisted of a 6-5-3-3 ladder leading from the regular 6-year elementary school to the preferred 5-year middle school, to the selective 3-year high school and finally to the 3-year university.36

Only 10 percent of the elementary school graduates passed the examinations which allowed them to enter the academic track. The middle school program was most often a terminal course for 72 percent 36 of the students. Yet, the curriculum was still academic which left them unskilled for positions in the work world that most would fill.

Most became clerks or went into small businesses.38 25

Girls track: In Confucian—oriented Japan, girls formed a

separate educational track. From the third year of elementary school on, the curriculum for girls differred. They were almost completely barred from the higher educational levels. Education beyond the elementary level usually meant a girl's high school for 4-5 years.

Only a small percentage of the girls went this far.39 The emphasis was on national morality and womenly virtue.

Though there were institutions of higher and advanced learning for a very small number of Japanese women, it was generally believed that girls had little need or desire for academic training.

Their roles were to be good wives and mothers. Later toward the beginning of World War II, it was recognized that the additional purposes of making women loyal patriots and skilled workers was also needed.40

Normal school track: A separate track was devoted to teacher

training. The government paid the expenses and expected ten years of service for men and five years of service for women as repayment.

This was later dropped to 4 1/2 years for both men and women. These teachers taught at the elementary and generally less academic middle schools.41

Technical school track: Despite pressure for technical edu-

cation, the Japanese inherited an attitude that common labor, which dirtied the hands, was lowly and demeaning. The lower classes were responsible for doing the drudgery. Because of this attitude, vocational and technical education was never held in high esteem.42 26

This attitude is still evident today and is in part responsible for the lower status of miscellaneous schools.

At the secondary level, these schools consisted of a five year vocational school for middle grade technicians. These schools included agricultural, commerical, industrial, and fisheries.43

At the higher levels, the technical institute (senmon gakko) was a three to five year college to prepare skilled technicians.44

Youth school track: This fifth track was that of the youth

schools. They provided a two to seven year part time or full time continuing education for laboring youth who had completed the elementary level of education. Generally the classes were practical and vocational in focus.45

Miscellaneous Schools

In 1880, Monbusho published a report describing the status of the miscellaneous schools of this period. These schools were defined as being small and limited educational enterprises which did not meet the qualifications to be included in the regular formal system of education.

The major disqualifying factor for the miscellaneous schools seemed to be the fact that they did not offer a wide enough curriculum by not offering the total range of offerings found in the formal elementary, middle, and higher school curriculums.47

This 1880 report goes on to state that there were 433 miscellaneous schools which were publicly financed by local authorities, and 883 miscellaneous schools which were under private control. 27

Further, the report indicates that only a few miscellaneous

schools offered studies beyond what would be classified as an ele-

mentary level of education. They did offer many of the same kinds

of classes or subjects as did the formal schools, and in some cases,

had good reputations for quality. But, these schools were not

granted formal school status because of their limited curriculum.48

In 1882, a Monbusho report indicated the ownership and

control of miscellaneous schools (see Table 1).

TABLE l.--Ownership of Miscellaneous Schools.

Prefectural operated miscellaneous 4 Locally operated miscellaneous schools 8 Privately operated miscellaneous schools 1131

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

Within the miscellaneous schools several subject areas dominated the curriculum (see Table 2).

TABLE 2.--Dominate Subject Areas.

Chinese study 346 Reading 251 Calligraphy 147 Homemaking 163 Preparatory schools few Blind/deaf few'

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

In addition, several other courses were offered (see Table 3).

TABLE 3.--Total Subject Area.

State Shinto (Emperor Worship) Languages: English French German Chinese Law Medicine Ship Building Navigation Commerce Shushin (Morals) Arithmetic Bookkeeping Painting Teacher Preparation Handicraft

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

The enrollment in these schools was a total of 56,029. Of 49 these, 10,430 were women and 45,599 were men. Compare this 56,029 figure to that of the formal school attendance (see Table 4).

TABLE 4.--Formal School Attendance.

Primary School 300,000 Middle School 1,388 Voc/Tech School 6,922 University 1,675

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

Of the 59,029 enrolled in the miscellaneous schools, only about 6,000 were enrolled in subjects or classes which would compare to the primary level of education. This shows that at least 50,000 persons were enrolled in upper level classes in miscellaneous schools compared to about 10,000 enrolled in the formal middle school, vocational and university schools. Many more Japanese were receiving some type of post elementary education from miscellaneous schools than from formal schools.50 From the end of the Meiji period until the beginning of

World War II, the miscellaneous schools grew and developed. They began to focus more and more on technical, vocational, specialized programs, and women's education.51 The development of the miscellaneous schools can be seen to be changing in focus from the Meiji period to World War II.

Kangaku (Confucianism and Chinese Philosophy): These schools

have long histories going back to the Tokugawa era and continued into the Meiji period. During the Edo period, Confucianism was the primary focus of study for the ruling class. As formal schools developed during the Meiji period, Confucianism was carried into the private miscellaneous schools.52

As the Meiji period progressed, there was doubt and conflict as to the proper kind of education to be offered. The conflict centered around three different groups; the Confucianists, the 53 National scholars, and the Western scholars. The Meiji government decided to go with the Western style of learning.54 This decision 30 had its effect on the miscellaneous schools, for after 1879 the

Confucianist miscellaneous schools faded in importance.55

Foreign language and Preparatgpy schools: After the Meiji

restoration and with the greatly increased foreign contact and borrowing of ideas, language schools became a very important area of miscellaneous school development. They made significant contributions to the teaching of English, German, French, Russian, and

Chinese.56

In the Meiji period from 1887 to 1897, preparatory schools began to take on the function of getting students into good secondary academic schools and universities. Many of these schools were attached to private universities. In the Teisho (1912-1925) and Showa (1926-) periods, entrance examinations were getting more difficult. Preparatory schools to tutor students to pass the entrance 57 examinations, thrived.

Specialized and professional schools: Some of the miscel-

laneous schools of this period did provide professional education in certain fields. However in 1903, a Bill of Specialized Schools

was passed and many of these miscellaneous schools were promoted to special school status. These schools trained professionals in medicine, pharmacology, dentistry, art, music, and in physical education. Many of these schools, which started as miscellaneous schools, became universities after World War II. Tokyo Women's Medical University,

Nippon Medical University, Tokyo University of Pharmacology, Nihhon

Physical Education University are all examples of this transformation.58 31

Women's Education: During the early Meiji period, Christian

Missionary schools, women's schools, and miscellaneous schools contributed to women's education. However, in 1899, the government

passed a decree against religious education. Christian missionary

schools were required to change their names. Some became miscel-

laneous schools of post elementary level. Other of the miscellaneous schools became famous schools for women today. Such schools include

Atomi Women's School, Aoyama Women's School, Likkyo University, Koran

High School, and Ferris High School.59 .

Industrial Schools: A part of the drive during-the Meiji era was to modernize Japan economically and industrially. Many of the industries needed middle level technicians, but there were

no schools to produce them. In 1899, the Meiji government issued a decree aimed at producing middle level technicians, special skill, and lower skill technical schools. The miscellaneous schools began to offer training in the industrial-technical field and provided large numbers of semi-skilled personnel. Many of these early technical schools became well known and exist today as Tokyo Technical

School, Kogakuin University, Iwakura Railroad School, and Akaike 60 Mining School.

Commercial and Business Education: As of 1877, there were

no formal, public business or commercial schools in Japan. The

schools of this type that did exist were operated as private schools.

In 1877, some public business school education began to develop at

the middle school level. It was not until 1899 that the government

passed a law which established business education in the public 32 schools. The supply was not enough to meet the demand and the miscellaneous schools of the period produced skilled people especially in the fields of bookkeeping and abacus. This continued into the

Taisho period with shorthand being added to the list of subjects.61

Girls Vocational Schools: From the Meiji period until today,

the miscellaneous schools have made many contributions to women's vocational education. In 1877, dressmaking schools began to develop.

The Wayo Dressmaking School which existed in Tokyo at this time is still in existence. By 1887, dressmaking schools had spread throughout Japan. By 1897, one half of the miscellaneous schools in some prefectures were devoted to dressmaking. With the great Western influence, the end of the Meiji period saw Western style dressmaking, crocheting, handicrafts, and cooking being introduced into the miscellaneous schools.62

Women have never shared equal status and traditionally have been limited in Japan to certain occupations. In Meiji Japan women's professions were limited except for such areas as teaching, midwifery, nursing, and nursery schools. Miscellaneous schools were set up to offer training in these fields. In 1877, the first nursing schools were started and contributed greatly to the training of nurses. By the later part of the Taisho period, women's vocational training in miscellaneous schools included beauticianry, home economics, typing, and nutrition.63

Although miscellaneous schools are mentioned in the Article on Education of the Meiji period, miscellaneous schools had no clear regulations or standards under which they operated. In 1898, an act 33 was passed which dealt with private schools which could be applied to miscellaneous schools, but nothing was directly related to them.

By 1935, there were 1,900 miscellaneous schools and a 1941 survey indicated there were 400,000 students attending these schools at this time. Many of these schools became colleges after the war.64

The enrollments in miscellaneous schools once beyond compulsory education levels, were more than in the formal schools by the middle of the Meiji period for boys, and by the end of the Taisho period for girls.65 This means that miscellaneous schools have been playing an important role in supplementing the formal education system since the Meiji period.

Post-War Development of Miscellaneous Schools

The general nature of the type and content of the miscellaneous schools following World War II was much the same as before the war. The new public education system provided greater opportunity for all students. An examination of courses offered since World

War II indicates that the miscellaneous schools have provided professional and specialized learning skills not available in the formal

Article I schools as the miscellaneous schools have risen to meet rapidly changing social demands.66

In 1948, the statistics on miscellaneous schools show a drop from the pre-war figures; in that there were 1,400 schools with some 220,000 students. However, as the occupational forces became more settled and social conditions in Japan began to normalize with the efforts of rebuilding, miscellaneous schools began to rapidly 34

increase. Surveys show that in 1949 there were 3,400 schools and

450,000 students. In 1956, even greater gains were made with 7,500

-schools and 1,000,000 students. From 1957 to 1973, the number of

schools grew from 7,800 to 8,000. The peak enrollment was in 1968

when there were 1,470,000 students in the miscellaneous schools.

The 1971 enrollments dropped to 1,300,000, still an impressive number

when seen in the light of enrollment of other educational insti- 67 tutions.

Dressmaking: After the war, dressmaking, home economics,

and crocheting made up the largest number of miscellaneous schools.

From 1950 to 1955, enrollment increased from 300,000 to 480,000 in

these three areas.68

Immediately following the war, dressmaking was the largest

enroller of students. About forty percent of all miscellaneous Schools were engaged in dressmaking. This boom lasted until around

1964, when dressmaking dropped to about thirty percent of the schools.

Dressmaking was important because of the need to provide education

for girls and the lack of clothing after the war. In recent years, more girls are going on to high school for their education. In addition, industrialization has created low cost ready-made 69 clothing. Dressmaking schools of today have come to include

professional design as their goal more than the old bride preparatory

function.

Medical and Health Schools: After the war greater restrictions

and controls were put on medical and health occupations. For example,

nurses, dieticians, and beauticians were required to have diplomas. 35

In 1947, licenses were required for barbers, beauty operators, dieticians in schools, child welfare nurses, and those involved

in massage, acupuncture, fire treatment, Judo, and orthopedic work.70

In 1948, visiting nurses, midwives, nurses, and dental technicians were added to the licensing act. The government appointed schools to do this licensing and many miscellaneous schools were given the power to grant diplomas in the above areas.7]

Following the war and up to the present, a wide range of miscellaneous schools developed to handle the newly developing health and medical professions. These professionals include x-ray technicians, dental technicians, laboratory technicians, food service, therapists, and clinical technicians. These schools are primarily for girls and the Department of Health and Welfare has established strict standards regulating their training. This is quite different from the lack of direction found in other types of miscellaneous schools. Since 1965, health related training has increased.72

Industrial and Technical Schools: With the rebuilding of

Japan, a great demand arose for semi-skilled technicians in industry.

