Metaphors and Gestures in Music Teaching
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Metaphors and Gestures in Music Teaching: An Examination of Junior High Schools in Taiwan Ya-Chin Chuang PhD University of York Educational Studies June 2010 Abstract In cognitive metaphor theory, metaphor is a conceptual and experiential process that structures our world. This study, taking an applied linguistic’ view on CMT, examines how metaphor is manifested in speech and via gestures by music teachers in classrooms where Mandarin Chinese is the main language employed. Thirteen music sessions by, and interviews with, six teachers in six junior high schools in Taiwan constitute the data. The three-stage analysis focuses on the nature of verbal and gestural metaphors, the relations between verbal and gestural metaphors, their functions, and the educational implications. The study represents an original and exploratory empirical contribution to the field, and the results further support CMT by providing empirical data on how native speakers of Chinese express metaphor via the two modalities. It also contributes to metaphor identification procedures for identifying metaphorically-used words in Chinese, and coding metaphoric gestures. Chapter 1 concerns the motivation for the study, its aims and significance, and the initial research questions. Chapter 2 provides a background context for the study by reviewing the existing research in the field of verbal and gestural metaphor use in (music) classrooms, and by giving an introduction to the current education system in Taiwan. After this, chapters 3 and 4 describe a preliminary and a pilot study designed to explore the ground and examine the feasibility of the intended research design. These are followed by the research design and methodology for the main study in chapter 5. Chapter 6 covers the methods of transcribing, identifying verbal metaphors, and coding metaphoric gestures, used in the main study. The results and discussion of the data analysis of the main study are dealt with in chapter 7. Finally, conclusions, implications, limitations, and suggestions are presented in chapter 8. 2 “A mind enclosed in language is in prison.” --Simone Weil (1909-1943) Contents Title 1 Abstract 2 Contents 4 List of Tables and Figures 17 Abbreviations and Conventions 19 Acknowledgements 20 Author’s Declaration 22 Chapter One INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale 23 1.2 Aims and Significance of the Study 26 1.3 Research Questions 27 1.4 Methodology 27 1.5 Overview of the Study 28 1.6 Synopsis of the Thesis 28 Chapter Two LITERATURE AND CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Metaphor 31 2.1.1 The Conceptual Metaphor View of Metaphor 35 Metaphor Reflects and Structures Thinking 37 4 Metaphor Is Systematic Cross-Domain Mapping 38 Metaphorical Language Is One Possible Surface Manifestation of Underlying Metaphor 42 2.1.2 An Applied Linguistic View of Conceptual Metaphor Theory 43 2.1.3 Systemtaic Metaphors 47 2.2 Gesture 48 2.2.1 Studies on Gesture and Speech 48 2.2.2 Gesture and Its Components 50 2.3 Metaphor and Gesture in Use 53 2.3.1 Metaphor, Gesture, and Thought 53 2.3.2 Verbal Metaphors in Music Teaching 54 2.3.3 Gestures in Teaching and Learning 59 2.3.4 Summary 62 2.4 Music Education at Junior High School Level in Taiwan 63 2.4.1 The Education System in Taiwan 63 The Nine Year Compulsory Education System 63 General Music Classes and Music-Talented Classes 65 Urban and Rural Discrepancies 67 2.4.2 Music Education at Junior High School Level 67 Teaching Aims 67 Teachers and Teacher-Centred Classrooms 68 2.5 Conclusion 69 Footnotes to Chapter Two 72 Chapter Three A PRELIMINARY STUDY 5 3.1 About the Preliminary Study 73 3.2 Sample and Text Selection 74 3.3 Metaphor Identification 78 3.3.1 Identification Procedure 78 3.3.2 Identification Problems and Policy 79 Words 81 Lexical Units 81 Basic Sense of the Lexical Unit 81 Technical Terms 84 Translated Terms 84 Expressions in Other Languages 84 3.4 Method 85 3.4.1 Phase One 85 3.4.2 Phase Two 86 3.5 Results 87 3.5.1 Phase One 87 Metaphor Density 88 Systematic Metaphors 89 Functions of Metaphor 94 3.5.2 Phase Two 96 Music Metaphors 96 Music Metaphor Density 96 Distribution of Music Metaphors 97 3.6 Implications for the Main Study 101 6 Chapter Four A PILOT STUDY: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION 4.1 About the Pilot Study 103 4.2 Before the Observation 104 4.2.1 Sample Selection 104 4.2.2 Observation Schedule and Interviews 105 4.3 During the Observation 107 4.4 Gesture Coding 110 4.4.1 Data Selection 111 4.4.2 Transcribing the Data 111 4.4.3 Coding Problems and Policy 112 Identifying Gestures 114 Metaphorics 114 Deictics Versus Metaphorics 115 Iconics Versus Metaphorics 115 4.4.4 Method 116 4.4.5 Results 116 Deictics 117 Iconics 120 Metaphorics 123 4.5 Discussion and Conclusion 126 4.5.1 Classroom Observation 126 