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University of Southampton Research Repository University of Southampton Research Repository Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis and, where applicable, any accompanying data are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis and the accompanying data cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content of the thesis and accompanying research data (where applicable) must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holder/s. When referring to this thesis and any accompanying data, full bibliographic details must be given, e.g. Thesis: Author (Year of Submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University Faculty or School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. Data: Author (Year) Title. URI [dataset] UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF SOCIAL, HUMAN AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES Southampton Education School Examination of National University Operating Standards within post-1995 Universities in Tanzania by Yohana Stephano William Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education March, 2018 Abstract UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF SOCIAL, HUMAN AND MATHEMATIAL SCIENCES Education Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education EXAMINATION OF NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OPERATING STANDARDS WITHIN POST-1995 UNIVERSITIES IN TANZANIA Yohana Stephano William In an effort to ensure that universities possess the quality of being global, national and local (glonacal) institutions, some developing countries have engaged in setting standards and regulations to achieve the goal. However, unlike developed economies, the gap between the global and local contexts in which universities in developing countries operate is huge. As a result, there is a need to examine the dovetailing of national standards within the operating milieu of young universities in Tanzania. The study has three objectives: (i) to examine how national standards were formulated and enforced; (ii) to examine their relevance, in terms of how they encapsulated the ‘glonacal concept’ of the university, and their compatibility, in terms of how harmoniously they worked with inherent university values such as autonomy and creativity; and (iii) to use the opinions of students and academics to examine the extent to which the standards are reflected by the operating milieu in post-1995 universities, with a focus on resources. Informed by a dialectic paradigmatic philosophical stance and a convergent parallel research design of a mixed methods approach, qualitative data were analysed using thematic strategy with the help of NVivo 11. For quantitative data, SPSS version 24 facilitated descriptive analysis to understand the milieu of universities in relation to standards, while correlation using Cramer’s V assessed the relationships and their strengths for particular indicators related to standards across universities. The sample consisted of nine university officials, 225 academics, 1146 students from the four post-1995 universities and four officials from the Agency. The study found that the formulation of standards constituted of policy borrowing and learning from external systems, and that the process of their construction was based on the selective participation of stakeholders. Their enforcement was found to have largely followed soft power approaches. Regarding their relevance, they were found to reflect predominantly global aspects. Despite some complaints, they were largely compatible with inherent university values such as autonomy and creativity. Lastly, notwithstanding the commendable efforts expended by both the Agency and universities, the operating milieu in universities were found to reflect poorly the desired goals of the standards. These findings reinforce the theory that the dependence of developing countries’ higher education systems on those of developed countries’ systems through policy borrowing and learning has continued to cause stagnation in the achievement of their desired goals. Moreover, the findings confirm that, when applied to resource-constrained or mediatory characterised contexts, ‘soft power’ enforcement approaches are likely to result in precarious results associated with a relative lack of success or success may take longer than when their counterpart ‘coercive’ approaches are applied. Consequently, there exists a need to combine in a smarter way the application of soft power and coercive enforcement approaches and also the need for universities to learn how to enhance the learning experience in a resource-constrained context. Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents.......................................................................................................... i Table of Tables ............................................................................................................ v Table of Figures ......................................................................................................... vii Declaration of Authorship .......................................................................................... ix Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... xi Definitions and Abbreviations .................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the problem .......................................................................... 1 1.2 A brief account of university education reforms in Tanzania. ....................... 6 1.3 Management of universities in Tanzania ..................................................... 10 1.3.1 The state regulation of universities in Tanzania ..................................................... 12 1.4 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................ 15 1.5 Purpose of the study .................................................................................... 16 1.6 Research Questions ..................................................................................... 17 1.7 Significance of the Study ............................................................................. 17 1.8 Researcher’s reflexivity and positionality ................................................... 19 1.8.1 As a partial insider researcher ................................................................................. 20 1.8.2 As a partial outsider researcher ............................................................................... 21 Chapter 2 Literature review ................................................................................. 23 2.1 Discourses on glonacal nature of university and the standards ................... 23 2.2 Nationalisation of global higher education policies...................................... 26 2.2.1 Diffusion of global higher education policies at national level .............................. 27 2.3 University autonomy versus enforcement of standards ............................... 29 2.3.1 Why loosely coupled concept in this study? ........................................................... 29 2.3.2 The dichotomy of perspectives within the concept ................................................ 32 2.3.3 Advantages of adopting loosely coupled in regulating universities ....................... 33 2.4 Discourses on why governments may regulate higher education ................. 36 Chapter 3 Theoretical and conceptual framework ............................................... 43 3.1 Theoretical framework ............................................................................... 43 3.1.1 The dependency trap theory .................................................................................... 44 i Table of Contents 3.1.2 Globalisation theory.................................................................................................47 3.1.3 Other global forces and their influence on the behaviours of universities ..............49 3.2 Conceptual framework ............................................................................... 53 3.2.1 Approaches to enforce the standards .......................................................................54 3.2.2 Policy mediation and success-failure spectrum .......................................................59 Chapter 4 Research methodology ......................................................................... 67 4.1 The approach and the philosophical stance of the study ............................. 67 4.1.1 Validity of the stance: why dialectic over pragmatic ..............................................67 4.2 Application of dialectic position .................................................................. 69 4.3 Research design .......................................................................................... 70 4.4 Data collection design/procedures ............................................................... 71 4.5 Sample and sampling techniques ................................................................ 71 4.5.1 Stratified random and purposive sampling techniques for universities ...................71 4.5.2 Simple random sampling .........................................................................................73
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