Miscellaneous schools spread out in all directions as industry grew and developed. After 1955, radio schools grew rapidly. These later became television schools and now many of them are electronic schools.

These schools have become more narrow and advanced in focus with 73 increased training lasting two to three years.

Business and Commercial Schools: This type of training as

handled by the miscellaneous schools can be achieved in a relatively short period of time. After the war, the demand for these skills 36 increased rapidly. In 1949, there were 20,000 students enrolled in bookkeeping and abacus schools. In 1957, that number increased and has remained at around 130,000 students.74

Typing has seen a similar trend with 5,000 students in 1949, increasing to 30,000 students in 1964 and leveling at that point.75

Today many of the traditional business subjects have either stabilized or decreased in numbers. Part of the explanation for this is because of the better organization and increased technology which has decreased the numbers of people needed.76

However, a new phase (called the third industry by the

Japanese) of business training and education is taking place today.

This is the service industry. Schools in the business-commercial fields are branching out. They are preparing tourist guides, sight seeing directors, hotel managers, hostess-receptionists, and other types of occupations as increased leisure time and affluence have become more widespread in Japan.77

Art and Cultural Schools: Before the war, these activities

were learned under a master-student arrangement or tutor. Since the war, these activities have become a part of miscellaneous school activity. These activities are recognized as contributing to the betterment of the individual. These schools fulfill social education functions and reflect the desires of the society for enrichment types of education. Cooking, sewing, religion, and dance fall into this category. It is a category that is rapidly expanding.78 FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER II

1Mamoru Oshiba, Four Articles on Japanese Education (Tokyo: Maruzen, 1963), p. l.

N Ibid., p. 1. 31bid., p. 2. 41bid., p. 3.

51bid., p. 3.

6Martin D. Shipman, Education and Modernization (London: Farber and Farber Limited, 1971), p. 205. 7 Oshiba, Four Articles on Japanese Education, p. 4.

8Shipman, Education and Modernization, p. 206.

9Oshiba, Four Articles on Japanese Education, p. 5. 101616., p. 6. 1Match, p. 6.

12Herbert Passin, Society and Education in Japan (Columbia University: Teachers College Press, 1966), p. 50. 13 Ibid., p. 50. 141616., p. 51.

Ibid., p. 54.

16Edwin Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation (New York: Alfred A. Knops, 1970), p. 115. 17 Ibid., p. 116. 181616., p. 116. 191616., p. 120.

201bid., p. 121. 37

21Ibid , p. 124. 22 I id., p. 121.

23Passin, Society and Education in Japen, p. 63.

24Hugh Keenleyside, History_of Japanese Education (Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1937), p. 71.

29Passin, Society and Education in Japan, p. 69.

30 Keenleyside, History of Jepanese Education, p. 84.

3‘Ibid., p. 85. 321bid., pp. 85-86.

33National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

34Shipmen, Education and Modernization, p. 227.

351bid., p. 227.

36Ronald Anderson, Japan: Three Epochs of Modern Education (Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare: Office of Education 11, 1959), p. 36. 371616., p. 36. 381bid., p. 36.

39191g , p. 38. 4°;p1g , p. 38. 4lgpjg , p. 39.

421pjd,, p. 40. 43Ibid., p. 40. 39

National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

47;p1g,, p. 43. 48;pjg,, p. 43. 491p1g , p. 44.

SQIpig , p. 44. S‘lpig,, p. 44. 521919 , p. 43.

53Passin, Society and Education in Japan, P- 53-

54Ibid., p. 66.

55National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43. 561919,, p. 44. 57Ipig,, p. 44. 581bid , p. 45.

Sglpjg , p. 45. 5°;_1g , p. 45. 6]Ibid , p. 46.

621919 , p. 46. 63;_1g., p. 46. 64Ibid., p. 47.

65Central Council for Education, Basic Guidelines for the Reform of Education (Japan: Ministry of Education, June, 1972), p. 93. . 661bid., p. 93.

67National Association of Misscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 49.

681bid., p. 49.

69Interview with Mitsuo Gate, National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Tokyo, July 19, 1974.

70Fire treatment is like acupuncture except that hot coals are used to burn nerve centers. Judo instructors also set bones and do minor physical therapy. 71 National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 49.

721bid., P . 49.

73Ibid., P . 53.

741616., P . 53.

p. 53.

p . 51.

p. 51.

P . 51. CHAPTER III

MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS 0F TODAY

Introduction

In the miscellaneous schools of today, several new trends are taking place. This is perhaps a result of changing occupational roles for men and women in Japan of today and rapid technological and economic growth.

Traditionally, male enrollment in clerical courses of study was high. Today male enrollment in these courses has decreased greatly. 1 On the other hand, male enrollment in the newer technical courses for industry, automobile manufacturing, medical technology, agriculture, and many others has increased.2 Another area of male enrollment increase is that of preparatory schools, which tutor students for entrance examinations for the university.3

In the area of female enrollment, home economics ranks first, though it has decreased somewhat from its historical dominance.4 Female enrollment in such technical courses as hair dressing, nursing, and midwifery have been increasing rapidly.5

The miscellaneous schools have a large number of facilities available, with over 8,000 schools. However, the size of the miscellaneous schools is small. In comparing numbers of teachers who are

41 42

TABLE 5.--Number of Schools and Teachers in Japan 1973.

Type of No. of Full Time School Part Time School School - Schools Teachers Average Teachers Average

Kindergarten 11,564 72,797 6 3 7,731 0.7 Elementary 24,325 381,591 15.3 2,037 0.1 Junior High 10,686 225,836 21.1 11.202 1.0 Senior High 4,810 207,204 43 1 31,774 6.6 Technical College 63 3,513 55.8 2.071 35.1 Junior College 491 14,677 29.9 18,365 37.4 University 397 80,959 203.9 47,753 120.3 Miscellaneous 8,045 47,226 5.9 61,312 7.6

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous School Education,36 (Tokyo, Japan: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, March, 1974), p. 7.

a part of the regular faculty, the 5.9 average of full time teachers for miscellaneous schools is the smallest average for all the schools examined. This indicates the smallness of these educational enterprises. It is also interesting to note that the miscellaneous schools have the largest tptgl_number of part time faculty with 61,312. In fact there are more part time faculty than full time faculty. This situation is shared only by the junior colleges. This is one way miscellaneous schools have been able to keep costs low. Many of these part time people cost nothing. They volunteer their services

(see Table 5). The smallness of the miscellaneous schools is also shown in the number of pupils. The miscellaneous schools have an overall average of 157.1 students per school. They also have the largest class size with 26.7 pupils per classroom (see Table 6). 43

TABLE 6.--Tota1 Student Enrollment.

Type of Total Pupil/Teacher Pupils Per School Pupils Ratio School

Kindergarten 1,842,458 25.3 159.3 Elementary 9,696,233 25.4 398.6 Junior High 4,688,444 20.8 438.7 Senior High 4,154,647 20.1 863.8 Technical College 47,853 13.6 759.6 Junior College 287,974 19.6 586.5 University 1,529,163 18.9 3,851.8 Miscellaneous 1,263,772 26.7 157.1

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous School Education, p. 7.

TABLE 7.--Private Schools in Japan.

Percent Type of of Total Percent of Number of School Enrollment Pupils Students Schools

Kindergarten 40.8 1,425,005 25.5 7,164 Elementary 0.9 56,076 1.0 162 Junior High 3.2 174,171 2.6 567 Senior High 7.0 1,291,794 23.1 1,224 Technical College 0 7,812 0.1 7 Junior College 2.4 260,944 4.7 423 University 1.7 1,159,217 20.8 290 Miscellaneous 43.9 1,236,935 22.1 7,699

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous School Education, p. 7. 44

In the area of private education, miscellaneous schools make up 43.9 percent of all private schools in Japan. This includes some

7,699 schools. 0n the basis of student population, miscellaneous schools rank a third behind kindergartens and senior high schools.

In actual fact, private education in Japan is popular and widespread as Table 8 will indicate.

TABLE 8.--Private/Public Education.

Type of Public Private Public Private School Students Students Schools Schools

Kindergarten 1,715,779 1,425,005 11,180 7,164 Elementary 9,595,032 56,076 24,540 162 Junior High 4,694,249 174.171 10.839 567 Senior High 4,170,501 1,291,794 6,007 1,224 Technical College 46,707 7,812 63 7 Junior College 275.256 260.944 486 423 University 1,468,538 1,159,217 389 290 Miscellaneous 26,837 1,236,935 356 7,699

Source: Agency For Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan, p. 11. National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous School Education, p. 7.

Private education at the kindergarten level and levels of higher education come close to approaching those of the public education sector. Private education is an accepted part of the total educational scene in Japan. In some cases private schools have developed outstanding reputations and prestige.6 45

There are some publicly operated miscellaneous schools.

These have been established by the prefectural governments and the national governments, to train nurses and other publically needed occupations.7

Today miscellaneous schools offer a large number of programs of varying lengths of training (see Table 9).

The most popular courses for women are: Western dressmaking, nursing, handicraft, cooking, abacus, Japanese-Western dressmaking, enrichment, Japanese dressmaking, driving, and foreign language.

These top ten courses of study for females show great emphasis on home economic and enrichment types of education. Only nursing, within this top group, clearly indicates a vocational goal. It would seem that the bridal preparatory function of Japanese education still exists to a certain extent in these schools.

The most popular courses of study for the males are: college preparatory, driving, abacus, foreign language, foreign national schools, surveying, chef, electricity, design, and computer. In contrast to the female enrollment, the male enrollment clearly shows a vocational orientation toward skills usable outside of the home in business and industry.

The miscellaneous schools offer programs from a few months in length to several years in length (see Table 10).

There are a few areas in which the majority of the classes are less than a year in length. Driving is a class that obviously requires a short period of time to master. Typing is another short 46

TABLE 9.--Types of Miscellaneous School Classes by Size of Enrollment.

No. of Total Course Classes Enrollment Male Female

Western Dressmaking 4,718 203,628 1,408 202,148 Preparatory 311 159,381 134,074 25,307 Driving 579 113.183 80,036 33.147 Abacus 999 84,583 35.542 49.041 Nurse 816 71,682 1,321 70,361 Handicraft 2,085 56,223 25 56,198 Foreign Language 215 55,031 25,489 29,542 Cooking 642 52,613 231 52,382 Japanese/Western Dressmaking 623 45,301 424 44,877 Enrichment 287 41,949 2,398 39,551 Foreign National Schools 132 40,855 20,036 20,819 Japanese Dressmaking 1,135 35,766 20 35,746 Typing 312 19,083 602 18,481 Chef 188 18,052 9,787 8,265 Surveying 54 17,135 16,277 858 Design 70 15,619 9,052 6,567 Home Economics 137 13,634 16 13,618 Beautician 187 13,393 1,821 11,572 Teacher Training 85 12,779 257 12,552 Bookkeeping and Abacus 139 12,211 5,375 6,836 Tea Ceremony Flower Arrangement 278 11,057 239 10,818 Bookkeeping 105 10,657 5,911 4,746 Computer 86 10,487 8,397 2,090 Nursery School 69 10,290 2 10,288 Electricity 51 9,315 9,279 36 Accounting 99 7,827 4,272 3,556 Telegraphy 20 6.953 6.551 402 Music 95 6,901 1.481 5.420 Acupuncture/Massage 39 6,667 4,260 2,407 Business 98 6,455 1,927 4,528 Industrial-Technical 44 6,080 5,488 592 47

TABLE 9.--Continued.

No. of Total Course Classes Enrollment Male Female

Machine 34 4,968 4,876 92 Art 54 4,959 2,546 2,413 Traditional Dance 67 4,723 251 4,472 Auto Repair. 55 4,366 4,275 91 Caligraphy 79 4,102 1.132 2,970 Radio-Television 29 3,431 3,397 34 Dental Hygiene 38 3,419 2,825 594 Dietician 18 3,288 617 2,671 Dental Technician 59 2,841 75 2,766 X-Ray Technician 21 2,633 2,456 177 Barber 122 2,618 1,079 1,539 Medical Technician 35 2,555 875 1,680 Laboratory Technician 23 2,544 755 1,789 Judo-Therapy 22 2,170 1,929 241 Religion 35 1,490 1,091 399 Stenography 15 1,370 233 1,137 Agriculture 19 865 799 86 Public Health Nurse 27 849 -- 849 Midwife 31 650 -- 650 Legal 6 623 566 57 Speech Correction 4 385 293 92 Drama 6 295 128 167 Chemistry 4 193 182 111 Hat Making 2 3O -- 30 Business Management 2 20 15 5 Others 165 14,490 9,782 4,708

TOTAL 15,670 1,245,668 432,227 813,441

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous School Education, p. 23. 48

TABLE 10.--Percentage of Classes by Length of Offering.

