A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF TELEVISION REPORTERS AS PERCEIVED BY TELEVISION NEWS DIRECTORS AND BROADCAST JOURNALISM EDUCATORS by JACK PAUL MATNEY, B.J., M.A. A DISSERTATION IN EDUCATION

Submitte(j to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Approve(J

December, 1989 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to (dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Sandra, and to my daughters Marci, Malee and Makell whose constant love, support and sacrifice made this study possible, and to my parents Carl and Frances Matney, without whose continual support and encouragement my graduate studies would not have been possible- I offer my love and appreciation to my wife, children and parents for their love, interest and support. I am deeply indebted to many who have contributed to this study. I wish to thank Dr. Dayton Roberts, Chairman of my committee, for his guidance and support. I also extend my appreciation to Dr. Joe Cornett, Dr. Dennis Harp, Dr. Jerry Hudson, and Dr. Mike Mezack for their direction. For their interest, expertise and guidance I am grateful to Bill Semmelbeck, Dr. Phil Gensler, Dr. Stan Adelman, Mark Hanna and Mindy Briggs. Dr. Gene Byrd, Vice President and Dean of Instruction at Amarillo College, has provided continual support throughout my graduate studies. For his understanding and consideration, I am especially thankful. I also thank Pat Knight, a friend and colleague, for her encouragement and assistance. No study such as this is possible without the encouragement of friends. I wish to extend special ii appreciation to Robert Boyd, Brenda Turner and Susie Peery for their friendship and assistance. And I especially thank Judy Stocks for her friendship and support.

Ill TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT vi LIST OF TABLES viii I. BACKGROUND AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .... 1 Introduction 1 Background of the Problem 5 Statement of the Problem 17 Purpose of the Study 18 Definition of Terms 20 Limitations of the Study 21 Need for the Study 23 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 26 Brief History of Broadcasting 26 The Development of Broadcast News .... 31 Early Radio and Television Education ... 40 Commercial Broadcaster's Perceptions of Broadcast Education 48 Liberal Arts in Broadcast Education ... 55 Broadcast Journalism Education 59 Recent Studies in Journalism and Broadcast Education 73 Summary 34 III. METHODOLOGY 36 Research Design 35 Subjects 86 iv Variables 88 Questionnaire Instrument and Pilot Study 91 Procedure 93 Research Questions 93 Hypothesis 95 Treatment of the Data 96 IV. RESULTS OF THE STUDY 99 Survey Response 99 Respondent Demographics 100 News Director Versus Educator Responses 102 Responses by News Director Market Size . . 125 Responses by News Director Age 132 Responses by News Director Educational Background 138 Responses by News Director Experience . . 145 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 204 Summary 205 Conclusions 225 Recommendations 236 LITERATURE CITED 240 APPENDICES A. PILOT PRE-TEST COVER LETTER 247 B. TELEVISION NEWS DIRECTOR COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE 248 C. BROADCAST JOURNALISM EDUCATOR COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE 255 D. SECOND MAILING COVER LETTER 262 V ABSTRACT

The American democracy relies on an informed citizenry as its lifeblood. Television news continues to play a vital role in informing millions of Americans about issues and events. The problem of this study was to compare the perceptions of commercial television news directors to those of college and university broadcast journalism professors regarding the educational needs of television reporters. The purpose of the study was to provide data which can be used to design a broadcast journalism curriculum which will meet the needs of both students majoring in the discipline and news directors who are the primary employers of broadcast journalism graduates. Two intact population groups were surveyed in this study. A 70-item questionnaire was sent to news directors at each network affiliate television station in the U.S. (N=620). Questionnaires were also sent to broadcast journalism professors at colleges and universities which hold membership in the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (N=365). Overall response rate was 52 percent.

Data regarding educational needs and preparation of television reporters was collected in five categories: (1) skills and competencies; (2) general knowledge; vi (3) personal characteristics; (4) college preparation; and (5) securing a job as a television reporter. Responses were analyzed to determine similarities and differences between news directors and broadcast educators. News director responses were also analyzed by market size, age, educational background and experience as a news director. Results of the study indicated remarkable rank order agreement between news directors and educators regarding the educational needs of television reporters. Significant differences in the responses reflected differences in the degree of importance for various items. Educators rated skills and competencies, general knowledge, college preparation and factors related to securing a job as a television reporter as significantly more important for prospective reporters than did news directors. News directors rated personal characteristics as significantly more important. Both news directors and educators recommend that prospective reporters earn an undergraduate degree with emphasis on liberal arts and broadcast journalism. Market size is a significant factor in determining which skills and competencies are needed by television reporters. Results of the study revealed specific educational needs for television reporters as recommended by news directors.

Vll LIST OF TABLES

1 . QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN PERCENTAGES 98 2. NEV7S DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY MARKET SIZE ... 149 3. NEWS DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY AGE 150 4. NEWS DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND 151 5. NEWS DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY FIELD OF HIGHEST EARNED DEGREE 152 6. NEWS DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY YEARS OF EXPERIENCE AS NEWS DIRECTOR 153 7. NEWS DIRECTOR AND EDUCATOR RATINGS OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS 154 8- NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 156 9. EDUCATOR RATINGS OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 158 10. NEWS DIRECTOR AND EDUCATOR RATINGS OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS 160 11 . NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 161 12. EDUCATOR RATINGS OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 162 13. NEWS DIRECTOR AND EDUCATOR RATINGS OF PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS 163 14. NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 164

Vlll 15. EDUCATOR RATINGS OF PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 165 16. NEWS DIRECTOR AND EDUCATOR RATINGS OF COLLEGE PREPARATION NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS 166 17. NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF COLLEGE PREPARATION NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY I^EAN SCORE RANK ORDER 167 18. EDUCATOR RATINGS OF COLLEGE PREPARATION NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 168 19. NEWS DIRECTOR AND EDUCATOR RATINGS OF ACADEMIC SUBJECTS NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS 169 20. NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF ACADEMIC SUBJECTS NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 171 21 . EDUCATOR RATINGS OF ACADEMIC SUBJECTS NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER 172 22. UNDERGRADUATE MAJORS FOR TELEVISION REPORTERS AS RECOMMENDED BY NEWS DIRECTORS AND EDUCATORS 173 23. UNDERGRADUATE MJ^ORS FOR TELEVISION REPORTERS AS RECOMMENDED BY NEWS DIRECTORS 174 24. UNDERGRADUATE MAJORS FOR TELEVISION REPORTERS AS RECOMMENDED BY EDUCATORS ... 175 25. NEWS DIRECTOR AND EDUCATOR RATINGS OF FACTORS RELATED TO SECURING A JOB AS A TELEVISION REPORTER 176 26. NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF FACTORS RELATED TO SECURING A JOB AS A TELEVISION REPORTER 177 27. EDUCATOR RATINGS OF FACTORS RELATED TO SECURING A JOB AS A TELEVISION REPORTER ..... 173 28. TO BE ABLE TO SHOOT ENG VIDEOTAPE 179 ix 29. TO BE ABLE TO EDIT ENG VIDEOTAPE 180 30. TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM A "STAl^DUPPER" ON TAPE 1S1 31 . TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM "LIVE" STANDUP REPORTS (INTRO, INTERVIEW, CLOSE) 132 32. TO EXHIBIT EFFECTIVE ON-CAIvlERA DELIVERY SKILLS 183 33. TO POSSESS EFFECTIVE VOCAL DELIVERY SKILLS . . 184 34. PREVIOUS EMPLOYMENT IN A TV NEWS DEPARTMENT 185 35. TELEVISION NEWS INTERN EXPERIENCE 136 36. RADIO EXPERIENCE 187 37. TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM "LIVE" STANDUP REPORTS 188 38. TO BE ABLE TO USE A WORD PROCESSOR 189 39. TO POSSESS A COLLEGE DEGREE IN ANY MEDIA-RELATED FIELD 190 40. HISTORY 191 41. COMPUTER SCIENCE 192 42. LITERATURE 193 43. TV NEWS INTERN EXPERIENCE : ..' 194 44. RADIO EXPERIENCE 195 45. TO BE ABLE TO WRITE CLEARLY IN A CONVERSATIONAL BROADCAST STYLE 196 46. TO BE ABLE TO COPE EFFECTIVELY WITH JOB-RELATED STRESS 197 47. TO BE ABLE TO ACCEPT DIRECTION 198 48. TO POSSESS A "TOUGH SKIN" AND ACCEPT CRITICISM 199 49. TO HAVE COMPLETED A COLLEGE DEGREE 200 50. LOGIC 201 X 51 . TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM "LIVE" STAl'TDUP REPORTS 202 52. TO HAVE COMPLETED A COLLEGE DEGREE 203

XI CHAPTER I BACKGROUND AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction The bold American experiment with democracy, now more than 200 years old, has always relied on an informed citizenry as its lifeblood. Articulating their premise that effective representative government requires an educated and informed public, the Founding Fathers ensured a free press with the First Amendment. But the contemporary American press has come under increasing criticism and attack from those who believe it has become too powerful and too biased. Press coverage of the American social upheaval of the 1960's, characterized by Vietnam, civil rights and the so-called government credibility gap, together with coverage of the Watergate scandal in the early 1970's seem to have created serious public disillusionment with the press. Even though today's journalists are often the target of criticism, they are confronted with a grave responsibility—to select and transmit professionally and objectively important information and viewpoints so that citizens can make informed choices. According to former CBS News president Richard Salant (1975) it is fundamental to a free democratic society that each citizen make decisions on how. he is to be governed and by whom— decisions which can be made sensibly only if he has information on which to make political choices. An important function of a free press is to provide that information. As James Madison wrote, "A popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or tragedy or perhaps both" (Salant, 1975, p. 32 citing James Madison). Abraham Lincoln stressed the importance of a free press when he stated, "Let the people know the facts, and the country will be safe." For most of America's history, the press has been comprised of print journalists in the newspaper industry. But with the advent of the first commercial radio station, KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which carried election results of the Harding-Cox presidential election on November 2, 1920, the composition of the press was destined to change (Foster, 1982). Today, in addition to the more than 1700 daily newspapers (Mencher, 1987), there are more than 10,000 licensed radio stations and about 1,400 commercial and non-commercial television stations ("By the Numbers," 1989) in the United States. News broadcasts have expanded from a few minutes a day on radio in the 1930's and 1940's to currently more than four hours per day in some of the largest television markets. Some radio stations commit their entire broadcast day to news and information. Since its debut in 1980, the Cable News Network has provided added vitality and significance to television news (White, Meppen & Young, 1984). A 1984 Television Information Organization/Roper poll indicated that 64 percent of the adult population of the United States depend on television as their primary source of news ("TV Basics," 1985). Another survey revealed that 40 percent of the population embrace television as their only source for news. Add to those figures another 19 percent who consider radio as a primary news source, and one can clearly see the importance and impact of broadcast news in American society (Hunter & Gross, 1980). Because of new technology in telecommunications, lucrative cable television opportunities and renewed interest in independent stations, television continues to be a growth industry. News operations at both the network and the local level provide many employment opportunities for broadcast journalists. College graduates with majors in broadcast journalism and mass communication continue to be attracted to the industry. Satellite communications, cable networks and an explosion of new technology in electronic news-gathering equipment have made broadcast journalism much more complex and challenging than it was just a few years ago (White et al., 1984). As more and more television news programs became revenue producers and profit makers for station owners, a curious and somewhat alarming trend began in broadcast journalism, especially in television news. The trend was to treat news more as an entertairiment program with emphasis on cosmetics—attractive news sets, flashy production techniques, well-coiffured talent, and other show business elements—rather than as a serious substantive journalistic enterprise. As Lewis (1984) stated: While there can be no substitute for educated, thoughtful, perceptive, ethically grounded reporters to convey the news to the public, the tendency in TV news is to hire individuals whose talents as reporters take second place to their talents as performers or actors. (p. 173) No less prominent a figure in television news than former CBS news correspondent and anchorman Walter Cronkite has decried the emphasis on show business and entertainment values in television news. According to Cronkite (1980) too many graduates are coming out of schools of communication "more committed to being instant successes, stars in show business, than in being journalists." Cronkite says journalists should "concentrate on reporting, learning sources, where to find them, how to deal with them, and how to organize and write what they've acquired" (Weymouth, 1981, p. 24). If station management believes that television news is just another form of entertainment, newscasts are likely to be fast-paced and flashy with haphazard news coverage by anchors and reporters who are superficial and uninformed. But if management believes that news is the serious transmission of information to enlighten the citizenry, newscasts will be comprehensive and thought-provoking and presented by well-educated and knowledgeable reporters (Cohler, 1985). Colleges and universities must be capable of educating and training effective broadcast journalists. How are colleges and universities responding to the need to educate professional and responsible broadcast journalists? Are today's broadcast reporters prepared to assume responsible positions in a news and information industry that has a significant impact in our society? What educational background, personal characteristics, competencies and skills do news directors want broadcast journalism graduates to possess? Do news directors and broadcast journalism educators agree on what education and training is necessary for today's television reporters? This study will attempt to answer these questions.

Background of the Problem The value and content of college training for broadcast journalists has long been a subject of controversy. A number of studies have found that professionals in broadcast news harshly indict college and university broadcasting and journalism programs for poorly preparing broadcasting graduates (Hulbert, 1962; Stone, o 1970; Abel & Jacobs, 1975; Taylor, 1976; Rushing, 1982; Della-Giustina, 1985). An extensive two-year study on the future of journalism and mass communication conducted by the School of Journalism at the University of Oregon ("Planning," 1984) concluded that journalism schools were not adequately preparing students to be responsible journalists. Media professionals responding to the Oregon study gave journalism programs a C+/B- grade average for their performance in preparing students for the industry. In the specific area of television news, both Rushing (1982) and Della-Giustina (1985) surveyed television news directors and found they believed students were not being properly educated to enter the field as television journalists. Rushing's results indicated a need for more emphasis on writing and reporting skills in academic programs• Abel and Jacobs (1975) found attitudes by radio station managers to be relatively unfavorable toward college graduates and college broadcasting departments although managers in larger markets tended to have more favorable attitudes toward broadcasting graduates. Also, managers with more formal education held more favorable attitudes toward college trained personnel for radio news. After surveying radio and television station managers, Taylor (1976) reported that in only two job areas did more than half of the managers believe their university trained employees were adequately prepared—in news for the radio managers and in announcing for the television managers. The seven job areas surveyed were production, programming, sales, announcing news, sports, and management. Interestingly, Taylor's study revealed that managers with broadcasting degrees were most critical of their employees' college training. Another serious criticism of broadcast education is that university broadcast educators are out of touch with the "real" world of commercial broadcasting and broadcast news (Stone, 1970; Abel & Jacobs, 1975; Taylor, 1976; Della-Giustina, 1985). Stone (1970) surveyed members of the Radio-Television News Directors Association (RTNDA) and asked them if broadcast journalism educators keep in close enough touch with the "real" world of broadcast news. Eighty-five percent of the television news directors and seventy-four percent of the radio news directors responding to the survey answered, "no." The news directors urged broadcast professors to keep up-to-date concerning broadcast news, to keep in touch, to visit newsrooms, and to teach realities. Della-Giustina (1985) reported that nev7S professionals and professors have not developed strong relationships which could lead to more realistic training of broadcast students.

The issue of curriculum design for both print journalism and broadcast journalism academic programs has 8 been hotly debated for a long time. To be accredited by the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, schools must require their majors to take no more than 25 percent of their course work in professionally-oriented courses. The remaining 75 percent of their curriculum must consist of general education or liberal arts courses. Proponents for both a professional orientation and a liberal arts approach to journalism education have been quite vocal. Many broadcast professionals have called for more practical and realistic training of broadcast journalists. They argue that television news courses are too theoretical and do not give students enough practical experience which they believe should be an essential element in broadcast journalism education (Della-Giustina, 1985). Perhaps MacDougall (1973) best articulates the thinking of those who advocate a more professional skills-acquisition orientation in journalism education. According to MacDougall, journalism is a profession, and the academic preparation for it should be emulative of professional schools such as medicine and law rather than of liberal arts colleges. The purposes of journalism education should be to produce the best possible reporters. MacDougall does believe journalism programs should include instruction in the social sciences. He further concludes that curriculum designers should increase the number of journalism courses while reducing liberal arts requirements. Hudson (1980) found that broadcast professionals believe knowledge related to liberal arts has little employment value for positions in sales, traffic, continuity and production, but knowledge in some areas of the liberal arts is helpful to news employees. In contrast to MacDougall's views, a number of studies have advocated an extensive liberal arts education for broadcast majors, especially those desiring to enter broadcast journalism. Dudek (1975) urged educators to prepare future broadcasters by concentrating on liberal arts and professionalism and reducing emphasis on skills and technical competencies. Dudek articulated two weaknesses of a technical-centered education: (1) technical competencies rapidly become obsolete and (2) the broadcaster trained as a technician usually lacks the background and sensitivity to turn the industry away from commercialism and towards meeting the needs of society. A literature review concerning which specific liberal arts courses are most beneficial to the broadcast student reveals some common ground. Guback (1960) found that broadcasters urged future radio and television news reporters to take courses in history, political science, rhetoric-composition, and economics- Wulfemeyer's (1981) survey of professional journalists indicated that respondents recommended prospective journalists take 10 courses in government, liberal arts, English grammar, history, economics, and current events. News directors in Della-Giustina's study (1985) ranked grammar and English composition as important areas of study for television journalists. They also saw value in taking social science courses. Journalistic knowledge and writing skills, along with interviewing ability were perceived as being more important than production skills for television reporters. English was ranked as the most important course for broadcast journalism students by radio and television news directors in Jankowski's study (1980). Government, political science, economics, and history were ranked two through five in importance. University professors ranked courses in government first, followed by political science, English, economics, and history as being important. Based on his findings, Jankowski recommended a broad liberal arts education as well as specific skill instruction for broadcast journalism majors. Television news directors in Della-Giustina's study (1985) favored a broadcast journalism major with a liberal arts minor for students; however, more than one-half of the professional respondents did not believe it was necessary for a television journalist to have a college degree. Scholars and media professionals participating in the Oregon study ("Planning," 1984) agreed that journalism and mass communication programs must have a strong relationship 11 with the liberal arts and sciences. Study participants viewed the basic problem in journalism education as the tendency of academic departments to follow an industry model. Students were being taught entry-level skills they needed in order to get a job, but they did not understand the media in a holistic sense. Researchers in the Oregon study polled 37 leading communication scholars concerning journalism education: As a group, they did not appear to sense that the best training for young people seeking careers in journalism and other mass media industries should to a great extent involve the traditional offerings of journalism skills-acquisition course work. Consistently, there were calls for reduced emphasis on journalism classes and greater emphasis on studying the liberal arts such as economics, history, literature, business and political science. ("Planning," p. 36) The Oregon researchers recommended that journalism and mass communication programs become a "more generic mass communication study" (pp.1-2) instead of the industry- oriented sequence programs which now exist. Highly specialized courses should be offered in the senior year, in graduate school and in continuing education courses. Findings of the Oregon study revealed that the development of critical thinking and expansive general knowledge was the most important part of journalism education.

The importance of earning a college degree in order to enter the broadcasting industry is another issue which has 12 received mixed reactions. Guback (1970) and Taylor (1976) found that possessing a college degree was helpful in securing a position in the industry. Guback's findings indicate that the most desirable background in order to enter the field includes both a degree and some practical commercial broadcasting experience. Station managers responding to Taylor's survey reported that practical broadcasting experience was more important than a college degree to enter commercial broadcasting. The majority of the managers did not believe recent college graduates were prepared to step into commercial broadcasting jobs especially in sales, programming, and management. While they believed a college education is helpful in building a broadcasting career, especially in television, the managers did not insist that education be in broadcasting. There is evidence to support the conclusion that a strong liberal arts or business background would be preferable. Taylor found that broadcast educators consistently overestimate the quality and applicability of what they teach. They think their students are prepared; commercial broadcasters do not agree. Television news directors search other television news departments and college broadcast journalism programs when hiring personnel (Harless & Collins, 1974), thus indicating a reliance on colleges and universities to train future broadcast journalists. Although the television news 13 directors responding to Della-Giustina's study (1985) did not believe it was mandatory for television journalists to have a degree, slightly more than half of the respondents did say they would hire students directly after graduation. Hudson (1980) found radio and television news reporters among the most frequently mentioned entry-level employment positions available to students graduating with degrees in broadcasting. The best opportunities for graduates appear to be in small and medium size markets. More experience is needed to advance to larger markets.

A common thread which runs through the literature of broadcast education is the need for broadcast students to receive practical, hands-on, realistic experiences in radio and television (Guback, 1960; Abel & Jacobs, 1975; Taylor, 1976; Wulfemeyer, 1981). Whether that practical experience be through part-time commercial employment, work on college radio stations, laboratory experiences, or paid internships, both media professionals and educators stress its value. Many broadcast students should consider seeking entry-level part-time positions with stations while they are still attending school (Hudson, 1980). In 1956, a statement of "Standards for Broadcast Journalism Education" was adopted by the Association for Education in Journalism's Council on Radio-Television Journalism ("Standards," 1961, pp. 161-164). The statement sets forth minimum standards for education in radio and 14 television journalism and is intended as a guide to colleges and universities "offering curricula to prepare young men and women for employment in radio and television newsrooms and in other forms of broadcast journalism" (p. 161). The standards require a college curriculum of not less than four academic years, leading to at least a bachelor's degree. Course requirements reveal a blend of professionally-oriented journalism and mass communication courses and a solid liberal arts foundation of government, political science, economics, history, geography, and sociology. It is recommended that this general education constitute the major portion of the academic work. Essential among skill-acquisition competencies are the ability to gather, write, and edit news copy. A requirement of radio and television journalism faculty is that they must have adequate professional experience to enable them to teach courses in a professional manner. Finally, schools are required to possess or have access to adequate laboratory equipment which can provide students with realistic experiences. Because of the vital role a free and responsible press plays in a democratic society, the education and training of journalists is important not only to the communications industry, but to the entire citizenry. As television has emerged to become a ubiquitous and powerful institution in our society, broadcast journalists have become increasingly 15 important and influential members of the press. Today, more than 64 percent of Americans get most of their news from television. That revelation alone gives credence to this study which will examine the skills and competencies and educational needs of television reporters as perceived by television news directors and college and university broadcast journalism educators. If colleges and universities can be successful in producing television journalists who are responsible and knowledgeable, the beneficiary of those graduates will be an informed viewing public and thus, a stronger democratic society. Two recent studies have been conducted to determine how well colleges and universities are preparing students for broadcasting careers. The Roper study ("Electronic Media," 1987) was commissioned and sponsored by the International Radio and Television Society, the Radio- Television News Directors Association and the National Association of Television Program Executives. Oliver, Haynes and Eubanks ("Curriculum at the Crossroads," 1988) conducted a national survey of radio and television station managers seeking their assessment of the value of college education and broadcast training programs. Broadcast education did not fare well in either study. Broadcast professionals participating in the Roper study reported that broadcasting graduates enter the job market "lacking in a basic understanding of the 'real 16 world' of the industry which they have chosen to enter" ("Electronic Media," 1987, p. 4). They say entry level job applicants are "prone to unrealistic career expectations" and they accuse colleges and universities of not "providing practical knowledge for the real world" (p. 4). The Roper study reported that a college degree in journalism or communication is important to an applicant seeking a broadcasting career. Almost half of the 514 electronic media industry executives participating in the study said a liberal arts background is an important consideration when they evaluate prospective employees. But broadcasting executives find graduates weak in writing skills, previous work experience in the industry and hands- on experience. In a telling indictment of broadcast education. Roper study participants gave "the higher educational system a grade of only 'C' in terms of the overall job that colleges and universities do in preparing students for entry level positions in broadcasting and cable" (p. 7). Radio and television managers who participated in the Oliver et al. study (1988) did not hold favorable opinions about broadcast education programs. Their responses reflected "a lack of confidence in those who teach broadcast courses and the effectiveness of the present curriculum structure and content" (Oliver et al., 1988, p. 7). Findings in the study indicated that managers value 17 college as preparation for a career in broadcasting but "because of perceived weaknesses in broadcast programs, do not place nearly so much importance upon broadcast degrees" (p.10). Broadcast managers blame broadcast educators for not maintaining close contacts with professionals in the industry. Managers are not impressed with educators who they believe lack the knowledge and the experience to teach broadcasting. Finally, managers in the Oliver et al. study suggested that broadcast educators improve the curriculum by making it more realistic and current and by allowing professionals to provide input through advisory committees. Both the Roper study and the Oliver et al. study recommend changes in broadcast education to more adequately prepare students for successful careers in broadcasting. If those changes are to come about, there must be more dialogue and cooperation between broadcast educators and broadcast professionals.

Statement of the Problem The problem of this study was to compare the perceptions of commercial television news directors to those of college and university broadcast journalism orofessors regarding the educational needs of television reporters. 18 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to provide data which can be used to improve broadcast journalism education. The results of this study can be used by educators to design broadcast journalism curricula which will meet both the needs of students majoring in the discipline and of television news directors who are the primary employers of broadcast journalism graduates. Another purpose of the study was to establish and encourage more open communication and dialogue between professional broadcasters and educators.

Specific areas examined in the study were skills and competencies, general knowledge, personal characteristics and college preparation needed by television reporters. Important factors in securing a job as a television reporter were also studied. Perceptions of these areas by the two subject groups (television news directors and broadcast journalism educators) were analyzed for similarities and differences. The study was concerned with the following research questions: 1. What specific skills and competencies do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe are most important for television reporters to possess? 19 2. What general knowledge do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe is most important for television reporters to possess? 3. What personal characteristics do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe are most important for television reporters to possess? 4. What type of college preparation, including specific courses and majors, do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe is most important for television reporters? 5. What specific undergraduate degree (major) do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe is most important for students who wish to pursue a career in television news? 6. What specific factors do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe are most important in securing a job as a television news reporter? 7. What are the differences, if any, between the perceptions of television news directors and those of broadcast journalism educators regarding the educational needs of television reporters? 8. What are the differences, if any, among major, larger medium and small market television news directors and their perceptions regarding the educational needs of television news reporters• •=r>' 20 9. What are the differences, if any, among the demographic characteristics of television news directors such as age, educational attainment and experience and their perceptions regarding the educational needs of television news reporters?

Definition of Terms The following operational definitions were used in conducting this study: 1 . Television News Director. The person at a television station who is responsible for the station's news operation. Duties include hiring and firing news personnel, development of news philosophy, administration, budgeting and serving as a liaison with station management. 2. Broadcast Journalism Educator. An instructor at a four-year college or university who is responsible for teaching broadcast journalism or administering a broadcast journalism program. Survey questionnaires in this study were mailed to professors who teach at schools which belong to the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication and who were listed in the AEJMC 1987 Journalism and Mass Communication Directory. 3. Television Reporter. A person at a television station employed by the news department whose primary responsibilities include gathering, writing and reporting 21 news. This study was designed to investigate educational needs of television reporters, not on-air anchors. 4. Market Size. Market size is determined by the number of potential television households capable of receiving a broadcast signal. It is based on population. Arbitron and Nielsen list more than 200 television markets in the United States. Each county in the United States is placed in an Area of Dominant Influence (ADI-Arbitron term) or a Designated Market Area (DMA-Nielsen term). The ADI or DMA is an exclusively defined market area. No two ADI or DMA geographic areas overlap. For the purposes of this study the following market sizes were used as listed in Broadcasting/Cablecasting Yearbook 1987. 5. Major Market. Market sizes 1 - 20. 6. Large Market. Market sizes 21 - 50. 7. Medium Market. Market sizes 51 - 100. 8. Small Market. Market sizes 101 and above.