Lesson Structure and Activities Involved 126 Gesture Use and Classroom Atmosphere 127 Interviews 130 7 4.5.2 Metaphoric Gestures 130 Functions of Metaphoric Gestures 130 Relations of Metaphoric Gestures and Speech 132 4.6 Implications for the Main Study 134 4.6.1 Classroom Observation 134 Researcher’s Role as a Non-Participant 134 Observation Schedule 135 Interview Questions 136 4.6.2 Gesture Coding 137 Footnote to Chapter Four 138 Chapter Five MAIN STUDY: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5.1 About the Main Study 139 5.2 Research Questions and the Purpose of the Research 140 5.3 Qualitative Research Paradigms and Research Approaches 143 5.3.1 Ethnography 144 5.3.2 Discourse Analysis 147 5.3.3 Grounded Theory 149 5.4 The Use of Triangulation 150 5.5 Trustworthiness of the Study 151 5.6 The Ethical Issues in the Study 153 5.6.1 The Amount of Information Revealed About the Research 154 5.6.2 Timing of the Participants’ Signatures 156 5.6.3 Confidentiality and Anonymity 157 8 5.7 Research Procedures 158 5.7.1 The Three Phases of the Study 158 5.7.2 The Importance of Pilot Studies 159 5.8 Research Participants 161 5.8.1 The Schools 161 5.8.2 The Teachers 164 5.8.3 The Sessions 166 5.8.4 Relationship Between the Researcher and the Teachers 169 5.9 The Use of Semi-Structured Interviews 169 5.9.1 Reasons for Using Semi-Structured Interviews 170 5.9.2 The Design and Use of Interviews in the Main Study 171 5.10 The Use of Structured Classroom Observation 175 5.10.1 Reasons for Using Structured Classroom Observation 175 5.10.2 The Design and Use of Classroom Observations in the Main Study 177 5.11 Limitations of the Methods 178 5.12 Summary 180 Footnote to Chapter Five 182 Chapter Six MAIN STUDY: METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS 6.1 General Methods of Data Analysis 183 6.2 Data Transcription 185 6.2.1 Transcription of Speech 185 6.2.2 Transcription of Gestures 186 9 6.3 Identifying and Coding Metaphors: Reviews of the Literature 188 6.3.1 Metaphor Identification Methods 188 Identifying Metaphorically-Used Words 189 Identifying Linguistic Metaphors Through Vehicle Terms 191 Metaphor Focus and Metaphor Idea Identification 193 From Linguistic Metaphors to Systematic Metaphors 195 6.3.2 Gesture Classification Systems and Metaphoric Gestures 195 McNeill’s Classification System 196 Müller’s Classification System 199 Metaphoric Gestures 201 6.3.3 Metaphoricity and Classroom Discourse 202 6.3.4 Discussion 203 6.4 Identifying Metaphorically-Used Words in Mandarin Chinese 205 6.4.1 Deciding Word Segments 206 Reduplication 209 Numbers 210 ‘A-not-A’ Question Words 211 Proper Names 211 Word Segmentation Ambiguity 211 Terms and Expressions in Other Languages 212 Idioms and Proverbs 212 Compound Verbs 213 Compound Adjectives 214 6.4.2 Identifying Metaphorically-Used Words 214 Similes 217 10 Extended Realisations of Metaphor and Implicit Metaphors 220 Multiword Expressions 221 Conventionalised Metaphors 221 Analogy, Metonymy, and Other Figurative Forms 222 6.4.3 Grouping to Find Systematic Metaphors 223 6.5 Identifying Metaphoric Gestures in Classroom Discourse 224 6.5.1 Gesture Units 224 6.5.2 Identifying the Most Salient Feature of a Gesture 225 6.5.3 Metaphoric Gestures 226 6.5.4 Cross-Domain Comparisons of Metaphoric Gestures 229 6.6 Reliability of Transcription and Metaphor Identification 233 6.7 Using ELAN to Annotate Verbal and Gestural Metaphor Use 234 6.7.1 Introduction and Features of ELAN 235 6.7.2 Reasons for Applying ELAN 236 6.7.3 Verbal and Gestural Metaphor Annotation 237 6.7.4 Advantages and Limitations 239 6.7.5 Conclusions 242 6.8 Summary 243 Footnotes to Chapter Six 245 Chapter Seven MAIN STUDY: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 7.1 Background to the Music Sessions 247 7.2 Use of Metaphors in Speech 253 7.2.1 Overall Results 253 11 7.2.2 Density of Verbal Metaphors 255 7.2.3 Word Class of Verbal Metaphors 258 7.2.4 Distribution of Verbal Metaphors 263 Verbal Metaphors in Agenda Management Sequences 264 Verbal Metaphors in Explanation Sequences 266 Verbal Metaphors in Checking Understanding Sequences 270 Verbal Metaphors in Control Sequences 271 Verbal Metaphors in Feedback Sequences 273 7.2.5 Implicit Metaphors and Multiword Expressions 275 7.3 Use of Gestures and Metaphoric Gestures 277 7.3.1 Overall Results 277 7.3.2 Number of Metaphoric Gestures 280 7.3.3 Extensive Use of Metaphoric Gestures 283 7.3.4 Differences in Frequency Across Teachers and Sessions 283 7.3.5 Multifaceted Metaphoric Gestures 284 7.3.6 Flexibility in the Presentation of Metaphoric Gestures 284 7.4 Recurrent Verbal Metaphors 285 7.4.1 MUSIC IS AN ENTITY 286 7.4.2 MUSIC IS A CONTAINER 288 7.4.3 PITCH IS HEIGHT IN SPACE 290 7.4.4 PLAYING MUSIC IS WALKING ON A ROAD 292 7.4.5 LECTURE DELIVERY IS A MOVING PROCESS 294 7.4.6 PAYING ATTENTION TO X IS SEEING IT 296 7.4.7 TIME PASSING IS AN ENTITY MOVING HORIZONTALLY 297 7.4.8