Less than 1 to 2 2 to 3 over 3 Course 1 year years years years

Western Dressmaking 13.6 59.2 20.4 . Preparatory 26.0 70.7 2.0 1.3 Driving 100 ------Abacus 34.7 53.5 8.7 3.0 Nurse 0 O 70.4 29.6 Handicraft 30.2 54.7 11.5 3.6 Cooking 33.1 61.5 3.9 1.5 Foreign Language 38.0 32.6 13.4 6.1 Enrichment 11.6 13.7 15.4 59.3 Japanese/Western Dressmaking 7.6 48.8 19.5 24.2 Foreign National Schools 2.6 4.3 5.8 87.2 Japanese Dressmaking 14.8 54.7 20.6 9.8 Chef 24.3 70.9 2.4 2.4 Typing 72.2 20.3 2.2 .3 Home Economics 4.7 17.5 17.0 60.8 Surveying 6.0 26.5 61.4 6.1 Design 11.0 18.9 63.7 5.8 Bookkeeping and Abacus 38.1 49.4 10.6 1.9 Beautician 10.2 86.2 3.5 0.1 Teacher Training 1.1 19.6 75.4 3.8 Tea Ceremony Flower Arrangement 25.0 34.7 14.1 26.2 Electricity 2.8 20.5 73.3 3.6 Computer 4.9 21.4 73.7 0 Nursery 0 14.6 69.9 15.8 Bookkeeping 76.1 22.4 0.8 1.6 Accounting 25.4 52.9 14.4 7.3 Business 10.0 29.3 31.7 29.0 Telegraphy 2.1 10.2 86.8 .09 Music 27.2 26.5 27.9 18.5 Acupuncture/Massage O 7.2 45.9 46.9 Industrial-Technical 4.1 11.0 54.4 30.6 49

TABLE 10.--Continued.

Less than 1 to 2 2 to 3 over 3 Course 1 year years years years

Machine 4.3 19.3 46.0 27.0 Auto Repair 10.1 65.0 13.2 11.7 Art 26.4 39.0 20.2 14.4 Traditional Dance 25.1 20.8 22.0 32.0 Barber 15.3 80.6 4.0 O Dietician O 21.1 76.2 2.7 Dental Technician 0 O 50.6 49.4 Calligraphy 26.1 35.0 16.8 22.1 Radio-Television .08 27.9 62.6 8.7 Dental Hygiene 0 56.3 41.4 2.3 X-Ray Technician 0 O 72.0 28.0 Laboratory Technician 14.1 9.0 76.9 0 Judo-Therapy 1.1 33.9 65.0 Medical Technician 19.1 20.0 31.9 28.9 Religion 23.3 33.3 43.3 0 Stenography 17.2 20.1 39.8 22.9 Agriculture 0 6.3 8.7 85.0 Law 4.5 95.5 0 0 Public Health Nurse 9.9 90.1 0 O Midwife 50.9 11.4 19.8 17.9 Drama 60.0 40.0 0 0 Speech 10.9 69.5 19.6 0 Hat Making 0 81.9 18.8 0 Chemistry 10.1 4.7 84.6 0.4 Business Management 30.8 33.1 27.2 4.9 Others 26.8 40.5 19.3 13.4

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous School Education, pp. 18-19.

50 training course, if the students want merely to pick up the funda- mentals and then proceed to practice on their own.

Midwifing is to assist in the delivery of babies and does not require a full nurse's training. Drama and bookkeeping are other classes which offer the bulk of their training in less than one year.

In the category of more than one year but less than two years, the following courses offer most of their training within this time slot: Western dressmaking, university preparatory, abacus, handicraft, chef, beautician, accounting, auto repair, barber, dental hygiene, law, speech, and hat making.

In the category of more than two years but less than three years there are classes offering training in: Nursing, surveying, design, teacher training, electricity, computer, telegraphy, industrial-technical, dietician, radio-television, X-ray, laboratory technician, and chemistry. These courses are for the most part technically oriented requiring greater training periods to accomplish the required skill levels and knowledge.

There are only a few areas of education which offer courses of over three years in length. The areas themselves are quite surprising. It might be expected that they would be highly technical types of endeavors, but this is not the case. These areas are enrichment, home economics, and agriculture. The home economics and agriculture courses, in many cases, are a substitute for regular formal education for many students and serve as a non formal secondary type education. The enrichment classes are often offered over a long 51 period of time and include many types of different activities which

keep students coming back. Dancing, learning to play musical instru- ments, and other like areas require long periods of training.

An examination of male and female enrollment in secondary schools and higher education reveals some interesting facts (see

Table 11).

TABLE ll.--Secondary and Higher Education by Sex.

Total School Enrollment Percent Percent Type 1000's Male Female

Upper Secondary 4,170 50.7 49.3 Higher Education 1,791 72.1 27.9 University 1,469 81.7 27.9 Junior College 275 16.7 83.3 Technical College 47 97.9 2.1 Miscellaneous 1,309 32.2 67.8

Source: Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japen, p. 13.

University education is dominated by male students. This is reflected in the high number of males taking preparatory classes in the miscellaneous schools. Junior colleges are dominated by female students. These schools appeal to girls who want a general liberal arts education or a short commercial education which will provide them with employment until they get married.8

The miscellaneous schools perform a similar role to that of the junior colleges. The miscellaneous schools of today have a larger number of women than men, and generally appeal to the women's 52

need to improve herself in the homemaking skills or to get a short

commercial training which will prepare her for a temporary job.

Vocational Schooling

Actually, all of the miscellaneous schools are considered

to be vocational schools. However, not all of the miscellaneous

schools prepare students for vocations. Many miscellaneous schools are, however, vocationally oriented and train students in professional,

technical, and commercial areas. I

To get a better understanding of the role the miscellaneous

schools play in the vocational area, they must be compared to other vocational programs in Japan.

The role the miscellaneous schools play in the area of

vocational preparation is difficult to measure because of the wide

range of programs and the lack of uniform standards among these

schools. However, some general patterns can be evaluated against

the vocational education offered under the Ministry of Education and vocational training offered under the Ministry of Labor.

Within the Department of Education, vocational education

is carried out at the junior high and the high school levels.

Vocational education in the junior high school is a general education which aims at cultivating the character required of a prospective molder of the nation and the society, cultivating the fundamental knowledges and skills of occupation necessary for society, including willingness and respect for work, and the ability to lead ones self successfully in the future.9 53

In the curriculum, this is accomplished through vocational

subjects such as techniques of homemaking, industry, commerce,

fishing, and general subjects such as Japanese language, and mathe- matics. The vocational subjects usually come at ninth grade.10

The senior high school is divided into two courses: a

general course aimed at college or university preparation, the other aimed at specialized education in which vocational education

is conducted. Agriculture, fishery, industry, and commerce are the main vocational programs.]]

Recently, some of the high schools have been designated for

special vocational areas such as commercial high schools, and technical high schools.12

Vocational education at these two levels of secondary education is aimed at teaching social and economic knowledge necessary for occupation.13

Tables 12 and 13 indicate the breakdown of time spent on specific areas at this level of education.

Within the general course of study there is a program designed for employment directly after graduation from high school.

This program is much like the college preparatory program, but it

is somewhat more general and does include some vocational education.

As can be seen from table 12, this program allocates little time to developing skills in the vocational areas, but instead gives the student a general introduction to the areas of vocational education. It is basically a liberal arts program. 54

TABLE 12.--General High School Course for Employment 3 Years (3,570 Hours).

Academic subjects 2,435 hours

Vocational subjects 535 hours

Home room and electives 490 hours

Source: Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan, p. 23.

TABLE l3.--Machine Course in Senior High School 3 Years (3,885 Hours).

Cultural subjects 1,890 hours 49%

Practice 560 hours 15%

Technical subjects 1,330 hours 34%

Home room ‘ 105 hours 2%

Source: Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, Vocational Training Jepen 1973, p. 14.

t Table 13 reveals that almost one-half of the time is allocated to education which is non-technical or vocational. Little time is spent on actual practice of skills or applied learning. This program does offer considerably more vocational preparation than does the general program. This program does offer specific training along with a general type of education.

Vocational training in contrast to vocational education, has come about as the result of regulations established by the

Ministry of Labor. Vocational training has been defined as: "planned and systematic activity which is provided for workers or those who are to become workers, in order to enable them to acquire knowledge and skills necessary for the trades."14

Vocational training has the objectives of training useful workers, securing stable employment, improving the status of workers, and securing economic and social deve10pment.15

In 1969, a Vocational Training Law was introduced to meet problems of labor shortages and changes in skills needed for jobs due to technical change. A major feature of the training law is the attempt to develop lifelong training under which people would be able to receive suitable vocational training when needed throughout their working lives.16

Programs of vocational training are classified into basic training, upgrading training, occupational capacity redevelopment training, updating training, and instructor training.17

Basic training is for recent junior and senior high school graduates and employment seekers to acquire knowledge and skills 56

for work. This basic training is divided into general training for

a short period of time, six months to one year, and advanced training

for longer periods of time, one year to three years. These courses

are further divided into junior and senior high levels.18

Upgrading training is for those who have completed basic

training or have the skills necessary in the trades to benefit from

advanced skill development.19

Occupational capacity redevelopment training is designed

for those who need to change jobs. This includes all age levels; young, middle and old age groups. Specifically, this program was

designed for the middle aged and elderly unemployed coal workers

and workers who have been displaced because of industrial relocations.

It is also for those who simply want to change jobs.20

The updating training program is designed to quickly readapt

skills which have become outdated. This would keep tradesmen at high skill levels in their particular fields.21

The instructor training program is designed to help those who either wish to become vocational training instructors by learning

the necessary skills, or to improve the skills of those who are

already training instructors.22

Vocational training consists of two different programs at

each level of training. There is a level for junior high school

graduates which is longer and includes more general or cultural

subjects (see Table 14).

The high school graduate program is generally shorter with

the cultural subjects eliminated (see Table 15). 57

TABLE 14.--General Training Course: Junior High Level 1 Year (1,700 Hours).

Technical Subjects 300 hours 17.6%

General Subjects 200 hours 11.8%

Applied Practice 1,200 hours 70.0%

1,700 hours

Source: Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, 1972 Vocational Training Japan (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1972). p. 59.

TABLE 15.--General Training Course: High School Level 6 Months (850 Hours).

Technical Subjects 240 hours 28.2%

Applied Practice 610 hours 71.8%

850 hours

Source: Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, 1972 Vocational Training Japan (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1972), p. 60. 58

The advanced course is much longer and trains very skilled tradesmen (see Table 16).

TABLE l6.--Advanced Training Course: High School Level 2 Years (3,400 Hours).

Technical Subjects 700 hours 20.6%

General Subjects 300 hours 8.8%

Applied Practice 2,400 hours 70.6%

3,400 hours

Source: Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, 1972 Vocational Training Japan (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1972), p. 60.

Therefore, vocational training programs run from six months to three years in length depending upon the level of training sought whether general or advanced.23 It can be seen from Tables 12 through 16 that Vocational training in contrast to vocational education, offers more practical and applied instruction. Students become well founded in the basic skills. General or academic work is kept to a minimum.

The most popular programs inthe vocational training centers are: automobile maintenance (9,790), building in wood (5,520), electric work (4,325), woodworking craft (4,760), electronic appliances (4,055), piping (2,540), and concrete block building (2,150).24 ' 59

In 1962, the government established technical colleges aimed at teaching professional knowledge to students and cultivating their abilities. 25 Today there are about sixty-six technical colleges in

Japan. Each college is composed of three or four departments of professional fields such as: mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, industrial chemistry, architecture, metallurgy, and aeronautics.26

Students come from the junior high level and spend five years at these institutions becoming highly skilled and advanced professional people.

