Excessive Exploitation of Central Pacific Seabird Populations at the Turn of the 20Th Century
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1998 Spennemann: Exploitation of central Pacific seabirds 49 EXCESSIVE EXPLOITATION OF CENTRAL PACIFIC SEABIRD POPULATIONS AT THE TURN OF THE 20TH CENTURY DIRK H.R. SPENNEMANN The Johnstone Centre, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, New South Wales 2640, Australia ([email protected]) Received 7 October 1997, accepted 17 June 1998 SUMMARY Spennemann, D.H.R. 1998. Excessive exploitation of Central Pacific seabird populations at the turn of the 20th Century. Marine Ornithology 26: 49–57. At the turn of the century, the uninhabited atolls of the central Pacific Ocean were visited by Japanese feather collectors, whose actions devastated their seabird populations. An assessment of the historic record shows that between 1897 and 1914 over 3.5 million seabirds were killed on islands in the central Pacific Ocean in the name of fashion for the millinery trade. Introduced animals have also taken their toll. Whereas the populations have recovered on some atolls, other islands do not show the original species diversity. Today the survival of the breeding colonies is again threatened as changing global climatic conditions bring about an increased chance that the remaining populations on the generally very low-lying atolls could come under threat from typhoons and storm surges, rather than the human predation of the past. Yet, without know- ledge of the historical developments the current distribution of some species can not be understood. INTRODUCTION the island was too small to permit the establishment of food gardens, or was prone to the impact of storm surges during At present there is much discussion on the reduction of seabird typhoons. Thus these islands provided ideal undisturbed populations caused by the loss and disturbance of breeding breeding grounds for seabird populations. Albatrosses, frig- habitats on the one hand and the impact of introduced mam- ate birds, tropic birds, boobies, and terns frequented the malian predators (especially cats and rats) to breeding islands islands, where they were free from predation with the excep- (Moors & Atkinson 1984), longline fishing (especially on tion of the occasional short-term incursion by local islanders albatrosses) and pesticide uptake on the other (Brothers 1991, who hunted them for a few eggs, birds and feathers for the Auman et al. 1997, Weimerskirch et al. 1997). Yet, at the turn local subsistence economy and to adorn local items such as of the century the single most serious threat to the survival of canoes (Eisenhardt 1888, Erdland 1914, Krämer & seabirds arrived in the form of fashion. All through Europe, Nevermann 1938). and later in the U.S.A. and Australia, women’s hats were adorned with exotic feathers. To satisfy the demands of an Because coconut palms, the prime crop at the turn of the cen- expanding market the plumage hunters continuously increased tury, would not thrive, the atolls were of limited economic the range of their activities and several islands were stripped importance after their guano deposits (if any) had been mined. bare of their seabird populations. Because law and sovereignty enforcement actions by the colonial powers were few and far between, any unannounced This paper reviews the historic evidence and details the activity on the islands was likely to succeed unnoticed, unless magnitude of these events. Because much of this material is the perpetrators were surprised by the traditional users of the contained in archival documents and comparatively obscure islands in pursuit of a similar activity (Spennemann 1998). published sources, the paper also documents the need for ecologists to collaborate with historians in order to elucidate the historical foundations of current ecological phenomena. THE MILLINARY TRADE By the 1890s feathered ornaments on women’s hats had GEOGRAPHY OF THE AREA become fashionable in Europe and North America. Although exotic feathers, mainly from birds of paradise (Family Para- The northern Central Pacific is comprised of a number of disaeidae) were the prime species sought after (Swadling major island groups: the Bonins and the Volcano Islands, the 1996), the demand was so great that many other species were atolls of the Marshalls and Kiribati, as well as the Hawaiian also exploited. As fashion descended the socio-economic chain and the Northern Marianas. In addition, there are some ladder, the market for such hats expanded dramatically, and isolated atolls and islands, such as Marcus, Wake and the demand for less expensive, yet exotic feathers increased Johnston. Farther to the south are Palau, and the Carolines (Anon. 1910a,b). Over time, ‘osprey’ became the generic term with Chuuk (Truk), Pohnpei, Kosrae and their outlying atolls for a wide range of exotic feathers largely collected from (Fig. 1, Table 1). Prior to colonisation by European powers seabird populations (Doughty 1975). To satisfy this demand, many of the small atolls of the Central Pacific Ocean were new resource localities had to be opened, and the atolls of the uninhabited because the freshwater supply was inadequate, Pacific Islands were the perfect procurement grounds. 