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Introduction San Andreas Fault: an Overview

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Introduction San Andreas Fault: an Overview Introduction This volume is a general geology field guide to the San Andreas Fault in the San Francisco Bay Area. The first section provides a brief overview of the San Andreas Fault in context to regional California geology, the Bay Area, and earthquake history with emphasis of the section of the fault that ruptured in the Great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906. This first section also contains information useful for discussion and making field observations associated with fault- related landforms, landslides and mass-wasting features, and the plant ecology in the study region. The second section contains field trips and recommended hikes on public lands in the Santa Cruz Mountains, along the San Mateo Coast, and at Point Reyes National Seashore. These trips provide access to the San Andreas Fault and associated faults, and to significant rock exposures and landforms in the vicinity. Note that more stops are provided in each of the sections than might be possible to visit in a day. The extra material is intended to provide optional choices to visit in a region with a wealth of natural resources, and to support discussions and provide information about additional field exploration in the Santa Cruz Mountains region. An early version of the guidebook was used in conjunction with the Pacific SEPM 2004 Fall Field Trip. Selected references provide a more technical and exhaustive overview of the fault system and geology in this field area; for instance, see USGS Professional Paper 1550-E (Wells, 2004). San Andreas Fault: An Overview The catastrophe caused by the 1906 earthquake in the San Francisco region started the study of earthquakes and California geology in earnest. Three days after the earthquake, Andrew C. Lawson, the chairman of the geology department of University of California, Berkeley, organized (and was appointed head of by the governor) a State Earthquake Investigation Commission. In 1908 the "Lawson Report" was released. This massive volume contains detailed engineering studies of urban damage caused by the earthquake and fire, and includes studies of the surface rupture and ground failure along the San Andreas Fault and throughout the region. The Lawson Report is still regarded as a significant scientific resource and is hailed as the first organized effort to study earthquake hazards and fault geology in America. In the century that followed, several thousand technical reports and articles have been written about the San Andreas Fault System alone, and this body of knowledge was a fundamental part of the development of the theory of plate tectonics. A Right-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault Motion A major question raised by the 1906 earthquake investigations was why did the surface rupture along the San Andreas Fault show mostly horizontal offset? Although the surface rupture along the fault was highly variable, it was obvious that the west side of the fault had moved northward relative to the east side as much as 20 feet near Point Reyes. This right-lateral offset observed in the 1906 earthquake was not typical of previously studied earthquake surface ruptures, and was contradictory to existing theories of earth processes responsible for the evolution of the landscape. Studies of the San Andreas Fault and California geology have since demonstrated that some great blocks of rock have indeed moved laterally long distances over geologic time. Landscape features such as streams as well as geologically similar bedrock blocks (including distinct volcanic and plutonic rocks, and unique sedimentary deposits of all ages) are all offset along the fault, with youngest rocks offset less than older rocks. The amount and rate of offset along the fault is not consistent from place to place, partly because at the surface the San Andreas often consists of a complex system of parallel and interconnecting faults. Some sections of the fault are constantly creeping along, whereas other sections are locked during periods between episodic large earthquakes. In general, the western Pacific Plate is moving northward at about two inches per year relative to the North American Plate, and much of this motion is accommodated along the San Andreas Fault and is responsible for many large magnitude earthquakes (see figs 1-1 and 1-2). However, the physical offset of the brittle crust near the earth's surface occurs along a number of known and unknown faults, often in an unpredictable fashion. In addition, movement along the San Andreas Fault is not purely right-lateral. There is a component attributed to compressional forces developed across the fault trace as the two plates grind against each other. This compression helped produce the coastal mountain ranges along the fault system through California. The ratio of compression to horizontal displacement typically ranges from 1:10 to 1:20 but varies considerably from one section or strand of the fault to another. 