In addition, there are technical junior colleges in Japan which offer advanced training programs.

Some comparative value can be demonstrated through a survey of 583 vocational miscellaneous schools which offered industrial training. This survey produced some averages which might be used to compare with the previous programs.

Industrial and machine operation miscellaneous schools offer programs of less than one year in length to programs which train students for over three years. Just like the vocational training centers, different levels of skills are developed during the training program. The example used in Table 17 indicates the training program for a course, one year in length.

As can be seen, there appears to be a great deal of overlap in these programs. The vocational programs at the high school are three years in length and devote a great portion of their time on general information. The vocational training centers, offer programs 60

TABLE 17.--Misce11aneous Industrial Training Schools 1 Year (1,107 Hours).

Technical Subjects 470 hours 42.4%

Applied Practice 393 hours 35.5%

Related Subjects 33 hours 3.0%

Cultural Subjects 211 hours 19.1%

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 75.

from six months to three years in length and offer much more applied practice to their students. The vocational miscellaneous schools offer one to three year programs which closely parallel the vocational training centers but which are definitely more concerned with applied and technical knowledge than the high school program.

The technical college and junior colleges generally train more advanced personnel, though some of the miscellaneous schools do offer similar training to these schools.

One of the primary differences in these programs is that the vocational education and vocational training programs are taken in the high school or its equivalent in the vocational training center. While the vocational miscellaneous school training is generally taken after high school graduation. Therefore, many of the miscellaneous school students have already completed a high school degree and are seeking some kind of vocational training in addition to their high school training. 61

There are some areas of overlap between vocational miscellaneous schools and vocational training programs. However, the vocational training programs are more concerned with the training of skilled tradesmen, while the miscellaneous schools seem to prepare more white collar workers or people of business-commercial preparation.

Although the overlap does exist to a certain extent, the emphasis is somewhat different.27

Vocational education on the other hand gives a much more general or comprehensive training. In the commercial area for example, the high school student might become acquainted with a host of practices and procedures used in the business and commercial world. The vocational miscellaneous school would, however, train the student in a specific skill usable in the business-commercial world such as typing or abacus. The miscellaneous school focus is much narrower, but a higher specific skill level is reached.

In the area of vocational preparation, miscellaneous schools may be broken down into several categories. These categories are:

(1) Medical, Health, Education, and Welfare, (2) Industrial-Technical,

(3) Business and Commercial, and (4) Dressmaking, Design, and

Cooking schools.

Medical, Health, Education and Welfare

In the present period of time, these schools train students for vocations as: nurses, hygiene instructors, midwives, therapists, massage, acupuncture, burn treatment, judo, technicians, hair dressers, dieticians, bakers, nursery-kindergarten teachers, and social welfare 62 workers.28 These schools generally have stricter entrance requirements than other types of miscellaneous schools because of the

important public welfare nature of the position. This type of

training is generally absent in the Article I schools. These areas of training are dominated by females.29

The Ebara Nursing School, is a miscellaneous school devoted

1 30 to nurses training and is attached to the Ebara Hospita Students receive three years of training and then must pass a government nursing examination. This appears to be no problem as 99 percent 31 of the students from this school pass the examination. The school offers only general nursing courses and almost all of the students who attend the school are women.32

If the students pass the government examination, they receive the same salary scale as a university or prefectural nursing school graduate. 33 They cannot, however, do post-graduate study or additional training in the universities since these schools are not considered the equal of the universities by the universities themselves.

Despite the lower prestige, this school of 240 students has nearly three times the demand for graduates than the school can provide.34

To gain entrance into this school, the students must pass a written examination, take an oral interview, and get a physical examination. Upon acceptance to the school the students generally live in the dormitories provided by the school.35 63

The faculty are required to be registered nurses and must have three years of experience. Most of the teachers are nursing college graduates and a few have university degrees in nursing.36

The Central Barber College trains new barbers and also

37 provides in-service education to existant barbers. The in-service education reaches about 800 graduate barbers each year. The number of new barbers trained each year is about 150.38

There are governmental requirements established for barbers and the school must operate its program in accordance with these regulations. Barbers must have at least one year training and serve a one year internship. The third year students must pass the national barbers' examination before they receive a license to practice.39

The program of instruction is rigorous. The first year requires the students to take 650 hours of practical skill training,

510 hours of sanitation, health, and psychology, and finally forty hours of various liberal arts type of instruction.40

The second year requires students to complete 800 hours of instruction. This instruction is divided into 400 hours of applied theory of cutting, drying, styling, and wigs, 200 hours of practice in a barber shop, and 200 yours of applied instruction and preparation for the barber examination. To become an instructor, the student must take an additional 100 hours of training.41

Ninety-five percent of the students are high school graduates.

There is an entrance examination which attempts to test the students ability and knowledge of science and Japanese language. Nearly eighty percent of the students are male. At the present time, the 64

demand for graduates of this barber school is about equal to the

supply that the school graduates.42

The Tokyo Professional Baking School offers training in

Western and Japanese style pastry making. The major emphasis of

the school is to train professional bakers, although there are

some domestic baking classes offered for women.43

Ninety percent of the students who attend this baking

school are high school graduates. The students must pass a written and oral examination to be accepted.

The school has 250 students in their day course program and

100 students in the night course section. Seventy-five percent of

the students come from pastry shop backgrounds; usually a family type concern. The day program is 1 1/2 years in length, while the night

program is one year in length. Officials felt that the night students were generally more conscientious and hard working, therefore requiring less time to complete the course of study.44

Seventy percent of those students enrolled in the night program are men. In the day program the opposite is found with men making up only twenty-five percent of the student enrollment.45

Once students complete the course requirements, they spend one to two years in an intern program. After the intern period is over, they go on to open their own shops or in many cases return to the family business.46

The school employs but a few full time teachers. A great deal of instruction comes in the form of guest lecturers. Graduates 65 of the school are sometimes sent to Europe to study and then are brought back as teachers.47

Students must pass written and practical tests to become accredited by the school. The classwork is eighty percent practical- applied and twenty percent theory and lecture. The school provides some dormitory space for students who do not come from the immediate area . 48

Industrial Technical Education

Today's Japanese society needs large numbers of people, with knowledge and ability to perform duties of a technical nature. The

Article I formal schools have provided some of this need, but not all of it. Miscellaneous schools have supplemented the formal schools in this technical area.49

These technical-industrial miscellaneous schools usually accept high school graduates and put them through two years of training in a specific area of study. The miscellaneous school officials feel many of these courses are equal to that received at a technical junior college. The miscellaneous school students do not get the additional liberal arts education and usually receive more direct and practical training and instruction.50

Included in this category are corporate schools for employees.

These schools are run by individual companies for the benefit of up-grading their own personnel. They generally handle middle school graduates who work in the company and provide them with a two to three year course in industrial techniques and some specialized 66 training in the type of work they are involved in at that time.

Upon completion of the program of study, these students achieve the status of a semi-skilled worker.5]

School offerings in the industrial-technical area include electric machinery operation, general machinery operation, building and construction, metal working, electronics, computer, industrial drawing and photography, auto repair, shipping, and aviation related skills. These skills are classified as middle range skills which require a more specific training than found in the formal Article

I schools.52

The Tokyo School of Design and the Tokyo Photographic College

is a joint school operation. The motto of the school is, "Not head to mouth, but head to hand," an indication of the practical nature of the learning philosophy of this school and most of the miscellaneous schools.53

Entering students must have a high school degree and pass an entrance examination. The programs are two years in length. To practice in their chosen fields, students must pass the government licensing examination.54

The emphasis of the school is on practical and applied training. In the design school of 1,100 students, the complete process of design is taught, including the use of equipment and machinery for production. Students serve an internship at local industries to get further practical application. There is some general or liberal arts course work required of the students as we11.55 67

Petitions for enrollment are approximately twenty percent greater than the school can accommodate adequately at the present time. There is a 100 percent-plus demand for the graduates. These two schools have achieved excellent reputations and graduates receive incomes that compare with junior college and technical college graduates.56

In the design school, sixty percent of the students are males. There are dormitories available for those students who come from the outer areas surrounding Tokyo.57

The Photographic Cellege has 900 students enrolled in its programs which includes both day and night sessions. Students can enroll in commercial photography, documentation photography, and broadcasting photography. Eighty-five percent of the students in the photography school are males.58

The photography school has a total teaching staff of sixty- eight teachers, twenty of whom are full time instructors. The design school has over 200 faculty members of which forty have full time positions. The schools have excellent reputations and require their teachers to have teacher certification from a college or university.

This is done to keep the school on a standard equal to that of the

Article I schools.59

The school has enrolled approximately forty-four foreign students from all over the world with the greatest proportion coming from Asian countries. These students are provided with Japanese language training at the school.60 68

The Chuo Engineering School offers a variety of high skill training programs. There are five basic programs from which students may choose. 6] First, there is a girls drawing and tracing course.

Second, there is a boys' and girls' surveying course which qualifies the students for a government license. Third, is a two year machine design course in which students specialize in manufacture design, tool design, or engine design. Fourth, there is a girl's two year architectural design course for housing and interior design. This program also qualified students for the government licensing examination along with college and university students. Last, there is a two year architectural design course for boys which is aimed at industrial architecture. It deals with large building construction.

To qualify to take the government architectural license examination, students must receive an additional two years of training as an assistant to a registered architect.62

This School requires students to be high school graduates.

There are both written and oral examinations required for entrance.

Secondary school records are also examined. The school has many more applicants for the architectural design course than the school can accommodate. The other areas of training appear to be in balance at the present time.63

The day school architectural design course costs approximately 200,000 yen ($700) which school officials state as being about one-half the cost of the private university programs.64

There are 3,300 students enrolled in the day school program and 1,600 students in the night school program. The school offers 69

extension and post-graduate refresher courses as well as its regular

program. Finding jobs upon graduation appears to be no problem for

the graduates.65

The school has 120 full time teachers and 140 guest instructors. Teachers must be experienced and concerned with education. Teachers must also have good recommendations to be able to teach there. Approximately one-half of the teachers are former students of the school who have returned. The school has an excellent reputation and students do very well on the various government licensing examinations.66

Business and Commercial Education

The formal Article I high schools do have commercial programs, but they are general in nature and do not provide their students with directly applicable skills needed in the economic job market. The miscellaneous schools provide a great deal of training in this area. The increase in leisure and recreation in Japan has created a third "service" industry. This new development has been picked up by the miscellaneous schools and a number of offerings of this type are included in their courses.67

Training in business and commercial programs includes: bookkeeping, accounting, management, economics, abacus, typing, stenography, secretarial training, tour leaders, stewardesses, 68 hotel managers, and hostesses.

The Ochamomizu Typing School offers three different programs

69 to over 1,000 students. There is a Japanese typing course, an 70

English typing course, and a consolidated course of study. The

English and consolidated courses require that entering students have a high school degree. The Japanese typing course requires middle school completion.70

The typing courses require nine hours a week of training for a four month period. The consolidated course is aimed at producing highly skilled typists. Therefore, this program requires twenty-four hours of study and practice a week for a period of one year. Demand to get into the consolidated typing course is greater than the school can accommodate.71

The Japanese American Conversation Institute offers a variety of language training programs including secretarial school, languages school, interpretation schools, and schools of international studies. 73 The focus of the course is to train people who will be involved in international business situations which require the efficient use of the English language.

The school takes high school graduates and students from higher educational institutions. Many of the students have university degrees. Many businessmen attend the school if they are to represent their companies overseas.74

The school offers both day and night classes, and in addition to the language training, students receive education in social sciences and comparative cultures.75

The school has a total of 735 day students and 981 night students. The night classes are made up of sixty percent males 71 while the day classes are sixty-five percent female. Programs vary in length; lasting a maximum of two years.76

Dressmaking, Design, and Cooking Schools

This is an area in which both vocational and cultural enrichment takes place; depending upon the goal of the individual.