Limitations of the Study For the purposes of this study, the following limitations were assumed: 1 . Responses of news directors of commercial network affiliate television stations were sought in this study. No generalizations regarding the findings of this study 22 should be made to educational or public television news directors nor to news directors of independent stations. 2. Survey questionnaires were mailed to news directors of every ABC, CBS and NBC television affiliate in the United States listed in Broadcasting/Cablecasting Yearbook 1987 (N=620). The cover letter of the questionnaire was addressed and mailed specifically to news directors. The ability to ensure absolute purity of responses from only news directors was simply not possible, but every step was taken to seek only news director attitudes. 3. This research project sought responses from television news directors regarding educational needs of television reporters. The researcher was not interested in responses or attitudes of producers, on-air anchors, assignment editors, reporters, videographers, video editors or other news personnel. 4. This study was designed to determine perceptions regarding educational needs of television news reporters. No attempt was made to investigate attitudes regarding radio news reporters. There was no attempt to examine needs of news personnel other than television reporters. The needs of producers, on-air anchors, assignment editors, videographers, video editors and other news personnel were not within the scope of this study. 5. Survey questionnaires were also mailed to broadcast journalism educators of four-year colleges and 23 universities. No questionnaires were mailed to educators at two-year or secondary schools. 6. Responses of college and university professors who teach broadcast journalism courses or who chair the departments which house broadcast journalism were sought. The researcher attempted to reach those educators most involved in broadcast journalism instruction. 7. Survey questionnaires were mailed to 365 colleges and universities which belong to the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication and are listed in the AEJMC 1987 Journalism and Mass Communication Directory. Surveys were addressed to the chairmen of journalism, broadcast journalism or mass communication departments. Chairmen were asked to route the questionnaire to a faculty member who teaches broadcast journalism. 8. It was not within the scope of this study to design a "model" broadcast journalism curriculum; however, findings of the study can be used to develop such a curriculum.

Need for the Study This study was needed for a number of reasons. The relationship between professional broadcasters and broadcast educators has been somewhat strained for many years. Many broadcasters do not believe educators are 24 effectively training students to enter the world of commercial broadcasting. Dialogue between professionals and educators has often been infrequent and ineffective. It was believed that this study of educational needs of television reporters could improve the relationship between broadcasters and educators by promoting genuine dialogue concerning ways to improve broadcast education. The Roper study ("Electronic Media," 1987) began the process of improving that relationship and of improving the broadcasting curriculum. This study can also contribute to strengthening the curriculum and to improving ties between professional broadcasters and educators. Television news directors are the primary employers of broadcast journalism graduates. Therefore, their input is needed in preparing the kind of graduate who can be a responsible and successful reporter. It is certainly the goal of educators to produce graduates who can meet the needs of prospective employers. If news directors who hire reporters have a significantly different view of the skills and competencies, general knowledge, personal characteristics and college preparation needed by television reporters than that of broadcast journalism educators who teach them, we have a serious proble.m. The results of this study helped to identify factors relating to this issue and may lead to a more appropriate curriculum. 25 Findings of the study determined which college courses are most helpful to a television reporter as well as the importance of a college degree. News directors and educators also rated which academic "major" is most appropriate for television journalists. The ultimate use of the results of this study is to develop a "model" broadcast journalism curriculum designed by both professional broadcasters and educators.

In summary, reasons for conducting this investigation included the need to improve communication between broad­ casters and educators, to determine and compare attitudes of news directors auid educators regarding the educational needs of television reporters and to provide information leading to the development of a "model" broadcast journalism curriculum. The findings of this research study can help broadcast educators do a better job of preparing men and women to enter the field of television reporting. American journalist Walter Lippman once said that the uncertain business of journalism has emerged from a "minor craft to an underdeveloped profession" (Salant, 1975, p. 6). Educators and broadcasters must continue to strive to better develop the profession and those who work in it. This research effort will add to the literature in broadcast journalism education and help to create useful changes in preparing future television journalists. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Brief History of Broadcasting Although experimentation with electromagnetic waves was conducted as early as the late 1880's by German physicist Heinrich Hertz, broadcasting in the United States was not really inaugurated until 1920 when Westinghouse signed on KDKA in Pittsburgh. Early radio programming included live orchestra music and dance bands, vaudeville acts, and local talent shows. Respectable stations did not play phonograph records because such programming was considered low class. Sterling and Kittross (1978) reported that "music and variety made up more than three- fourths of the average station's programming in the early and mid-1920's" (p. 75). The presentation of daily newscasts on radio did not occur on a widespread basis until the 1930's and radio news did not come of age until World War II. Powerful newspaper ownership suppressed the development of radio news during its early years. The newspaper industry pressured the major wire services not to provide service to radio stations because publishers simply did not want competition for news or advertising revenues.

26 27 Special event news programming on radio dates back to the first broadcast on KDKA in Pittsburgh on November 2, 1920. That night KDKA broadcast election returns of the Warren Harding-James Cox presidential race to a few thousand listeners. Other special event programming in the 1920's and 1930's included political speeches, coverage of political conventions, broadcasts of the 1925 Scopes "monkey" trial in Dayton, Tennessee, occasional news commentaries and coverage of the Lindbergh kidnapping trial. These programs and others helped position radio as an increasingly important medium in providing information to the American people. The earliest term used for the electromagnetic phenomenon which would later be called radio was "the wireless." Three contributing pioneers to "the wireless" were Guglielmo Marconi, Reginald Fessenden and Lee DeForest. Marconi, born to a wealthy Italian family, began experimenting with the wireless in the mid-1890's. By 1896 he had transmitted a Morse code message more than two miles by the wireless. In 1901 he successfully sent a wireless signal across the Atlantic from England to Newfoundland. Reginald Fessenden, a Canadian scientist, was the first major experimenter in the United States to work on developing the wireless. Historians credit Fessenden with conducting the first voice transmission by wireless on Christmas Eve 1906 from Brant Rock, Massachusetts. Lee 28 DeForest, an American, transmitted wireless voice messages shortly after Fessenden's feat in 1906. One of DeForest's best known accomplishments was his phonograph record concert broadcast from the Eiffel Tower in 1908. His broadcast was reportedly received 500 miles away (Sterling & Kittross, 1978).

Congress first mentioned the concept of radio with the Wireless Ship Act of 1910 which required American ocean­ going vessels carrying 50 or more passengers to have a wireless apparatus and a trained wireless operator on board. Congress attempted to spell out public policy regarding radio with the Radio Act of 1912. This legislation required all wireless operators to receive a license from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. Other than government nationalization of radio during World War I as a national security measure, radio was left largely free from government interference until 1927. That year, because of chaotic conditions created by hundreds of stations signing on the air, the Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio Commission and empowered it to license stations and assign frequency, power and time of operation. Broadcast licensees were required to serve "the public interest, convenience and necessity" (Pember, 1987, p^ 130)—an essential requirement of broadcasting even today. 29 Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover proclaimed an anti-radio advertising sentiment in the early 1920's by declaring that "it was inconceivable that a service with so much potential for news, entertainment and education should be drowned in advertising chatter" (Gross, 1986, p. 45). But even Hoover's stance could not deter radio as an advertising medium. WEAF in New York became the first radio station to sell commercial time in 1922, a practice called "toll broadcasting." And by 1928 radio had become an acceptable medium of mass advertising with network radio programming covering 80 percent of American homes (Sterling & Kittross, 1978, p. 59, 67, 112). During the 1930's and 1940's network radio became a staple of radio programming. The first network broadcast can be traced to 1923 when American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) used telephone circuits to connect WEAF in New York and WNAC in Boston for a five-minute program. NBC, CBS and Mutual all operated networks during the 1930's and 1940's, two decades referred to as the "Golden Years" of radio. Programming during these halcyon years included drama, comedy, variety, musical programs, news and commentary and the emergence of the serial "soap opera." While radio flourished during the 1930's, television was slow to develop. After early contributions by Paul Nipkow, Vladimir Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth, RCA conducted experimental television broadcasts from the 30 Empire State Building in 1932. RCA debuted its very limited television service from the New York World's Fair in 1939 (Gross, 1986). Television's early development proceeded very slowly because those companies involved in television research also had huge investments in commercial radio. The prevailing attitude of the day seemed to be "Why develop television to compete with the hugely successful radio industry?" (Pember, 1987).

The FCC authorized television service in 1941. During World War II six television stations provided a few hours of programming each day, but by 1948 television had emerged as a mass medium in the United States (Gross, 1986). By the mid-1950's television had replaced radio as the primary entertainment medium in America, a position it has yet to relinquish. In describing television's rise to popularity, former ABC commentator Edward P. Morgan said, "The public eloped with a brazen but seductive hussy called television and radio suddenly became an abandoned orphan" (Pember,

1981 , p. 144). Today more than 1,400 television stations and 10,000 radio stations provide entertainment, news and information reaching virtually every American each day. The development of broadcast news from that first broadcast of presidential election returns on KDKA in 1920 through the televised Watergate hearings to the present time will now be examined. 31 The Development of Broadcast News Although KDKA in Pittsburgh is credited with being the first commercially licensed station to broadcast news in 1920, many historians agree that the first radio newscast occurred in 1909 in San Jose, California. That year a few listeners with crystal receivers picked up Dr. Charles Herrold' s news amd other programming on what later was to become KOW Radio (Hall, 1986). Also pre-dating KDKA was 8MK, the Detroit News station which broadcast Michigan primary election returns in August of 1920. Then in November came KDKA's coverage of the Harding-Cox election results and the era of radio news had begun (Bittner & Bittner, 1977). In the first few years of its development, radio tended to leave the reporting of news to the newspapers. Even though newspaper-owned stations began to let their announcers read newspaper headlines to stimulate newspaper sales, fear of competition from radio eventually led to all out war between newspapers and radio stations by 1933. But during the formative years of radio from 1920 to 1933, very few local stations broadcast hard news. Radio was thought to be for entertainment (Sterling & Kittross, 1978). One of the earliest radio news commentators was H.V. Kaltenborn who delivered a weekly news commentary on WEAF in New York beginning in 1923. Kaltenborn would later become CBS's top news commentator. According to Sterling 32 and Kittross (1978), the first regular hard radio newscast occurred on the NBC Blue Network in 1930 when Lowell Thomas began delivering a 15-minute newscast five times a week. Most network radio newscasts during this era aired during prime time evening hours when the radio audience was largest. Foster (1982) reported that "through the mid- 1930 's the network news consisted mostly of commentators who gave the background of stories and interpreted the news" (p. 76). Certainly a forerunner to hard newscasts on radio was special event coverage. Bulletins concerning Charles Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic interrupted radio programming in 1927 as would coverage of his baby's kidnapping in 1932. A Chicago radio audience heard the impassioned pleas of Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan in the 1925 Scopes "monkey" trial. Radio provided firsthand information on the 1924 presidential election including live coverage by 21 stations of President Calvin Coolidge's inaugural address (Hall, 1986). Perhaps the first president to effectively use the medium of radio was Franklin Roosevelt- Roosevelt had used network radio during the 1932 election campaign to carry his message directly to the American people. His reassuring voice on his radio "fireside chats" helped calm a nation in the throes of the Depression. Roosevelt was "5 "^ heard on radio 20 times during his first nine months in office (Bittner & Bittner, 1977). The development of radio networks eventually led to extensive radio news operations. NBC was formed in 1926 and within a year was actually operating two networks. The organization that eventually became CBS began broadcasting in 1927. NBC was forced to sell its Blue Network in 1943 to a group which changed its name to ABC in 1945. The real stimulus to network radio news was the decision to purchase news from the wire services: Associated Press (AP), International News Service (INS) and United Press (UP). By the early 1930's radio was attracting a large number of listeners and advertisers much to the chagrin of newspapers. In an attempt to reduce this new competition, newspapers pressured the wire services to adapt a restrictive news policy against radio. According to Hall (1986) the competition between radio and newspapers "got so cutthroat at one point that all three services refused to sell any of their news to radio" (p. 14). In response to this restrictive news policy, CBS and NBC initiated their own news-gathering operations. Tension between newspapers and radio peaked in 1933 and resulted in a secret agreement being signed at the Biltmore Hotel in New York between the newspaper industry 34 and the radio networks. The Biltmore Agreements restricted radio stations to the following: 1 . issuing only two five-minute newscasts per day, at 9:30 a.m. and 9 p.m. or later, to protect both morning and afternoon papers; 2. broadcasting interpretation and comment as opposed to hard news reporting; 3. using news provided by the Press-Radio Bureau, a new service to which the wire services would funnel copy for re-writing in radio style; 4. depending only on the new Press-Radio Bureau, stopping their own news gathering activities, and 5. broadcasting only unsponsored news. (Sterling & Kittross, 1978, p. 123) The "press-radio" war was at its height from 1933 to 1935. The Biltmore Agreement was quickly subverted when a new company. Trans Radio Press, began selling news to radio stations. Soon the major wire services capitulated and began selling their service to radio stations. With widespread public acceptance of radio news, newspaper owners cringed when they read a 1939 Fortune magazine poll which showed that people relied more on radio news as a believable source than on newspapers ("The Press," August,

1939, p. 65). By the time World War II broke out, radio was a major disseminator of news and information to the American public. Radio audiences had grown accustomed to listening to radio newscasts. It has been estimated that 65 percent of the American radio audience heard President Franklin Roosevelt ask Congress to declare war on Japan on December 8, 1941 (Hall, 1986, p. 14). It was during World War II that radio news rose to its finest hour. Americans listened closely to radio to follow the progress of the war. The amount of radio news greatly increased as Americans became familiar with the reports of Howard K. Smith, Eric Sevareid, Charles Collingwood, William Shirer, Robert Trout and Richard C. Hottelet. But the most memorable newscaster of all was Edward R. Murrow with his "This is London" reports (Hunter & Gross, 1980). Eric Sevareid has commented on the role of radio during the war. He said, "the role of words heard simultaneously by millions—cannot be measured" (Bliss & Patterson, 1978, p. 4). Sevareid continued: Never, surely, in the history of human travail had so many owed so much to so few human voices ... Ed Murrow speaking to America each night, the timbre of his powerful, steady voice reflecting the spirit of England and persuading millions of Americans that the cause was not lost even when it seemed beyond saving, (p. 4) Murrow and the other correspondents began to define and sharpen radio news gathering techniques during the war. Hall (1986) reported that "the on-the-spot report, the live interview, the commentary and other oarrent practices all came into being under the heat of battle and were tempered by the demands of the war coverage" (p. 15). Newscasts at least every hour became commonplace. 36 Although the government did not nationalize radio in World War II as it had done in World War I, voluntary cooperation was sought from the radio industry to help boost the war effort. Public service announcements, civil defense instructions and savings bond purchase appeals by Kate Smith and other entertainers highlighted radio's contribution to war morale. Both the president of NBC, David Samoff, and the president of CBS, William Paley joined the armed services and had special assignments during the war (Gross, 1986). As America moved into the 1950's, major changes occurred in the radio industry. Network programming which had been the mainstay of radio during the 1930's and 1940's declined significantly. Advertisers began pouring revenue into a new medium called television. The number of radio newscasts declined significantly after the war. Some news programs were cancelled altogether. As radio re-positioned itself to compete with television, the new emphasis was "local" radio rather than national "network" radio. By the mid-1950's most radio network programming was limited to news but local stations began to emphasize news coverage of local events. Although the practice of local announcers "ripping and reading" wire copy was widespread, local news reporting was a way for stations to serve their communities. As Hall (1986) wrote, "Radio had found its niche—the local market—and used its ability to serve its 37 hometown to build financial success; a success that so far has not been halted" (p. 16). As television gained in popularity, the networks began their own 15-minute television newscasts. By 1953 NBC's Camel News Caravan with John Cameron Swayze and CBS's Douglas Edwards with the News utilized newsreel film with voice-over narrations. But as Pember (1987) reported, "Television news . . . was not taken very seriously by the networks, by the local stations, or by the viewers" (p. 151 ). As the networks began to expand their news operations, the 15-minute network newscast was lengthened to 30 minutes in 1963 on both NBC and CBS. NBC had replaced John Cameron Swayze with the team of Chet Huntley and David Brinkley in 1956. CBS replaced Douglas Edwards with Walter Cronkite in 1963. Meanwhile, ABC tried a number of news anchors including John Daly, Peter Jennings, Howard K. Smith, Harry Reasoner and Frank Reynolds (Sterling & Kittross, 1987). Television news gained its greatest importance and largest audiences during the tumultuous 1960's—"the decade that included civil rights, revolts, the Kennedy-Nixon debates, space launches, assassinations, Vietnam, and student uprisings" (Hunter & Gross, 1980, p. 21). Local stations began to develop their own news operations during the 1960's utilizing 16mm film as the primary news- 38 gathering tool. Television news increased in exposure and credibility. Just as radio news matured during World War II, many critics believed television news came of age with its coverage of President John F. Kennedy's assassination in November of 1963. A major technological innovation in television news occurred in the early 1970's. Electronic News Gathering (ENG) involved the use of lightweight portable video cameras which recorded news stories on videotape. ENG would literally revolutionize the news-gathering business both on the network and local level. CBS News inaugurated ENG technology on October 26, 1972, when it used ENG cameras to broadcast live to the nation Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's news conference in which he announced that "peace is at hand" in Vietnam (Shook, 1982, p. 17). From that day forward the way television covered the news would be drastically different. The two local stations that began early utilization of ENG were KMOX-TV in St. Louis and KNXT-TV in Los Angeles, both CBS-owned stations. These stations introduced ENG on the local level in 1974 (Shook, 1982). According to Yoakum and Cremer (1985) ENG has several advantages over film, ^including no processing time, portability, ease of editing and live capability. No longer did news producers have to set rigid guidelines regarding film processing deadlines. With microwave 39 capability, breaking stories could be covered live. News tape could be shot at the story site and then microwaved back to the station for electronic editing just before news time. Suddenly reporters found the ability to ad lib and do live standup interviews a necessary part of their news gathering repertoire. Perhaps as important as the development of ENG in television news was the realization on the part of station owners and management that news could be a major profit maker. For all the money spent on news operations, stations began to see a significant return on their investment. At many stations local news became the chief revenue producer for the station. News staffs became larger as more stations expanded their news operations. This expansion led to more and more college students electing to pursue a career in television news. The number of broadcast journalism majors began to increase. Although a national economic downturn and a change in ownership at ABC and NBC in the mid-1980's led to a reduction in network news budgets and staff, CNN and CNN Headline News satellite networks provided added opportunities for television journalists and technicians. Deregulation of broadcasting during the Reagan administration has led to a reduction in local radio news operations, yet in some markets radio news continues to be an integral part of a programming mix designed to attract a 40 large drive time audience. Television news at both the local and network level continues to be a significant revenue producer. It appears that broadcast news will continue to play an important role in providing news and information for many Americans.

From the Harding-Cox presidential election coverage on KDKA in 1920 to the D-Day invasion in France in 1944 to the Watergate hearings in the mid-1970's to coverage of the Challenger explosion in 1986, broadcast news has sped information to the American public and has helped provide a common bond for the citizenry. Its importance in the future will not be diminished. The increasingly sophisticated demands of broadcast "news has led to higher demands on those who wish to enter the competitive field of broadcast journalism. This study was conducted to investigate and determine those demands.

Broadcast education paralleled the development of commercial broadcasting in the United States. The early development of radio and television education in American colleges and universities will now be examined.

Early Radio and Television Education Although commercial radio in the United States began in 1920, it was almost ten years later that the first broadcasting course was offered in an American college. The University of Southern California taught a course in 41 the fascinating new field of radio in 1929. Earlier in the decade a number of colleges and universities, especially in the Midwest, began offering courses over their own radio stations as an extension service. White (1947) reported there were more than one hundred school-owned or sponsored stations by the end of the 1920's. According to Niven (1961) 22 institutions of higher education were offering courses in radio by 1939. It is interesting to note that although the University of Southern California was the first school to offer a course in radio, the institution did not offer a degree with a major in radio until 1946. In 1931 the University of Wisconsin became the first school to offer both a bachelor's and a master's degree in radio. Wisconsin and the State University of Iowa began offering the PhD in radio in 1939, only two decades after radio got its start in this country (Niven, 1961). The pioneering schools in broadcasting first taught radio courses in English or speech departments (Smith, 1964), but by the early 1940's radio found itself housed in such diverse academic departments as drama, journalism, music, business administration and fine arts as well as speech and English (Niven, 1961). Gradually, radio courses and eventually television courses were taught in radio- television departments or divisions. 42 From one course taught at one university in 1929, radio education grew dramatically during the next 20 years. Exact numbers and and statistics vary regarding radio and higher education. According to Head and Martin (1956-57), more than 300 colleges and universities taught at least one course in radio by 1938 and that number had grown to more than 400 by 1948. Brand (1942) reported 522 institutions offered radio courses in 1940-41. Whatever the exact figures, by World War II radio broadcasting was being treated as an academic discipline in a significant number of colleges and universities. In its early years radio education struggled for acceptance from both educators and professional broadcasters. Hunter poignantly summarized the dilemma of radio education in 1944 when he wrote: . . . The educator often feels that courses in radio lack content, stature, and educational value, and that they are used primarily as a device to build enrollment by capitalizing upon student interest. The professional man tends to believe that a sound and practical training can be given only through actual experience in the daily routine of broadcasting, and that a limited "market" argues against widespread development of training programs in the schools and colleges, (p- 299) These arguments are echoed by some even today. In a study entitled "The Status of College and University Instruction in Radio Training," Brand (1942) compiled a list of 14 different courses in radio taught by more than 500 institutions. In rank order from the most to 43 the least taught the courses were: (1) Radio Engineering; (2) Radio Speech and Dramatics; (3) General Radio; (4) Radio Script Writing; (5) Radio Program Planning and Production; (6) Radio Announcing; (7) Education by Radio; (8) Radio Advertising; (9) Radio Newscasting; (10) Television; (11) Radio Music; (12) Radio Station Management; (13) Radio Law; and (14) Sociological Aspects of Radio. In commenting on the multiplicity of radio course titles, Williams (1949) referred to radio education as being "chaotic" (p.329). The Director of Radio Instruction at Ohio University, Donald Riley, presented several criticisms of radio instruction in 1938. He said colleges were trying to do too much in too few courses with insufficient equipment. He pointed out that some radio instructors did not have professional experience in radio. Riley (1938) wrote, "There is some justification for the charge made that educators on the air are a dull lot, and that those who teach radio are equally uninspiring to their students" (p. 625). He also pointed to a wide breach that existed between commercial radio and educational radio, a curious relationship between broadcasters and educators which Head and Martin (1956-57) called "mutual distrust" (p. 39). In an attempt to provide leadership and to give direction to colleges and universities offering radio instruction, in 1945 the Federal Radio Education Committee 44 suggested a set of minimum standards or objectives for radio education. They included any one or a combination of the following: 1. To develop the student's understanding of the social, political, economic, cultural, and international significance of radio. 2. To give students practical training for employment with stations, advertising agencies, networks, or firms providing broadcasting with special services. 3. To provide specialized radio training for students in those professional fields that frequently use radio, such as journalism, advertising, speech, music, religion, etc. 4. To prepare (a) teachers to utilize programs and transcriptions in the classroom and (b) supervisory personnel to serve schools as audio-specialists or as directors of educational radio programming. ("Standards for College Courses," 1945, p. 186-187) In addition to the objectives cited above, the Federal Radio Education Committee recommended competent instructors, necessary basic equipment and well-organized courses for the radio curriculum. As more colleges began to offer radio instruction, consensus began to develop regarding the requirements for an effective radio program. Hunter (1944) presented three requirements for a successful program: "(1) an adequate and experienced teaching staff; (2) standard broadcast equipment and studios; and (3) an 'outlet' for the work in the form of a station, or access to a station" (p. 303). Many contemporary educators and broadcasters would argue 45 that those requirements for an effective broadcasting curriculum still hold true today. Even though colleges began to strengthen their curriculum in radio and to improve the credentials of their faculty, commercial broadcasters were still unimpressed with broadcasting programs and graduates. In 1948 the University Association for Professional Radio Education was formed to serve as an accrediting agency for broadcast education. The organization was developed at the urging of the National Association of Broadcasters and broadcast educators (Smith, 1964). The UAPRE quickly established minimum standards for curriculum, staff, equipment and laboratory facilities. But because UAPRE was denied accrediting powers by The National Commission on Accreditation, the primary objective of the organization was lost and it was effectively dead by 1952 (Head & Martin, 1956-57). When UAPRE was officially dissolved in 1955, former members voted to form a new joint industry-education organization called the Association for Professional Broadcasting Education. APBE aims were to promote broadcast education among more schools; to improve the curriculum; to enhance the academic status of broadcasting; to secure financial support from commercial broadcasters; and to improve communication between educators and broadcasters (Smith, 1964). The establishment of the 46 Journal of Broadcasting was a major accomplishment of APBE in its first year. Although World War II slowed the development of television, the first college course in the new medium was offered by Columbia University in 1944. In an article in the Quarterly Journal of Speech in 1944 Ross Scanlon urged colleges to participate in the development of television and in training employees to work in the new industry (Scanlon, 1944). As the 1940's came to a close, radio was still largely considered to be a part of the speech field. Williams' (1949) study of radio courses in college revealed three categories- regarding radio curriculum: 1 . activities centered about the training of individuals to enter commercial radio, 2. activities centered about training in the appreciation of radio, and 3. programs designed to train teachers both at the secondary and at the college level, (p. 329) As television began to play a more important role in American life during the 1950's, more colleges and universities added television to their curriculum. A new philosophical issue arose regarding the academic major in broadcasting. Was broadcasting to e.mphasize primarily a professional approach or was it to follow a liberal arts curriculum with a few added courses in radio and television? 47 In a survey conducted in 1960, Harold Niven asked colleges and universities offering a broadcasting degree to state their philosophy of broadcast education. Forty-one schools responded and Niven grouped the responses into three broad categories: (1) liberal, (2) practical, and (3) liberal-professional. The liberal philosopohy emphasized a liberal arts education with a few courses in broadcasting. The practical philosophy stressed professional training leading to employment in the industry. The liberal- professional philosophy, subscribed to by 32 of the schools surveyed, emphasized a broad liberal arts background and courses designed to provide professional training for employment (Niven, 1961). Today's professional broadcasters and broadcast educators continue to debate broadcast education philosophy. Those who advocate a strong liberal arts foundation would agree with one respondent in Niven's survey: Today's broadcaster must be a thoughtful person. To speak to people through radio and television requires a knowledge of the people to whom one wishes to speak and an understanding of the world in which we live. Therefore, the curriculum at [this university] is designed to offer more than mere training in techniques. Students must acquire a solid background in the social sciences and the humanities. At the same time, they gain professional competence in their chosen field from their professional courses in broadcasting. (Niven, 1961, p. 248) 48 Radio instruction first entered the college curriculum in the late 1920's. The next two decades saw tremendous growth of radio as an academic discipline. By the mid- 1940 's television began to appear as part of the broadcasting curriculum. Disagreements over broadcast education between educators and commercial broadcasters can be traced to the inception of the discipline. Those disagreements over the importance, philosophy and methodology of broadcast education still exist today. This study was undertaken to help promote dialogue and communication between educators and broadcasters.

Commercial Broadcaster's Perceptions of Broadcast Education Broadcasting continues to be a popular major at many colleges and universities throughout the country. Thousands of aspiring young broadcasters are attracted to the discipline each year. Radio and television stations do look toward colleges and universities for personnel trained in broadcasting. But are academic programs in broadcasting doing an adequate job in preparing young people to enter the industry? Are commercial broadcasters pleased with broadcast education? These issues will now be examined.

