Frank Kressing Abschlußbericht Zum Forschungsprojekt Fremdheitslage

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Frank Kressing Abschlußbericht Zum Forschungsprojekt Fremdheitslage Frank Kressing Abschlußbericht zum Forschungsprojekt Fremdheitslage, Fremdheitslast und Fremdheitslösungen im buddhistischen Ladakh – Perzeptions- und Abgrenzungsmechanismen in einer Region des indischen Himalayas - gefördert von der Stiftung Volkswagenwerk 1998 – 2001 - Teilprojekt (2): Schamanenproliferation in Ladakh1 INHALTSVERZEICHNIS Seite A. EINLEITUNG 3 1. Schamanismus: Grundbegriffe 3 1.1. Definitionen des Schamanismus 3 1.2. Zur Phänomenologie der schamanischen Trance .7 1.3. Berufung und Initiation des Schamanen/ der Schamanin 9 1.4. Alter, Herkunft und Verbreitung des Schamanismus 10 2. Schamanismus in Ladakh 12 2.1. Die Besonderheiten des Schamanismus in Ladakh 13 2.1.1. Die Proliferation des Schamanismus in Ladakh 13 2.1.2. Oracles: in Ladakh: Dorforakel versus Klosterorakel 14 2.1.3. Rituelle und soziale Funktionen der Schamaninnen und Schamanen 14 2.1.4. Der Charakter der Trance 15 2.1.5. Berufung, Initiation und Ausbildung 16 2.1.6. Das Verhältnis von Schamanismus und Buddhismus 18 2.1.7. Zusammenfassung: Die Besonderheiten des Schamanismus in Ladakh 18 2.2. Der Stand der bisherigen Forschung zum Schamanismus in Ladakh 20 3. Die Fragestellung des vorliegenden Projektes 20 4. Die Einordnung der Fragestellung 23 4.1. Schamanismus und Buddhismus im Kontext des Synkretismus 24 4.2. Revitalisierung und Proliferation des Schamanismus 25 4.3. Die Wiederbelebung des Schamanismus in Sibirien - Fallbeispiele 31 2 4.3.1. Sacha / Jakutien 33 4.3.2. Tyva 35 4.3.3. Burjatien 36 4.3.4. Die manschutungusischen Völker des Fernen Ostens 37 4.3.5. Uralische Völker Westsibiriens 39 4.4.6. Zusammenfassende Bemerkungen zur Revitalisierung ("Renaissance") des Schamanismus in Nordasien 39 5. Untersuchungsmethode und Datenbasis 40 5.1. Untersuchungsmethode und sample 40 5.2. Die Datenbasis 41 5.3. Die Auswertung der Daten 42 B. ERGEBNISSE 44 1. Belege zur Proliferation des schamanischen Angebots 44 2. Ursachentheorien zum Berufungszuwachs 49 2.1. Schamanen 49 2.2. Klienten und potentielle Klienten 62 2.3. Angehörige des buddhistischen Klerus 67 2.4. Hypothesen zur Bewertung 74 3. Ursachentheorien zum Bedarfszuwachs 80 3.1. Schamaninnen und Schamanen 80 3.2. Klienten und potentielle Klienten 93 3.3. Hypothesen zur Bewertung 98 C. DISKUSSION DER ERGEBNISSE 100 1. Die Ursachentheorien im Kontext der Akulturationsbegrifflichkeit 101 2 Die Ursachentheorien im Kontext von Revitalisierungskonzepten 107 3. Offene Fragestellungen und Anregungen für künftige Forschung (Desiderata) 108 Literaturverzeichnis 110 Glossar 119 Danksagung 125 1 Unveröffentlichtes Manuskript, 2001. 3 A. EINLEITUNG In Ladakh2 ist in den letzten Jahrzehnten eine bemerkenswerte Ausweitung schamanischer Praktiken der als oracle (lha mo, lha pa) bezeichneten Volksheilerinnen und -heiler zu ver- zeichnen, so daß sich von einer "Proliferation" des Schamanismus sprechen läßt. Diese Proli- feration findet auf zwei Ebenen statt: (1) Weitaus mehr Menschen als früher werden zu Schamanen berufen (Berufungsaspekt). (2) Es gibt ein weitaus größeres Klientel als früher (Aspekt des Bedarfs an schamanischer Heilung). Diese sprunghafte Zunahme der Schamanen und ihrer Heil- und Divinationstätigkeit in La- dakh soll im folgenden mit der rezenten Ausweitung schamanischer Praktiken in anderen Tei- len der Welt (namentlich Sibirien als dem Gebiet des "klassischen Schamanismus") vergli- chen werden (Kap. 3), wobei diesem Vergleich zunächst einige Definitionen und Begriffsbe- stimmungen vorausgeschickt (Kap. 1) und die spezifischen Besonderheiten des Schamanis- mus in Ladakh herausgestellt werden (Kap. 2). 1. Schamanismus: Grundbegriffe Überblick über Kap. 1 1.1. Definitionen des Schamanismus 1.2. Zur Phänomenologie der schamanischen Trance 1.3. Berufung und Initiation des Schamanen / der Schamanin 1.4. Alter, Herkunft und Verbreitung des Schamanismus 1.1. Definitionen des Schamanismus Definitionen des Schamanismus wurden mit unterschiedlicher Akzentsetzung u.a. von ELIADE (1957), HULTKRANTZ (1973, 1978), LOMMEL (1980), JOHANSEN (z. B. 1999) und VAJDA 2 Zur besseren Vertrautheit mit der Region Ladakh empfiehlt es sich, Kap. 2: „Die Untersuchungsre- gion“ in Frank Kressing: Abschlußbericht für das von der Stiftung Volkswagenwerk geförderte Forschungsprojekt Fremdheitslage, Fremdheitslast und Fremdheitslösungen im buddhistischen Ladakh –Perzeptions- und Abgrenzungsmechanismen in einer Region des indischen Himalayas (1998 – 2001) - Teilprojekt (1): Subjektive Fremdheitserfahrung in Ladakh (= Subjektive_ Fremd- heitslage_in_Ladakh), S. 6 ff. zu lesen. 