Dressmaking schools, for example, offer two year programs to develop teachers, designers, and marketing skills needed by dress manufacturers. On the other hand, they offer basic sewing courses of 77 shorter length designed for women wishing to make their own clothes.

The Living and Cooking School was originally designed as a

bride preparatory school offering domestic cooking, tea ceremony, and other course offerings.78 The schools now offer professional cooking as well as domestic cooking.

There are 200 students enrolled in the domestic cooking classes, all of them women. They attend school twice a week for

1 1/2 hours over a period of two years. There are sixty students enrolled in the professional cooking class, forty-four of whom are males.79

The students have completed high school although the school only requires middle school graduation. Dormatories are provided for the professional cooking students and the school has many more applications than it can accommodate. No entrance examinations are required, although officials do review students' past records. All the graduates are placed into jobs without difficulty.80 72

The school trains its own teachers and gives postgraduate assistantships to students to continue their training. In addition, teachers are sent to the miscellaneous school teacher training programs.81

Oda Cooking and SewingpSchool is another former bride

preparatory school which has expanded into the professional training realm.82 At present, the school has three programs: Western dressmaking, kimono making and wearing, and a cooking program.83

The school has 1,400 students in the dressmaking schools, of which thirty students are male. There are 400 students in the cooking classes. The professional cooking class is sixty-eight percent male.84

Students in the cooking school attend classes for a period of one year. Western dressmaking students attend for three years and kimono making and wearing students attend for one year. The professional cooking school offers Western, Chinese, and Japanese style cooking. These students must have 1,200 hours of training and internship to get a government license from the Department of

Health and Welfare.85

Students in dressmaking are thoroughly trained in all the processes of dressmaking and design, and usually go to work for dress manufacturers. The demand for these students is very high and all who want jobs are easily placed. Those students who are interested in the domestic aspects, drop out of the classes after one year of training. 86 The school trains most of its own teachers who 87 do post-graduate work to develop their teaching skills. These 73

students are given scholarships and usually act as teacher assistants

before becoming regular teachers.

Cultural-Enrichment Education

This area of education is not the main function of the miscellaneous schools, but it is an area of future importance as

leisure time and adequate incomes come to be more widespread in the

Japanese society.88

Schools which offer this type of education are open to a

large variety of people. These schools are practical, requiring only a few months of training or attendance. From this initial experience, the student is expected to go on to develop the skill

by himself. There are no entrance requirements or minimal education

requirements. These schools provide a community school type concept

in the Japanese setting. As mentioned previously, the formal Article

I schools call this type of education social education, meaning organized educational activities for youths and adults within the formal elementary, secondary, and institutions of higher learning

in Japan. 89 Social education refers only to the formal schools, the miscellaneous schools carry on their cultural enrichment activities outside of the Article I schools.

Programs for social education are organized by governmental and non-governmental bodies. The major public facilities are citizens public halls, youth houses, children's nature centers, museums, and public libraries.90

Citizen public halls are operated by over ninety percent

of the municipalities. They offer many educational activities 74 designed to improve intellectual and cultural life of adults and

children living in the community. They provide different kinds of courses, lectures, art exhibitions, film shows, and meetings for

physical training and recreation.91

Youth houses are public facilities for providing young

people with residential group training. In so doing, they provide a variety of short-term training courses for young people and youth leaders, and give assistance to groups of young people in organizing their educational programs. Assistance is provided in the form of facilities and equipment to youths, as well as providing professional 92 staff to aid in various sports, recreation, and musical activities.

Children's nature centers are designed to acquaint children

with nature. Located in rural areas of healthy natural environment, these centers provide observation and study of nature and assist in the development of cooperative attitudes.93

Public libraries are run by the local governments and are

94 open for use by the public for their benefit.

Museums can be classified into general museums, historical museums, fine arts museums, science museums, aquariums, zoological gardens, and botanical gardens.95

Physical education and sports facilities are not limited to institutions of formal education. They have been promoted under the Sports Promotion Act as well as the Social Education Law. These facilities include, playgrounds, swimming pools, gymnasiums, base- ball games, tennis courts, and athletic fields.96 75

The miscellaneous schools offer a variety of programs of an expanded social education nature including: bookkeeping, typing, dictation, abacus, stenography, English conversation, drivers training, cooking, sewing, dressmaking, crocheting, handicraft, tea ceremony, flower arranging, music, art, and traditional dance.97

Corporations (usually textile firms) occasionally have miscellaneous schools which offer classes to female employees of middle school backgrounds. The schools generally offer dressmaking, knitting, crocheting, cooking, and other kinds of home economic or bride preparatory training. General culture classes are also conducted.98 These classes are made to appeal to young women so that they will come to work in these areas.

The Asahi Cultural Center is perhaps the most outstanding example of this type of miscellaneous school. The school was founded in June of 1974, by the Asahi Newspaper Corporation and is found in the highest building in Japan.

Over 10,000 students have gone through the schools 240 classes in the short time that it has been opened.99

The goals and aims of the school generally indicate the purpose of cultural-enrichment education in all the schools.

1 To develop the individual for future happiness. 2. To provide for a lifetime of continuous study. 3. To have a place where people can communicate and express themselves. . . . 100 4 to expand ones v1s1on from the home to the whole soc1ety.

In meeting these goals, the center offers a variety of classes including; counseling services for home life, which includes legal and health advice, and lectures on timely topics or special 76

presentations. Classes meet for varying periods of time. The short-

est class meets once a week for a two to three month period, and cost 3,500 yen ($12) month or 10,000 yen for the three months (530).]01

'The classes are borken up into twelve main categories.102

1. Humanities There are thirteen classes offered covering

such topics as: sex education, helping with school work, child psychology. and helping your preschooler all designed for mothers.

Others include: philosophy, religion, and family systems of Japan.

2. Communication There are twelve classes offering such

topics as: how to express yourself, video direction, advertising,

8mm movies, and photography.

3. Music and Dance There are sixteen offerings including:

Noh plays, traditional songs, Koto playing, and traditional Japanese flute.

4. Flower Arranging, Tea Ceremony, Japanese and Regular Chess

There are thirteen of these classes.

5. Heelth_ There are five classes offering yoga, Chinese medicine, and Chinese breathing exercises.

6. Daily Living, There are eight classes which offer legal

education, home science, economics, and counseling.

7. Literature There are eight classes which offer study

of various periods and types of literature such as the Tanka and

Haiku.

8. Languages There are twenty-one classes offering a wide variety of beginning and advanced modern languages.

9. Art. There are fifteen art classes offered. 77

10. Dressmaking-Handicraft There are sixteen classes

dealing with modern and traditional dress and dressmaking..

11. Cooking There are seven classes which offer Japanese,

French, and other types of cooking.

12. Japenese Tradition and Culture There are six classes

which fall into this category of study.

In addition to the twelve categories of subjects offered at Asahi Culture Center, special lecture series are also presented.

For example, there is a film study series on Selected American Movies

and one on Japanese Films After the War. These cost 6,000 yen ($20)

103 for the series of six films.

Figures gathered by the Asahi center show that eighty percent of those who attend the center are females and generally are in the twenty to forty year old age group. Most of the women are housewives.104

Preperatory Schools

To understand the popularity of these schools requires an understanding of certain facts of life in Japan. The major part of Japanese industry and commerce is under the control of some twelve to fifteen corporations known as zaibatsu. These industrial groups were decentralized after the war, but have grown back to 105 great power and influence. These cartels have grown to include manufacturing, distributing, retailing, banking, and supply of raw materials"?6

In addition, the paternal role, carried over from feudal times, has had its effect in the comtemporary society. Once a 78 student finishes his or her education and enters a firm, this is analogous to marriage in that it is generally a lifelong association.

Few people move around to other firms even in the skilled professions. Employers tend to treat employees as though they are a part of an extended family. 107 This extends downward from the corporation to the universities, for each of the major private universities seem to be associated with one of the large zaibatsu industrial-commercial corporations through the boards of directors which its alumni directs. ‘08 This university-corporate tie creates a situation in which the corporation takes graduates of only particular universities.

There is a tremendous demand to get into the powerful universities.

This excessive demand for places in higher education and in particular those which control entry into the best positions, has lead to a multiplicity of preparatory schools and tutors specializing in cramming students for the entry examinations.109 About a quarter of a million students annually fail their entrance examinations.

Many set about to study for next years examination. The repeaters are called pggjg, the name given to the leaderless samurai who roamed Japan during the feudal period.”0

The miscellaneous schools have stepped in to meet this need. Certain miscellaneous schools function as institutions which

"prep" students to pass the rigid entrance examinations. These schools provide the ronin with a place of study for the next year.111

This also applies to lower levels of education. There are miscellaneous schools set up to get middle school students into better secondary schools. Public education is mandatory only through 79

middle school or ninth grade, and entrance examinations must be

passed to get into the various high schools. 112 Better high schools

lead to better universities, so the race for success starts early.

The pressure starts even at the elementary school level. Visitation

to the Yokohama Academy brought to witness elementary age students

on summer vacation taking additional classes to put them ahead of

their classmates.”3 Most miscellaneous schools operate to prepare

post secondary students.

The Yokohama Academy is a miscellaneous school which offers

a full range of activities, including the preparation of students

for the entrance examinations of various universities. A great

deal of this preparatory work is done during the summer while

students are on vacation from the regular schools.

There are, first of all, courses designed to prepare students

for National University examinations in the fields of science-

technology and humanities-liberal arts fields. These are comprehensive

classes covering the total range of subject areas and the subject

matter students will be expected to know.114

The students attend classes from 8:30 until 2:15 every day

for a period of sixteen days. This program costs the student 15,000 yen ($50) and is aimed at seniors in the high school who intend

taking the examinations soon.115

There are similar class arrangements for students taking

private university examinations. These are split into upper and

lower status private universities in the areas of science-technology

or humanities-liberal arts. The classes are aimed toward the type 80 of university and the field of study the student is seeking to undertake.”6

There are individual classes in math, science, literature, and many other areas for those students who wish to "brush-up" in only one area or a limited number of courses rather than make a total review.]]7

There are classes which review the work taken in grades ten, eleven, and twelve for students who wish to review. Actually review work goes down as far as the fourth grade level. 118 Students can, at a very early age, begin to ready themselves for eventual university entrance.

It has been shown that miscellaneous schools offer their students a wide variety of programs. These programs include various vocational instruction, enrichment education, and the preparation of students for university entrance examinations. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER III

1Central Council for Education, Basic Guidelines for the Reform of Education, p. 93.

21bid., . 93.

3 Ibid., 93.

4 Ibid., 94.

5 bid., . 94. H

U‘U'UU 6Edmund J. King, Other Schools and Ours (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. 304.

7Interview with Kayoko Shimizu, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo, Japan, August 23, 1974. 8 King, Other Schools and Ours, p. 302.

9Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, Vocational Training Japan 1973 (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1973), p. 12.

Ibid., . 12. ' ‘U Ibid., 13.

'U 13.

'U 13. U \l u-l Q. H 0 ‘U 'U

'U ‘U

'U (I) and O—I U Q. a 'U

81 82

23Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, 1972 Vocational Training Japan (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1972), p. 58.

24Interview with Osamu Yoshida, Overseas Technical Co- operation Division, Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, Tokyo, Japan, August 22, 1974.

25The National Technical College of Tokyo, Brief Information of National Technical College of Tokyo (Tokyo, Japan: National Technical College of Japan, [undated]), p. 1. 26Ibid., p. 1.

27Interview with Osamu Yoshida, Overseas Technical Co- operation Division, Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, Tokyo, Japan, August 22, 1974.

28National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 3. 29Ibid., p. 3.

30Interview with Otsuko Hara, Ebara Nursing School, Tokyo, Japan, August 24, 1974. 31 bid. H 32 . l H D.

33 bi D. H 34

bi Q. H

35 bi 0. H 36Ibid.

37Interview with Mitsuo Fukushima, Central Barber School, Tokyo, Japan, August 12, 1974.

43Interview with Ichiro Fukushima, Tokyo Professional Baking School, Tokyo, Japan, July, 1974. 44Ibid.

49National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 37. 5°Ipid., p. 37. 5‘Ipid., p. 6. 521bid., p. 37.