1 Figure 1-1. The San Andreas Fault System has gradually evolved since middle Tertiary time (beginning ~28 million years ago). The San Andreas Fault System grew as a remnant of a oceanic crustal plate and a spreading ridge (like the Juan de Fuca Ridge) were subducted beneath the North American Plate as it moved west relative to the Pacific Plate. The result was the development of a crustal fracture zone with right-lateral offset that propagated along the continental margin (see fig. 1-3 below). This action also slivered off pieces of the North American Plate and added them to the Pacific Plate. Although estimates vary, the maximum offset along the San Andreas Fault is on the order of 470 km (282 miles). However, the fault system which consists of many strands that have experienced different amounts of offset over geologic time. In the San Francisco Bay Area, much of the offset along the San Andreas Fault System has occurred along the East Bay faults (Calaveras and Hayward fault) rather than along the San Andreas Fault itself in the Peninsula region. One fault strand may creep gradually or move episodically through a period of its geologic history, then may later remain locked for thousands of years while motion is transferred to a nearby or evolving strand. Image from This Dynamic Earth, Understanding Plate Motions, available on-line at: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html. Figure 1-2. The San Andreas Fault System has a historic record of moderate to great earthquakes. The surficial expressions of the two greatest historic earthquakes on the San Andreas are fairly well documented. The great San Francisco earthquake of 1906 was similar in magnitude to the great Fort Tejon earthquake of 1857. Both are traditionally reported to have been in the M = 7.8 to 8.3 range. The 1906 quake was documented by many witnesses and by the Lawson Report. In contrast, the 1857 earthquake occurred in a very sparely populated region, but arid conditions have helped to preserve geomorphic features associated with the fault and the earthquake (including in what is now Carrizo Plain National Monument). A land survey conducted in the Carrizo Plain region shortly before the 1857 earthquake has provided a baseline for modern investigations in that area. Map source modified from Schulz, S.S. and Wallace, R.E., [1997], The San Andreas Fault: U.S. Geological Survey, General Interest Publication: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq3/. 2 Figure 1-3. Evolution of the San Andreas Fault. This series of block diagrams shows how the subduction zone along the west coast of North America transformed into the San Andreas Fault over the period from 30 million years ago to the present. Starting at 30 million years ago, the westward-moving North American Plate began to override the spreading ridge between the Farallon Plate and the Pacific Plate. This action divided the Farallon Plate into two smaller plates, the northern Juan de Fuca Plate (JdFP) and the southern Cocos Plate (CP). By 20 million years ago, two triple junctions began to migrate north and south along the western margin of the west coast. [Triple junctions are intersections between three tectonic plates; shown as red triangles in the diagrams.] The change in plate configuration as North American Plate began to encounter the Pacific Plate resulted in the formation of the San Andreas Fault. The northern Mendicino Triple Junction (M) migrated through the San Francisco Bay region roughly 12 to 5 million years ago and is presently located off the coast of northern California, roughly midway between San Francisco (SF) and Seattle (S). The Mendicino Triple Junction represents the intersection of the North American, Pacific, and Juan de Fuca plates. The southern Rivera Triple Junction (R) is presently located in the Pacific Ocean between of Baja California (BC) and Manzanillo, Mexico (MZ). Evidence of the migration of the Mendicino Triple Junction northward through the San Francisco Bay region is preserved as a series of volcanic centers that grow progressively younger toward the north. Volcanic rocks in the Hollister region are roughly 12 million years old whereas the volcanic rocks in the Sonoma-Clear Lake region north of San Francisco Bay ranges from only few million to as little as 10,000 years ago. Both of these volcanic areas, and older volcanic rocks in the region, are offset by the modern regional fault system. [Image modified from USGS Professional Paper 1515.] 3 Bay Area Faults and Earthquakes The Earth's crust in the San Francisco Bay region is broken by hundreds of known faults (and perhaps thousands of unmapped or undiscovered faults). However, only a small percentage of faults extend for distances measurable in miles, and of these, only a few are associated with historic earthquake activity. The most active fault in the region is the San Andreas Fault; however, all of the large faults in the San Francisco Bay region that display recent earthquake activity, or that display Quaternary offset, are part of the greater San Andreas Fault System.
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