Unfavorable Attitude Toward Broadcast Education A literature review reveals that broadcast managers tend to have relatively unfavorable attitudes toward 49 broadcasting academic programs and their graduates (Abel & Jacobs, 1975). Taylor (1976) found the overriding concern of station managers was that "the educator is out of touch with the real world of commercial broadcasting" (p. 65). Taylor concluded that college broadcasting graduates were not prepared to begin a job in commercial broadcasting especially in sales, programming and management. He urged broadcast educators to be better informed about commercial broadcasting. In perhaps the most telling indictment of broadcast education, Taylor concluded, "Educators consistently overestimate the quality and applicability of what they teach. They think their students are prepared; commercial broadcasters do not agree" (p. 69). Criticism of broadcast education is not a recent phenomenon. Baskette (1942) surveyed more than 200 radio station managers in 1942 regarding what they desired in college-trained radio workers. Survey results indicated that managers wanted college-educated employees but they did not believe that college radio courses were meeting the needs of the industry. One manager in Baskette's survey said, ". . . so far the colleges have failed miserably to prepare their students for the grim reality of commercial radio . . .'* (p. 386). A national survey of radio and television station managers by Oliver and Haynes (1978) concerning the broadcast curriculum revealed a continuing disappointment 50 in broadcast education. Managers rejected the broadcasting curriculum as unrealistic and "ill-equipped for training commercial broadcasters" (p.231). They generally agreed that college broadcasting departments were "not doing a good job preparing students" (p.231).

More recent studies regarding broadcast education and journalism education will be reviewed later in this chapter (Oregon Study, 1984; Roper Study 1987; Oliver, Haynes & Eubanks, 1988). In summary, commercial broadcasters have been largely dissatisfied with broadcast education almost since its inception.

Importance of a College Degree Research on the importance of a college degree in securing employment in radio and television reveals that most managers value the degree in prospective employees but do not necessarily require that the degree be in

• • broadcasting. Baskette (1942) asked radio general managers if a college education added to the value of station employees. Eighty-eight percent of his respondents answered an unqualified "yes." Most urged students to get more liberal arts training and to learn to think. A majority of 375 Midwestern radio station managers surveyed by Parcells (1985) gave serious consideration to a college degree when hiring employees. 51 Taylor (1976) concluded that station managers believed a college education was helpful to students in securing a job, but that an education in broadcasting was not necessarily helpful. He presented evidence to support a liberal arts or business background. For a career in radio news or .announcing, radio managers in Parcells' study (1985) recommended a well-rounded liberal arts college degree. Gubak's (1960) survey of Midwestern radio and television executives revealed that "a college degree with commercial broadcasting experience consistently proved to be the most desirable background for . . . broadcasting" (p. 145). Although most research reveals that commercial broadcasters desire employees who are well-schooled in liberal arts, Abel and Jacobs (1975) found manager's attitudes to be evenly split regarding the issue of college graduates versus trade school graduates for on-air positions in commercial radio stations. As could be expected, managers with less education were more favorable to trade school graduates that were those managers with more education. In summary, a college education is helpful to those seeking em.ployment in commercial broadcasting. But an education specifically in broadcasting is not an absolute necessity. A broad liberal arts background is recommended by many station managers. 52 Importance of Practical Experience More so than in many disciplines, practical experience has long been valued as an important prerequisite to those seeking employment in commercial broadcasting. While the college degree is valued, many commercial broadcasters find experience just as important. Taylor (1976) found practical broadcasting experience to be "more important than a college degree in obtaining employment in commercial broadcasting" (p. 65). Abel and Jacobs (1975) asked radio station managers: "How can college broadcasting students better prepare themselves for radio careers?" The most frequent response from more than 850 executives was related to commercial broadcasting experience. Students were urged to gain commercial experience by working internships and by participating in part-time work at commercial and campus stations. Parcells (1985) concluded that radio station managers considered professional experience more important than a college degree in hiring radio employees. He found practical experience to be the "primary ingredient for entry-level success" (p. 240) in radio. In stressing practical experience in the conclusion of his study, Parcells stated: "Any curriculum v/hich provides actual commercial radio experience or attempts to simulate it through internships on campus radio work prepares students more adequately than those without such opportunities" (p. s-J

240). Clearly, broadcasters insist that students receive practical experience in broadcasting as a part of or in addition to their college education.

Relationship Between Broadcast Educators and Broadcast Professionals In any examination of broadcast education, two suggestions arise: (1) instructors should have commercial broadcasting experience and (2) stronger ties should exist between broadcast educators and professional broadcasters. These themes recur throughout the literature of broadcast education (Baskette, 1942; Oliver & Haynes, 1978; Roper Study, 1987; Oliver, Haynes & Eubanks, 1988). Radio station managers in Baskette's (1942) survey criticized radio teachers who had little or no commercial radio experience. Radio and television managers in Oliver and Haynes's (1978) study preferred broadcast instructors with commercial broad^casting experience. They stressed the importance of developing a closer relationship between educators and broadcasters in designing curriculum and in developing internships. The Roper study (1987) entitled "Electronic Media Career Preparation Study" strongly recommended that colleges and universities utilize more broadcast professionals to teach courses and give lectures and that broadcast educators take leaves of absence to work in the industry. Executives responding to the survey urged 54 students to participate in campus broadcasting and in radio and television internships ("Electronic Media," 1987). More professional broadcasters should establish meaningful opportunities for students to gain industry experience.

Personal Characteristics Broadcasters, like other emp-loyers of professionals, prefer that their employees possess certain personal qualities and characteristics. Adkins (1986) found several personal characteristics to be critical for successful employment at television stations. Qualities such as "a positive and constructive attitude toward the job, discipline to know and follow station policies, proficiency in working with others, and habits of punctuality and reliability" (p. 21 ) were even more important than specialized skills and knowledge in successful television employment. Parcells (1985) found "a dedicated attitude toward the job and a willingness to learn" (p. 238) were the characteristics which managers said are most important for success in radio. Personal qualities which can assure graduates longer radio careers are "... responsibility, initiative, dedication, dependability, and aggressiveness" (p. 240). Personal characteristics which might be important for success as a television reporter such as dependability. 55 self-confidence, aggressiveness, ability to work as part of a team, ability to cope with job-related stress and others were included as a part of this dissertation. Regardless of one's knowledge and skill, interpersonal skills and other personal qualities are vital for successful employment.

Liberal Arts in Broadcast Education Whether higher education should be primarily a study of the liberal arts or an emphasis on highly specialized professional skills in one's discipline is a topic which has stimulated endless debate by both educators and practitioners. Elmore's (1983) findings regarding broadcast education corroborates numerous other studies which have been conducted on broadcast curriculum. His study of colleges and universities offering an undergraduate degree in radio-television-film revealed that most broadcast education administrators favored a curriculum which emphasized a blend of liberal arts and practical skills training. In Elmore's study 12 percent of the schools surveyed emphasized a liberal arts philosophy with little or no technical training for students. Twenty percent of the schools surveyed emphasized a practical orientation designed to prepare students for first job skills. Nearly 68 percent of the schools surveyed preferred the balanced liberal arts and practical 56 curriculum approach. The results of Elmore's study closely paralleled a survey on broadcast curriculum by Niven in 1960. Stanley T. Donner, former director of radio and television at Stanford University, was a longtime advocate of the importance of liberal arts in broadcast education. Donner (1960) wrote: "The teaching of broadcasting is, and ought to be, strongly entrenched in the tradition of liberal arts" (p. 36). Donner insisted that the broadcaster be well-versed in science, art, business, politics and other areas about which he communicates to his audience. Quoting broadcaster Ray Hubbard, Donner referred to the broadcaster as "the modern counterpart of Leonardo da Vinci's 'universal man'" (p. 37). Donner's curriculum dilemma at Stanford in the late 1950's and early 1960's was one with which today's broadcast educators continue to struggle. That dilemma is how to provide students with practical experience in broadcasting within the framework of a strong liberal education. CBS executive Gene Jankowski (1986) advocated an intellectually rigorous broad liberal education for students wishing to pursue careers in broadcasting. Jankowski bemoaned graduates "... who do not have broader understanding of the society in which they live and its cultural traditions" (p. 14). In affirming "the affinity between studies of telecommunications and the liberal 57 arts," Jankowski said, "You don't have to be a Renaissance man to be a broadcaster, but it certainly helps" (p. 14). In a 1986 Feedback editor's column, Ray Carroll rhetorically asked what "human capital" broadcast students gain in college. The answer, according to Carroll, can be found in a liberal education which should "... prepare graduates for life" (p. 2). Carroll urged broadcast educators to offer students a balance between professional skills and the broader perspective of a liberal education. The increased popularity of telecommunications as a major among college students has led many educators and professionals alike to question the ability of the broadcasting industry to provide jobs for broadcast graduates. Some educators dismiss this problem by arguing that an undergraduate broadcasting degree is really a good liberal arts education. Syracuse University Television/Radio and Film Department Chairman Lawrence P. Myers, Jr., said the purpose of undergraduate education "is to get a good, sound general education, which means heavy doses in the arts and sciences and other areas beyond communications" (Carlisle, 1976, p. 52). Many educators agree with Myers. What are the qualities of a liberal arts education which so many educators and professionals believe is important to the broadcast undergraduate? Eastman (1985) suggested the liberal arts tradition emphasizes the 53 " . . . disciplines of thought, reasoning, understanding, exercise of imagination, judgment based on knowledge, and . . . values . . ." (p. 27). A commitment to a strong liberal arts education has always been an important standard and requisite for schools desiring accreditation by the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. No more than 25 percent of undergraduate courses in AEJMC accredited schools may be in the professional skills area. The remaining 75 percent of course work is devoted to liberal arts. Obviously the emphasis is on providing students with a broad education rather than specialization. In an article in 1977 Ben Bagdikian, journalism lecturer at the University of California at Berkeley, quoted New York Daily News editor Michael O'Neil regarding the purpose of a college education for journalists. O'Neil's sentiments reflect the beliefs of those who stress liberal arts education over the professional skills approach: College years are a very precious period - one of the few times in life when you can concentrate fully on soaking up knowledge, developing thinking skills, forming judgments and points of view. If a student spends too much time learning the technical side of our business, then he or she may never again have the opportunity to build the intellectual stockpile needed for really productive professional work in later life . . . (Bagdikian, 1977, p. 87-88) 59 The importance of liberal arts is a recurring topic in the literature of broadcast education. Both broadcasters and educators stress the importance of a liberal education, but the degree of its importance is still a subject of debate.

Broadcast Journalism Education This study investigated the educational needs of television reporters. Colleges and universities graduate hundreds of broadcast journalism students each year. Many of these students, armed with a resume and an audition tape, beseige news directors all across the country in hopes of securing employment as a broadcast reporter. What comprises an undergraduate degree in broadcast journalism? What do news directors want colleges and universities to teach prospective reporters? What skills and competencies do they require of reporters in their news departments? These questions will now be examined in a review of broadcast journalism education.

Early Development of Broadcast Journalism Education During World War II radio journalism matured and became increasingly important in American life. More colleges and universities began offering courses in radio journalism to meet industry needs. In 1944 the National Association of Broadcasters and the American Association of Schools and Departments of Journalism organized a Council on Radio Journalism for the purpose of formulating acceptable minimum standards in the discipline and to serve as an accrediting agency for college radio journalism programs. The Council proposed four general principles for colleges to fallow in offering a radio journalism program: 1. Radio journalism students should be given a sound general education. 2- Students must understand radio as a social instrument and its relationship to other institutions. 3. Radio teachers should be prepared by practical experience and education. 4. Institutions offering radio journalism must have adequate laboratory equipment. ("Council on Radio Journalism," 1944) Certain curricular standards for the preparation of radio journalism students were also proposed including four years of college leading to a bachelor's degree: ... a comprehensive background in the social studies - government and political science, economics, history, geography and sociology; a grounding in natural science and in psychology; a reading ... of at least one modern foreign language; a broad knowledge of English and American literature and composition. ("Council on Radio Journalism," 1944, p. 326) Other curricular recommendations included courses in radio news, advertising and script writing. As more and more television stations began to sign on the air during the early 1950's, the demand for television 61 journalists began to increase. According to Charnley (1952) the Council on Radio-Television Journalism recommended that schools with good radio journalism programs begin offering training in television news. The Council suggested offering courses in television news gathering, writing, editing and administration with particular attention given to the operation of the news camera and methods of editing news film. Training in both silent and sound film was stressed along with cooperative efforts between colleges and local stations. In one of the earliest journal articles on how to teach television news. Burger (1953) set forth two general principles required if one wanted to become a good news reporter: (1 ) a good sense of news values and (2) ". . .an understanding of the unique and peculiar characteristics of television" (p. 63). Burger stressed the importance of teaching television news students how to use a 16mm film camera and editing facilities. He suggested that students should actually film campus events and then write news scripts to accompany the film. This practical or "hand-on" approach to teaching television news is still utilized today. Burger's television news course included instruction in news writing, photography, reporting and film editing. In 1956 the Council on Radio and Television Journalism of the Association for Education in Journalism updated its 62 standards for education in radio-television journalism which it had originally developed in 1944. The basic standards adopted in 1944 were essentially reaffirmed including four years of college leading to a bachelor's degree with a strong concentration of general education courses. New recommendations in 1956 included skill training in the handling of news, radio and television news style, interviewing, and microphone and camera techniques. The new standards included instruction in broadcast programming and production, advertising, station operation and management and control room/studio operations. As in the original 1944 standards, a well-qualified faculty, adequate equipment and facilities and cooperation with local broadcasters were recommended ("Standards for Broadcast Journalism Education," 1961).

Indictment of College Broadcast Journalism Programs The results of two doctoral dissertations reveal that television news directors are not impressed with the job colleges and universities are doing in preparing students to enter broadcast journalism. In his dissertation Professionalism Am.onq Television News Directors Rushing (1982) surveyed television news directors and found that they did not believe college and university journalism programs were adequately preparing students for careers in broadcast news. 63 Della-Giustina's dissertation An Analysis of Major, Largef Medium, and Small Market Commercial Television News Directors' Perceptions of the Appropriate College Education for Television News Students (1985) revealed that most of the 200 television news directors surveyed believed students were not being properly educated to enter the television news job market. They believed most television news courses were too theoretical and did not stress practical experience.

Importance of a College Degree for Broadcast Journalists Several attempts have been made to assess the importance of a college degree for persons seeking careers in broadcast journalism. Fisher (1978) surveyed professional radio and television news personnel in Ohio and found overwhelming support for college preparation of broadcast journalists. More than 92 percent of his respondents favored prospective news broadcasters getting a college education. Only two percent believed no education beyond high school was necessary. Wulfemeyer (1981) surveyed 275 professional journalists at newspapers, radio stations and television stations in Des Moines, Iowa; San Diego, California; and Honolulu, Hawaii. He attempted to determine their perceptions regarding the value of college training. Out Q£ 150 respondents, 87 percent indicated college 64 preparation to be somewhat valuable for a person seeking a career in journalism. Interestingly, print journalisrs thought college training was more valuable than did broadcast journalists. College training specifically in journalism was valued by more than 75 percent of the respondents. Della-Guistina's study of 200 television news directors (1985) indicated that they would hire students directly after graduation; however, they did not believe it was absolutely necessary that a television reporter have a college degree. If a degree was earned, respondents favored a broadcast journalism major with a complement of liberal arts courses. Today the great majority of radio and television news directors are college graduates. Researcher Vernon Stone of the Radio Television News Directors Association surveyed all commercial radio and television news directors in the United States in 1986. From nearly 800 respondents he found 76 percent of television and 69 percent of radio news directors held college degrees. Most of those without degrees had at least attended college. Only three percent of the television news directors and ten percent of the radio news directors had never attended college. Stone reported 29 percent of the television and 28 percent of the radio respondents had degrees in journalism. A radio- television major was named by 17 percent of television and 65 nine percent of radio news directors. Other communication majors such as mass communication and mass media were named by 23 percent of television nev/s directors and 15 percent of radio news directors (Stone, 1987). It is quite apparent that most news directors today value higher education as preparation for a career in broadcast news. One of the questions this study sought to answer is: what academic major do news directors recommend for prospective television reporters?

Courses and Competencies Needed by Broadcast Journalists A review of the literature revealed some interesting data regarding the college courses which hews directors recommend that prospective broadcast journalists take to prepare themselves for the broadcast news field. Since writing is so central to what broadcast journalists do, most research studies reveal that the ability to write is -•• one of the most important skills or competencies which broadcast reporters must possess. Most news directors expect the people they hire to already possess the ability to write for radio and television. Study after study indicates that writing and the ability to handle the language should be a top priority in broadcast journalism academic programs (Fisher, 1978; Jankowski, 1980: Wulfemeyer, 1981; Rushing, 1982; Della-Guistina, 1985; Stone, 1987). 66 Two well-respected contemporary television journalists, Bernard Shaw of Cable News Network and Ted Koppel of ABC, stressed the importance of writing. Shaw (1987) described his concern regarding television news anchors: If a person hasn't learned to write and speak correct English, if a person hasn't been a news reporter - a good news reporter, that person should not be an anchor. Journalism skills are not buried in a make-up kit. . . . Any anchor who cannot write, who has not been a reporter, is a journalistic fraud! Good appearances and being able to read off the prompter are not substitutes for quality. To put such a person in the anchor chair is journalistic malpractice! (p. 43) Koppel (1987) is adamantly opposed to journalism as a major for prospective broadcast reporters; but he does expect prospective journalists to be able to write as well as have expertise in a particular field such as economics, philosophy or history. In a 1987 speech to broadcast news directors Koppel said he has seen graduates "of some of the best schools whose writing is ungrammatical and not lucid" (p. 87). Said Koppel, "Something is amiss" (p. 87). Stone's (1987) national survey of news directors revealed that writing was the single most helpful course they took in college. His findings concerning the importance of writing reaffirmed 1971 research by Jack Williams of Northwestern University and a 1984 survey conducted by Frank N. Magid Associates for RTNDA. 67 Specific courses in broadcast reporting, local and state government, and speaking and rhetoric were cited by television news directors as being important college training for students seeking careers in television news according to research by Harless and Collins (1974). Writing, reporting and announcing were ranked by news directors as the three most important competencies for broadcast journalists in a research survey conducted by Fisher (1978). Fisher's findings revealed the following courses in rank order one through five as being important in the career preparation of broadcast reporters: (1) history/current affairs; (2) creative writing; (3) political science; (4) rhetoric/speech; and (5) economics. Science, education and the performing arts were not perceived as having relevance in career preparation of broadcast journalists. Fisher (1978) found news directors placed high importance on the following skill areas: (1) distinguish useful information; (2) interview successfully; (3) get along with people; (4) work as part of a team; (5) do research; (6) edit and assemble recorded materials; (7) use the telephone; (8) relate to decision makers; (9) do several tasks well; and (10) take the initiative on a story. ( p. 143) Jankowski's dissertation research (1980) findings indicated that journalistic writing and interviewing skills ranked much higher than production skills as competencies needed for initial positions in broadcast 68 journalism. English, government, political science and economics were courses which news directors and university professors ranked as important for broadcast journalists. Wulfemeyer (1981) asked both print and broadcast journalists which college courses were valuable for a person preparing for a career in journalism. Respondents recommended courses in history, English grammar, political science, economics, sociology, literature, business and psychology. Skill competencies recommended for journalists included writing, conducting research, editing, typing, speaking, dealing with people, taking notes and listening effectively. Della-Guistina (1985) asked television news directors across the country in which areas television news students should be knowledgeable. The four most important courses other than broadcast news ranked by the respondents were grammar, English composition, political science and broadcast law. Both Rushing (1982) and Stone (1987) found writing skills to be the most important competency needed by broadcast journalists. Stone's national survey (1987) of nearly 800 radio and television news directors revealed those courses which news directors would take if they were attending college over again. Respondents reported they would take more courses in management and business as well as additional courses in history, political science and other social sciences. The 59 management and business courses indicated by news directors reflect the administrative job demands of the position. This study investigated not only which academic major was recommended by broadcast journalism educators and television news directors for prospective television reporters, but also which specific courses would best prepare them for their job.

Liberal Arts Versus Professional Approach Academic programs designed to prepare broadcast journalists tend to reflect either a liberal arts approach or a professional journalistic skills approach. Some institutions have attempted to blend the two orientations to provide students with journalistic skills and a broad liberal arts background. The professional approach is advocated and articulated well by MacDougall (1973) who recommended that the academic preparation of journalists emulate that of the professional schools such as in law or medicine. MacDougall argued that the purpose of journalism schools is to produce the best possible news gatherers. That objective can best be met by increasing the number of required journalism courses. MacDougall stated the following in a paper presented to the Association for Education in Journalism meeting in 1973: In addition to preparing the students in the basics of journalism the broadcast journalism 70 curriculum should take cognizance of the social sciences with the objective of correlating the instruction in the social sciences with journalism courses. Curriculum designers should increase the number of journalism courses while reducing the liberal arts requirements, (p. 7) The majority of television news directors responding to Della-Guistina's dissertation survey (1985) favored students majoring in broadcast journalism with a liberal arts minor. While recommending journalistic skills- acquisition courses such as producing, field reporting, interviewing, shooting ENG and editing videotape, the news directors also valued instruction in the traditional liberal arts areas. Radio and television news directors in Jankowski's dissertation study (1980) ranked only two technical skills (typing and using a telephone) out of the top 15 skills they perceived as being most important for broadcast journalists. Jankowski's findings indicate that news directors believe they/can teach technical skills in their own news departments. They prefer that students learn writing, interviewing and speaking skills while in college. Jankowski concluded that news directors do not require students to have numerous technical competencies before being employed in a news department. Broadcast education which stresses a broad liberal arts background is strongly recommended by the Association for Education In Journalism and Mass Communication. In 71 advocating the approach required for AEJMC accreditation, Dudek (1975) urged broadcast educators to de-emphasize skills and technical competencies. He warned that a technical-centered education teaches competencies which rapidly become obsolete, and it does not provide students with the knowledge and background necessary to meet the needs of society. According to Dudek broadcasters should be taught to make intelligent decisions which can best be done through a broad liberal arts education. In his study of career preparation of broadcast journalists Fisher (1978) found that students need a broad liberal arts education in addition to journalistic skills training. Fisher advocated a study of liberal arts to help students "gain a mature understanding of societal structure and human relationships and the broadcaster's role in them" (p. 144). Fisher's survey respondents who were broadcast journalists suggested students take courses in history, political science, economics, international relations, speech, advertising, literature and interpersonal and group communication. Grain (1985) praised DePauw University's approach to journalism education which stresses the liberal arts. As an alternative approach to specialized journalism schools, DePauw established a Center for Contemporary Media as a part of the university's liberal arts curriculum. After students are exposed to a broad liberal arts education. 72 they use the center's radio, television and print facilities, participate in special symposia and work internships across the country. According to many observers, this blend of liberal arts and practical training produces the best educated broadcast journalist. As stated earlier.Koppel (1987) is opposed to prospective reporters majoring in journalism. He urged students to concentrate on subjects such as economics, philosophy and history while in college. Koppel aligns himself with those who advocate liberal arts rather than journalistic skills training in preparing journalists. Whether the academic approach to broadcast journalism education be a professional skills approach, a liberal arts orientation, or a blend of the two, it is apparent that broadcasters value student internships in radio and television news departments. Both Fisher (1978) and Wulfemeyer (1981) found internships to be highly recommended by v/orking journalists as an important element of broadcast journalism education. Jankowski (1980) found that large market stations offer more internships than smaller market stations. Della-Guistina (1985) recommended that broadcast journalism educators establish closer working relationships with news directors and other news professionals. Strong internships could provide a vital link between broadcast educators and professionals. 73 Desirable Communication Behavior for Broadcast Journalism Graduates As in all professions effective broadcast journalists possess not only the knowledge and skills required to be successful as reporters but also certain personal characteristics. Ware (1980) asked members of the Radio and Television News Directors Association what communication behaviors were most desirable for broadcast journalists. Results of 231 questionnaire responses revealed that personal character, assertiveness and crusadingness were the three communication behaviors most desired by broadcast news directors. This dissertation also attempted to determine what personal characteristics are most important for television reporters. Both broadcast journalism educators and television news directors were asked to rate the importance of several personal characteristics.

Recent Studies in Journalism and Broadcast Education During the past few years much interest has been generated concerning journalism and mass communication education. This interest has emanated from both the academic community and the professional industry. Three recent studies are of particular importance: (1) Planning for Curricular Change in Journalism Education, a project on the future of journalism and mass communication education 74 conducted by the School of Journalism at the University of Oregon in 1984; (2) Electronic Media Career Preparation Study, a survey conducted by the Roper Organization for three telecommunications organizations in 1987; and (3) Curriculum at the Crossroads, a 1987 study by Oliver, Haynes and Eubanks which gathered data on what radio and television station managers think about broadcast education. These three studies will now be examined.

Planning for Curricular Change in Journalism Education (The Oregon Report) With grants from the Gannett Foundation and the Northwest Area Foundation, the School of Journalism at the University of Oregon conducted a two-year study on the present status and the future direction of journalism and mass communication in American higher education. The study was entitled Planning for Curricular Change in Journalism Education (1984) and will hereafter be referred to as the Oregon Report. A second edition of the Oregon Report was published in 1987. Both the first and second editions have received widespread attention in the academic and the professional world. The stated purpose of the Oregon Report (1987) was, "to assess and evaluate the present status and future needs of the nation's schools and departments of journalism and mass communication through a series of studies and by fostering a national debate wherein interested parties may 75 offer a critique" (p. v). Results of the report assessed the strengths and weaknesses of journalism and mass communication education and served as a national blueprint for curricular change to improve journalism and mass communication education. The Oregon Report (1987) concluded that "the general state of journalism and mass communication education is dismal" (p. 1 ). Journalism and mass communication departments are grossly underfunded, faculty are overworked with burgeoning enrollments and the curriculum is incorrectly oriented toward professional skills- acquisition course work. The report repeatedly reaffirmed the national accreditation standard which requires students to take no more than 25 percent of their course work in journalism and mass communication and 75 percent in the arts and sciences. Clearly a strong liberal arts background was recommended as the undergraduate emphasis for students preparing for careers in media. In writing about the Oregon Report, Head (1985) referred to the reaction of 37 leading scholars outside the communication field who assessed journalism education: ". . . Consistently, there were calls for reduced emphasis on journalism classes and greater emphasis on studying the liberal arts such as economics, history, literature, business and political science" (p. 11). 76 As part of the Oregon Report, industry professionals were asked to evaluate the performance of journalism and mass communication education. The professionals gave academic programs a C+/B- grade—far from outstanding. Professionals recommended a broad liberal arts approach along with teaching basic skills in writing and editing. They also recommended that students be taught to think creatively and that faculty be given opportunities to get more professional experience and to establish contacts in the industry. After assessing the state of journalism and mass communication education as "dismal," the Oregon Report (1987) called for: 1. Better funding of programs; 2. A recognition of the centrality of mass communication study to all university students; 3. A larger emphasis on mid-career training of professionals; 4. Integration of technological advances into all aspects of the teaching programs; and 5. More coherence in curricula through generic courses that would serve students across the spectrum of career interests, (p. iii) In reviewing the findings of the Oreaon Report, it appears educators must re-evaluate and re-structure journalism and mass communication education if it is going to successfully serve a rapidly-changing industry which is so critical in serving the ideals of a democratic society. 77 Electronic Media Career Preparation Study (The Roper Study) In 1987 three electronic media organizations commissioned The Roper Organization, Inc. to conduct a survey of electronic media industry executives regarding their attitudes toward the adequacy of the educational preparation received by students seeking careers in electronic media. Sponsors of the study were The International Radio and Television Society, The Radio- Television News Directors Association and The National Association of Television Program Executives. The major objectives of the research project, hereafter referred to as the Roper Study (1987), were: 1. To measure perceptions of electronic media executives in terms of how well higher education is meeting their needs as employers; and 2. To identify what changes are desired for the future if higher education is to better serve the needs of the electronic media industry and, consequently, job applicants wishing to enter the industry, (p. 1) Other areas which the study explored included determining the most important criteria for entry-level employees, the importance of a college education, the strengths and weaknesses of career preparation provided by higher education, student expectations and the relationship between the industry and higher education. Results of the Roper Study were based on telephone interviews with 514 executives in radio and television 78 stations in the United States as well as executives in cable television operations, syndication companies, sales representative firms and others. The sponsoring organizations hoped the Roper Study would establish effective dialogue between higher education and the industry. In its final report the Roper Organization set forth a common theme which it found throughout its investigation: "Executives in electronic media strongly believe that today's students come to the job market lacking in a basic understanding of the 'real world' of the industry which they have chosen to enter" (Roper Study, 1987, p. 4). Industry executives believe students have unrealistic career expectations, inadequate work experience in broadcasting and little hands-on experience in the field. While acknowledging that colleges provide a good overview of the field, the industry professionals criticized higher education for not providing students with practical experience for the real world. They strongly recomjnended exposing students to professionals currently employed in the industry. Executives suggested leaves of absence for faculty to work in the profession, visiting professorships and more internship opportunities for students. Said one television news director: Colleges and universities are too Utopian. They should be more realistic in their approach. However, they really can't tell the students what 79 it's all about without some experience in the industry . . . Still, you can't put all the blame on the schools. We [industry executives] need to malce ourselves available to the teachers ... I think, to a large extent, we sit back and expect them to do what we want without any help from us. (Roper Study. 1987, p. 5) The industry executives strongly value a college education for prospective employees. A strong majority (72%) cited a four-year undergraduate degree as being essential or important. Two-thirds of the respondents indicated that a degree in journalism or communications is an important consideration when hiring an employee and almost one-half of the respondents valued a liberal arts background. After having strongly recommended an undergraduate degree as a prerequisite to enter the industry, the executives gave educators a "C" grade for the job they are doing in preparing students for entry-level positions in the electronic media. Executives did praise educators for "giving students a general overview of the industry; broadcasting theory; and providing students with a well- rounded liberal arts education" (Roper Study, 1987, p. 8), A radio news director expressed his opinion of broadcast education by saying: Basically, the best thing they [colleges and universities] do is to provide a general education. They give students a good overall look at our industry and provide them with a varied background of information and experience. Higher education provides, to a large extent, a certain basic maturing process for young people, (p. 8) 80 Following are additional findings in the 69-page Roper Study (1987): 1 . The best opportunities for recent college graduates are in sales (cited by 49%), news (32%), and production (28%). 2. Non-academic considerations such as general presentation of the applicant, writing skills, previous work experience, and hands-on experience outweigh formal academic credentials in evaluation of prospective employees. 3. In general, students have unrealistic career expectations. They expect too high a starting salary; they expect to advance too quickly; and they have a misguided impression of the industry. 4. Industry executives value an undergraduate college education. 5. Executives expect students to already know the basic elements which are required to work in the industry such as writing skills, the basics of broadcasting, knowledge of equipment operation and communication skills. 6. Media professionals believe it is their responsibility to teach entry-level employees the specifics of their organization and to add to the general laiowledge which students should have acquired in school. 7. Eighty-eight percent of the executives advocate a closer link and more dialogue between broadcast educators and industry professionals. The Roper Study provided one of the most thorough and detailed analyses of broadcast education ever conducted.