50 Spennemann: Exploitation of central Pacific seabirds Marine Ornithology 26 Fig. 1. Central Pacific Ocean showing the island groups discussed in the text. TABLE 1 The species sought Coordinates of islands mentioned in the text The prized specimens sought were birds of paradise from Island or island group Latitude Longitude Papua New Guinea and in response the German Government established a set of regulations governing the hunting of birds Baker Island 0°13'N 176°29'W (Swadling 1996). The Pacific atoll feather trade concentrated Bikar (Marshall Islands) 12°15'N 170°06'E on the following species: Laysan Albatross Phoebastria Bokak (Marshall Islands) 14°32'N 169°00'E immutabilis, Black-footed Albatross P. nigripes, Masked Bonin Islands 27°00'N 142°00'E Booby Sula dactylatra, Lesser and Great Frigate Birds Christmas Island 1°59'N 157°32'W Fregata ariel and F. minor, Red-tailed Tropic Bird Phaethon Chuuk (Truk) Atoll 7°42'N 151°46'E rubricauda, Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata, and various other tern species (Amerson 1971, Ely & Clapp 1973, Amerson et al. Fanning Island 3°51'N 159°22'W 1974, Clapp & Wirtz 1975, Spennemann 1998, in press a,b). French Frigate Shoals 23°46'N 166°16'W Gaferut (Grimes) 9°15'N 145°40'E The poaching industry Gardner Pinnacles 25°01'N 167°59'W Guguan, Marianas Is. 17°19'N 145°48'E The beginning of these poaching expeditions is still unclear. Izu Islands 33°50'N 139°30'E It is possible, though, that they are the result of the 1882 Johnston Atoll 16°45'N 169°39'W cruise of the Japanese-chartered, American-owned schooner Kiribati (capital Tarawa) 1°39'N 144°18'W Ada to the French Frigate Shoals, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Kure Atoll 28°25'N 178°28'W Laysan and Lisianski Atolls (Amerson 1971, Ely & Clapp Laysan Island 24°07'N 171°53'W 1973, Amerson et al. 1974, Clapp & Wirtz 1975). The char- Lisianski Island 26°00'N 173°57'W terers of this vessel caught sharks (for oil, flesh and fins), a very large quantity of turtles, beche-de-mer and collected Marcus Island 23°10'N 154°00'E bird down (Hornell 1934) and may have alerted the Japanese Marshall Islands (capital Majuro) 7°03'N 171°30'E to the profitability of the trade in the off-season from fish- Midway Atoll 28°12'N 177°22'W ing. Japanese government-sponsored expeditions under the Minto Reef 8°09'N 154°18'E direction of Suzuki Tsusenori went to the Marshall Islands Necker Island 23°35'N 164°39'W in autumn 1885 and to the north-western Hawaiian Islands Nihoa Island 23°06'N 161°56'W from Kure Atoll to the French Frigate Shoals in spring 1887. Palau Islands (capital Koror) 7°01'N 134°25'E On return Tsusenori recommended the annexation of these Palmyra Island 5°49'N 162°11'W islands (Peattie 1989). Further, there were Japanese workers Pearl and Hermes Reef 27°47'N 175°51'W employed in the guano works on Laysan in 1900 (Ely & Pratas Island (Tung Sha Do, China) 20°43'N 116°42'E Clapp 1973) who may have alerted hunters of the opportu- Volcano Islands (Iwo Jima) 24°45'N 141°19'E nities in the region. The decline and eventual collapse of the Japanese feather collection industry on Torishima in the Wake Atoll 19°17'N 166°37'E (Japanese-owned) Izu Islands in 1903 (Austin 1949) contrib- Washington Atoll 4°41'N 160°05'W uted to the need to venture farther afield. 1998 Spennemann: Exploitation of central Pacific seabirds 51 In April 1909 the American Vice-Consul in Japan reported lost most of their body fat and thus were easier to pluck than that at least seven vessels had left Japan in late 1908 and well-fed birds. On high islands ‘the birds, which are very tame early 1909 on the pretext of deep-sea fishing, but that their and fat, [were driven] into caves and starving them until they real objective was gathering bird skins and feathers on the are emaciated, when the feathers are easily removed’ (Coffee uninhabited north-western Hawaiian Islands (Clapp & Wirtz 1924). It was that kind of cruelty to animals that caught the 1973). The Pacific Advertiser of 20 April 1909 shows the attention of the public and began to bring about change, at common cover story employed in that trade. The Sumiyone least in the Hawaiian Islands (Buckland 1908, 1909, Anon. Maru, which had sailed for shark fishing in the Hawaiian 1910a,b). waters in late November 1908, had been disabled by a storm and drifted to Laysan Island, where it arrived on 4 January On Marcus Island the bird catchers would work mainly in the 1909.