The London School of Economics and Political Science Al Jazeera English: Margins of Difference in International English-language News Broadcasting Nina Bigalke A thesis submitted to the Department of Media and Communications at the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, September 2013 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 99.899 words. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I can confirm that my thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Jean Morris. 2 Abstract Launching in 2006, Al Jazeera English (AJE) set out to challenge the dominance of Western-based organisations in the field of international English-language news broadcasting. Ambitions of ‘balancing the current typical information flow by reporting from the developing world back to the West’ directly link the organisation to longstanding debates on asymmetric global news flows (AJE Website, Corporate Profile, 04/09/2008). In this context, the aim of my thesis is to develop a theoretical framework that allows to conceptualise two related aspects: 1) assessing degrees of both similarities and differences between AJE and established Western-based news broadcasters and 2) addressing underlying mechanisms that begin to explain degrees of difference that AJE has managed to carve out in the field of international television news. On the basis of a critical realist ontology, I combine Bourdieu’s concepts of field, habitus and capital with an understanding of agency as advanced by Archer. While the first allows me to conceptualise the relational nature of questions of news flows on the level of journalistic practices (which in the past have primarily been the domain of macro-theory), the latter serves to acknowledge the role of the reflexive powers of the individual when it comes to professional trajectories and editorial decision- making. Combined, these approaches are uniquely positioned to explore the complexities of a news organisation aiming to be simultaneously similar enough to be on a par with established networks and different enough to live up to aims of ‘reporting back’. My findings suggest that overall, in accordance with its remit, AJE focussed on the global South and on people outside the realms of power to a greater extent than BBC World News, while in other areas asymmetries at odds with AJE’s remit (such as gender imbalances or an association of the South with conflict) were found to be reproduced. This dialectic was reflected in the channel’s organisational environment, where a relatively autonomous position, characterised by a largely non-commercial outlook, provided actors with a rare degree of autonomy, the utilisation of which, however, continues to be contingent on an ongoing negotiation between AJE’s twin aims of (professional) similarity and (editorial) difference. 3 Acknowledgments This thesis would not have been possible without the support of many individuals who offered their time and thoughts and whose openness and reflexivity contributed to my research in countless ways. I am intensely grateful to my supervisor, Lilie Chouliaraki, for her dedication to this PhD project over many years. She truly understood my need to develop a theoretical framework that I could defend with conviction, and our intellectually stimulating discussions helped me to do just that. I am also very grateful to Bart Cammaerts for his wonderful guidance, flexibility and encouragement when unforeseeable circumstances caused Lilie’s absence during the last year of work on this PhD. I will always be grateful to David Morley for his generous support and professional guidance during my first year as a PhD candidate. I would like to thank Robin Mansell for supporting my project when I first arrived at the LSE and Shani Orgad for her generous time and insights at a decisive period in the writing process. Thanks are due to Jean Morris and Al Challis for their patience and readiness to help out at any time with information and advice. I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to Charlie Beckett, without whom none of this would have happened. His optimism and distinctive judgement helped me to tackle and navigate the massive task ahead and his commitment to this project made essential fieldwork in Doha possible in the first place. I am grateful for all the support I received from the LSE, which included receiving an LSE Media Research Studentship, and for the humbling privilege of being awarded the first POLIS Silverstone Fellowship in memory of Roger Silverstone. I would like to thank all Al Jazeera staff who contributed to this research and made time during their busy working days at the Al Jazeera English offices in Doha, London and Kuala Lumpur. I am indebted to Ezzeddine Abdelmoula, who has been wonderful in helping to facilitate my fieldwork in Doha and whose tireless dedication and encouragement is an asset to media professionals and researchers alike. Christina Aivailotis for her fantastic help in providing some of the archive material for the content analysis as well as answers to an extensive fact-check in the final months of writing up. Particular thanks are also due to Hashem Ahelbarra, Al 4 Anstey, Jasim Al-Azzawi, Marwan Bishara, Emma Bondor, Tony Burman, Stephen Cole, Tim Cunningham, Maire Devine, Lincoln Fernandez, Alan Fisher, Imran Garda, Shiulie Ghosh, Richard Gizbert, Flora Gregory, Ibrahim Helal, Ross Henderson, Osama Saeed, Sarah Taha and Giles Trendle. I would also like to express my gratitude to all those who preferred to remain anonymous and who therefore cannot be named here. Although the views expressed in this thesis are mine, the trust and openness of the AJE staff was instrumental in any explanatory value it may potentially have. I would also like to thank ARD German TV for enabling me to complete my broadcasting traineeship parallel to the PhD process. In addition, the following people readily gave up their time and shared their thoughts: Tine Ustad Figenschou has been tireless in her passionate support and expert advice and I cannot thank her enough for being the vigorously intelligent colleague and friend she has become in the course of my writing this PhD. Thanks to Hatty Oliver for being the best teaching and PhD colleague anyone could hope for, for her dedication and professionalism, and for truly being there when I needed a friend. Thanks to Eva Knoll for her friendship and experienced advice. Also to my attentive co-coder for going through the arduous process of coding some of the news content analysed for reliability testing. And to James Painter for our many helpful discussions, for his help in providing some of the archive material for my content analysis and for always asking the right questions. I am deeply grateful to Alan Fisher for his encouragement, generous time and unfailingly perceptive judgment, for his valuable contributions to reconciling the worlds of academia and journalism – and for being a wonderful friend. I am incredibly grateful to Antonia, Chris, Gerardo, Marco and Dominique for selflessly inviting me into their homes and giving up their spare rooms and sofas whenever I needed a place to stay. I would like to express my thanks to Lisa for listening to whatever kept me awake at night and for her companionship, which made writing up my thesis that much more feasible. My sincere gratitude also goes to Oliver, who will always be familiar like no one else with the unlikely journey that led to this thesis. 5 Not least I would like to thank my family, who are always there for me whether or not they agree with my choices. For their truly unconditional support I will remain forever grateful. A special thanks is due to my mother and to my brother Rainer, who put up with me in an extremely patient and tolerant manner during the demanding final months of writing up. To both my father and my mother for their tremendous support and for their trust in my decisions. To Sonja for her help during the run-up to submission. And not least to Maxi, Lisl and many others for their wisdom and their words of encouragement. 6 Table of contents Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 15 1.1 Chapter Outlook Part I: Theoretical and Methodological Framework ..................................................................................... 18 1.2 Chapter Outlook Part II: Empirical Research and Analysis ...... 22 1.3 Some Caveats ................................................................................... 23 Chapter 2 An Unequal Playing Field: News from North to South? ................. 26 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 27 2.2 Ontological Foundations ................................................................ 29 2.3 Theoretical Trajectories of ‘Reporting