The study's findings received widespread attention in both industry and academic circles. It remains to be seen if significant changes in broadcast education will result from the study. 81 Another recent addition to the literature on broadcast education is a study conducted in 1987 by Oliver, Haynes and Eubanks entitled Curriculum at the Crossroads: What Radio and TV Managers Say About Broadcast Education. That study will now be examined.

Curriculum at the Crossroads In their study Curriculum at the Crossroads Oliver, Haynes and Eubanks (1987) surveyed a randomly selected group of 900 radio and television managers drawn from Broadcast Yearbook 1986. Usable questionnaires were returned from 404 managers. The survey sought to determine the views of radio and television managers concerning the value of college education and broadcast training programs in preparing students for broadcast careers. The study was a follow-up to the Oliver and Haynes study of 1978 which found widespread disenchantment toward college broadcast

education. Oliver, Haynes and Eubanks (1987) addressed three research questions: 1. What importance do radio and TV managers place upon college education in general, and more specifically, a broadcast degree as preparation for a successful career in broadcasting? 2. To what extent have the links of communication improved between broadcasters and educators since the study by Oliver and Haynes in 1978? 3. What suggestions do managers offer for 82 improving broadcast educational programs in colleges and universities? (p. 2) Survey results revealed that "both radio and television managers do not hold very favorable opinions about broadcast education programs. The responses reflect a lack of confidence in those who teach broadcast courses and the effectiveness of present curriculum structure and content" (p. 7). Findings provided answers to the three research questions. A majority of managers favored completion of a college degree as career preparation for broadcasting jobs. But managers did not place nearly as much importance on students earning a degree in broadcasting. They recommended more emphasis in business studies and they perceived a loackground in liberal arts as being important. Indeed, more than half of the managers identified liberal arts as "the most valuable background" (p. 10) for a career in broadcasting. According to the managers communication between educators and broadcasters is not adequate. They believed "instructors lack enough knowledge and experience to teach and lack a basic understanding of the broadcast profession" (p.8). Managers advocated closer contacts between educators and professionals. They wanted to be more involved in curriculum decisions, to serve on advisory 83 committees and to be asked to campus to visit with faculty and students.

As for specific suggestions to improve broadcast education, the managers urged that the curriculum be realistic and current. They suggested educators tighten entrance requirements and concentrate more on teaching good students who have potential to be successful in the industry. They wanted educators to "stop the flood of marginal students with limited abilities who are graduating" (p. 7). Finally, the managers stressed personal characteristics which lead to success such as "self-motivation, goal setting, deep personal desire, and ambition" (p. 7). A very disturbing finding in the Oliver, Haynes and Eubanks (1987) study was that "only 34 percent of the managers believe college training is contributing significantly to the improvement of the broadcasting industry" (p. 8)—a revelation which certainly provides no solace for college and university broadcast educators. The researchers reported no significant changes in the attitudes of broadcast managers since the Oliver and Haynes 1978 study. In fact, it was their opinion that viewpoints have hardened concerning the inadequacies of broadcast education and the rift iDetween educators and professionals has widened. In the conclusion of their report Oliver, Haynes and Eubanks recommended a task force be formed to 84 address the fundamental issues confronting broadcast education.

Summary Broadcast journalism continues to play a vital role in the dissemination of news and information to the American public. Many college students are attracted to a career in broadcasting and specifically, to a position as a television reporter. The strength of broadcast journalism programs in colleges and universities throughout the country will, to a large extent, determine how effective television journalism will be in the future. From the inception of broadcasting as an academic subject at the University of Southern California in 1929 to the present, higher education has attempted to meet the needs of the industry. A literature review reveals that a number of problems has traditionally plagued broadcast education. The relationship between broadcasters and broadcast educators has often been strained at best. Many professionals in the field question the ability of higher education to effectively prepare the broadcasters of tomorrow. The design of broadcasting and broadcast journalism curricula has been the subject of controversy between industry professionals and educators for some time. The appropriate role of liberal arts and professional skills- 85 acquisition courses in the curriculum has created lively debate. A review of the most recent research dealing with broadcast and journalism education such as the Oregon Report, the Roper Study and the Oliver et al. Study indicates continuing disappointment among broadcasters with the ability of higher education to train students to enter the industry. Professional broadcasters simply believe educators should be doing a much better job. Because of the importance of television news in providing information to the citizens of a democracy, we must educate students to become thoughtful and knowledgeable television news reporters. This research study was undertaken to collect data which will add to the literature of broadcast education and which will help educators do a better job of preparing tomorrow's television journalists. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

Research Design This research study was designed to investigate the educational needs of television reporters. The perception of those needs by two intact populations were determined-- television news directors and broadcast journalism educators. A comparison was made between the perceptions of these two populations. This study employed a descriptive casual comparative research design which was appropriate because of the need to collect descriptive data concerning the research questions from the two subject groups. Data regarding the educational needs and preparation of television reporters was collected in five categories: (1) skills and competencies; (2) general Icnowledge; (3) personal characteristics; (4) college preparation; and (5) securing a job as a television reporter.

Subjects Subjects who participated in this study were commercial television news directors and college and university broadcast journalism professors. News directors were chosen because they hire reporters to work in their television news operations. Broadcast journalism 86 87 professors were chosen because they are charged with the responsibility of preparing students to enter the field of television reporting. Survey questionnaires were mailed to news directors at every ABC, CBS and NBC affiliate television station in the United States (N=620) listed in Broadcasting/Cablecasting Yearbook 1987. Questionnaires were also mailed to professors at 365 senior colleges and universities which belong to the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication and are listed in the AEJMC 1987 Journalism and Mass Communication Directory (N=365). The surveys were addressed to the chairperson of the journalism, broadcast journalism or mass communication department at each institution. In the cover letter which accompanied the questionnaire, the chair was asked to route the questionnaire to a faculty member who teaches broadcast journalism. The researcher attempted to reach those educators most involved in broadcast journalism instruction. Intact population groups of both television news directors and broadcast journalism educators were utilized in the study so as to alleviate the need for random sampling. To ensure the highest possible return, two separate mailings were conducted to each of the subject populations. Table 1 shows questionnaire return percentages. Forty-eight percent of the news director 88 population returned questionnaires; the broadcast journalism educator return percentage was 58 percent.

Variables The primary dependent variable in this research study was the perception of television news directors and broadcast journalism educators concerning the educational needs of television reporters. Subject responses were translated into parametric data by using a 5-point Likert scale in the survey questionnaire. Several independent variables in this descriptive study were of interest to the researcher. The most important variable was that of the job position held by those responding to the questionnaire. The primary research question posed by the study was whether or not there is a significant difference in the perceptions of television news directors from those of broadcast journalism educators regarding the educational needs of television reporters. Thus, the independent variable of subject job position was of primary importance in this study. Other independent variables important in this descriptive study included demographic data of television news directors. Those variables are listed below. 89 1 . Market size: Major market - Television markets 1 - 20 Large market - Television markets 21 - 50 Medium market - Television markets 51 - 100 Small market - Television markets 101 + The above categories were used in this study and were determined by the Arbitron television rating service as listed in Broadcasting/Cablecasting Yearbook 1987. Market size was an important variable because there may exist different needs and expectations of television reporters as perceived by news directors in various size markets. 2. Age: 18-25 26 - 35 36 - 45 46 - 55 56 + This news director age breakdown was used by Jankowski (1980). News director age may be a significant variable in determining the educational needs of television reporters. A relatively young news director may have a significantly different view than an older news director. Whether or not age was a significant factor in news director responses was within the scope of this study. 90 3- Educational Background: No degree 2-year associate degree 4-year bachelor degree master's degree doctoral degree Educational attainment by a news director may affect his or her perception of educational needs of television reporters. Do news directors with more formal education believe reporters should have more education? Do those news directors with little education value a college education for their reporters? News director education may be an important factor in the results of this study; thus, this research attempted to answer questions such as those stated above. 4. News Director Experience: 0 to 2 years 2+ to 5 years 5+ to 10 years 10+ to 15 years 15+ years Another variable which provided added insight into this study was that of experience of the news directors responding to the questionnaire. It is possible that experience in the position of news director might affect one's views regarding educational needs, skills, 91 competencies, knowledge and personal characteristics needed by television reporters. Although demographic data was collected from broadcast journalism educators, the data was not deemed important to this study. Therefore, educator demographic data was not subjected to statistical analysis.

Questionnaire Instrument and Pilot Study A research questionnaire instrument was designed for this study which utilized a 5-point Likert response scale to assess perceptions of television news directors and broadcast journalism educators. The questionnaire was developed after reviewing instriiments used by Jankowski (1980) and Della-Guistina (1985) and after consulting several television news directors. In order to test for instrument face validity and reliability, a pilot study was conducted in March of 1988. Sample questionnaires were mailed to news directors in Dallas, Texas; Washington, D.C.; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Austin, Texas; Evansville, Indiana; Amarillo, Texas; Midland, Texas; and Hattiesburg, Mississippi. A total of 10 questionnaires were mailed out in the pilot study; seven pilot questionnaires were returned. News directors were asked to complete the questionnaire and to indicate any confusing or unclear items on the 92 instrument. The seven questionnaires which were returned were completed; no comments were given which indicated any problems with the instrument design. After personal consultation with two news directors and after examining the returned pilot questionnaires, a final instrument was designed. The final questionnaire consisted of a seven-page self-contained document including a cover letter. The questionnaire included 50 items in five major categories: (1 ) skills and competencies, (2) general knowledge, (3) personal characteristics, (4) college preparation, and (5) securing a job as a television reporter. Respondents were asked to answer each item by using a 5-point Likert scale from 5—Most Important to 3—Important to 1—Not Important. Demographic data of both news directors and educators was included in the questionnaire. Questionnaires for both subject groups were identical except market size was only requested from news directors, not educators. The cover letter which accompanied the pilot pre-test can be found in Appendix A. Appendix B includes the final cover letter and questionnaire for television news directors; Appendix C includes the final cover letter and questionnaire for broadcast journalism educators. 93 Procedure Questionnaires were mailed to 620 television news directors and 365 broadcast journalism educators (N=985) on April 4, 1988. A return envelope with no postage required was included in each mail-out. A second mailing was sent to all 985 subjects on April 18, 1988, in order to achieve the highest possible return. By June 1, 1988, 295 news director questionnaires and 213 educator questionnaires had been returned (N=985; Returned=508). Return percentages were 48 percent for news directors and 58 percent for educators for a total return percentage of 52 percent.

Research Questions This study was concerned with the following research questions: 1 . What specific skills and competencies do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe are most important for television reporters to possess? 2. What general knowledge do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe is most important for television reporters to possess? 3. What personal characteristics do television-news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe are most important for television reporters to possess? 94 4. What type of college preparation including specific courses and majors do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe is most important for television reporters? 5. What specific undergraduate degree (major) do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe is most important for students who wish to pursue a career in television news? 6. What specific factors do television news directors and broadcast journalism educators believe are most important in securing a job as a television news reporter? 7. What are the differences, if any, between the perceptions of television news directors and those.of broadcast journalism educators regarding the educational needs of television reporters? 8. What are the differences, if any, among major, large, medium and small market television news directors and their perceptions regarding the educational needs of television news reporters? 9. What are the differences, if any, among the demographic characteristics of television news directors such as age, educational attainment and experience and their perceptions regarding the educational needs of television news reporters? 95 Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were tested in this study: Hypothesis 1 : There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding the skills and competencies needed by television reporters. Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding the general knowledge needed by television news reporters. Hypothesis 3: There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding the personal characteristics needed by television news reporters. Hypothesis 4: There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding the college preparation needed by television reporters. Hypothesis 5: There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators 96 regarding important factors in securing a job as a television reporter. Hypothesis 6 There will be no significant difference in perceptions regarding the educational needs of television reporters among news directors froin major, large, medium and small markets. Hypothesis 7 There will be no significant difference in perceptions regarding the educational needs of television reporters among news directors of varying demographic backgrounds such as age, educational attainment and experience as a news director.

Treatment of the Data A t-test was conducted to test for significant differences in perceptions between the two subject groups, television news directors and broadcast journalism educators. The five major categories and individual questionnaire items were subjected to the t-test. Frequency counts, percentages and means were calculated for each questionnaire item in both subject groups. A rank ordering was prepared for each questionnaire item under the five major categories in both subject groups. A Scheffe' one-way analysis of variance was conducted to test for significant differences in perceptions among news directors based on market size and the demographic variables of age, educational attainment and experience as a news director. Based on the statistical analysis of the findings, each null hypothesis tested in this study was either accepted or rejected. 98 Table 1 QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN PERCENTAGES (N=985)

Subject N Returned Percentage

News Directors 620 295 47.58 = 48% Educators 365, 213. 58.35 = 58% TOTAL 985 508 51.57 = 52% CHAPTER IV RESULTS OF THE STUDY

This study was designed to investigate the educational needs of television reporters. The problem was to compare the perception of those needs by commercial television news directors to those of college and university broadcast journalism professors. Data regarding the educational needs and preparation of television reporters was collected in five categories: (1) skills and competencies, (2) general knowledge, (3) personal characteristics, (4) college preparation, and (5) securing a job as a television reporter. Important demographic data was collected from the news director population surveyed in this study including market size, age, educational background and experience of the news directors. Statistical analyses were conducted to determine significant differences between the--responses of news directors and educators and significant differences among news directors based on demographics. A t-test and a Scheffe' one-way analysis of variance were the two statistical analyses used in the study.

Survey Response As indicated in Table 1 of Chapter III, 620 commercial television news directors and 365 broadcast journalism 99 100 educators were surveyed in this study (N=985). After two mailings, 295 news directors (48 percent) and 213 educators (58 percent) had responded to the survey questionnaire for a total response of 52 percent.

Respondent Demographics Table 2 indicates the market size of news directors who responded to the survey. Almost half the news directors (48 percent) were from small markets (market size 101+). The next largest percentage of responses (29 percent) were from medium market news directors (market size 51-100). Large market (market size 21-50) news directors totaled 15 percent, and eight percent of the respondents were from major markets (market size 1-20). Percentages were rounded to a total of 100 percent. The survey revealed that 127 (43 percent) of the news director respondents were in the 36-45 age group; 118 (40 percent) were age 26-35; 30 (10 percent) were age 46-55; 12 (4 percent) were 55 or older. Only seven news directors (3 percent) were age 18-25 and one respondent did not indicate his age. Percentages were rounded to a total of 100 percent. See Table 3. News directors were asked to indicate their educational background on the survey questionnaire. A large percentage (69 percent) of news directors had a four- year bachelor's degree (203 respondents). Thirty-six news 101 directors (12 percent) had a master's degree; 34 respondents (12 percent) held no degree; 20 respondents (7 percent) had earned a two-year associate's degree; and one news director (0.3 percent) held a doctoral degree. One respondent did not reveal his educational background. Percentages were rounded to a total of 100 percent. See Table 4. News directors were asked to indicate the field or discipline of their highest earned degree. Sixty-two respondents (21 percent) reported they held a degree in journalism and 51 respondents (17 percent) earned a degree in radio-TV/broadcasting/telecommunications. A communications/speech degree was held by 31 news directors (11 percent) while 29 news directors (10 percent) earned a broadcast journalism degree. A mass communication degree was reported by only nine respondents (3 percent). Sixty- two news directors (21 percent) held college degrees in fields other than communication-related disciplines. One news director did not respond to the field of highest earned degree question. Percentages were rounded to a total of 100 percent. See Table 5. The final demographic information requested of news directors dealt with their experience as a television news director. One-third of the respondents (97 respondents, 33 percent) reported two to five years experience as a television news director. Eighty-one news directors (27 102 percent) were relatively new in their position with zero to two years of experience as news director. Sixty-four respondents (22 percent) had served in the position from 5- 10 years; 27 respondents (9 percent) reported 10 to 15 years of service; and 26 news directors (9 percent) were veteran news directors with more than 15 years of experience. Percentages were rounded to a total of 100 percent. See Table 6. Demographic data from 295 television news directors who responded to this research survey questionnaire revealed a profile of a typical television news director. The typical news director is 26-45 years old, holds a four- year bachelor's degree in journalism, broadcast journalism,, radio-television, broadcasting, telecommunications or speech auid has served as a television news director for less than 10 years. Eighty-one percent of the news director respondents possessed a college degree at the bachelor's level or above; 60 percent of the respondents were relatively new in the news director position with less than five years experience in the top spot.

News Director Versus Educator Responses In each of the five categories regarding educational needs of television reporters, news directors and educators were asked to rank each item on the questionnaire using a 5-point Likert scale from Most Important (5) to Lmportant 103 (3) to Not Important (1). A t-test was run on each of the major questionnaire categories to determine significant differences between news director and educator responses. An item by item t-test was conducted to determine which specific items yielded significant differences in news director and educator perceptions.

Skills and Competencies Table 7 indicates a comparison between news director and educator ratings of skills and competencies needed by television reporters by rank order and by mean scores. The table also shows specific items in which there was a significant difference between news director and educator ratings at the p<.05 level. Table 8 and Table 9 present news director and educator ratings of skills and competencies needed by television reporters by mean scores in rank order 1-21. A t-test analysis revealed that as an aggregate category, there was a significant difference between news directors' (X=81.06) and educators' (X=83.64) perceptions regarding the importance of skills and competencies needed by television reporters as measured by the 21 items on the survey questionnaire (t(491)=-2.96, p<.05). Educators rated skills and competencies more important for television reporters than did news directors. 104 Both news directors (ND) and educators ranked "to possess good basic writing skills" (ND X=4.85; Educator X=4.87) and "to be able to write clearly in a conversational broadcast style" (ND X=4.72; Educator X=4.73) as the two most important skills and competencies for television reporters. Tables 8 and 9 reveal agreement between news directors and educators concerning the 10 most important skills and competencies needed by reporters. Both news directors and educators rated the following skills and competencies as "most important" (X=4.00-5.00) (See Table 7): "To possess good basic writing skills"; "to be able to write clearly in a conversational broadcast style"; "to be able to judge the 'newsworthiness' of a story"; "to be a good listener"; "to possess effective interviewing skills"; and "to be able to put together an air quality videotape story 'package.'" Also rated as most important were: "to possess effective vocal delivery skills such as clear articulation and diction"; "to be able to ask probing questions"; "to be able to select a good soundbite from an interview"; "to be able to communicate confidently with news sources"; and "to be able to type." News directors and educators agreed on the five least important skills and competencies for reporters. News directors rated three skills as "less important" (X=2.00-2.99): "to possess basic computer literacy"; "to be able to use a word processor"; and "to be able to shoot 105 ENG videotape." Although educators rated no skills less than X=3.03, they agreed with news directors concerning the five lowest ranked skills. News directors ranked "to exhibit effective on-camera delivery skills" (X=4.01) as slightly more important than educators (X=3.96). In summary, careful analysis of the data revealed close agreement between news directors and educators in the rank order of skills and competencies needed by television reporters. Although there was overall agreement, an item by item t-test indicated a significant difference between news director and educator perceptions regarding the importance of six specific skills and competencies (See Table 7). Educators (X=3.22) believed "to be able to shoot ENG videotape" is more important for television reporters than did news directors (X=2.44) (t(503)=-8.43, p<.001). Educators (X=3.53) rated "to be able to edit ENG videotape" as more important than news directors (X=3.31) (t(502)=-2.27, p<.05). Other significant differences were found between the ratings of news directors (ND) and educators on the following items: "to be able to put together an air quality videotape story package" (t(504)=2.21 , p<.05; ND X=4.38; Educator X=4.21) and "to possess effective

-SSMWX 106 interviewing skills" (t(503)=-3.97, p<.001; ND X=4.39; Educator X=4.64). News directors rated the following two skills significantly less important than did educators: "to possess basic computer literacy" (t(504)=-6.58, p<.001; ND X=2.53; Educator X=3.08) and "to be able to use a word processor" (t(504)=-11.29, p<.001); ND X=2.44; Educator X=3.40). In five of the six skill items in which there were significant differences between the ratings of news directors and educators, the educators ranked the skill as more important than news directors. Only "to be able to put together an air quality videotape story 'package'" was rated more important by news directors.

General Knowledge Table 10 presents a comparison between news director and educator ratings of general knowledge needed by television reporters by rank order and by mean scores. The table also indicates specific items in which there was a significant difference between news director and educator ratings at the p<.05 level. Tables 11 and 12 show news director and educator ratings of general knowledge needed by television reporters by mean scores in rank order 1-8. A t-test analysis revealed that as an aggregate category, there was a significant difference between news

JMW.V 107 directors' (X=33.72) and educators' (X=35.22) perceptions regarding the importance of general knowledge needed by television reporters as measured by the eight items on the survey questionnaire (t(501)=-4.00, p<.001). Educators rated general knowledge more important for television reporters than did news directors. News directors and educators ranked the same two items under general knowledge first and second in importance, but in reverse order. News directors rated "to keep up to date on local community events" (X=4.67) first in importance and "to keep up to date on current events" (X=4.61) second in importance. Educators reversed these two items; "to keep up to date on current events" (X=4.71) was ranked first and "to keep up to date on local community events" (X=4.67) was ranked second. "To be aware of and to be guided by news ethics" (X=4.49) was ranked third by news directors and "to read widely" (X=4.42) was ranked fourth. Educators agreed that these two items were important for reporters but they reversed the order of importance. Educators rated "to read widely" (X=4.59) third in importance and "to be aware of and to be guided by news ethics" (X=4.52) fourth. Tables 11 and 12 reveal agreement between news directors and educators in the rank order of the remaining four items in the general knowledge category. 108 Educators rated all eight general knowledge items as "most important" (X=4.00-5.00) (See Table 12). News directors rated five items as "most important" (X=4.00-5.00) and three items as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99) (See Table 11). No item was rated as "less important" or "not important" by either group. Although there was close agreement between news directors and educators in the rank ordering of the items listed in the general knowledge category, an item by item t-test revealed a significant difference between news director and educator perceptions regarding the importance of five items (See Table 10). In each case educators believed the item to be more important for reporters than did news directors. Educators (X=4.17) rated "to possess a good working knowledge of broadcast law" more important for television reporters than did news directors (X=3.77) (t(504)=-5.17, p<.001). Educators (X=4.59) believed "to read widely" is more important than news directors (X=4.42) (t(504)=-2.72, p<.01 ). Other significant differences were found between the ratings of educators and news directors on the following items: "to have extensive knowledge of local govern.mental issues" (t(504)=-2.72, p<.01; ND X=4.20; Educator X=4.40); "to have extensive knowledge of state governmental issues" (t(504)=-3.98), p<.001; ND X=3.91; Educator X=4.20); and

/ 109 "to have extensive knowledge of national governmental issues" (t(504)=-4.65, p<.001; ND X=3.63; Educator X=4.00). Both groups"believe a knowledge of current events, local events, and local governmental issues are somewhat more important for television reporters to possess than is knowledge of state and national governmental issues. State and national issues are, however, rated as important by both news directors and educators. Both groups stressed the importance of knowing and following news ethics.

Personal Characteristics Table 13 presents a comparison between news director and educator ratings of personal characteristics needed by television reporters by rank order and by mean scores. The table also shows specific items in which there was a significant difference between news director and educator ratings at the p<.05 level. Table 14 and Table 15 indicate news director and educator ratings of personal characteristics needed by television reporters by mean scores in rank order 1-12. A t-test analysis revealed that as an aggregate category, there was a significant difference between news directors' (X=50.25) and educators' (X=48.99) perceptions regarding the importance of personal characteristics needed by television reporters as measured by the 12 items on the survey questionnaire (t(498)=2.48, p<.05). Unlike the 110 categories of skills and competencies and general knowledge, news directors rated personal characteristics more important for reporters than did educators. News directors and educators agreed on the two most important personal characteristics needed by television reporters. Both groups ranked "to be dependable" and "to be able to work effectively under deadline pressure" first and second respectively as important personal charac­ teristics for reporters. News directors rated "to be dependable" with a mean score of 4.70 while educators rated that characteristic with a mean score of 4.77. The mean score for "to be able to work effectively under deadline pressure" was 4.64 for news directors and 4.70 for educators. Table 14 reveals that news directors rated nine personal characteristic items as "most important" (X=4.00-5.00). In addition to "to be dependable" and "to be able to work effectively under deadline pressure," news directors gave a mean score rating of 4.00 or above to the following items: "to be able to work cooperatively as part of a team in the newsroom" (X=4.49); "to be able to accept direction" (X=4.45); "to be able to cope effectively with job-related stress" (X=4.35); "to have realistic expectations of the job of a television reporter such as work demands, hours, pay" (X=4.35); "to exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing a story" (X=4.21); "to Ill demonstrate self-confidence" (X=4.08); and "to possess a 'tough skin' and accept criticism" (X=4.07). Educators also rated nine personal characteristics as "most important" (X=4.00-5.00) (See Table 15), They are: "to be dependable" (X=4.77); "to be able to work effectively under deadline pressure" (X=4.70); "to be able to cope effectively with job-related stress" (X=4.37); "to be able to work cooperatively as part of a team in the newsroom" (X=4.29); "to be able to effectively interact with various personality types" (X=4.14); "to be able to accept direction" (X=4.13); "to demonstrate self- confidence" (X=4.08); "to possess a 'tough skin' and accept criticism" (X=4.07); and "to have realistic expectations of the job of a television reporter such as work demands, hours, pay" (X=4.04). News directors rated two personal characteristics as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99): "to be able to effectively interact with various personality types" (X=3.99) and "to present a 'professional' appearance when on a story" (X=3.89). Educators also rated two personal characteristics as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99): "to exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing a story" (X=3.91) and "to present a 'professional' appearance when on a story" (X=3.73). Both educators (X=2.80) and news directors (X=2.97) rated "to be cosmetically attractive on camera" as "less 112 important" (X=2.00-2.99) for television reporters although news directors believed appearance was slightly more important than educators. An item by item t-test revealed a significant difference between news director and educator perceptions regarding the importance of six personal characteristic items (See Table 13). News directors rated each of the six characteristics as more important to reporters than did educators. News directors (X=4.21) believed "to exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing a story" was much more important for reporters than did educators (X=3.91) (t(505)=4.39, p<.001). News directors (X=4.35) thought it was more important for reporters "to have realistic expectations of the job" than did educators (X=4.04) (t(505)=4.30, p<.001). Significant differences were also found between the ratings of news directors and educators on the following personal characteristic items: "to be able to accept direction" (t(504)=5.01, p<.001; ND X=4.45; Educator X=4.13); "to be able to work cooperatively as part of a team in the newsroom" (t(505)=3.22, p<.01; ND X=4.49; Educator X=4.29); "to be cosmetically attractive on camera" (t(504)=2-33, p<.05; ND X=2.97; Educator X=2.80); and "to present a 'professional' appearance when on a story" (t(503)=2.22, p<.05; ND X=3,89; Educator X=3.73). In summary, news directors rated the aggregate category of personal characteristics as more important for 113 television reporters than did educators. Although four of the personal characteristic items had higher mean score ratings by educators, the six items in which there were significant differences in the ratings by the two population groups found news directors rating each item as more important than educators.