53Interview with Kunitake Endow, Tokyo School of Design and Tokyo Photographic College, Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974. 54Ibid.

59Interview with Atsushi Omori, Chuo Engineering School, Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974. 60Ibid. 61 Ibid. 62Ibid.

63Ibid. 64 b1 H D.

651bi Q

6516i (1

67National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 3. 68Ibid., p. 3.

69Interview with Shiehishi Oikawa and Hiromichi Matsuyama, Ochanomizu Typist School, Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974. 7°Ibid. 7‘Ibid. 721bid.

73Interview with Eiichi Hasegawa and Mrs. Merner, Japanese American Conversation Institute, Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974. 74Ibid.

7516id. 761bid.

77National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 38.

78Interview with Mr. Watanaba, Living and Cooking School, Tokyo, Japan, August 14, 1974. 7916id. 80Ibid. 811bid.

82Interview with Tomoaki Oda, Oda Cooking and Sewing School, Tokyo, Japan, July, 1974. 83Ibid. 84Ibid.

851bid. 85

861bid.

87Interview with Mitsuo Goto and Tadashi Sekiguchi, National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Tokyo, Japan, July 25, 1974. 881bid 9 89Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan, p. .

90191g_, p. 8.

9]I_jg,, p. 9.

9?;_1g , p. 10. 93;_1g , p. 10. 94Ibid., p. 10.

951bid , p. 10.

96 Ibid., p. 10.

97National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 5.

98Ipid., p. 6. 99Asani Culture Center, Activities Since the Openin : Special Picture Edition (Tokyo, Japan: Asahi Cultural Center, 1974 , p. l.

1“maid.

105King. Other Schools and Ours. P- 298-

'0516i6., p. 298. 1(”Ibid., p. 298. 108Ipid., p. 305. 86

109Shipman, Education and Modernization, p. 248- 110Ibid., p. 248.

1"National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 6. 112Interview with staff of Tokyo Junior High School. TOKYO: Japan, July, 1974.

H3Interview with Kiyoshi Sakai, Yokohama Academy, Yokohama, Japan, July 16, 1974.

H4Yokohama Academy, 1974 Summer School Bulletin (Yokohama, Japan: Yokohama Academy, 1974 , p. 23. n516id., p. 23.

n516id., p. 23. n7Ibid., pp. 2-3. 'lgibid., pp. 4-9.

CHAPTER IV

MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL REGULATIONS AND THE ATTEMPT TO

IMPROVE MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL STATUS

Regulations

One of the major concerns, if not the_major concern, facing the miscellaneous schools is the lack of a concrete definition and delineation of the role miscellaneous schools are supposed to play in the total educational setting of the Japanese society.

The situation is intolerable to the Japanese who seek concrete relationships. The past Japanese society was definitely a vertical society with clearly established hierarchies, rules, and regulations.

This attitude has carried over into relationships today in Japan.

One must belong somewhere or to someone, or to something so that responsibility, respect, and prestige can be properly established.1

Therefore, the vague definition of the miscellaneous schools causes great uncertainty among owners of the schools and leaders of the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools. They feel they have no established place and therefore have no status.

The miscellaneous schools were officially established during the Meiji period, during which the miscellaneous schools played a more prominent part in the total educational structure. Their status remained much the same until the end of World War II. At the close

87 88

of the war, a whole new public education system was developed by the

Occupation Forces. This new system largely neglected the miscellaneous

schools.

It was the School Education Law, of March 31, 1947, which

created and established the new formal educational structure for

Japan. It is under Chapter VIII entitled "Miscellaneous Regulations“

that the miscellaneous schools are discussed.2

Article CXXXIII, defines the miscellaneous schools as "other

than those mentioned in Article I which give education . . . similar to school education." 3 Although the miscellaneous schools offer a type of education similar to the formal Article I schools, they cannot use the name elementary, middle school, or high school in their names.4 This is to clearly distinguish them from the formal system of education.

The various regulations determine that miscellaneous schools fall under the control of the prefectural governor who has the power to create, abolish, or change the operations of the miscellaneous schools within his prefecture.5 The prefectural governor may close schools because of violation of laws, prefectural requests, or cases where miscellaneous schools have not conducted classes for a period of six months.6 In addition, the governor may order miscellaneous schools to make changes when they do not meet established standards for their operation.7

Miscellaneous schools must have a principal and at least three teachers, and they must offer a program one year in length consisting of at least 680 hours of instruction.8 89

Restrictions are placed on the school as to who shall not be allowed to become principals or teachers. Persons who have been judged incompetent, sentenced to prison for a serious crime, had their teacher certification canceled within the last two years, and those who propose to violently overthrow the Japanese government, shall not be allowed to be a principal or teacher.9 A11 appointments of principals shall be reported to the prefectural governors.10

The buildings out of which the miscellaneous schools operate must be school-like in atmosphere and be a minimum of approximately

1,260 square feet, or must provide at least twenty-five square feet per student.]]

Miscellaneous schools are responsible for their own financial matters and may establish tuition fees to raise money for the operation of the schools. This is subject to approval by the prefectures.12

The miscellaneous schools may establish rules for student behavior and students may be punished for violation of school rules which are approved by the prefecture. Corporal punishment is not allowed.13

Many of the rules and regulations which apply to private schools also apply to private miscellaneous schools. It should be noted here that private schools carry out regular formal programs of education similar to the Article I schools, except that this is done by private persons not by governmental authorities. Miscellaneous schools do not carry out equivalent kinds of elementary, middle, and secondary education. Miscellaneous schools may be established as a school juridical person.14

A school juridical person is a corporate, non-profit, organization which runs and operates a school. The formal Article

I Schools are an example of a school juridical person. Miscellaneous schools may also function as a school juridical person if the owners desire to turn its operation into a public-non-profit Operation.

This type of school enterprise is referred to as a Gakko Hojin.15

In addition, miscellaneous schools may become incorporated but still make profits. This is similar to the incorporation process of any company. In this case, it applies to a school being operated as a corporate profit making enterprise. These schools are known as ﬂgjjgschools.16

Finally, there are the vast majority of noncorporate, indi- vidually owned and profit seeking miscellaneous schools.]7

The problem with these laws and regulations for the miscellaneous schools is that they do not establish the miscellaneous schools as a definite part of the formal educational structure, nor do they define the role of the miscellaneous schools in the educational setting and its relationship to the other types of schools defined in the School Education Law.

This lack of direction is compounded at the governmental level. Although the other schools defined in the General Law on

Education have been organized and put under the control and supervision of separate departments, the miscellaneous schools do not fall under the administrative leadership of any one department, organization, or committee. Monbusho has under its control, departments for each of the areas of elementary, middle, upper secondary, 91

university, and special schools. It is within these department divisions that the miscellaneous schools are managed at the national

level.18 For example, in the Department of Lower Secondary Education,

there is a section for miscellaneous schools offering education which would parallel this level of learning. The same situation holds true for the other departments of the Article I schools. Each has a section for miscellaneous schools.19

In addition, the Department for Private Schools has a section for miscellaneous schools, and the Vocational Education Office gives help and advice to miscellaneous schools who offer training to middle and high school graduates.20

Administration Miscellaneous schools find themselves included in many departments and levels of administration in Monbusho's bureaucratic hierarchy. This offers little control or help to miscellaneous schools as a group since these departments usually do not know what to do with these schools. 2] Direction comes from several different sources and therefore, no one has a clear idea of what is going on

in relation to the miscellaneous schools as a whole.

The greatest control comes at the prefectural level. All miscellaneous schools receive permission to start programs from the governor of the prefecture. The department in control of private school administration examines requests for establishment and reports back to the governor. If approved by the governor, the new school

is allowed to open.22 92

Financial Support

Financially, the miscellaneous schools receive little direct

aid from the national government. The Japan Private School Develop-

ment Association originally gave some aid for medical, technical,

and commercial education. Most of this went to the larger schools 23 because of the restrictions placed on this aid. The aid was in

the form of long-term, low-interest loans. It was not until 1965

that an amendment allowed miscellaneous schools to get money under

this loan program. 24 Some 50,000,000 yen ($160,000) was set aside

for this purpose. This aid was limited to incorporated schools and

since the majority of miscellaneous schools do not fit this category they received little of the money.25

In 1970, the New Japan Private School Develppment Foundation

Agt, placed the Private Development Association under the control

of Monbusho. This act creates new areas to which loans might be

given. This act has been extended and new courses of study have

been brought within the boundries of the act.26

In addition, new requirements have been established for loans

from the foundation. Schools are to provide at least one year of

training. Separate training must be given to middle school and high

school graduates. If more than one subject is taught, a two year

attendance would be required of students. The training must include

at least 750 hours of training in one year. An adequate number of

instructors must be present to insure proper education. Courses must

be taught for fixed periods of time with established starting and 93 ending dates. Finally, tests and grades must be recorded and each student shall receive a copy of his grade certificate.27

These restrictions have limited the number of miscellaneous schools which qualify. The Foundation sends out applications to those schools who would meet the requirements and these in turn are sent to the prefectural governor to sign.28

Of the schools that meet the initial requirements, additional limitations are to be overcome. This includes a list of conditions under which the loans will not be granted. These conditions include such categories as: the school was in debt or has been delinquent. in paying back debts, there has been unrest at the school, the school appears to be failing, and enrollments are dropping. The school has to be well established and the loans cannot be used for profit making.29

If all requirements are met, schools can borrow money at a rate of 6 1/2 percent interest. During the first two years, nothing has to be paid on the loan. The loan is then to be paid back over a ten year period.30

Some aid is received from the local and prefectural levels.

Prefectural aid is available to miscellaneous schools as part of the prefectural private school policy. Miscellaneous schools are, however, at the bottom of the list and receive small amounts of aid compared to other private schools.31

Aid to the miscellaneous schools at the prefectural level is of two kinds: aid to the Associations of Miscellaneous Schools, 94 and aid or loans directly to individual schools through the Private

School Development Foundation.32

Generally, aid goes for the training of teachers, or in- service, and research on problems associated with the miscellaneous schools.33

Almost all of the prefectures give some aid. In 1971-72, forty-three out of the forty-six prefectures gave some assistance.

In 1971, there was a total of 34,240,000 yen ($114,000) given in aid.

In 1972, 38,270,000 yen ($120,500) was given. The top ten prefectures for the giving of aid is in Table 18.

TABLE 18.--Prefectura1 Spending in Yen.

Tokyo 6,700,000 Kanagawa 1,700,000 Shizuoko 5,000,000 Niigata 1,500,000 Osaka 4,000,000 Kyoto 1,100,000 Hokkaido 3,000,000 Hiroshima 1,100,000 Aichi 2,150,000 Gifu 1,000,000

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Manegement Reference Book, p. 34.

In some cases the aid is given directly to the schools and not given through the miscellaneous school association. This money is to be used mainly for physical plant, facilities, and personnel.

Nearly half of the prefectures give aid directly to individual miscellaneous schools.34 95

Kanagawa prefecture is the largest contributor of individual aid to schools. In 1972 this prefecture gave 85,000,000 yen in aid 35 to permit schools. The amounts given directly to individual schools by prefectures is included in Table 19.

TABLE 19.--Prefectural Spending Paid Directly to Individual Schools in Yen.

Aichi 45,000,000 to 47schools Chiba 8,776,000 to 24 schools Yamagata 6,970,000 to 16 schools Akita 6,710,000 to 16 schools Gunma 5,290,000 to 23 schools

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Manegement Reference Book, p. 34.

As of 1972, nine of the prefectures established loan funds from which miscellaneous schools could borrow. Included in Table 20 is the prefecture, the amount allocated for loans, and the repayment schedule.

Miscellaneous school teachers can receive some assistance from the Private School Teachers Co-operative. This is a privately sponsored program. It is nationally organized to provide various forms of social insurance benefits to its members.36

Any private school teacher can become a member of the co- operative if he is a salaried teacher. The benefits include compen- sation for illness, injury, disability, death, birth, retirement, natural disasters, and layoff.37 96

TABLE 20.--Prefectural Loan Funds in Yen.