4 3 (1959) vorgelegt. Bis auf wenige Ausnahmen (z.B. CHANG 1993; POTAPOV 1991; PUSTOGA- CHEV 1997) gehen alle Autoren davon aus, daß der Schamanismus keine Religion darstellt, sondern vielmehr ein Ritual- und Überzeugungssystem, welches die Handlungen des Scha- manen umgibt und mit anderen religiösen Systemen verknüpft sein kann (vgl. SIIKALA 1987:208-215). Seine wichtigsten Elemente sind: (1) Schamanen können sich in voller Absicht in einen Zustand der Trance oder rituellen Eks- tase versetzen, in dem sie mit ihrer Umgebung kommunizieren4 (2) die Existenz von Hilfs- und Schutzgeistern5 (3) die schamanische Berufung6 und Initiation (4) die Jenseits- oder Himmelsreise (5) eine spezifische Kosmologie mit mehreren Weltschichten (Ober-, Mittel/Erd- und Un- terwelt), welche durch eine vertikale Achse (Weltenbaum, Weltenberg; axis mundi) mit- einander verbunden sind. (6) bestimmte Aufgaben im Dienste einer menschlichen Gemeinschaft,7 vornehmlich Hei- lung, Divination (Orakelwesen) und Sicherung kosmischer Harmonie sowie die Beglei- tung der Totenseelen als sogenannter psychopompos. (7) Heilung durch Zurückholen der entschwundenen Seele (oder eines ihrer Aspekte) oder durch Aussaugen krankheitsverursachender Objekte. (8) Schamanen sind Träger einer spezifischen Kulturtradition.8 3 VAJDA (1959:456-475) nennt als definitorische Merkmale des Schamanismus: "a) rituelle Eksta- se, b) theriomorphe Hilfsgeister, c) Berufung und nicht theriomorphe Schutzgeister, d) die Scha- ma- neninitiation, e) die Jenseitsreise, f) die schamanische Kosmologie, g) den Schamanen- kampf, h) die Schamanausrüstung". 4 JOHANSEN (1999:41), vgl. HULTKRANTZ (1978:11): "The central idea of shamanism is to estab- lish means of contact with the supernatural world by the ecstatic experience of the professional and inspired intermediary, the shaman. There are thus four important constituents of shamanism: the ideological premise, or the supernatural world and the contacts with it; the shaman as the ac- tor on behalf of a human group; the inspiration granted him by his helping spirits; and the ex- traordinary, ecstatic experience of the shaman". 5 "In this state of consciousness they are able to communicate with imagined beings (non-existent from a scientific point of view) whose form is determined by the religion under which they possess their vocation" (JOHANSEN 1999:41). 6 Oft nach schwerer psychischer Krise, vgl. JOHANSEN (1999:41). 7 "They generally induce the religious motivated state of altered consciousness in the interest of, and in accordance with, the whole of their society, in which they act as religious interpreters and to which they convey a feeling of security in relation to the powers of the other world“ (JOHANSEN 1999:41). 8 "In the directly visible forms of their activities, for example in ritual clothing, during rituals or in the preparation of their locality, they are bearers of a tradition" (JOHANSEN 1999:41). 5 SIIKALA (1987:208) gibt folgende Kurzdefinition des nord- und innerasiatischen Schamanis- mus: "Shamanism is founded on a special technique for achieving ecstasy by means of which the shaman enters an altered state of consciousness, and on the idea that the shaman is ac- companied by helping spirits who assist him in this state. While in a state of trance, the shaman is regarded as capable of direct communication with representatives of the other world, either by journeying to the supernatural world or by calling the spirits to the sé- ance. He is thus able to help his fellow men in crises believed to be caused by the spirits and to act as a concrete mediator between this world and the otherworld in accompanying a soul to the otherworld, or fetching it from the domain of the spirits. The shaman acts as a healer and as a patron of hunting and fertility, but also as a diviner, the guardian of liveli- hoods, and so on." Bei allen Autoren gilt als zentrales Element des Schamanismus gilt die Trance oder rituelle Ekstase, ein außergewöhnlicher Bewußtseinszustand (ASC = altered state of conscious- ness),9 der vom normalen Alltagsbewußtsein stark abweicht und damit die Fähigkeit des Schamanen zur Heilung und Weissagung überhaupt erst möglich macht.10 Schamanistische Heilverfahren machen sich somit die non-ordinary reality (SCHARFETTER 1999) zunutze, in- dem sie zur Heilung verschiedene menschliche Bewußtseinsbereiche miteinander verbinden. Die Trance kann in zwei Formen auftreten: (1) Als sogenanntes "Besessenheits-Phänomen", d.b., daß übernatürliche Geistwesen vom Schamanen Besitz ergreifen und seinen Bewußtseinszustand verändern. (2) als Himmels- oder Jenseitsreise des Schamanen in die Ober- oder Unterwelt.11 9 Siehe BOURGUIGNON (1976, 1979, 1989), DITTRICH & SCHARFETTER (1987:35, 36), PETERS (1989), WINKELMAN (1990). 10 Für den sibirischen Schamanismus gilt die Ekstasetechnik als zentrales Element (KÖHLER 1990:259; ELIADE 1957; LOMMEL 1980:7). JOHANSEN (1999:41,42) sieht religiöse Trance als ein Konzept an, welches die Übernahme einer religiösen Rolle ("religious
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