College Preparation Table 16 presents a comparison between news director and educator ratings of college preparation needed by television reporters by rank order and by mean scores. The table also shows specific items in which there was a significant difference between news director and educator ratings at the p<.05 level. Table 17 and Table 18 indicate news director and educator ratings of college preparation needed by television reporters by mean scores in rank order 1-6. A t-test revealed that as an aggregate category, there was a significant difference between news directors' (X=16.63) and educators' (X=19.26) perceptions regarding the importance of college preparation needed by television reporters as measured by the six items on the survey questionnaire (t(491)=-8.04, p<.001). Educators rated college preparation more important for television reporters than did news directors. 114 Both news directors and educators ranked "to have completed a college degree (undergraduate)" as the most important item in the college preparation category. Educators rated possession of a degree with a mean score of 4.15 while news directors rated the same item with a mean score of 3.76. Possession of a college degree was the only item in this category which news directors rated as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99). News directors rated the following items "less important" (X=2.00-2.99): "to possess a college degree in any media-related field" (X=2.74); "to possess expertise in a specific area such as education, law, medicine, business, consumer affairs, agriculture, etc." (X=2.58); "to have been involved in extracurricular activities while in college" (X=2.51); and "to possess a college degree with a major in broadcast journalism" (X=2.49). News directors rated as "least important" (X=1,00-1.99) "to have completed a Master's degree" (X=1.75). Educators rated all six college preparation items higher than the news directors. Educators rated "to have completed a college degree (undergraduate)" the highest of any item in this category (X=4.15). Educators rated the following items "more important" (X=3.00-3.99): "to possess expertise in a specific area such as education, law, medicine, consumer affairs, agriculture, etc." 115 (X=3.16); "to possess a college degree in any media-related field" (X=3.13); and "to have been involved in extracurricular activities while in college" (X=3.05). Two items were rated by educators as "less important" (X=2.00-2.99) for television reporters: "to possess a college degree with a major in broadcast journalism" (X=2.97) and "to have completed a Master's degree" (X=2.29). In summary, both news directors and educators value a college degree for television reporters, but educators value it more highly than news directors. Educators rated each of the specific college preparation items more highly than news directors. An item by item t-test revealed a significant difference between news director and educator perceptions regarding the importance of all six college preparation items (See Table 16). Educators (X=4.15) believed "to have completed a college degree (undergraduate)" is more important for television reporters than did news directors (X=3.76) (t(505)=-4.17, p<.001). Although neither group believed "to have completed a Master's degree" was important for reporters, news directors (X=1.75) valued the graduate degree significantly less than educators (X=2,29) (t(504)=-6.42, p<.001). Educators and news directors disagreed on the importance of three college preparation items which the 116 educators rated as more important and the news directors rated as less important. These items of significant difference are: "to possess expertise in a specific area" (t(503)=-6.48, p<.001; ND X=2.58; Educator X=3.16); "to possess a college degree in any media-related field" (t(505)=-4.01, p<.001; ND X=2.74; Educator X=3.13); "to have been involved in extracurricular activities while in college" (t(505)=-5.38, p<.001; ND X=2.51; Educator X=3.05). Both news directors and educators rated "to possess a college degree with a major in broadcast journalism" as less important; however, news directors believed that a broadcast journalism major was less important for television reporters than did educators (t(505)=-4.80, p<.001; ND X=2.49; Educator X=2,97).

Academic Subjects Table 19 presents a comparison of news director and educator ratings of 17 academic subjects relative to their importance in the educational preparation of television reporters. The table lists the ratings of the two groups by mean scores and by rank order. The table also indicates specific academic subjects in which there was a significant difference between news director and educator ratings at the p<.05 level. Table 20 and Table 21 show news director and educator ratings of academic subjects which might prove '-"'^ 117 helpful in the educational preparation of television reporters by mean scores in rank order 1-17. •Both news directors and educators ranked "English Composition (Writing and Grammar)" as the most important academic subject out of the 17 subjects listed on the survey questionnaire. Both groups ranked "Political Science" as the second most important subject. News directors and educators agreed that courses in "Journalism, Broadcast Journalism, and History" were the next three most important academic subjects for television reporters, but the two groups differed on the exact rankings of these subjects (See Table 19). "Economics" was ranked sixth in importance by both educators and news directors. News directors and educators agreed that "Natural Sciences" and "Computer Science" are less important in the preparation of television reporters. News directors rated three subjects as "most important" (X=4.00-5.00) in the preparation of television reporters while educators rated six subjects as "most important." Subjects rated as "most important" by news directors were: "English Composition (Writing, Grammar)" (X=4.60); "Political Science" (X=4.08); and "Journalism" (X=4.02). Educators rated the following six subjects as "most important" (X=4.00-5.00): "English Composition (Writing and grammar)" (X=4.54); "Political Science" 118 (X=4.38); "History" (X=4.11); "Broadcast Journalism" (X=4.09); "Journalism" (X=4.03); and "Economics" (X=4.00). News directors rated the following nine academic subjects as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99) in the preparation of reporters: "Broadcast Journalism" (X=3.89); "History" (X=3.87); "Economics" (X=3.81); "Radio- Television" (X=3.65); "Business" (X=3.49); "Literature" (X=3.27); "Humanities" (X=3.26); "Sociology" (X=3.24); and "Logic" (X=3.01 ). Educators rated the following nine academic subjects as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99) in the preparation of reporters: "Humanities" (X=3.65); "Radio-Television" (X=3.63); "Sociology" (X=3.49); "Literature" (X=3.42); "Psychology" (X=3.38); "Business" (X=3.28); "Logic" (X=3.24); "Philosophy" (X=3.01); and "Foreign Language" (X=3.00). News directors found five academic subjects to be "less important" (X=2.00-2.99) for television reporters. They were "Computer Science" (X=2.34); "Philosophy" (X=2.67); "Psychology" (X=2.97); "Natural Sciences" (X=2.79); and "Foreign Language" (X=2.58). Educators rated only two academic subjects as "less important" (X=2.00-2.99) for reporters. They were "Computer Science" (X=2.62) and "Natural Sciences" (X=2.94). An item by item t-test revealed a significant difference between news director and educator perceptions 119 regarding the importance of 12 out of 17 academic subjects in the preparation of television reporters (See Table 19). Of the 12 academic subjects in which news directors and educators differed significantly, educators rated 11 of the subjects more important than did news directors. The only subject rated more important by news directors than by educators was "Business" (t(504)=2.63, p<.01; ND X=3.49; Educator X=3.28).

Three subjects were rated as "less important" (X=2.00-2.99) by news directors and "more important" (X=3.00-3.99) by educators. Those subjects were: "Philosophy" (t(505)=-4.02, p<.001; ND X=2.67; Educator X=3.01); "Psychology" (t(503)=-4.55; NDX=2.97; Educator X=3.38); and "Foreign Language" (t(502)=-4.53, p<.001; ND X=2.58; Educator X=3.00). Although both news directors and educators rated the following academic subjects as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99) or "most important" (X=4.00-5.00), educators rated the subjects significantly more important than did news directors: "Political Science" (t(505)=-4.37, p<.001; ND X=4.08; Educator X=4.38); "History" (t(505)=-2.95, p<.01; ND X=3.87; Educator X=4.11); "Economics" (t(504)=-2.42, p<.05; ND X=3.81; Educator X=4.00); "Humanities" (t(505)=-4.64, p<.001; ND X=3.26; Educator X=3.65); "Logic" (t(504)=-2.42, p<.05; ND X=3.01; Educator 120 X=3.24); "Sociology" (t(504)=-2.93, p<.01; NDX=3.24; Educator X=3.49); and "Broadcast Journalism" (t(505)=-2.13, p<.05; ND X=3.89; Educator X=4.09). Both news directors and educators rated "Computer Science" as "less important" (X=2.00-2.99) for television reporters but news directors (X=2.34) rated the subject significantly less important than did educators (X=2.62) (t(504=-3.64, p<.001). No significant differences were found in the ratings of news directors and educators regarding five academic subjects. News directors (X=4.60) and educators (X=4.54) both rated "English Composition (Writing, Grammar) as "most important." "Journalism" was also rated as "most important" by news directors (X=4.02) and educators (X=4.03). News directors (X=3.27) and educators (X=3.42) rated "Literature" as "more important." The academic subject "Radio-Television" was also rated "more important" by both news directors (X=3.65) and educators (X=3.63). The field of "Natural Sciences" was rated "less important" by both news directors (X=2.79) and educators (X=2.94). In summary, both news directors and educators value a college degree as educational preparation needed by television reporters. Both groups agree the most important academic subjects for reporters are English Composition (Writing, Grammar), Political Science, Journalism, Broadcast Journalism, History, and Economics. Also 121 important are Radio-Television, Business, Literature, Humanities, Sociology, and Logic. News directors and educators rate Computer Science and Natural Science as less important subjects for television reporters.

Undergraduate Majors for Television Reporters News directors and educators responding to the survey questionnaire were asked to select three undergraduate majors which they would recommend most for television reporters. Respondents were asked to select from the following majors: broadcast journalism, journalism, radio- television, liberal arts, and liberal arts with some broadcast journalism. Other response selections were: any degree (doesn't matter), prefer reporters with no degree, and other. Table 22 shows a comparison between the responses of news directors and educators regarding which undergraduate major they would recommend most for television reporters. Each respondent was asked to select three majors. Frequency counts are presented in Table 22 for both news directors and educators. Tables 23 and 24 indicate frequency counts by rank order for both news directors and educators regarding undergraduate majors for television reporters. News directors and educators agreed on which undergraduate majors they would recommend prospective 122 television reporters to pursue in college. The rank ordering for both population groups was identical. Both groups listed a "liberal arts major with some broadcast journalism courses" as the undergraduate major they would recommend most for prospective television reporters. A major in "broadcast journalism" was the second most recommended major followed by a major in "journalism." "Liberal arts" was the fourth most recommended major and "radio-television" was fifth. A major "other" than those listed was recommended sixth with a total of only 50 responses by news directors and educators. Ranked seventh with 45 responses was "any degree." Only one news director preferred reporters with "no degree." Clearly, news directors and educators value a college degree for prospective television reporters. They agree that liberal arts, broadcast journalism, and journalism are the academic undergraduate majors which students who hope to become television reporters should pursue.

Securing a Job as a Television Reporter Table 25 presents a comparison between news director and educator ratings of factors related to securing a job as a television reporter by rank order and by mean scores. The table also shows specific factors in which there was a significant difference between news director and educator ratings at the p<.05 level. Table 26 and Table 27 present -rrr——-^ <•'••-• 123 news director and educator ratings of factors related to securing a job as a television reporter by mean scores in rank order 1-6.

A t-test analysis revealed that as an aggregate category, there was a significant difference between news directors' (X=21.76) and educators' (X=23.34) perceptions regarding the importance of certain factors related to securing a job as a television reporter as measured by the six items on the survey questionnaire (t(502)=-6.17, p<.001). As an aggregate category, educators rated the six factors as more important in securing a job than did the news directors. Both news directors and educators rated a "personal interview" (ND X=4.29; Educator X=4.27) and a "professional audition tape" (ND X=4.23; Educator X=4.32) as the two most important factors in securing a job as a television reporter. News directors rated a "personal interview" as the most important factor and a "professional audition tape" as the second most important factor. Educators rated these two factors in reverse order. Educators also rated "television news intern experience" (X=4.04) and "previous employment in a television news department" (X=4.00) as "most important" (X=4.00-5.00). News directors rated "previous employment in a television news department" (X=3.92), "television news intern experience" (X=3.44), and an "effective cover letter 124 and resume" (X=3.34) as third, fourth, and fifth respectively in importance in securing a job as a television reporter. Each of these above factors were rated as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99) by news directors. An "effective cover letter and resume" was rated as "more important" (X=3.00-3.99) by educators (X=3.76); this factor was ranked fifth in importance by the educators. Both news directors and educators believed "radio experience" was "less important" (X=2.00-2.99) to prospective television reporters (ND X=2.56; Educator X=2.96). An item by item t-test revealed a significant difference between news director and educator perceptions regarding the importance of three of the six specific factors in securing a job as a television reporter (See Table 25). Educators (X=4.04) believed that "television news intern experience" is significantly more important in securing a job as a television reporter than did news directors (X=3.44) (t(503)=-6.85, p<.001). Educators (X=3.76) also rated an "effective cover letter and resume" significantly more important than news directors (X=3.34) (t(504)=-4.85, p<.001). Although both news directors and educators found "radio experience" significantly less important for prospective television reporters, news directors (X=2.56) rated "radio experience" significantly less important than 125 did educators (X=2.96) (t(504)=-4.35, p<.001). With the exception of a "personal interview," educators ranked each factor related to securing a job as a television reporter as more important than news directors.

Responses by News Director Market Size Each news director responding to the survey questionnaire was asked to indicate the size of the market where he was employed as news director. Market size categories were: Major Market (1-20); Large Market (21-50); Medium Market (51-100); and Small Market (101 and above). A Scheffe' one-way analysis of variance was run to test for significant mean differences among the market sizes of news directors responding to each of the five major categories of educational needs of television reporters.

Skills and Competencies News directors were asked to rate the importance of 21 skills and competencies which might be useful to someone seeking employment as a television reporter. A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) among news director "market sizes" in six of the 21 skill and competency items. Following are the results of the Scheffe' tests which 126 showed significant mean differences among news director "market sizes":

To be able to shoot ENG videotape. News directors from "Large," "Medium," and "Small" markets rated "to be able to shoot ENG videotape" as "less important" for television reporters, whereas "Major" market news directors rated the skill as "least important." A one-way analysis of variance (Table 28) indicated mean differences (p<.0001) among market size ratings. A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Small" market news directors and news directors in the other three market sizes. News directors in "Major," "Large," and "Medium" markets rated "to be able to shoot ENG videotape" significantly less important than "Small" market news directors. Also, "Major" market news directors rated the skill significantly less important than "Medium" market news directors. To be able to edit ENG videotape, "Major" and "Large" market news directors rated "to be able to edit ENG videotape" as "less important" for television reporters; however, "Medium" and "Small" market news directors rated the skill as "more important." A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.0001) among market size ratings (Table 29). A Scheffe' test indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Major" market news directors and those in "Medium" and _J/ 127 "Small" markets. The mean for "Large" market news directors also differed significantly with "Small" market news directors. News directors from "Medium" and "Small" markets rated "to be able to edit ENG videotape" significantly more important than news directors in "Major" markets. "Small" market news directors rated this skill significantly more important than news directors in "Large" markets. To be able to perform a "standupper" on tape. According to news directors, "to be able to perform a 'standupper' on tape" is an important skill for television reporters. The importance of the skill increases as the market size increases. "Major," "Large," and "Medium" market news directors rated this skill as "most important" and small market news directors rated it as "more important." A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0024) among market size « • ratings (Table 30). A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors in "Major" and "Small" markets. "Major" market news directors believe it is significantly more important for a reporter "to be able to perform a 'standupper' on tape" than do news directors in "Small" markets. To be able to perform "live" standup reports (intro, interview, close). News directors from each market size believe "to be able to perform 'live' standup reports" is 123 an important skill for a television reporter. The importance of the skill increases with market size. News directors from "Major" and "Large" markets rated performing live standup reports as "most important" while "Medium" and "Small" market news directors rated the skill as "more important." A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0001) among market size ratings (Table 31). A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors in "Small" markets and news directors in the other three market sizes- News directors in "Major," "Large," and "Medium" markets rated "to be able to perform 'live' standup reports" as significantly more important than news directors in "Small" markets. To exhibit effective on-camera delivery skills. The ability of television reporters "to exhibit effective on- camera delivery skills" is an important competency for television reporters. "Major," "Large," and "Medium" market news directors rated this skill as "most important"; "Small" market news directors rated it "more important." A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.0001) among market size ratings (Table 32). A Scheffe' test reported significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors in "Major" markets and those in "Medium" and "Small" markets. Effective on-camera delivery skills are significantly more important for 129 television reporters in "Major" markets than in "Medium" and "Small" markets.

To possess effective vocal delivery skills. News directors in various market sizes place a high value on effective vocal delivery skills for television reporters. This skill was rated as "most important" by news directors in all four market size categories. Significant mean differences (p<.0380) among market sizes were indicated by a one-way analysis of variance. A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Major" market news directors and "Small" market news directors. "To possess effective vocal delivery skills" is significantly more important for reporters in "Major" markets than it is for reporters in "Small" markets, although the skill is important for television reporters in all market sizes. No significant mean differences were found in the responses of news directors from various market sizes regarding general knowledge, personal characteristics, and college preparation needed by television reporters. The size of the television market was not a significant factor in the responses of news directors concerning these categories.

Securing a Job as a Television Reporter News directors were asked to rate the importance of six factors related to securing a job as a television 130 reporter in their news department. A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) among news director "market sizes" in three of the six factors related to securing a job as a television reporter. Following are the results of the Scheffe' tests which showed significant mean differences among news director "market sizes": Previous employment in a television news department. News directors in "Major" and "Large" television markets value "previous employment in a television news department" very highly for reporters who seek jobs in their news departments. These news directors rated previous television news experience "most important." "Medium" and "Small" market news directors rated previous experience "more important." A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0001) among market size ratings (Table 34). A Scheffe' test found significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Major" market news directors and "Medium" and "Small" market news directors and between news directors in "Large" markets and those in "Medium" and "Small" markets. Previous television news experience is valued significantly more in "Major" and "Large" markets than in "Medium" and "Small" markets. Television news intern experience. News directors in "Major" television markets believe experience as a 131 television news intern is "less important" for reporters seeking employment in their news departments. The smaller the market the more important news intern experience is in securing employment. "Large," "Medium," and "Small" market news directors rated intern experience "more important." A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0001) among market size ratings (Table 35). Scheffe' test results revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Small" market news directors and those in each of the three other market size categories. News directors in "Small" markets rated "television news intern experience" significantly more important for reporters seeking employment in their news department than did news directors in "Major," "Large," and "Medium" markets. Radio experience. Radio experience is not a very important factor in seeking employment as a television reporter. News directors in all four market size categories rated previous experience in radio as "less important." A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0069) among market size ratings (Table 36). A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Small" market news directors and "Large" market news directors. News directors in "Large" markets rated "radio experience" significantly less important than news directors in "Small" 132 markets. Neither group valued previous radio experience very highly.

Responses by News Director Age Each news director responding to the survey was asked to indicate his or her age. Age categories were: 18-25; 26-35; 36-45; 46-55; and 56+. Out of 295 news directors who responded to the survey, one did not indicate age and only seven were in the 18-25 age category. These seven respondents were combined with the 118 news directors in the 26-35 age group for the purposes of this study.

Following are the results of Scheffe' one-way analysis of variance tests which were run to test for significant mean differences among the age groupings of news directors responding to each of the five major categories of educational needs of television reporters:

Skills and Competencies News directors were asked to rate the importance of 21 skills and competencies which might be useful to someone seeking employment as a television reporter. A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) among news director "age categories" in only two of the 21 skill and competency items. Following are the results of the Scheffe' tests which showed significant mean differences among news director "age categories": 133 To be able to perform "live" standup reports. All age group news directors value the ability of reporters "to be able to perform 'live' standup reports." Age "18-35" and "36-45" age news directors rated this skill as "more important" while "46-55" and "56+" news directors rated standup reports as "most important" for a television reporter. A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0061) among age categories (Table 37). A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between the younger "18-35" news directors and the older "46-55" news directors. The older news directors rated the ability "to perform 'live' standup reports" as'significantly more important than younger news directors. To be able to use a word processor. News directors who are 55 years of age and less do not believe the ability to use ,a word processor is very important for a person desiring employment as a television reporter. Older news directors in the "56+" age category rated word processing skills as "more important." A one-way analysis of variance found significant mean differences (p<.0282) among age category ratings (Table 38). A Scheffe' test indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) between the younger "18-35" news directors and the older "56+" news directors. The older news directors valued word processing skills as . ^^ 134 significantly more important than the younger news directors.

No significant differences were found in the responses of news directors in the four age categories regarding general knowledge and personal characteristics needed by television reporters. The age of television news directors was not a factor in the responses of news directors concerning these categories.

College Preparation News directors were asked to rate the importance of 23 items related to the college preparation of television reporters including 17 specific courses in a college undergraduate curriculum. A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) among news director "age categories" in four of the 23 college preparation items. Following are the results of the Scheffe' tests which showed significant mean differences among news director age categories: To possess a college degree in any media-related field. News directors less than 56 years of age do not find possession of a college degree in any media-related field very important for television reporters. News directors 55 years of age and less rated a college degree in any media-related field as "less important"; however, 135 Wcd56+ . 1"1 news directors rated a media-related college degree more important." A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean, differences (p<.0015) among news director age categories (Table 39). A Scheffe' test indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) between the "36-45" age news directors and the older "56+" news directors. The older news directors rated "possession of a college degree in any media-related field" significantly more important than the younger news directors in the "36-45" age group. History. All news directors value a knowledge of history as important college preparation for television reporters. "18-35" and "46-55" age news directors rated history as "more important" as an academic subject for reporters; whereas, news directors "36-45" and "56+" rated history "most important." A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0230) among age group ratings (Table 40). A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "18-35" age news directors and "36-45" age news directors. Older news directors rated "history" significantly more important than the younger news directors although iDoth groups valued a knowledge of history for television reporters. Computer science. News directors 56 years of age and older believe computer science is an important academic subject for reporters seeking employment in their news departments. News directors in the three age categories 136 representing ages 18-55 rated computer science as "less important." A one-way analysis of variance found significant mean differences (p<.0167) among age group ratings (Table 41). A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences between "56+" news directors and "18-35" and "46-55" age news directors. The older news directors rated "computer science" significantly more important for television reporters than did the younger news directors. Literature. News directors of all ages believe the study of literature is an important academic subject for students who will ultimately seek careers in television news. Although all four age groups rated literature as important, the "56+" news directors rated the academic ' discipline as "most important." A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.0124) among age categories (Table 42). A Scheffe' test indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors in the "56+" age group and those in the "18-35" and "36-45" age categories. The news directors who are older ("56+") believe "literature" is significantly more important for prospective television reporters than do the younger news directors -

Securing a Job as a Television Reporter News directors were asked to rate the importance of six factors related to securing a job as a television 137 reporter in their news department. A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) among news director "age categories" in two of the six factors related to securing a job as a television reporter.

Following are the results of the Scheffe' tests which revealed significant mean differences among news director age categories: Television news intern experience. Previous television news intern experience is an important factor in securing a job as a television reporter according to news directors of all ages. Each age category rated intern experience as "more important." A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0245) among age categories (Table 43). Results of the Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors age "18-35" and those age "36-45." The younger news directors believe "television news intern experience" is significantly more important for prospective reporters in their news department than do the older news directors. Radio experience. For most news directors radio experience is not a very important factor in securing a job as a reporter in their news departments. Only the oldest news directors ("56+") rated radio experience as "more important." The other age groups rated experience in radio 138 as "less important." A one-way analysis of variance showed significant mean differences (p<.0199) among the age categories of news directors (Table 44). A Scheffe' test indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors in the "56+" age group and those in the "18-35" and the "36-45" age categories. The older news directors think previous "radio experience" is significantly more important for persons attempting to secure a television reporting position than do the younger news directors who do not value "radio experience" very much.

Responses by News Director Educational Background Each news director responding to the survey was asked to indicate his educational background. Educational background categories were: No Degree; 2-Year Associate's Degree; 4-Year Bachelor's Degree; Master's Degree; and Doctoral Degree. One news director did not indicate his or her educational background. Thirty-four news directors (12 percent) responding to the survey reported that they had not earned a college degree, and 20 news directors (7 percent) had earned a 2-Year Associate's Degree. These 54 news directors were combined to represent news directors with less than a 4-Year Bachelor's Degree for the purposes of this study. Thirty-six news directors (12 percent) indicated they held a Master's Degree and only one (0.3 percent) held a Doctoral Degree. These two groups were 139 combined to represent news directors with a graduate degree.

A Scheffe' one-way analysis of variance was run to test for significant mean differences among the educational backgrounds of news directors responding to each of the five major categories of educational needs of television reporters.

Skills and Competencies

News directors rated the importance of 21 skills and competencies which might be useful to someone seeking employment as a television reporter. A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) among the various "educational backgrounds" of news directors in only one of the 21 skill and competency items. Following are the results of the Scheffe' test which showed significant differences among the "educational backgrounds" of news directors. To be able to write clearly in a conversational broadcast style. All news directors regardless of their level of education rated the ability to write in a conversational broadcast style as "most important" for television reporters. A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.0273) among news director educational background ratings (Table 45). A Scheffe' test showed significant mean differences (p<.05) 140 between news directors with a "Graduate Degree" and those with "Less than a 4-Year Degree." News directors with a master's or a doctoral degree believe "to be able to write clearly in a conversational broadcast style" is significantly more important for television reporters than do news directors with little or no formal higher education.

No significant mean differences were found in the responses of news directors with different educational backgrounds regarding general Icnowledge needed by television reporters. The educational background of television news directors was not a factor in the responses of news directors regarding this category.

Personal Characteristics News directors rated the importance of 12 personal characteristics which might be important for television reporters to possess. Significant mean differences (p<.05) were found among the responses of news directors with various "educational backgrounds" in three of the 12 personal characteristics items. Following are the results of the Scheffe' tests which found significant mean differences among news director "educational backgrounds": To be able to cope effectively with job-related stress. It is important that television reporters be able 141 to cope with stress on the job. All news directors rated the ability "to cope effectively with job-related stress" as a "most important" personal characteristic to possess. A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.0124) among news director educational background ratings (Table 46). A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and those with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree." The news directors with less formal higher education rated "to be able to cope effectively with job-related stress" as significantly more important than did news directors with a bachelor's degree. However, coping with stress is a very important characteristic for television reporters according to all news directors. To be able to accept direction. Another valuable personal characteristic for reporters to possess according to news directors of all educational backgrounds is the ability to accept direction. This characteristic was rated as "most important" by all news directors. A one-way analysis of variance found significant mean differences (p<.0156) among the ratings of news directors of various educational backgrounds (Table 47). Scheffe' test results revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and those with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree" or a "Graduate Degree." The news directors with little or no formal higher education 142 believe "to be able to accept direction" is significantly more important for television reporters than do the news directors with a bachelor's or a graduate degree. All news directors regarded this characteristic as most important for television reporters.