Hokkaido 100,000,000 6 year repayment Fukushima 162,000,000 5 year repayment Kanagawa 64,000,000 10 year repayment Gunma 27,000,000 5 year repayment Aichi 40,000,000 7 year repayment Osaka 12,500,000 1 year repayment (maintenance) 6,000,000 5 year repayment (improvement) Tattori 5,500,000 9 year repayment Niigata some Shizako some

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 33.

Some social benefits come from the government in that they provide sixteen percent aid toward retirement and provide some assistance for long term disability and for death.38

As of 1973, 825 miscellaneous schools belonged to the co- operative and this included 14,615 miscellaneous school teachers out of a total of over 196,000 miscellaneous school teachers.39

Only schools which are incorporated as juridical persons or school juridical persons can apply to the co-operative. This limits the number of miscellaneous schools and teachers that can join.40

In 1968, the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools formed its own teacher co-operative. In 1970, it covered such areas as retirement, death, and long term disabilities. Anyone 97 can be a member of this co-operative, but only a few members belong at present.41

To try to clarify the legal definition, establish more financial aid, and in general try to improve the social and legal status of the miscellaneous schools has become the major task of the National

Association of Miscellaneous Schools.

This organization started in 1948 as a friendly association of miscellaneous school owners. At first there were two different organizations. The one was for Hojin schools and the other was for private miscellaneous school owners. In 1958, the Ministry of

Education suggested that the two organizations merge into one association.42 The merger took place in 1960.

Of the 8,000 miscellaneous schools in Japan, 5,000 belong to this National Association of Miscellaneous Schools.43

The present purposes and goals of the Association are: to carry out research and investigations on the miscellaneous schools and their administration, and to improve the quality of miscellaneous schools and the education they offer.44

In order to accomplish these goals, the association has established seven objectives.

To investigate miscellaneous school education

o To collect data

o To sponsor seminars on miscellaneous schools

o To publish materials on miscellaneous schools

o To give awards and recognition

o To lobby and work with government agencies and departments

o All other activities which would improve the miscellaneous

\JO‘U'l-bWN—I' o schools.45 98

Presently, the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools has several officials including: a president, twelve vice-presidents, a chairman of the board of directors, a board of directors of less than twenty members, and three auditors or financial advisors.46

In addition to the preceeding officials, a council advisor may be selected by the board of directors. His function is to counsel and give advice. The position is largely an honorary one.47

The term of office for these national officials is two years, but they are all eligible for re-election. Officials who resign their positions must stay until a new official can be appointed. The individual serves only the unfinished portion of the original term.48

The general assembly is made up of the national officials and the heads of the various prefectural branch offices.49

Assembly representatives are chosen by the miscellaneous school owners. For every thirty schools, the owners are allowed to elect one assemblyman. These assemblymen cannot be board members of officials. They serve for one year, but can be re-elected.50

The individual, local branch offices have their own meetings.

In addition, they are usually broken down into specific areas such as dressmaking or technical schools. This means that at the local levels there are interest area meetings as well as meetings of the entire group.51

For purposes of administration, the National Association of

Miscellaneous Schools has divided Japan up into large regional blocks.

Each block has a representative on the board of directors and carries 99 out the business of the association in that region.52 These blocks are:

Hokkaido Block (whole island)

North East Block Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita, Fukushima

North Kanto Block Tochigi, Gunma, Ibaragi, Yamanashi, Nagano, Niigata

South Kanto Block Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa

Central Block Toyama, Ishikawa, Fukui, Gifu, Aichi, Mie, Shizuoka

Kinki Block Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, Wakayama

Chugpku Block Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi

Kinki Block Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, Wakayama

Chugpku Block Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi

Shikoku Block (whole island)

Kyushu Block (whole island)

Senshu Gakko Bill

Over the past twenty years, it has been the Association of

Miscellaneous Schools that has been trying to get legislation enacted which would give miscellaneous schools a more definite role in the formal educational structure of Japan. A great deal of this work has revolved around Senshu Gakko legislation.

Historically, a great deal of the discussion has revolved around the concept of Senshu Gakko, or special skill schools. In 100

the past, Monbusho has wanted to designate appointed miscellaneous schools as Senshu Gakko, while the National Association of Miscel-

laneous Schools has been trying to get improved status for all the miscellaneous schools, not just the few.53

At present, a Senshu Gakko Bill, which is an amendment to

.the School Education Law, seems to have the best chance of being

enacted. 54 It barely missed being passed in the last Diet session.

This Senshu Gakko Bill would create three basic changes in

the school structure. First, it would create schools for middle

school graduates to attend. Second, it would create schools for

high school graduates to attend. And thirdly, it would create

schools that would deal with general education at the adult edu-

cation level. It would provide that Senshu Gakko schools would

offer a minimum of one year training of at least 680 hours of work.55

These Senshu Gakko schools would provide high school and

college level education to the middle school and high school graduates.

This education would be of a practical vocational type and would

provide these graduates with an alternative education to the tradi-

tional educational structures.56

At the secondary level, the law would allow these special

miscellaneous schools to use the name high school in their title

and to be the only ones to use the Senshu Gakko title. 57 This

would give these Senshu Gakko miscellaneous schools recognition as

regular Article I schools. 101

The same situation would also apply to post-high school education. Senshu Gakko schools offering post-high school work would be allowed to use the name junior or technical college.58

In the area of general adult education, these schools would be the only miscellaneous schools to use the name Senshu

Gakko, which would separate them from miscellaneous schools which did not meet Senshu Gakko standards.59

By getting the Senshu Gakko Amendment passed, the miscellaneous schools would hope for several things. The act would put those schools which qualify, under national control rather than prefectural. This would enable the miscellaneous schools to get larger amounts of financial aid. Greater or stricter requirements would be established for teachers who would supposedly improve education and status of the schools. The graduates of these schools. would receive recognition as being graduates of a Senshu Gakko, which would bring them formal school recognition.60

Teacher Training_Program

In order to prepare for the anticipated Senshu Gakko Bill

Enactment, there have been efforts to develop teacher training courses for teachers in the miscellaneous schools. Although not all prefectures are working toward this teacher preparation, about one-half of the prefectures are at this time.61

The object is to provide miscellaneous school teachers with education classes similar to the under-graduate teacher training 102 programs at the universities. The students receive twenty hours of education during a one year program.62

Tokyo has been the prefecture most involved in the teacher training program. In 1971, the Tokyo miscellaneous schools initiated a program for the preparation of teachers in miscellaneous schools to upgrade their quality and position.63

The Senshu Gakko Bill would demand better preparation of teachers in those miscellaneous schools which would hope to achieve

Senshu Gakko status.

The Tokyo Association has established qualifications and accreditation for two kinds of instructors. The first certificate is a beginning certificate. The second is a regular certificate.64

The beginning certificate holder must be a high school graduate or its equivalent, and have finished the basic education classes. The regular status includes the above restrictions and includes one year of teaching or its equivalent and completion of the advanced education seminars.65

Teachers who have teaching certification from the Article

I schools do not have to go through the process.66

Both beginning and regular certificate holders must take a series of seminars. The topics of the seminars are reviewed by the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools every three years.

At present, the curriculum includes:

education and society (general principles) history of education administration (laws and rulings) psychology of youth methods of teaching guidance and coungeling (morals) practice teaching

Vow-puma 103

In some cases students or teachers can receive accreditation by doing acceptable research within the seven seminar areas of study.

The Board of Accreditation has final say on whether or not research is acceptable.68

Those teachers who are presently employed or were employed before the accreditation act was initiated, can be accredited by the committee if the teacher wants to appeal the case on the basis of on the job training or equivalent experience.69

The miscellaneous schools have generally been dissatisfied with the non formal status they have found themselves in according to the laws dealing with education in Japan. But it can be seen that the miscellaneous schools have taken definite steps to improve their position in the educational structure of Japan through activities largely supported and initiated through the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER IV

1Dr. Kazutaka Watanabe, Views From the East (Fuchu Air Station; Japan: Department of Defense Overseas Dependent Schools, 1966), p. 224.

2General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Civil Information and Education Section, Education Division, Post- War Developments in Japanese Education, Vol. 11 (Tokyo, Japan: Allied Command, April 1952 , p. 125.

Ibid., p. 129.

I id., p. 130.

I id., p. 131.

8National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 2.

9General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Civil Information and Education Section, Education Division, Post-War Deve10pments in Japanese Education, p. 130. 10Ibid., p. 130.

HNational Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 2.

12General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Civil Information and Education Section, Education Division, Post-War Developments in Jepanese Education, p. 130. 13Ibid., p. 130. 14 Ib1d.. . pp. 189-190.

15Interview with Mitsuo Goto, National Association of Miscel- laneous Schools, Tokyo, Japan, August 21, 1974.

104 105

O 16Ipid. < 171919:

18National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakgghg_ Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 10.

Iggpig , p. 10.

qupi_., p. 10. 2‘;_1g , p. 10. 22Ibid., p. 10.

23Ibid , p. 31. 24Ibid , p. 32.

251219 , p. 32. 26ij_,, p. 32. 27;_1a., p. 32. 28Ibid , p. 32.

29161d , p. 32.

BQijg , p. 33.

311 1d., p. 33.

I id., p. 33.

33Interview with Mitsuo Goto of the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools and Shotaro Morita of the Tokyo Miscellaneous School Association, Tokyo, Japan, August 7, 1974.

34National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 34.

35Permit schools are those who have meet the various regulations and standards established for miscellaneous schools. There are many schools who do not meet these standards who still call themselves miscellaneous schools. 36Ibid., p. 33. 37Ibid., p. 33.

106

Ibid., p. 33.

42Interview with Mitsuo Goto and Tadashi Sekiguchi, Tokyo, Japan, July 25, 1974. 43 Interview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, July 19, 1974.

44National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Rules and Regulations of the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools (Tokyo, Japan: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, September, 1972), p. l 45 Ibid., P- 2

Ibi ., P 2

P 3

Ibid., p. 2

P- 4.

501bid., P 4

Ibid., P 6

I id ,p. 6

53National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 12.

54Interview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, July 19, 1974. 5516id.

56National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Bill for New Senshu Gakko Schools, No. 2:3 (Tokyo, Japan: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, May 15, 1973), p. 3 57Ibid., p. 3. 5816id., p. 3. 59Interview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, July 19, 1974. 107

6OIbid.

GIInterview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, August 21, 1974. 62Ibid.

63Tokyo Hojin Private Miscellaneous School Association, Accreditation for Miscellaneous School Teachers (Tokyo, Japan: Tokyo Hojin Private Miscellaneous School Association [undated]), p. l.

641p1g., p. 2 65Ibid., p. 2

661p1g,, p. 2

57;_1g., p. 2 681919., p. 2

691 1d , p. 3 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, EVALUATION, AND CONCLUSIONS

Summar

The Japanese miscellaneous schools have a long history.

They extend backward into the Japanese Feudal period. They have since then, been an important, though not often recognized, part of the total educational setting of Japan.

The miscellaneous schools, as a separate category of schools, were officially recognized during the Meiji Period; as government officials tried to establish a formal public education system in Japan. Official recognition was again granted after

World War 11.

Despite official recognition, the miscellaneous schools are not a part of the formal Article I schools of the publiclly financed school sector and have been left on their own to establish standards of quality, develop curriculum, finance, and develop their own goals of education. They really are non formal educational institutions, with more specific rather than general educational goals.

In spite of this lack of direction, control, and support, the miscellaneous schools have grown into an important part of the present day educational scene in Japan. In doing so, they

108 109 have developed programs of vocational training, tutoring and preparatory courses to help students pass the rigid entrance examinations for the university, and various programs of domestic arts and enrichment.

The miscellaneous schools have been playing an important supplementary role to the formal Article I schools in Japan. Being private institutions, they have had to rely on public demand to make their programs successful. Attendance at miscellaneous schools is not compulsory. Students must pay their own way. Therefore, these schools must meet the educational needs of the people they serve or they will cease to exist.

To understand this supplemental role and to evaluate the success of the miscellaneous schools in recent times requires an understanding of Japanese society and the adoption, after World

War II, of the American 6-3-3-4 educational system.