To possess a "tough skin" and accept criticism. News directors believe it is important for reporters to be able to accept criticism on the job. This personal characteristic was rated as "more important" by news directors with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree" and as "most important" by news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and those with a "Graduate Degree." A one-way analysis of variance found significant mean differences (p<.0394) among the ratings of news directors with various educational backgrounds (Table 48). Scheffe' test results revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and those with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree." News directors with little or no formal higher education believe "to possess a 'tough skin' and accept criticism" is significantly more important for television reporters than do news directors with a bachelor's degree. All news directors rated this personal characteristic as important for television reporters. 143 College Preparation

News directors rated the importance of 23 items which related to the college preparation of television reporters including 17 specific courses in a college undergraduate curriculum. A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) among news director "educational backgrounds" in two of the 23 college preparation items. Following are the results of the Scheffe' tests which showed significant mean differences among news director "educational backgrounds": To have completed a college degree (undergraduate). News directors of all educational backgrounds believe it is important for television reporters to possess an undergraduate college degree. They rated possession of a degree as "more important" for reporters. A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.0001) among news director educational backgrounds (Table 49). A Scheffe' test indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and those with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree" or a "Graduate Degree." News directors with a bachelor's degree or higher rated "to have completed a college degree (undergraduate)" as significantly more important for television reporters than did those with 144 little or no formal higher education; however, all valued the college degree.

Lo2l£. News directors vary in their opinion of logic as an academic subject needed in the college preparation of television reporters. News directors with "Less t.han a 4- Year Degree" and those with a "Graduate Degree" rated logic as "more important"; however, news directors with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree" rated logic as "less important." A one­ way analysis of variance showed significant mean differences (p<.0402) among news director educational background ratings (Table 50). A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and those with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree." News directors with a bachelor's degree found "logic" significantly less important in the college preparation of television reporters than did news directors with little or no formal education who valued "logic" as an important academic subject for reporters. No significant differences were found in the responses of news directors in the three educational background categories regarding securing a job as a television reporter. The educational background of news directors was not a factor in the responses of news directors concerning this category. 145 Responses by News Director Experience Each news director responding to the survey was asked to indicate his or her years of experience as a television news director. Experience levels were: 0 to 2 years; 2+ to 5 years; 5+ to 10 years; 10+ to 15 years; and 15+ years. Following are the results of Scheffe' one-way analysis of variance tests which were run to test for significant mean differences among the experience levels of news directors responding to each of the five major categories of educational needs of television reporters:

Skills and Competencies News directors rated the importance of 21 skills and competencies which might be useful to someone seeking employment as a television reporter. A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) among news director "experience levels" in only one of the 21 skill and competency items. Following are the results of the Scheffe' test which revealed significant mean differences among the "experience levels" of news directors: To be able to perform "live" standup reports (intro, interview, close). All news directors regardless of their level of experience rated the ability to perform "live" standup reports as important for prospective television reporters. News directors with 10 years or less experience 146 in the top news department position rated this skill as "more important" while news directors with more tiian 10 years of experience rated the ability to perform "live" standup reports as "most important." A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.0040) among news director responses based on experience levels (Table 51). A Scheffe' test showed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "0 to 2 Years" experience and those with "10+ to 15 Years" experience as a television news director. Veteran news directors believe "to be able to perform 'live' standup reports (intro, interview, close)" is significantly more important for reporters to possess as a skill than do news directors who are relatively new' to the position. All new directors regardless of experience level value the importance of performing "live" standups. No significant differences were found in the responses of news directors based on the five experience levels regarding general knowledge and personal characteristics needed by television reporters. The experience level of news directors was not a factor in their responses concerning these categories.

College Preparation News directors rated the importance of 23 items related to the college preparation of television reporters 147 including 17 specific courses in a college undergraduate curriculum. A one-way analysis of variance indicated significant mean differences (p<.05) among news director "experience levels" in only one of the 23 college preparation items.

Following are the results of the Scheffe' test which revealed significant mean differences among news director experience levels. To have completed a college degree (undergraduate). News directors of all experience levels believe it is important for television reporters to possess a college degree. News directors with two or more years of experience in the top position rated a college degree as "more important" for reporters. News directors with "0 to 2 Years" experience rated a degree as "most important." A one-way analysis of variance revealed significant mean differences (p<.0037) among news director experience levels (Table 52). Results of a Scheffe' test showed significant mean differences between news directors with "0 to 2 Years" experience and those with "15+ Years" experience. News directors who were relatively new to the position rated "to have completed a college degree (undergraduate)" as significantly more important for television reporters than did the more experienced news directors. News directors of all experience levels want their reporters to possess a college degree. 148 No significant differences were found in the responses of news directors based on the five experience levels regarding securing a job as a television reporter. Years of experience as a television news director was not a factor in the responses of news directors concerning this category. 149

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Table 3

NEWS DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY AGE

(N=295)

Age Number of Respondents Percentage

18-25 7 3

26-35 118 40

36-45 127 43

46-55 30 10

56 + 12 4

No Response 1 0

TOTAL 295 100 151 Table 4 NEWS DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND (N=295)

Educational Background Number of Respondents Percentage

No Degree 34 12 Two-year Associate's Degree 20 7 Four-year Bachelor's Degree 203 69 Master's Degree 36 12 Doctoral Degree 1 0 No Response 1_ 0_ TOTAL 295 100 152 Table 5 NEWS DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY FIELD OF HIGHEST EARNED DEGREE (N=295)

Field of Highest Earned Degree Number of Respondents Percentage

Journalism 62 21 Radio-TV/Broadcasting/ Telecommunications 51 17 Communications/Speech 31 11 Broadcast Journalism 29 10 Mass Communication 9 3 Other 62 21 No Response 51 17 TOTAL 295 100 153

Table 6 NEWS DIRECTOR RESPONDENTS BY YEARS OF EXPERIENCE AS NEWS DIRECTOR (N=295)

Years of Experience Number of Respondents Percentage as News Director

0 to 2 Years 81 27 2+ to 5 Years 97 33 5+ to 10 Years 64 22 10+ to 15 Years 27 9 15+ Years 26 9 TOTAL 295 100 154

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Table 8 NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER (N=288)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)^

1 1 . To possess good basic writing skills 4.85 2 2. To be able to write clearly in a 4.72 conversational broadcast style 3 11. To be able to judge the "newsworth- 4.48 iness" of a story ("news sense") 4 14. To be a good listener 4.43 5 9. To possess effective interviewing 4.39 skills 6 6. To be able to put together an air 4.38 quality videotape story "package" 7 19. To possess effective vocal delivery 4.32 skills such as clear articulation and diction 8 10. To be able to ask probing questions 4.29 9 12. To be able to select a good soundbite 4.25 from an interview 10 13, To be able to communicate confidently 4.23 with news sources 11 16. To be able to type 4.09 12 18. To exhibit effective on-camera 4.01 delivery skills 13 7^' To be able to perform a "standupper" 3.97 on tape 157 Table 8 Continued

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)^

14 8. To be able to perform "live" standup 3.80 reports (intro, interview, close) 15 5. To possess Icnowledge of effective 3.62 photojournalism/videography basics 16 20. To possess a pleasant "resonant" 3.36 voice 17 4. To be able to edit ENG videotape 3.31 18 21. To possess a General American 3.08 dialect 19 15- To possess h>asic computer literacy 2.53 20 17. To be able to use a word processor 2.44 21 3. To be cUale to shoot ENG videotape 2.44 ^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important 158 Table 9 EDUCATOR RATINGS OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER (N=205)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number • Item (X)^ 1 1 . To possess good basic writing skills 4.87 2 2. To be able to write clearly in a 4.73 conversational broadcast style 3 9. To possess effective interviewing 4.64 skills 4 11. To be able to judge the "newsworth- 4.59 iness" of a story 5 14. To be a good listener 4.53 6 10. To be able to ask probing questions 4.40 7 13. To be able to communicate confidently 4.28 with news sources 8 19. To possess effective vocal delivery 4.25 skills such as clear articulation and diction 9 6. To be able to put together an air 4.21 quality videotape story "package" 10 12. To be able to select a good soundbite 4.16 from an interview

11 16. To be able to type 4.03 12 18. To exhibit effective on-camera 3.96 delivery skills ^2 7. To be able to perform a "standupper" 3.96 on tape 159 Table 9 Continued

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)^

14 8. To be able to perform "live" standup 3.92 reports (intro, interview, close) 15 5. To possess knowledge of effective 3.68 photojournalism/videography basics 16 4. To be able to edit ENG videotape 3.53 17 17. To be able to use a word processor 3.40 18 20. To possess a pleasant "resonant" 3.25 voice 19 3. To be able to shoot ENG videotape 3.22 20 15. To possess basic computer literacy 3.08 21 21. To possess a General American 3.03 dialect ^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1 =Not Important 160

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OWLEDG E N 5 * 0) (D 0 IM IM IH 0) ro 0 >i TJ c +) o 0 0 0 3 3 0 •H 3 •^ .^ fd 3 « 0) r-l 0) 0) 0) 3 +> > 0^ CO —' M fd 0^ 0^ 0> <3) 3 NEW S A L K N 0^-H M CO VI o -p 73 73 0) fd Pi 3 J^ (U (U 3 3 0 c; 0) 0 5 -U W •H cu XI O r-i f-i rH r-\ 4J i-l 2 .i<< fad -0H ^ 5 ^ 0) 0 W JH * 0 04+) 3 3 0 0 0 xj a U B 0 rH 4J en fd 0 0 3 3 3 E Q) 15 (1) 5 o .ii en .i en > en > en 0) en 0 —"^ 3 73 -p •H en •H en •H en V^ 0 D> <4H >i a en -H en -H cn -H 0) 2 :? o 0 rH 0 0 3 3 3 (4H II fd fd 4J (U 0} +J +j (1) rH (U r-i 0) rH u-i in r-t dJ 0} en •P 73 +» (d +J rd +J (d •H en u u •H (d a a X 4J X 4J X 4J 'P en 4J * fd -H :5 ^ 3 3 0) 3 fd -uJ 'P a a 3 > 3 > 3 fd 3 0 73 -H > > IM > M cn 0 SH cu 0 0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -H e 0) CM EH X5 £ EH 3 EH ja r . &H £H cn E^ 0> b* 0^ 3 3 Q) XI 1 0^ (d 4J S CN • • • • • • t • •H d* H 3 CN CN ro •^ in yo r* CO (T\ CO s 2 ^ CN CN CN CN CN CM CN CN •* (d 161 Table 11 NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER (N=294)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)a

26. To keep up to date on local 4.67 community issues

25. To keep up to date on current 4.61 issues

23. To be aware of and to be guided by 4.49 news ethics 24. To read widely (newspapers, news 4.42 magazines, books, trade publications) 27. To have extensive knowledge of local 4.20 governmental issues 28. To have extensive knowledge of state 3.91 governmental issues 22. To possess a good working knowledge 3.77 of broadcast law (libel, privacy, open meetings, etc.)

8 29. To have extensive knowledge of 3.63 national governmental issues

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important 162 Table 12 EDUCATOR RATINGS OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER (N=209)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)a

25. To keep up to date on current 4.71 events 26. To keep up to date on local 4.67 community events 24. To read widely (newspapers, news 4.59 magazines, books, trade publications) 23. To be aware of and to be guided by 4.52 news ethics 27. To have extensive knowledge of local 4.40 governmental events 28. To have extensive knowledge of state 4.20 governmental events 22. To possess a good working knowledge 4.17 of broadcast law (libel, privacy, open meetings, etc.)

8 29. To have extensive knowledge of 4.00 national governmental issues

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1 =Not Important 163

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Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)^

1 39. To be dependable 4.70 2 30. To be able to work effectively under 4.64 deadline pressure 3 36. To be able to work cooperatively as 4.49 part of a team in the newsroom 4 34. To be able to accept direction 4.45 5 31 . To be able to cope effectively with 4.35 job-related stress 6 33. To have realistic expectations of the 4.35 job of a television reporter such as work demands, hours, pay ("reality v. glamour") 7 32. To exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing 4.21 a story 8 40. To demonstrate self-confidence 4.08 9 35. To possess a "tough skin" and accept 4.07 criticism 10 41. To be able to effectively interact 3.99 with various personality types 11 38. To present a "professional" appearance 3.89 when on a story (grooming and dress) .12 37. To be cosmetically attractive on 2.97 camera

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important 165 Table 15 EDUCATOR RATINGS OF PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER (N=207)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)^

1 39. To be dependable 4.77 2 30. To be able to work effectively under 4.70 deadline pressure 3 31. To be able to cope effectively with 4.37 job-related stress 4 36. To be able to work cooperatively as 4.29 part of a team in the newsroom 5 41. To be able to effectively interact 4.14 with various personality types 6 34. To be able to accept direction 4.13 7 40. To demonstrate self-confidence 4.08 8 35. To possess a "tough skin" and accept 4.07 criticism 9 33. To have realistic expectations of the 4.04 job of a television reporter such as work demands, hours, pay ("reality V. glamour") 10 32. To exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing 3,91 a story 11 38. To present a "professional" appearance 3.73 when on a story (grooming and dress) 12 37. To be cosmetically attractive on 2.80 camera

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important 166

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Table 17 NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF COLLEGE PREPARATION NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER (N=284)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)^

1 42. To have completed a college degree 3.76 (undergraduate) 2 47. To possess a college degree in any 2.74 media-related field (radio- television, mass communications, journalism, etc.) 3 44. To possess expertise in a specific 2.58 area such as education, law, medicine, business, consiamer affairs, agriculture, etc. 4 45. To have been involved in extra- 2.51 curricular activities while in college 5 46. To possess a college degree with a 2.49 major in broadcast journalism 6 43. To have completed a Master's degree 1.75

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important 168 Table 18 EDUCATOR RATINGS OF COLLEGE PREPARATION NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER (N=209)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)^

1 42. To have completed a college degree 4.15 (undergraduate) 2 44. To possess expertise in a specific 3.16 area such as education, law, medicine, business, consiamer affairs, agriculture, etc. 3 47. To possess a college degree in any 3.13 media-related field (radio- television, mass communications, journalism, etc.) 4 45. To have been involved in extra- 3.05 curricular activities while in college 5 46. To possess a college degree with a 2.97 major in broadcast journalism 6 43. To have completed a Master's degree 2.29

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important VL "^ o '-S^^'"^" "^"

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Rank Item Item Mean Score Order Number (Academic Subject) (X)a

1 48)d. English Composition 4.60 (Writing, Grammar) 2 a. Political Science 4.08 3 o. Journalism 4.02

4 p. Broadcast Journalism 3.89 5 b. History 3.87 6 c. Economics 3.81

7 q- Radio-Television 3.65 8 n. Business 3.49 9 k. Literature 3.27 10 f. Humanities 3.26

11 1. Sociology 3.24 12 h. Logic 3.01

13 3- Psychology 2.97 14 1. Natural Sciences (Biology, 2.79 Chemistry, Geology, Physics)

15 g. Philosophy 2.67 16 m. Foreign Language 2.58 17 e. Computer Science 2.34

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important

/ 172 Table 21 EDUCATOR RATINGS OF ACADEMIC SUBJECTS NEEDED BY TELEVISION REPORTERS BY MEAN SCORE RANK ORDER (N=212)

Rank Item Item Mean Score Order Number (Academic Subject) (X)a

1 48)d. English Composition 4.54 (Writing, Grammar) 2 a. Political Science 4.38 3 b. History 4.11

4 p. Broadcast Journalism 4.09 5 o. Journalism 4.03 6 c. Economics 4.00 7 f. Humanities 3.65

8 q* Radio-Television 3.63

« 9 1. Sociology 3.49 10 k. Literature 3.42 « Psychology 3.38 11 3- 12 n. Business 3.28 13 h. Logic 3.24

14 g. Philosophy 3.01 15 m. Foreign Language 3.00 16 1. Natural Sciences (Biology, 2.94 Chemistry, Geology, Physics)

17 Computer Science 2.62

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important 173

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Item Number of Number Item Ranking Responses*

49)e. liberal arts with some 1 216 broadcast journalism

a. broadcast journalism 2 213

b. journalism 3 173

d. liberal arts 4 107

c. radio-television (general) 5 86

h. other 6 37

f. any degree (doesn't matter) 7 35

g. prefer reporters with no degree 8 1

•Each news director was requested to select three responses 175 Table 24 UNDERGRADUATE MAJORS FOR TELEVISION REPORTERS AS RECOMMENDED BY EDUCATORS

Item Number of Number Item Ranking Responses*

49)e. liberal arts with some 1 177 broadcast journalism

a. broadcast journalism 2 172

b. journalism 3 138

d. liberal arts 4 66

c. radio-television (general) 5 60

h. other 6 13

f. any degree (doesn't matter) 7 10

g. prefer reporters with no degree 8 0

•Each educator was requested to select three responses 176

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. / 177

Table 26 NEWS DIRECTOR RATINGS OF FACTORS RELATED TO SECURING A JOB AS A TELEVISION REPORTER (N=293)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)a

1 50)f. personal interview 4.29 2 a. professional audition tape 4.23 3 b. previous employment in a 3.92 television news department

4 c. television news intern experience 3.44 5 d. effective cover letter and resume 3.34 6 e. radio experience 2.56

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1=Not Important

/ 178 Table 27 EDUCATOR RATINGS OF FACTORS RELATED TO SECURING A JOB AS A TELEVISION REPORTER (N=211)

Rank Item Mean Score Order Number Item (X)a

1 50)a. professional audition tape 4.32

2 f. personal interview 4.27

3 c. television news intern experience 4.04

4 b. previous employment in a 4.00 television news department

5 d. effective cover letter and resume 3.76

6 e. radio experience 2.96

^Mean Values: 5=Most Important; 3=Important; 1 =Not Important 179 Table 28 TO BE ABLE TO SHOOT ENG VIDEOTAPE (N=295)

Market Size Responses Mean

Major 23 1.6087 Large 44 2.0455 Medium 87 2.2759 Small 141 2.7943

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS F P

Between Groups 3 42.7877 14.2626 14.5220 .0001 Within Groups 291 285.8021 .9821 Total 294 328.5898

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Small" market news directors and news (directors of each of the other market sizes and between "Medixom" and "Major" market news directors. 180 Table 29 TO BE ABLE TO EDIT ENG VIDEOTAPE (N=295)

Market Size Responses Mean

Major 23 2.1739 Large 44 2.9091 Medium 87 3.2989 Small 141 3.6312

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS F P

Between Groups 3 51.3152 17.1051 15,.852 5 .0001 Within Groups 291 313.9933 1.0790 Total 294 365.3085

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Major" market news directors and "Medium" and "Small" market news directors and between "Large" market news directors and "Small" market news directors. 181 Table 30 TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM A "STANDUPPER" ON TAPE (N=295)

Market Size Responses Mean

Major 23 4.4783 Large 44 4.2045 Medium 87 4.0345 Small 141 3.7730

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 3 14.1931 4.7310 4.9076 .0024 Within Groups 291 280.5324 .9640 Total 294 294.7254

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Major" and "Small" market news directors. '^'•nS^^s

182 Table 31 TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM "LIVE" STANDUP REPORTS (INTRO, INTERVIEW, CLOSE) (N=295)

Market Size Responses Mean

Major 23 4.6087

Large 44 4.1818

Medium 87 3.9080

Small 141 3.4894

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between•Groups 36.0745 12.0248 10.2761 .0001 Within Groups 291 340.5221 1.1702 Total 294 376.5966

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Small" market news directors and "Major," "Large," and "Medium" market news directors. 183

Table 32 TO EXHIBIT EFFECTIVE ON-CAMERA DELIVERY SKILLS (N=294)

Market Size Responses Mean

Major 23 4.6957 Large 44 4.1364 Medium 87 4.0345 Small 140 3.8357

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 3 15.8170 5.2723 7.7942 .0001 Within Groups 290 196.1694 .6764 Total 293 211.9864

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Major" market news directors and "Medium" and "Small" market news directors. 184 Table 33 TO POSSESS EFFECTIVE VOCAL DELIVERY SKILLS (N=294)

Market Size Responses Mean

Major 23 4.6957 Large 44 4.3636 Medium 86 4.2907 Small 141 4.2553

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 3 3.9892 1 .3297 2.8440 .0380 Within Groups 290 135.5925 .4676 Total 293 139.5816

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Major" market news directors and "Small" market news directors.

/ 185 Table 34 PREVIOUS EMPLOYMENT IN A TV NEWS DEPARTI^ENT (N=294)

Market Size Responses Mean

Major 23 .4.6087 Large 44 4.5455 Medium 87 3.9080 Small 140 3.6143

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups • 3 41.2177 13.7392 15.7595 .0001

Within Groups 290 252.8231 .8718 Total 293 294.0408

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Major" market news directors and "Small" and "Medium" market news directors and between "Large" market news directors and "Small" and "Medium" market news directors. 186

Table 35 TELEVISION NEWS INTERN EXPERIENCE (N=294)

Market Size Re sponses Mean

Major 23 2.9565 Large 44 3.1818 Medium 87 3.2184 Small 140 3.7357

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS F P

Between Groups 3 24.8240 8.2747 7.5089 .0001 Within Groups 290 319.5740 1.1020 Total 293 344.29

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Small" market news directors and news directors of each of the other three market sizes. 187

Table 36 RADIO EXPERIENCE (N=295)

Market Size Responses Mean

Major 23 2.1739 Large 44 2.1818 Medium 87 2.5287 Small 141 2.7518

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS F P

Between Groups 3 14.9871 4.9957 4.1318 .0069 Within Groups 291 351.8400 1.2091 Total 294 366.8271

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "Small" market and "Large" market news directors. 188 Table 37 TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM "LIVE" STANDUP REPORTS

(N=294)

Age Responses Mean

18-35 125 3.5760 36-45 127 3.8976 46-55 30 4.2667 56H. 12 4.1667

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 3 15.6027 5.2009 4.2162 .0061 Within Groups 290 357.7306 1.2336 Total 293 373.3333

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between the "18-35" age group news directors and the "46-55" age group news directors.

/ 189 Table 38 TO BE ABLE TO USE A WORD PROCESSOR (N=294)

Age Responses Mean

18-35 125 2.3520 36-45 127 2.4724 46-55 30 2.3000 56 + 12 3.1667

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 8.0072 2.6691 3.0700 .0282 Within Groups 290 252.1322 .8694 Total 293 260.1395

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "18-35" age group news directors and the "56+" age group news directors. 190 Table 39 TO POSSESS A COLLEGE DEGREE IN ANY MEDIA-RELATED FIELD (N=294)

Age Responses Mean

18-35 125 2.8480 36-45 127 2.5276 46-55 30 2.8000 56 + 12 3.6667

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 17.6011 5.8670 5.2638 .0015 Within Groups 290 323.2322 1.1146 Total 293 340.8333

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<."'05) between "36-45" age group news directors and "56 + " age group news directors.

^s 191

Table 40

HISTORY

(N=294)

Age Responses Mean

18-35 125 3.7120

36-45 127 4.0472

46-55 30 3.7667

56 + 12 4.0000

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS F P

Between L Groups 3 •7.6283 2.5428 3.2241 .0230

Within Groups 290 228.7152 .7887

Total 293 236.3435

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "18-35" age group news directors and "36- 45" age group news directors. 192 Table 41 COMPUTER SCIENCE (N=293)

Age Responses Mean

18-35 125 2.2720 36-45 127 2.3701 46-55 30 2.2000 56 + 11 3.0909

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 7.4821 2.7940 3.4641 .0167 Within Groups 289 308.0674 .7200 Total 292 215.5495

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "56+" age group news directors and "18-35" and "46-55" age group news directors. ••

4 193

Table 42 LITERATURE (N=294)

Age Responses Mean

18-35 125 3.2560 36-45 127 3.1969 46-55 30 3.3000 56 + 12 4.1667

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 10.3779 3.4593 3.6902 .0124 Within Groups 290 271.8534 .9374

Total 293 282.2313 A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "56+" age group news directors and "18-35" and "36-45" age group news directors. 194 Table 43 TV NEWS INTERN EXPERIENCE (N=293)

Age Responses Mean

18-35 124 3.6452 36-45 127 3.2441 46-55 30 3.3000 56 + 12 3.5833

Source of Variance Source df SS MS

Between Groups 10.9154 3.6385 3.1764 .0245 Within Groups 289 331.0368 1.1455 Total 292 341.9522

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between "18-35" age group news directors and news directors in the "36-45" age group. 195 Table 44 RADIO EXPERIENCE (N=294)

Age Responses Mean

18-35 125 2.5600

36-45 127 2.4567

46-55 30 2.5000

56 + 12 3.5000

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS F P

Between . Groups 3 12.0215 4.0072 3.3315 .0199

Within Groups 290 348.8118 1.2028

Total 293 360.8333

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors in the "56+" age group and "18-35" and "36-45" age group news directors. ^

196 Table 45 TO BE ABLE TO WRITE CLEARLY IN A CONVERSATIONAL BROADCAST STYLE (N=294)

Educational Background Responses Mean

Less than a 4-Year Degree 54 4.5556 4-Year Bachelor's Degree 203 4.7340 Graduate Degree 37 '4.8378

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 2 2.0042 1.0021 3.6453 .0273 Within Groups 291 79.9958 .2749 Total 293 82.0000

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with a "Graduate Degree" and news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree." ^ 197 Table 46 TO BE ABLE TO COPE EFFECTIVELY WITH JOB-RELATED STRESS (N=293)

Educational Background Responses Mean

Less than a 4-Year Degree 54 4.5926 4-Year Bachelor's Degree 202 4.2921 Graduate Degree 37 4.3514

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 3.8485 1.9243 4.4559 .0124 Within Groups 290 125.2368 .4319 Total 292 129.0853 A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree" and news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree." 198 Table 47 TO BE ABLE TO ACCEPT DIRECTION (N=294)

Educational Background Responses Mean

Less than a 4-Year Degree 54 4.6667 4-Year Bachelor's Degree 203 4.4089 Graduate Degree 37 4.3243

Source of Variance Source df SS MS F p

Between Groups 2 3.4571 1.7286 4.2209 .0156 Within Groups 291 119.1721 .4095 Total 293 122.6293 A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and news directors with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree" or a "Graduate Degree."

/ 199 Table 48 TO POSSESS A "TOUGH SKIN" AND ACCEPT CRITICISM (N=294)

Educational Background Responses Mean

Less than a 4-Year Degree 54 4.2963 4-Year Bachelor's Degree 203 3.9951 Graduate Degree 37 4.1081

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 2 3.9502 1.9751 3.2690 .0394 Within Groups 291 T75.8219 .6042 Total 293 179.7721

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and news directors with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree." 200 Table 49 TO HAVE COMPLETED A COLLEGE DEGREE (N=294)

Educational Background Responses Mean

Less than a 4-Year Degree 54 3.0370

4-Year Bachelor's Degree 203 3.9310

Graduate Degree 37 3.8919

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 2 34.8054 17.4027 17.9245 .0001 Within Groups 291 282.5280 .9709 Total 293 317.3333

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and news directors with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree" or a "Graduate Degree."

/^ —..-,--.£;:'L*f2jafctaMp g

w^tti-r ijrt*^'mrtl ^

201 Table 50 LOGIC (N=293)

Educational Background Responses Mean

Less than a 4-Year Degree 54 3.3333 4-Year Bachelor's Degree 202 2.9208 Graduate Degree 37 3.0541

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 7.3208 3-6604 3.2500 .0402 Within Groups 290 326.6246 1.1263 Total 292 333.9454

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "Less than a 4-Year Degree" and news directors with a "4-Year Bachelor's Degree." 202 Table 51 TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM "LIVE" STANDUP REPORTS (N=295)

News Director Experience Responses Mean

0 to 2 Years 81 3.4198 2+ to 5 Years 97 3.8866 5+ to 10 Years 64 3.8750 10+ to 15 Years 27 4.1852

15+ Years 26 4.1154

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 4" 19.3877 4.8469 3.9350 .0040 Within Groups 290 357.2089 1.2318 Total 294 376.5966

A Scheffe' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "0 to 2 Years" experience as a news director and news directors with "10 to 15 Years" experience as a news director. 203 Table 52 TO HAVE COMPLETED A COLLEGE DEGREE (N=295)

Experience Responses Mean

0 to 2 Years 81 4.0864 2+ to 5 Years 97 3.6804 5+ to 10 Years 64 3.7500 10+ to 15 Years 27 3.4815 15+ Years 26 3.3077

Source of Variance

Source df SS MS

Between Groups 4 16.6601 4.1650 3.9763 .0037 Within Groups 290 303.7670 1.0475 Total 294 320.4271

A Scheffe'' test revealed significant mean differences (p<.05) between news directors with "0 to 2 Years" experience as a news director and those with "15+ Years" experience as a news director. jfufguy^

CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to determine the educational needs of television reporters. Commercial television news directors and university broadcast journalism professors were surveyed concerning their perceptions of those needs. Data regarding the educational needs and preparation of television reporters were collected in five categories: (1) skills and competencies, (2) general knowledge, (3) personal characteristics, (4) college preparation, and (5) securing a job as a television reporter. Survey cjuestionnaire responses were analyzed for both news directors and broadcast journalism educators to determine similarities and differences. News director responses were also analyzed by market size, age, educational background and experience as a news director. Two-hundred ninety-five news directors and 213 broadcast journalism educators participated in the study. The findings of this study can be used by educators to design a broadcast journalism curriculum in colleges and universities which will meet the needs of both students majoring in the discipline and news directors who are the primary employers of broadcast journalism graduates.

204

'x 205 Summary Seven null hypotheses were tested in the study. Each of the seven hypotheses were either accepted or rejected. Following is a summary of the findings of the study drawn from the analysis of the data. A summary is presented for each of the five categories covered in the research study.

Skills and Competencies News directors and educators agree that the most important skills and competencies for television reporters are: to possess good basic writing skills; to be able to write clearly in a conversational broadcast style; to be able to judge the "newsworthiness" of a story ("news sense"); to be a good listener; and to possess effective interviewing skills. Other important skills and competencies for television reporters as determined by news directors and educators include: to be able to put together an air quality videotape story "package"; to possess effective vocal delivery skills; to be able to ask probing cjuestions; to be able to select a good soundbite from an interview; to be able to communicate confidently with news sources; and to be able to type. • Although educators believe the following three skills are minimally important for television reporters, news directors do not believe they are of much importance. They 206 are: to possess basic computer literacy; to be able to use a word processor; and to be able to shoot ENG videotape. The fact that these skills are not valued much is an indication that many news departments have not yet computerized and that reporters are usually assigned a videographer when covering stories. Although there is close agreement between news directors and educators regarding the importance of 15 skills and competencies needed by television reporters, as an aggregate category there is a significant difference between the perceptions of the two groups. Overall, educators believe skills and competencies are more important for television reporters than do news directors. Six skill and competency phrases in the survey cjuestionnaire reflected significant mean differences between news directors and educators- Educators believe the following skills and competencies are significantly more important for television reporters than do news directors: to be able to shoot ENG videotape; to be able to edit ENG videotape; to possess effective interviewing skills; to possess basic computer literacy; and to be able to use a word processor. News directors believe the ability to put together an air quality videotape story "package" is significantly more important than do educators.

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/ 207 Hypothesis 1: There will be no significant difference in the perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding the skills and competencies needed by television reporters. Based on the results of the statistical test (t-test), the null hypothesis was rejected.

General Knowledcre Both news directors and educators believe the most important general knowledge for television reporters to possess includes: to keep up to date on local community events; to keep up to date on current events; to be aware of and to be guided by news ethics; to read widely; and to have extensive knowledge of local governmental issues. Other important general knowledge for reporters to possess is extensive knowledge of state and national governmental issues and a good working knowledge of broadcast law. Each of the eight items under general knowledge was rated as important by both news directors and educators. Although there is agreement between news directors and educators regarding the importance of three general knowledge items needed by television reporters, as an aggregate category there is a significant difference between the perceptions of the two groups. Overall,

-T^--t!iHHi^V 208 educators believe general knowledge as reflected by the eight questionnaire items is more important for television reporters than do news directors.

Five general knowledge items in the survey questionnaire indicated significant mean differences between news directors and educators. Educators believe the following general'knowledge items are significantly more important for television reporters than do news directors: to possess a good working knowledge of broadcast law; to read widely; and to have extensive knowledge of local, state, and national issues.

Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding the creneral knowledge needed by television news reporters. The null hypothesis was rejected based on the results of the statistical test (t-test).

Personal Characteristics Twelve items relating to personal characteristics were included in the survey questionnaire. News directors and educators agree that the most important personal characteristics for television reporters to possess are: to be dependable; to be able to work effectively under deadline pressure; to be able to work cooperatively as part 209 of a team in the newsroom; to be able to accept direction; and to be able to cope effectively with job-related stress. Both groups of respondents also believe it is important for reporters to have realistic expectations of the job; to demonstrate self-confidence; and to possess a "tough skin" and accept criticism.

Neither news directors nor educators believe cosmetic attractiveness on camera is a very important quality for reporters to possess. This finding might have been significantly different if the study had surveyed perceptions regarding news anchors. As an aggregate category, unlike skills and competencies and general knowledge, news directors rated personal characteristics as significantly more important than educators. Significant differences exist between the perceptions of news directors and educators on six out of the 12 personal characteristic items. News directors believe the following personal characteristics are significantly more important for television reporters than do educators: to exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing a story; to have realistic expectations of the job of a television reporter such as work demands,- hours and pay; to be able to accept direction; to be able to work cooperatively as part of a team in the newsroom; and to present a "professional" appearance when on a story. Although neither news directors nor educators believe 210 cosmetic attractiveness on camera is very important, educators value attractiveness significantly less than do news directors.

Hypothesis 3: There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding the personal characteristics needed by television reporters. Based on the results of the statistical test (t-test), the null hypothesis was rejected.

College Preparation Six items relating to college preparation of television reporters were included in the survey questionnaire along with seventeen specific academic subjects. Although the rank ordering of the six college preparation items by news directors and educators is almost identical, there are significant differences between the ratings of both groups on all six items. As an aggregate category, there is a significant difference between the perceptions of news directors and educators regarding the college preparation of television reporters. Educators perceive college preparation to be significantly more important than do news directors.

Both educators and news directors believe it is important for television reporters to possess an 211 undergraduate college degree, but educators rate a formal college education as significantly more important than do news directors. Educators believe expertise in a specific area such as education, law, medicine, business, consumer affairs, agriculture, etc.; possession of a college degree in any media-related field; and involvement in college extracurricular activities are factors which are important for reporters, while news directors do not find these factors to be important. Educators rate each of these factors significantly more important than do news directors. Neither educators nor news directors believe a major in broadcast journalism or a master's degree is important for a television reporter. News directors perceive these two college preparation items as significantly less important than do educators- A major conclusion of this study is that both news directors and educators value a college degree for television reporters, but educators value it more highly than news directors. It is not surprising that educators find formal education more important than news practitioners. News directors and educators rated seventeen academic subjects relative to their importance in the college preparation of a television reporter. Both groups agree English composition (writing and grammar) and political

/ 212 science are the two most important academic subjects for television reporters. This finding emphasizes the importance of writing skills and an understanding of the political process as essential for reporters. Journalism, broadcast journalism, and history are the next three most important subjects according to news directors and educators. Both groups also perceive economics, radio-television, business, literature, sociology, and logic as important. Natural sciences and computer science are regarded by educators and news directors as less important subjects in preparing television reporters. There is a significant difference between the perceptions of news directors and educators regarding which academic subjects are important in educating television reporters. Out of seventeen academic subjects, there are significant differences between news director and educator perceptions regarding twelve subjects. News directors believe a study of business is significantly more important for reporters than do educators. Although both news directors and educators believe the following academic subjects are important, educators perceive them to be significantly more important than news directors. The subjects are: political science, 'history, economics, humanities, logic, sociology, and broadcast journalism. \ __/ 213 News directors do not believe philosophy, psychology, and foreign language are important subjects for prospective television reporters to take in college. Educators perceive the subjects not only as important, but significantly more important than news directors. Both groups do not value computer science very highly as an academic subject for reporters; news directors find the discipline to be significantly less important than educators.

Hypothesis 4: There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding the college preparation needed by television reporters. The null hypothesis was rejected based on the results of the statistical test (t-test).

Undergraduate Majors for Television Reporters News directors and educators value an undergraduate college degree for prospective television reporters. Both groups prefer that students have an undergraduate major in liberal arts with some broadcast journalism or a major in broadcast journalism. A significant number of news directors and educators throughout the country also believe journalism is a good undergraduate major for "would be" 214 television reporters. Both groups recommend that prospective reporters earn a college degree in order to prepare themselves to be successful broadcast reporters.

Securing a Job as a Television Reporter News directors and educators agree the two most important factors in securing a job as a television reporter as measured by the survey questionnaire are a personal interview and a professional audition tape. Both groups believe previous employment in a television news department, television news intern experience, and an effective cover letter and resume are also important factors when seeking a job as a television reporter. Previous radio experience was not rated as important by either group. As an aggregate category, there is a significant difference between the perceptions of news directors and educators regarding factors related to securing a job as a television reporter. Educators believe the factors included in the survey questionnaire are significantly more important in securing employment as a television reporter than do news directors. Three factors reflected significant mean differences between news directors and educators. Educators believe television news intern experience and an effective cover letter and resum.e are significantly more important in

/ v_ 215 securing a job as a reporter than do news directors, although both groups value both factors. Neither group believes radio experience is very helpful to "would be" television reporters, although news directors find radio experience significantly less important than do educators.

Hypothesis 5: There will be no significant difference in perceptions between television news directors and broadcast journalism educators regarding important factors in securing a job as a television reporter. The null hypothesis was rejected based on the results of the statistical test (t-test).

News Director Market Size There are significant differences in the perceptions of news directors from various market sizes regarding the educational preparation needed by television news reporters. Following are conclusions based on the findings of the study. Skills and competencies: 1 . "To be able to shoot ENG videotape" is not an important skill for television reporters in any market size; however, small market news directors believe the sjcill is significantly more important than news directors from other size markets. This finding suggests that

/ / 216 reporters in most markets have a videographer assigned to shoot their stories. Reporters are expected to concentrate on producing, writing, and reporting, rather than videography.

2. News directors in major and large markets do not believe "to be able to edit ENG videotape" is an important skill for reporters; however, medium and small market news directors find the skill is important. Medium and small market news directors value editing as a significantly more important skill than do news directors in major markets. This finding indicates that reporters in the smaller markets are expected to do their own editing. 3. "To be able to perform a 'standupper' on tape" is an important skill in all market sizes. The importance of the skill increases as the market size increases. News directors in major markets believe performing "standuppers" is a significantly more important skill than news directors in small markets. The ability to appear on camera in a videotape package is an important pre-requisite for reporters in all market sizes. 4. Although news directors from all market sizes think it is important for reporters "to be able to perform 'live' standup reports," news directors in major, large, and medium markets rate the skill significantly more important than do small market news directors. This finding indicates that most television news departments now

/ -^ ^^ 217 have live remote units. Most stations use reporters to conduct live interviews from the field. This skill is less important in small markets which may not have live news gathering capability.

5. The ability "to exhibit effective on-camera delivery skills" is important in all markets, although small and medium market news directors find the skill significantly less important than news directors in major markets. On-camera skills are important for all television reporters, but they are especially valuable in larger markets. Reporters must be effective on-camera communicators, especially in the larger television markets. 6. News directors in all market sizes want reporters "to possess effective vocal delivery skills." The importance of vocal skills increases as the market size increases. Major market news directors believe vocal skills are significantly more important than news directors in small markets. It is apparent that on-air communication skills are important competencies for reporters working in all market sizes, but mastery of those skills becomes more important as the reporter advances into larger markets. Securing a Job as a Television Reporter: 1 . All market size news directors believe "previous employment in a TV news department" is an important factor in getting a job as a television reporter, but previous

/ / 218 experience is significantly more important in obtaining major and large market reporter positions than for similar positions in medium and small markets. News directors from major and large markets value previous experience as significantly more important than their counterparts in medium and small markets. Reporters who wish to advance to larger markets must gain experience in smaller markets. 2. Large, medium, and small market news directors believe "television news intern experience" is an important factor in gaining employment as a television reporter. News directors in the major markets think an internship is significantly less important in obtaining a TV news position than do news directors in the other three market sizes. Students who complete news department internships in college have an advantage over those who do not. 3. Although news directors in all four market sizes do not value "radio experience" of prospective news employees very highly, a significant difference exists between the perceptions of news directors in large and small markets on this issue. Large market news directors find "radio experience" to be significantly less important than do news directors in small markets. Small market news directors, who usually hire reporters without much previous experience, see radio as valid training for prospective television reporters. 219 Hypothesis 6: There will be no significant difference in perceptions regarding the educational needs of television reporters among news directors from major, large, medium and small markets. The null hypothesis was rejected based on the results of the statistical test (Scheffe' one-way analysis of variance).

News Director Age Significant differences in perceptions regarding the educational needs of television reporters exist among news directors based on their age. Following are conclusions based on the analysis of the findings: Skills and competencies: 1 . All news directors believe "to be able to perform 'live' standup reports (intro, interview, close)" is an important skill for reporters, but older news directors find the skill significantly more important than younger news directors. 2. News directors 55 years of age or younger do not value word processing skills as an important competency for television reporters; however, news directors 56 years of age or older think the ability to use a word processor is important. 220 College preparation:

1 . It is important for reporters "to possess a college degree in any media-related field" according to older news directors (age 56+). Younger news directors disagree with their older counterparts. As a group, news directors recommend that students wishing to pursue a career in television news Should earn a college degree. 2. Although news directors of all ages value "history" as an important academic subject in the preparation of television reporters, news directors 36-45 years of age find "history" to be significantly more important than do news directors age 18-35. 3. A study of "computer science" is not very important for television reporters, according to news directors 55 years of age or less; however, older news directors (56+) find "computer science" significantly more important. This finding is somewhat surprising because of the trend toward computerization of newsrooms, especially in larger markets. 4. News directors of all ages believe television reporters should be well versed in "literature." Older news directors (56+) find a study of "literature" to be significantly more important than their younger counterparts. V.

221 Securing a job as a television reporter: 1 . Although news directors of all ages believe "TV news intern experience" is an important factor in obtaining employment as a television reporter, news directors age 18- 35 find an internship significantly more important than do news directors age 36-45. An internship provides an advantage to students who are seeking a position in television news.

2. Only older news directors (56+) believe it is important for those seeking a television reporter position to have previous "radio experience." Younger news directors do not value "radio experience," and they find it significantly less important than their older cohorts. Prospective television reporters should concentrate on securing a television news internship as well as news experience in smaller markets rather than radio experience.

News Director Educational Background Significant differences are indicated in news director responses to six items on the survey questionnaire based on the educational background of the news directors. Following are conclusions based on analysis of the findings: Skills and competencies: 1 . News directors of all educational backgrounds find it extremely important for television reporters "to be able

/ 222 to write clearly in a conversational broadcast style." The ability to write clearly is the highest rated skill by all news directors. News directors with graduate degrees believe that clear writing is significantly more important than do news directors with little or no formal higher education. The ability to write well is a pre-requisite for all television reporters- Personal characteristics: 1 . The ability "to cope effectively with job-related stress" is a very important personal characteristic for television reporters to possess. News directors of all educational backgrounds value this characteristic highly; however, news directors with less than a four-year degree believe the ability to successfully cope with job-related stress is a significantly more important personal characteristic for reporters than do news directors with a four-year bachelor's degree. All television reporters must learn to effectively cope with stress. 2. Another personal characteristic which is highly important for reporters is the ability "to accept direction." News directors of all educational levels find this characteristic very important; however, news directors with little or no formal higher education believe the ability "to accept direction" is significantly more important than news directors with bachelor's or graduate degrees.

/ 223 3. News directors of all educational backgrounds value the personal characteristic which allows reporters "to possess a 'tough skin' and accept criticism." News directors with less than a four-year degree find this characteristic to be significantly more important than do news directors with a bachelor's degree. All television reporters must learn how to accept criticism in their job. College preparation: 1. News directors with a bachelor's or a master's degree believe it is significantly more important for television reporters "to have completed a college degree" than do news directors with little or no formal higher education. It is not surprising that news directors with college degrees would place more importance on higher education for reporters than those news directors with little education. With the trend toward more news directors possessing college degrees, prospective television reporters are well-advised to complete a college education. 2. News directors with less than a four-year degree believe "logic" is an important academic subject for television reporters. News directors with bachelor's degrees do not agree. News directors with little or no formal higher education find "logic" is significantly more important than do news directors with a bachelor's degree. 224 News Director Experience Significant differences are indicated in news director responses to two items on the survey {questionnaire based on the experience levels of the news directors. Following are conclusions based on analysis of the findings: Skills and competencies: 1 . News directors of all experience levels believe it is important for television reporters "to be able to perform 'live' standup reports (intro, interview, close)"; however, news directors with 10-15 years experience as news director find "live" standup reports to be a significantly more important skill than do news directors with 0 to 2 years experience. College preparation: 1 . Although news directors of all experience levels find completion of a "college degree" to be important for television reporters, news directors who are relatively new in their position (0 to 2 years) value a college degree as significantly more important than do veteran news directors with 15+ years experience in the top news position. Prospective television reporters are well-advised to earn a college degree as a pre-requisite to a career in broadcast news. 225 Hypothesis 7: There will be no significant difference in perceptions regarding the educational needs of television reporters among news directors of varying demographic backgrounds such as age, educational attainment and experience as a news director. The null hypothesis was rejected based on the results of the statistical test (Scheffe' one-way analysis of variance).

Conclusions Following are specific conclusions which emerged as a result of this study:

Conclusion 1 Overall, there is remarkable agreement between news directors and educators regarding the educational needs of television reporters. Very few items in each of the five •*. • categories reflect absolute bi-polar disagreement between educators and news directors. Rather, significant differences in the responses of the two groups reflect differences in the degree of importance for various items. News directors and educators agree as to the relative importance of most skills and competencies, general knowledge, personal characteristics, academic preparation and factors related to securing a job as a television reporter. Where differences do exist, educators rank most

/ 226 items as more important than news directors except in the category of personal characteristics.

Some have suggested that a great chasm exists between educators and news professionals regarding how television reporters ought to be prepared for the industry. This study concludes that a great difference between those two groups does not exist.

It is not surprising that college professors tend to give most items a higher importance ranking than do news directors. Educators may tend to be more idealistic while news directors are realists who have firsthand knowledge of the demands of broadcast journalism.

Conclusion 2 A significant finding of this study lies in the rank ordering of the 70 items on the survey cjuestionnaire by both news directors and educators rather than in the mean differences between the two population groups. News director mean scores were higher than educator mean scores on only 18 of the 70 items. There was a significant difference between news director and educator mean scores on only eight of those items. Educator mean scores were higher than news director mean scores on 52 of the 70 cjuestionnaire items. Significant differences were found between news director and educator mean scores on 30 of those items. Although significant differences existed 227 between news director and educator responses on a total of 38 questionnaire items, the rank ordering of the two groups in each of the five categories was remarkably similar. In conclusion, reink differences were more important in analyzing the results of this study than mean differences. Because news directors are the primary employers of broadcast journalism graduates, it behooves educators to carefully scrutinize the rank ordering of news directors concerning educational needs of prospective television reporters in order to prepare them adequately for the industry. In a market-driven industry such as broadcast journalism, educators bear the burden of providing the industry with employees educated and trained to meet their needs.

Conclusion 3 Five categories related to the educational needs of television reporters were analyzed in the study. Educators ranked four of those categories as significantly more important for prospective television reporters than did news directors. The categories were: (1) skills and competencies, (2) general knowledge, (3) college preparation (academic subjects) and (4) securing a job as a television reporter. News directors rated only the category of personal characteristics as significantly m.ore important for 228 reporters than did educators. These results are not surprising. Educators valued those factors which they can to a large degree, control with the curriculum in the classroom. Specific skills and competencies needed by the profession can be taught such as writing, interviewing, and vocal delivery. General knowledge can be emphasized by requiring students to read widely and to keep up to date on current affairs. Certain academic subjects can be required in a broadcast journalism curriculum such as English composition, political science, journalism, broadcast journalism, history, economics, radio-television, business and literature. Students can even be taught effective job interviewing skills as well as techniques in preparing an effective audition tape. News directors do not denigrate the importance of these factors; indeed, they value them. But as a group, news directors also want their reporters to possess certain personal characteristics such as dependability, the ability to handle deadline pressure, to work cooperatively, to accept direction and to cope with stress. News directors emphasize the importance of prospective employees having realistic expectations of the job, exhibiting aggressiveness, demonstrating self-confidence and accepting criticism. These personal characteristics, so highly valued by news directors, are much more difficult to teach in the college classroom. Educators must develop ways to

/ V- -^ 229 stress these personal characteristics to students throughout their years in college. The broadcast journalism graduates who will be most successful as television reporters are those who possess good journalistic skills and a sound knowledge base including a college degree, but who also demonstrate the personal characteristics which news directors desire. In ' conclusion, while educators emphasize skills and competencies, general knowledge and academic preparation, news directors want prospective television reporters to have effective personal characteristics as well.

Conclusion 4 Another major conclusion of this study is that both news directors and educators want prospective television reporters to earn an undergraduate college degree. Neither group believes it is important for reporters to possess a graduate degree. Both news directors and educators recommend that students who wish to pursue a career in television reporting have an undergraduate major in liberal arts with some broadcast journalism or a major in broadcast journalism. A significant number of news directors and educators throughout the country also believe journalism is a good undergraduate major for television reporters. 230 While news directors demand that the reporters they hire possess specific journalistic skills and competencies, they also want their employees to be well-versed in the liberal arts. The emphasis on both journalistic skill training and liberal arts presents broadcast journalism educators with a challenging dilemma—how to prepare students adecjuately in both areas in four years of college. Adding to the dilemma is the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication accreditation requirement which allows colleges and universities to offer no more than 25 percent of their curriculum in discipline specific courses. The remaining 75 percent of the curriculum consists of liberal arts. The television news internship should be emphasized more by educators to help teach specific journalistic skills and to provide students with realistic job expectations. Both news directors and educators rated an internship as important for students. News directors believe reporters who know the tools of their profession, but who do not command an overall understanding and appreciation of the human condition, cannot be as effective and successful reporters as they should be. Education in the liberal arts provides students with critical thinking and problem-solving skills, the ability to synthesize and analyze and an understanding of man's common experience. The reporter who can write a lead

/ 231 and edit a videotape story "package" but who has no understanding of history, economics and the political process commits a great disservice to his audience. The American public, who now depend so much on television news to inform and enlighten them, deserve much more. In conclusion, colleges and universities must stress both journalistic skill training and liberal arts in their broadcast journalism curriculum. The news internship must become an integral element in the broadcast journalism undergraduate major. Educators and television news professionals must find ways to cooperate in educating prospective reporters.

Conclusion 5 Another conclusion of this study is that market size is a significant factor in determining which skills and competencies are needed by television reporters. Reporters in small and medium markets should be able to edit ENG videotape, but this skill is not important in large and major markets. Although the following skills are important in all markets, they become increasingly more important as the market size increases: performing "standuppers" on tape, conducting "live" standup reports and interviews, effective on-camera delivery skills and effective vocal delivery skills. 232 Reporters in small television markets should be prepared to perform a variety of journalistic skills. Reporters must become more proficient at on-camera and delivery skills as they advance to larger markets. The ability to shoot ENG videotape is not important in any market size because of the extensive use of separate news videographers. Reporters are expected to have previous television news experience, especially when applying for jobs in larger markets. A television news internship is important, especially in gaining employment in small markets.

Conclusion 6 Both news directors and educators rate the personal interview and a professional audition tape as the two most important factors in successfully securing a job as a television reporter. Educators must provide opportunities for students to produce an audition tape to use in job interviewing. One objective of news internships should be to allow the student to develop an audition tape. Since news directors highly value key personal characteristics needed by reporters, students must be aware that news directors will attempt to judge those characteristics during the crucially important personal interview. It is much easier to ascertain one's personal v_ 233 characteristics during an interview than it is by reviewing a resume or an audition tape.

Conclusion 7 Since television news directors are the primary employers of broadcast journalism graduates seeking careers in television news, broadcast journalism educators must be diligent in providing the kind of academic programs which meet the needs of news directors. Based on the results of this study, the ideal broadcast journalism undergraduate curriculum should emphasize the following:

Skills and Competencies To possess good basic writing skills To be able to write clearly in a conversational broadcast style To be able to judge the "newsworthiness" of a story ("news sense") To be a good listener To possess effective interviewing skills To be able to put together an air quality videotape story "package" To possess effective vocal delivery skills such as clear articulation and diction To be able to ask probing cjuestions To be able to select a good soundbite from an interview To be able to communicate confidently with news sources To be able to type ^ 234

• To exhibit effective on-camera delivery skills • To be able to perform a "standupper" on tape • To be able to perform "live" standup reports (intro, interview, close)

General Knowledge • To keep up to date on local community issues • To keep up to date on current issues • To be aware of and to be guided by news ethics • To read widely • To have extensive knowledge of local governmental issues • To have extensive knowledge of state governmental issues

Personal Characteristics • To be dependable • To be able to work effectively under deadline pressure • To be able to work cooperatively as part of a team in the newsroom • To be able to accept direction • To be able to cope effectively with job-related stress • To have realistic expectations of the job of a television reporter such as work demands, hours, pay • To exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing a story • To demonstrate self-confidence • To possess a "tough skin" and accept criticism N..^ 235 • To be able to effectively interact with various personality types • To present a "professional" appearance when on a story (grooming and dress)

College Preparation and Academic Subjects • To have completed a college degree (undergraduate) • English Composition (Writing, 'Grammar) . Political Science • Journalism • Broadcast Journalism • History • Economics • Radio-Television • Business • Literature • Humanities • Sociology

Securing a Job as a Television Reporter • Personal interview " Professional audition tape • Previous employment in a television news department • Television news intern experience • Effective cover letter and resume

A broadcast journalism curriculum must teach students journalistic skills such as good writing and interviewing, \^ 236 news sense, and how to produce a videotape story "package" as well as on-camera and vocal delivery skills. Students should be required to develop a strong background in the liberal arts. A minor in political science, history, economics or business would serve the student well in his career as a television reporter. News directors recommend students who desire a career in television news pursue an undergraduate college degree in one of the following majors: (1) liberal arts with some broadcast journalism, (2) broadcast journalism, (3) journalism, or (4) liberal arts. Broadcast journalism programs in colleges and universities which emphasize the areas cited above will provide the television news industry with the best prepared prospective employees, thus meeting the needs of both news directors and students. Broadcast educators should stay well-versed with broadcast journalism industry demands so as to provide the most effective academic programs possible.