Comparative and international educators have long recognized the relationships which exist between the society and the educational system. They have known that one educational system cannot be transferred completely into another culture without adjustments or strain. This is especially true in a country such as Japan which had developed its own highly organized formal education structure many years before the war.

The Occupation Forces, along with Japanese officials, adopted the American educational plan without major changes to fit the Japanese setting. Normal channels for various types of vocational and girls' education did not exist. A gap was created 110

between what the Japanese society needed educationally, and what

the new education system could produce. This situation had an

effect on the rapid growth of miscellaneous schools; in that the

miscellaneous schools began to provide some of the missing edu-

cational programs. This has always been somewhat true, but it

became even more true in certain types of middle skill level voca-

tional programs and in programs of domestic arts for women.

Despite the fact that the pre-war educational system was

undemocratic and sexually biased, it did meet the various needs

of the Japanese society to allocate certain kinds of needed training

and skills. The miscellaneous schools, have come to serve as a

substitute for some programs dropped by post-war educational

structures.

This does not mean, however, that miscellaneous schools

just live in the past. Miscellaneous school programs have been

growing in relationship to new needs which are not being met lsatisfactorily in other educational settings.

In carrying_out this supplemental role, the miscellaneous

schools have been trying to provide practical and directly useful

training to their students. This type of training has generally

attempted to be directly related to practical needs and has been

short term in length when compared to the formal educational system.

Evaluation

In an evaluation of the Japanese Miscellaneous Schools,

several points can be made in their favor. 111

1. In the total educational perspective, the miscellaneous

schools are providing education not adequately handled by the formal

educational structure of Japan. Miscellaneous schools charge their

students tuitions and fees. Yet, a 1,300,000 student enrollment

indicates that there must be a benefit received. As such, they

are making a contribution to the Japanese society.

2. The miscellaneous schools have been playing an important

role in carrying on the cultural heritage of the Japanese. Areas

such as the tea ceremony, kimono making and wearing, and traditional dance are important parts of the Japanese culture which give it

richness and set it apart from other cultures. After World War II, many of the normal family processes for carrying forth these

traditional learnings were interrupted or lost. The miscellaneous

schools, to a certain extent, have revitalized this heritage and

have helped to keep it going.

3. The miscellaneous schools have the flexibility to meet new and changing educational demands. As non-formal modes of education, they can address themselves to specific needs more easily than formal systems of education with their more generalized programs and long periods of schooling.

This has enabled the miscellaneous schools to work closely with business and industry, fitting their manpower needs with programs offered by the miscellaneous schools. Because of this situation, miscellaneous school students easily find employment after leaving the school. 112

4. The miscellaneous schools offer vocational training and

further education to those who could not or did not want to go on

to the university after high school. Many students take the general

high school curriculum which does not give them the specific skills needed for employment.

Some students are not capable of university education. The miscellaneous schools can therefore provide further education and the chance to develop marketable skills to these students. Their talents are then put to use instead of going undeveloped. Costs are kept low enough so that most students can afford to attend these schools.

5. Miscellaneous school training can be taken during any period of one's life. With the exception of minimum levels, no age limits or sequence of education must be followed as in the formal educational pattern. Students can enter when they feel the need for the educational programs the miscellaneous schools offer.

This allows the student great flexibility to come and go, pick and choose to suit his purposes.

6. The vocational training offered by the miscellaneous schools is practical and skill related. These students need little,

if any, additional training once they have become employed. They can immediately take on the responsibility of the position they have secured.

7. Miscellaneous schools are providing domestic arts and enrichment education, not available to women in the formal educational 113 structure, or which might have been missed while going through the formal educational system.

Many middle aged women in Japan are attending enrichment programs to occupy and improve themselves (within the Japanese context) as their lives become less strenuous with modern con- veniences and decreased family responsibility. These schools provide outlets for their energies.

Criticisms of the miscellaneous schools come from two different perspectives. One is an overall philosophical area which deals with the total educational policy in Japan. The other is more operational and relates more directly to miscellaneous school function.

The Law of Education Act of 1947 sets forth the basic aims and principles of education in accord with the "spirit" of the 1 Japanese Constitution. The central aim of education is to produce self-reliant members of a peaceful and democratic community with respect for human values. 2 To this end, the law establishes specific national principles of education including equal opportunity, co- education, non-partisan political education or sectarian religious education.3 The law specifically prohibits discrimination according to race, creed, social status, economic position, and family back- ground.4

1. Largely by omission, rather than commission, the miscellaneous schools aid in discriminating against women in the Japanese educational and social setting. The author in Chapter III, noted 114 that the university was largely attended by male students and the junior colleges and miscellaneous schools were attended by women.

Certainly Japanese women have as much intelligence as do the men, yet they do not go on to the university in equal numbers. The reasons for this fall under the customs and traditions which dis- criminate against women in Japanese education and society.

In part, the miscellaneous schools perpetuate this discrimination. One of their prime focuses, past and present, has been women's education. Examination of this focus shows that classes are primarily domestic art, enrichment, or programs for typists, nurses, and other traditionally female occupations.

The miscellaneous schools offer JapaneSe women growth and education, but only within culture bound areas, not in the democratic sense put forth in the Japanese Constitution.

2. The miscellaneous schools also contribute to the

"examination hell" that hopeful university aspirants have to go through to become admitted to the prestigous universities in Japan.

The author in Chapter III, discussed the tremendous pressures to pass these entrance examinations. Life's success is seen as making it to a prestigous university and then to a large corporation.

If the student fails, he becomes a ronin or he feels rejected and loses face. This produces a great wastage of talent, time, and money.

The miscellaneous schools contribute to this problem by tutoring students in the preparatory schools to take the examinations.

These preparatory courses have a heavy enrollment of male students.

The miscellaneous schools are aiding this unfortunate situation. 115

3. The miscellaneous schools as a group of schools, are too broad in scope to be adequately understood by any one agency, department, or person. They have so many different facets, being a col- lection of anything that is not covered by Article I status, these schools are a jungle of purposes and cross-purposes. It is under- standable why the Ministry of Education does not know exactly what to do with these various schools.

This contributes to a definite lack of direction and co- ordination with other educational programs in Japan. For example, miscellaneous schools overlap some programs offered by the

Vocational Training Centers and even some of the vocational education programs of the public school sector. This duplication is costly, and causes conflict between various educational programs.

If there is an over-all goal or philosophy of education for the miscellaneous schools, it would be to offer any kind of program which might be profitable or is not being done by anyone else. This might be helpful to Japanese education, but really puts forth a negative not positive direction or purpose. The miscellaneous schools deserve much better. It is questionable if even the proposed Senshu Gakko legislation will give this direction.

4. An additional, broad criticism of the miscellaneous schools might be that they have been too successful in supplementing the formal educational structure of Japan. Perhaps reform of the formal education system has been slowed by the fact that the miscellaneous schools have been providing the needed education. A report by the Central Council For Education states that: 116

. . it is not only necessary to evaluate the unique functions that are being filled by the miscellaneous schools and to take measures furthering their development, but also to consider the extent to which such vocational training might be intEo- duced into the curr1culum of the formal school educat1on.

Formal school officials are beginning to recognize the important role miscellaneous schools have been playing.

A More specifically, there are some criticisms which can be made of the way the miscellaneous schools function at the operational level.

5. Miscellaneous schools have suffered to a certain extent, from lack of trained teachers. Until recently, there was no attempt to hire trained teachers. Teachers had skills in their particular areas of teaching, but lacked professional education training. In addition, many of the miscellaneous schools have in the past and still do use part time teachers and guest lecturers. This may prove economically beneficial, but has lowered both the quality of education and the educational status of the miscellaneous schools.

6. Lack of standards in curriculum is another fault of the miscellaneous schools. Miscellaneous schools offering the same kinds of classes will vary in curriculum and length of training.

Some controls are enforced by various governmental agencies, such as in health training or nurses training. But in many areas there are no guidelines to follow. Some schools may have good programs, others may not. This denigrates the status of the miscellaneous schools as a whole.

7. The miscellaneous schools depend on students for their financing. Too many schools in one area spreads thin the financial 117 support for any one institution. There appears to be no control over this. The situation is made worse by schools which call themselves miscellaneous schools but do not really qualify. These are usually backroom establishments ruh, owned, and taught by one person.

There appears to be little enforcement of laws and regulations in this regard. These backroom schools not only weaken the financial base of the legitimate schools but also causes a lowering of status to the miscellaneous schools, because of poor quality or standards.

8. Miscellaneous school students must take examinations to enter many trades and professions that Article I school students or vocational training students do not have to take. This is an indication of the lower academic status of the miscellaneous schools.

9. Lastly, private financing has several drawbacks for the miscellaneous schools. It limits future planning, for funds are always unsure. In addition, needed training may not be provided because students lack finances. The miscellaneous schools have attempted to keep student costs down, but there are, perhaps, many students who could benefit from the miscellaneous school programs, but cannot afford them. As economic situations worsen, the real advantages of miscellaneous school training might have to be forgone, preventing even greater numbers of students from receiving the training they need.

Furtherpguestions in Research

At present there are a whole series of questions which remain unanswered concerning the miscellaneous schools. The report by the 118

Central Council For Education would indicate that the formal educational

structure might be considering taking over some of the educational

programs that the miscellaneous schools have been involved in. This

is not a new occurrence for the miscellaneous schools. The writer

in Chapter II, on the history of these schools, indicated that during

their development, miscellaneous schools have been absorbed into the

formal educational structure when the need existed. How would this

effect the future of the miscellaneous schools?

The present Senshu Gakko Bill is likely to cause a split in

the schools which qualify for the Senshu Gakko status and those which do not qualify. The Senshu Gakko Bill is primarily concerned with

the vocational miscellaneous schools and not the host of other miscel-

laneous schools that exist.

The National Association of Miscellaneous Schools has been

concerned about this situation. They have sought upgrading and

Article I status for all the miscellaneous schools, not just some of the schools. 6 Will this cause a schism in the schools or the

formation of separate associations?

Another question is what will happen to these non formal miscellaneous schools if they become a part of the formal educational

structure? Will they lose their ability to adapt? This is tied

into the additional question of financial support. The drive to achieve Article I status is also tied into the quest for financial

support from the Japanese government. With financial support and

Article I status, there are likely to develop some controls. These controls might hamper the ability of the miscellaneous schools to 119 be flexible to changing needs. With financial support assured, the concern for making programs responsible to public demand might be lessened. To exist, the miscellaneous schools have had to reflect popular demand. With their existence somewhat assured, would they feel as concerned with meeting the educational needs of the people they have answered to in the past?

When questioned about the future status of the miscellaneous schools with the Senshu Gakko Act being passed, school and association officials were somewhat hesitant to reply. They appear to be uncertain as to what the future will bring.7

These are questions that cannot be answered at the present time but may provide content for future research on the miscellaneous schools.

To make the best use of this further research and the present research, studies need to be done in other countries in which there are various non formal types of education. This is especially true of the advanced nations of the world where the formal educational structure has so overwhelmed the research in these countries that most of the population are not aware of the valuable non formal educational services that may be going on.

If this further research were done, then the miscellaneous school experience in Japan could be compared to the experience of other nations. This would establish whether or not the Japanese experience is isolated or whether there tends to be some similarities or general patterns which can be discovered from these studies. 120

Despite the problems that the miscellaneous schools have faced and are facing at present, they are continuing to provide needed education to the people of Japan. They exist today because of cultural and educational forces effecting each other. They exist because at the present time the formal educational system of Japan does not meet all the educational needs of the people of Japan.

They exist because cultural forces put pressure on students to go to universities, to take general high school programs, and not to seek more realistic vocational goals and education. They exist today because social forces have created enrichment and vocational needs for women in Japan which the formal educational program has not been responsive to. And, it appears, miscellaneous schools will continue to exist in one form or another as the educational needs of the Japanese people continue to fluctuate with changes in the society, the economy, and the formal educational structure. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER V

1Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan,

2 Ibid., p. 1.

w Ib1

' Q. ., p. l. 4 I 1d., p. 1.

5Central Council for Education, Basic Guidelines for the Reform of Education, p. 80. 6 Interview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, August 21, 1974. 7 Ibid.

121 SELECTED RESOURCES

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