Recommendations The following recommendations are made based on the implications of the findings of this study: 1 . Broadcast educators and colleges and universities should develop a broadcast journalism curriculum at the baccalaureate level which emphasizes the major findings of 237 this study relative to the educational needs of television reporters. A model curriculum in broadcast journalism should be designed which addresses both the journalistic skill training and the liberal arts education which news directors recommend. A core curriculum of discipline specific courses should be developed as well as specific liberal arts courses which would be required of all broadcast journalism majors. 2. This study should be replicated every five to eight years in order to stay current with broadcast journalism industry needs. It is vital that academic programs be responsive to those needs. At the same time, educators must be wary of educating students so narrowly that they lack the flexibility to be able to adapt to changing needs of the industry and of society in the future. 3. A research study should be conducted to determine if what news directors perceive to be important in preparing prospective television reporters is indeed valid. In effect, if a student possess the educational background, general knowledge, and skills and competencies which news directors recommend, would they be effective and successful reporters? This study would require an empirical measurement of "success" and "effectiveness." In short, do the recommendations of news directors have validity? -\— ^ 238 4. A study should be conducted to determine how to develop a broadcast journalism program which can successfully interface higher education and the television news industry. Perhaps colleges and universities could provide the liberal arts and general education for students; television news departments could provide on-the- job training through internships. Although professional internships have been a part of broadcast education for many years, how could the internship be improved? What are the elements of a successful internship program? Should an internship be required of all students for a degree in broadcast journalism? 5. Research should be conducted to determine ways to successfully teach students the personal characteristics recommended by news directors to be effective as a television reporter. How do broadcast educators teach personal characteristics such as dependability, coping with stress and deadline pressure, working cooperatively, accepting direction and having realistic expectations of the job. Since news directors value these key personal characteristics so highly, more research in this area is needed. Corollary research should be conducted to determine how certain personal characteristics can be assessed? In short, how can news directors ascertain the personal characteristics of prospective employees? x ^/ 239 6. More research is needed to determine what news directors specifically want students to receive from a liberal arts education. Because the liberal arts encompasses a broad range of academic subjects, it is necessary to determine specifically what courses can provide reporters with the knowledge and understanding they need. 7. College and university faculty should be provided opportunities to participate in professional broadcast journalism internships in television news departments. The more dialogue which can be created between educators and news professionals, the better the relationship can be between these two groups. Thus, educators can remain familiar with current industry needs and can ensure that those needs are addressed in broadcast journalism academic programs. 8. A study to determine the educational needs of radio reporters should be conducted to determine if radio journalism needs are significantly different from television journalism needs. LITERATURE CITED

Abel, J. D., & Jacobs, F. N. (1975, Fall). Radio station manager attitudes toward broadcasting graduates. Journal of Broadcasting, IJi, 439-452. Adkins, G. R. (1986, Summer). Critical qualities for successful employment in commercial television stations. Feedback, 22(5), 18-21. Bagdikian, B. H. (1977, March). Woodstein U.: Notes on the mass production and questionable education of journalists. Atlantic, 239, 80-92. Baskette, F. K. (1942, December). What radio station managers want in college-trained radio workers. Journalism Quarterly, 30, 383-387. Bittner, J. R., & Bittner, D. A. (1977). Radio journalism. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bliss, E., & Patterson, J. M. (1978). Writing news for broadcast (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Brand, R. C. (1942, April). The status of college and university instruction in radio training. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 28, 156-160. Burger, C. F. X. (1953). Preparing the student for a TV news job. Journalism Quarterly, 30, 63-65. By the numbers: Summary of broadcasting and cable. (1989, July 3). Broadcasting, p. 10. Carlisle, R. D. B. (1976, April). Poor reception for broadcast graduates. Change, 8_, 50-53. Carrol, R. (1986, Summer). Editor's perspective: Human capital. Feedback, 22(5), 2. Charnley, M. V. (1952). Requirements for a basic course in television news. Journalism Quarterly, 29, 331-332. Cohler, D. K. (1985). Broadcast journalism: A guide for the presentation of radio and television news. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

240 ^^ IIIIIBIM"''^ 241 Coleman, L. S., McGill, J. H., & Williams, F. L. (Eds.). '''^Q'7)- Journalism and mass communication directory, 5_, A membership directory of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina. Council on radio journalism planned by NAB and AASDJ. (1944, December). Journalism Quarterly. 21, 324-327. Grain, R. (1985, February 21). Journalism, liberal arts make good mix. Advertising age, p. 34. Cronkite, W. (1980, December 9). Third annual Frank E. Gannett lecture sponsored by the Washington Journalism Center. Della-Giustina, M. A. (1985). An analysis of major, large, medium, and small market television news directors perceptions of the appropriate college education for television news students (Doctoral dissertation, Boston University, 1985). Dissertation Abstracts International, 46/12-A, 3520. Donner, S. T. (1960, January-February). Curriculum dilemma: Broadcasting students need liberal education. The NAEB Journal, 19., 36-39. Dudek, L. J. (1975, November). Pragmatic proposals for professional pedagogy in education for broadcasting. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Educational Broadcasters, Washington, D. C. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 118 090) Eastman, S. T. (1985, Winter). Directions for telecommunications. Feedback, 22(3), 23-27. Electronic media career preparation study. (1987, December). A study conducted by The Roper Organization Inc. sponsored by the International Television and Radio Society, the Radio-Television News Directors Association and the National Association of Television Program Executives, 1-69. (The Roper Study) Elmore, G. C. (1983, January). The status of broadcast education in institutions of higher learning. Communication Education, 32, 69-77. Fisher, H. A. (1978, Spring). Broadcast journalists' perceptions of appropriate career preparation. Journalism Quarterly, 45, 140-144."

,/ 242 Foster, E. S. (1982). Understanding broadcasting (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Gross, L. S. (1986). Telecommunications: An introduction to radio, television, and other electronic media (2nd ed.). Dubuque, lA: Wm. C. Brown. Guback, T. H. (1960, Spring). Employment practices and educational preparation for broadcasting. Journal of Broadcasting, £, 144-153. Hall, M. W. (1986). Broadcast journalism: An introduction to newswritinq (3rd ed.). New York: Hastings House. Harless, J. D., & Collins, E. L. (1974, August). Hiring practices and news program values of U.S. television news directors. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism, San Diego, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 095 562) Head, S. W. (1985, Winter). The telecommunication curriculum: A personal view. Feedback, 22(3), 9-12. Head, S. W., & Martin, L. A. (1956-57, Winter). Broadcasting and higher education. Journal of Broadcasting, 1__, 39-46. Hudson, J. C. (1980). Commercial broadcasters' perceptions of entry-level employment requirements for college graduates in the broadcast industry (Doctoral dissertation. North Texas State University, 1980). Dissertation Abstracts International, 41/11-A, 4532. Hulbert, J. K. (1962, Spring). An introduction to the APBE-NAB broadcasting employment study. Journal of Broadcasting, 6_, 163. Hunter, A. L. (1944, October). Education for radio. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 30, 299-306. Hunter, J. K., & Gross, L. S. (1980). Broadcast news: The inside out. St. Louis, MO: Mosby. Jankowski, G. F. (1986, Summer). Television and teachers: Educating each other. Feedback, 27(5), 13-15. V ^

243 Jankowski, L. J. (1980). Competencies for initial positions in broadcast journalism as oerceived by radio and television news directors and college broadcast educators (Doctoral dissertation. University of Toledo, "•^QO). Dissertation Abstracts International, 41/11-A, 4527. ' ' —' Koppel sparks debate on values of journalism school versus broad academic education. (1987, September 7). Broadcasting, pp. 87-88. Lewis, C.^D. (1984). Reporting for television. New York: Columbia University Press. MacDougall, C. D. (1973, August). What journalism education should be all about. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism, Fort Collins, CO. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 086 987) Mencher, M. (1987). News reporting and writing (4th ed.). Dubuque, lA: Wm. C. Brown. Niven, H. (1961, Summer), The development of broadcasting education in institutions of higher learning. Journal of Broadcasting, 5_, 241-250. Oliver, W. J., & Haynes, R. (1978, September). What radio and TV managers want in broadcast curriculum. Communication Education, 27, 228-234. Oliver, W. J., Haynes, R. B., & Eubanks, R. E. (1988, March 19). Curriculum at the crossroads: What radio and TV managers say about broadcast education. Paper presented before a joint conference on the future of broadcast education convened by members of Broadcast Education Association, Texas Association of Broadcasters, Texas Association of Broadcast Educators, and Texas Broadcast Education Foundation, Inc., Dallas, TX, 1-57. Parcells, F. (1985, July). What broadcast managers want educators to teach. Communication Education, 34, 235- 241 . Pember, D. R. (1981). Mass media in America (3rd ed.). Chicago: Science Research Associates. Pember, D. R. (1987). Mass media in America (5th ed.). Chicago: Science Research Associates. 244 Planning for curricular change: A report of the project on the future of journalism and mass communication education. (1984). School of Journalism, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR. (The Oregon Report) Planning for curricular change in journalism education: Project on the future of journalism and mass communication education (2nd ed.). (1987, November). School of Journalism, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR. (The Oregon Report) Riley, D. W. (1938, December). The place of radio in the speech curriculum today. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 24., 622-627. Rushing, S. K. (1982). Professionalism among television news directors (Doctoral dissertation. University of Mississippi, 1982). Dissertation Abstracts International, 43/03-A, 694. Salant, R. S. (1975, January 25). The media and the state: A view from the Unites States. A lecture before the Australia Institute of Political Science. Canberra, Australia. Scanlon, R. (1944, April).- Television and departments of speech. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 30, 140-143. Shaw, B. (1987, September). I worry. RTNDA Communicator, 43. Shook, F. (1982). The process of electronic news gathering. Englewood, CO: Morton Publishing. Smith, L. F. (1964, Fall). Education for broadcasting 1929-1963. Journal of Broadcasting 8_, 383-398. Standards for broadcast journalism education. (1961, Spring). A statement of the Council on Radio and Television Journalism of the Association for Education in Journalism. Journal of Broadcasting, 5_, 161-164. Standards for college courses in radio broadcasting. Federal Radio Education Committee. (1945, April). Quarterly Journal of Speech, 31, 186-189. Sterling, C. H., & Kittross, J. M. (1978). Stay tuned: A concise history of American broadcasting. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Stone, V. A. (1970, Spring). Broadcast news educators and the profession. Journalism Quarterly, 42, 162-165.

/ 'X -^ 245

Stone, V. A. (1987, November). News directors say writing helped them most. RTNDA Communicator, 9-10, 14. Taishoff, S. (Ed.). (1987). Broadcasting/cablecasting yearbook. Washington, DC: Broadcasting Publications, Inc.

Taylor, J. S. (1976, Spring). Broadcast education as career preparation—how good is it? Central States Speech Journal, 22/ 59-69. The press and the people—a survey. (1939, August). Fortune, 20.(2), p. 65. TV basics. (1985). Pamphlet by the Television Bureau of Advertising, New York. Ware, P. D. (1980, Autumn). Desirable communication behaviors for broadcast journalism graduates. Journalism Quarterly, 42, 468-473. Weymouth, L. (1981, January/February). Walter Cronkite remembers. Washington Journalism Review, p. 24. White, L. (1947). The American radio. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. White, T., Meppen, A. J., & Young, S. (1984). Broadcast news writing, reporting, and production. New York: Macmillan. Williams, H. M. (1949, October). The status of courses in radio. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 35, 329-333. Wulfemeyer, K. T. (1981). Perceived value of college training by professional journalists in three metropolitan areas (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42/10-A, 4187. Yoakam, R. D., & Cremer, C. F. (1985). ENG: Television news and the new technology. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. APPENDICES

A. PILOT PRE-TEST COVER LETTER B. TELEVISION NEWS DIRECTOR COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE C. BROADCAST JOURNALISM EDUCATOR COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE D. SECOND MAILING COVER LETTER

246

/ ^

APPENDIX A: PILOT PRE-TEST

COVER LETTER

March 5, 1988

Mr. Martin Haag News Director WFAA-TV Ccxnmunications Center Dallas, TX 75202 Dear Mr. Haag: As a television news director, you probably have some definite opinions regarding the educational preparation of reporters you hire in your news operation. In an effort to identify specific educational needs of television reporters, I am conducting a survey in cooperation with the Institute of Communication Research at Texas Tech University. Enclosed is a c^estionnaire which asks your opinion of skills, general knowledge, personal characteristics, and college preparation needed by television reporters. The purpose of this nationwide survey of television news directors is to improve broadcast journalism programs in colleges and universities. Findings will be shared with the Radio-Television News Directors Association euid with broadcast educators. I will also use the survey results in my doctoral dissertation at Texas Tech University. You have been selected to participate in a pilot study to pre­ test the survey qfuestionnaire. Please complete the enclosed questionnaire and return it to me in the enclosed envelope (no postage required) by March 14, 1988. If you find any items on the questionnaire to be confusing or unclear, please indicate such on the questionnaire. Your response is very important in establishing the validity of the questionnaire. Thank you for your cooperation in this television news research project. With your assistance, the results of this survey can help establish more effective broadcast journalism programs. Sincerely,

£1, Paul Matney Institute of Communication Research TexaS/Tech University

Please check if you would like a copy of the results of this survey.

247 APPENDIX B: TELEVISION NEWS DIRECTOR COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE

INSTITUTE FOR COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH

April 4, 1988

Dear News Director:

As a television news director, you probably have some definite opinions regard­ ing the educational preparation of reporters you hire in your news operation. In an effort to identify specific educational needs of television reporters, I am conducting a survey in cooperation with the Institute for Communications Research at Texas Tech University.

Enclosed is a questionnaire which asks your opinion of skills, general knowledge, personal characteristics, and college preparation needed by tel­ evision reporters. The purpose of this nationwide survey of television news directors is to improve broadcast journalism programs in colleges and univer­ sities. Findings will be shared with the Radio-Television News Directors As­ sociation and with broadcast educators. I will also use the sun/ey results in my doctoral dissertation at Texas Tech University.

Please complete the enclosed questionnaire and return it to me in the en­ closed envelope (no postage required). Your responses are confidential. The validity of this survey depends on a high percentage of returns. If you desire a summary of the results of this survey, one can be sent to you on request.

Thank you for your cooperation in this television news research project. With your assistance, the results of this survey can help establish more effective broadcast journalism programs and better prospective reporters.

Sincerely,

J. Paul Matney Institute for Communications Research Texas Tech University

248 249

DIRECTIONS: Following Is a list of skills and competencies which might be useful to someone seek­ ing employment as a television reporter. Please circle the number which best describes how you rate the importance of each skill for television reporters in your news department.

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 2 1

SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES

1. To possess good basic writing skills 5 4 3 2

2. To be able to write clearly in a conversational broad­ 5 4 3 2 cast style a To be able to shoot ENG videotape 5 4 3 2 4. To be able to edit ENG videotape 5 4 3 2 5. To possess knowledge of effective photojournalism/ 5 4 3 2 videography basics (composition, visual continuity, shot selection, etc.) 6. To be able to put together an air quality videotape story "package" 7. To be able to perform a "standupper" on tape 5 4 3 2

a To be able to perform "live" standup reports (intro, 5 4 3 2 interview, close) 9. To possess effective inten/iewing skills 5 4 3 2

10. To be able to ask probing questions 5 4 3 2 11. To be able to judge the "newsworthiness" of a story 5 4 3 2 ("news sense") 12. To be able to select a good soundbite from an interview ia To be able to communicate confidently with news sources

14. To be a good listener 5 4 3 2 15. To possess basic computer literacy 5 4 3 2 ia To be able to type 5 4 3 2 ^

250

17. To be able to use a word processor 5 4 3 2

18. To exhibit effective on-camera delivery skills 5 4 3 2

19. To possess effective vocal delivery skills such as 5 4 3 2 clear articulation and diction

20. To possess a pleasant "resonant" voice 5 4 3 2

21. To possess a General American dialect (no discerni­ 5 4 3 2 ble accent) rather than a regional speech dialect

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Following is a list of items pertaining to general knowledge which might be important for a television reporter to possess. Please circle the number which best describes how you rate the importance of each item for television reporters in your news department.

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 2 1

22. To possess a good working knowledge of broadcast law (libei, privacy, open meetings, etc.)

2a To be aware of and to be guided by news ethics 5 4 3 2

24. To read widely (newspapers, news magazines, 5 4 3 2 books, trade publications)

25. To keep up to date on current events 5 4 3 2 26. To keep up to date on local community events 5 4 3 2

27. To have extensive knowledge of local governmental 5 4 3 2 issues 2a To have extensive knowledge of state governmental issues

29. To have extensive knowledge of national govern­ mental issues 251

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS Following is a list of personal characteristics which might be important for television reporters to possess. Please circle the number which best describes how you rate the im­ portance of each characteristic as an attribute for television reporters.

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 2 1

30. To be able to work effectively under deadline pres­ sure 31. To be able to cope effectively with job-related stress 5 4 3 2 32. To exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing a story 5 4 3 2 3a To have realistic expectations of the job of a televi­ 5 4 3 2 sion reporter such as work demands, hours, pay ("reality" v. "glamour") 34. To be able to accept direction 5 4 3 2 35. To possess a "tough skin" and accept criticism 5 4 3 2 36L To be able to work cooperatively as part of a team 5 4 3 2 in the newsroom 37. To be cosmetically attractive on camera 5 4 3 2 3a To present a "professional" appearance when on a 5 4 3 2 story (grooming and dress)

39. To be dependable 5 4 3 2 40. "lb demonstrate self-confidence 5 4 3 2 41. To be able to effectively interact with various person­ 5 4 3 2 ality types w^

252

COLLEGE PREPARATION Following is information pertaining to college preparation of television reporters. Please circle the number which best describes your feelings regarding college preparation of tele­ vision reporters.

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 2 1

42. To have completed a college degree (under- 5 4 3 2 graduate) 4a To have completed a Master's degree 5 4 3 2 44. To possess expertise in a specific area such as 5 4 3 2 education, law, medicine, business, consumer af­ fairs, agriculture, etc. 45. To have been involved in extracurricular activities 5 4 3 2 while in college 4a To possess a college degree with a major in broad- 5 4 3 2 cast journalism 47. To possess a college degree in any media-related 5 4 3 2 field (radio-television, mass communications, journal­ ism, etc.) 4a Please rate each of the following academic subjects In a college cuniculum relative to its importance to the preparation of a television reporter: a) Political Science 5 4 3 2 b) History 5 4 3 2 c) Economics 5 4 3 2 d) English Composition (Writing, Grammar) 5 4 3 2 e) Computer Science 5 4 3 2 f) Humanities 5 4 3 2 g) Philosophy 5 4 3 2 h) Logic 5 4 3 2 i) Sociology 5 4 3 2 j) Psychology 5 4 3 2 k) Literature 5 4 3 2 I) Natural Sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Geology, 5 4 3 2 Physics) 253

m) Foreign Language 5 4 3 2 n) Business 5 4 3 2 o) Journalism 5 4 3 2 p) Broadcast Journalism 5 4 3 2 q) Radio-Television 5 4 3 2

49. Following are possible undergraduate majors for television news reporters. Please check the three majors which you prefer or would recommend most for television reporters in your news department. Please check only three.

a) broadcast journalism b) journalism c) radio-television (general) d) liberal arts e) liberal arts with some broadcast journalism f) any degree (doesn't matter) g) prefer reporters with no degree h) other (please llst)^

SECURING A JOB AS A TELEVISION REPORTER

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 1

50. How important are the following items in securing a job as a television reporter in your news department? a) professional audition tape 5 4 3 2 b) previous employment in a television news depart­ 5 4 3 2 ment c) television news intern experience 5 4 3 2 d) effective cover letter and resume 5 4 3 2 e) radio experience 5 4 3 2 f) personal inter/iew 5 4 3 2 254

NEWS DIRECTOR DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

To help interpret the data, please answer the following questions about yourself and your news operation. Thank you.

51. MARKET SIZE: What is your market's current ADI ranking? Please check your market size category.

Major Large Medium Small 1-20 21-50 51-100 101 +

52. AGE: Please check your age category.

18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56+

5a EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND: Please check your highest degree.

a) No degree

b) 2 year Associate Degree

c) 4 year Bachelor Degree

d) Master's Degree

e) Doctoral Degree

In what field is your highest earned degree? —_

54. NEWS DIRECTOR EXPERIENCE: Please check your years experience as a televi- sion news director. a) 0 to 2 years b) 2+ to 5 years c) 5+ to 10 years d) 10+ to 15 years e) 15+ years APPENDIX C: BROADCAST JOURNALISM EDUCATOR COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE

INSTITUTE f=OR CGMMUNJCATIGNS RESEARCH

April 4, 1988

Dear Professor

Broadcast journalism continues to be an attractive employment opportunity for many journalism graduates. Journalism and mass communication edu­ cators across the country continually strive to keep their academic programs consistent with industry demands. In an effort to identify specific educational needs of television reporters, I am conducting a survey in cooperation with the Institute for Communications Research at Texas Tech University. Enclosed is a questionnaire which asks your opinion of skills, general knowledge, personal characteristics, and col­ lege preparation needed by television reporters. The identical questionnaire is being sent to broadcast journalism professors and to television nevt/s directors. The purpose of this nationwide survey is to compare responses of broadcast journalism educators with those of television news directors. Such compari­ son can lead to improved broadcast journalism programs in colleges and universities. Findings will be shared with the Radio-Television News Direc­ tors Association and with broadcast educators, i will also use the survey results in my doctoral dissertation at Texas Tech University. I would appreciate you completing the enclosed questionnaire or routing it to a faculty member on your staff who teaches broadcast joumaiism. The questionnaire should be completed and returned to me in the enclosed enve­ lope (no postage required). Questionnaire responses are confidential. As you know, the validity of the survey depends on a high percentage of returns. If you desire a summary of the results of this survey, one can be sent to you on request. Thank you for your cooperation in this television news research project. With your assistance, the results of this survey can help us develop more effective broadcast joumaiism programs and better prospective reporters.

Sincerely,

J. Paul Matney Institute for Communications Research Texas Tech University

255 256

DIRECTIONS: Following is a list of skills and competencies which might be useful to someone seek­ ing employment as a television reporter. Please circle the number which best describes how you rate the importance of each skill for television reporters.

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 2 1

SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES

1. To possess good basic writing skills 5 4 3 2 2. To be able to write clearly In a conversational broad­ 5 4 3 2 cast style a To be able to shoot ENG videotape 5 4 3 2 4. lb be able to edit ENG videotape 5 4 3 2 5. To possess knowledge of effective photojournalism/ 5 4 3 2 videography basics (composition, visual continuity, shot selection, etc.) a 1b be able to put together an air quality videotape story "package" 7. To be able to perform a "standupper" on tape 5 4 3 2 a To be able to perform "live" standup reports (intro, 5 4 3 2 interview, close) 9. To possess effective interviewing skills 5 4 3 2 10. To be able to ask probing questions 5 4 3 2 11. lb be able to judge the "newsworthiness" of a story 5 4 3 2 ("news sense") 12. To be able to select a good soundbite from an interview ia To be able to communicate confidently with news sou.''ces 14. To be a good listener 5 4 3 2 15. To possess basic computer literacy 5 4 3 2 ia To be able to type 5 4 3 2 ^ 251

17. To be able to use a word processor 5 4 3 2 18. To exhibit effective on-camera delivery skills 5 4 3 2 19. To possess effective vocal delivery skills such as 5 4 3 2 clear articulation and diction

20. To possess a pleasant "resonant" voice 5 4 3 2 21. To possess a General American dialect (no discerni­ 5 4 3 2 ble accent) rather than a regional speech dialect

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Following is a list of items pertaining to general knowledge which might be important for a television reporter to possess. Please circle the number which best describes how you rate the importance of each item for television reporters.

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 2 1

22. To possess a good working knowledge of broadcast law (libel, privacy, open meetings, etc.) 2a To be aware of and to be guided by news ethics 5 4 3 2 24. To read widely (newspapers, news magazines, 5 4 3 2 books, trade publications) 2a To keep up to date on current events 5 4 3 2 2a To keep up to date on local community events 5 4 3 2 27. To have extensive knowledge of local governmental 5 4 3 2 issues 2a To have extensive knowledge of state governmental issues 29. To have extensive knowledge of national govern­ mental issues

T^ .^ 258

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS Following is a list of personal characteristics which might be important for television reporters to possess. Please circle the number which best describes how you rate the im­ portance of each characteristic as an attribute which you want your television reporters to possess.

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 2 1

30. To be able to work effectively under deadline pres­ sure 31. To be able to cope effectively with job-related stress 5 4 3 2

32. To exhibit aggressiveness in pursuing a story 5 4 3 2 3a To have realistic expectations of the job of a televi­ 5 4 3 2 sion reporter such as work demands, hours, pay ("reality" v. "glamour")

34. To be able to accept direction 5 4 3 2 35. To possess a "tough skin" and accept criticism 5 4 3 2

36. To be able to work cooperatively as part of a team 5 4 3 2 in the newsroom 37. To be cosmetically attractive on camera 5 4 3 2 38. To present a "professional" appearance when on a 5 4 3 2 story (grooming and dress)

39. To be dependable 5 4 3 2 40. To demonstrate self-confidence 5 4 3 2 41. To be able to effectively interact with various person­ 5 4 3 2 ality types 259

COLLEGE PREPARATION F=bllowing is information pertaining to college preparation of television reporters. Please circle the number which best describes your feelings regarding college preparation of tele­ vision reporters in your news department.

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 3 2 1

42. To have completed a college degree (under­ graduate) 4a To have completed a Master's degree 5 4 3 2 44. To possess expertise in a specific area such as 5 4 3 2 education, law, medicine, business, consumer af­ fairs, agriculture, etc. 45. To have been involved in extracurricular activities 3 while in college 4a To possess a college degree with a major in broad­ 3 cast joumaiism 47. lb possess a college degree in any media-related 3 field (radio-television, mass communications, journal­ ism, etc.) 4a Please rate each of the following academic subjects in a college curriculum relative to its importance to the preparation of a television reporter: a) Political Science 5 4 3 2 1 b) History 5 4 3 2 1 c) Economics 5 4 3 2 1 d) English Composition (Writing, Grammar) 5 4 3 2 1 e) Computer Science 5 4 3 2 1 f) Humanities 5 4 3 2 1 g) Philosophy 5 4 3 2 1 h) Logic 5 4 3 2 1 i) Sociology 5 4 3 2 1 j) Psychology 5 4 3 2 1 k) Literature 5 4 3 e, 1 1) Natural Sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Geology, 5 1 3 2 1 Physics) «!5^

260

m) Foreign Language 5 4 3 2 n) Business 5 4 3 2 o) Journalism 5 4 3 2 p) Broadcast Journalism 5 4 3 2 q) Radio-Television 5 4 3 2

49. Following are possible undergraduate majors for television news reporters. Please check the three majors which you prefer or would recommend most for television reporters Please check only three. a) broadcast journalism b) journalism c) radio-television (general) d) liberal arts e) liberal arts with some broadcast joumaiism f) any degree (doesn't matter) g) prefer reporters with no degree h) other (please list)

SECURING A JOB AS A TELEVISION REPORTER

SCALE Most Not Important Important Important 5 4 3 2 1

50. How important are the following items in securing a job as a television reporter? a) professional audition tape 5 4 3 2 1

1 b) previous employment in a television news depart­ 5 4 3 2 t ment c) television news Intern experience 5 4 3 2 1 d) effective cover letter and resume 5 4 3 2 1 e) radio experience 5 4 3 2 1 0 personal interview 5 4 3 2 1 261

BROADCAST JOURNALISM EDUCATOR DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

To help interpret the data, please answer the following questions about yourself. 51. AGE: Please check your age category.

18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56+

52. EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND: Please indicate your highest degree.

a) Bachelor Degree

b) Master's Degree

c) Doctoral Degree

In what field is your highest earned degree?

5a JOURNALISM EDUCATOR EXPERIENCE: Please check your years experience as a journalism or broadcast journalism educator. . a).0 to 2 years . b) 2+ to 5 years . c) 5+ to 10 years . d) 10+ to 15 years . e) 15+ years APPENDIX D SECOND MAILING COVER LETTER

April 18, 1988

Dear News Director:

A couple of weeks ago you received a questionnaire which asks your opinion of skills, general knowledge, personal characteristics and college preparation needed by television reporters. Enclosed is another copy of the questionnaire.

If you have already returned the survey, please disregard this reminder. If you have not completed the questionnaire, please consider doing so and return it to me in the enclosed envelope (no postage required). Your response is confidential.

The validity of this study depends on a high percentage of questionnaires being returned. Thank you for your cooperation in this television news research project.

Sincerely,

M Paul Matney Institute for Communications Research Texas Tech University Enclosures

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