NEW ZEALAND
and
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
A Digest and Bibliography, Number 5
Edited by
Andrew Trlin, Paul Spoonley and Richard Bedford
Massey University, North Shore In association with Integration of Immigrants Programme Massey University and ‘Strangers In Town’ Programme, Population Studies Centre University of Waikato
© 2010 Andrew Trlin, Paul Spoonley, Richard Bedford and the several authors each in respect of the paper contributed by him or her. For the full list of names of such copyright owners and the papers in respect of which they are copyright owners, see the Contents page.
This book is copyright. Apart from any fair trading for the purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Inquiries should be made to Paul Spoonley.
Cover painting. The painting of Karlo Mila on the cover has been painted by Delicia Sampero. It is reproduced here with the permission of Delicia and our sincere thanks to her for the use of this painting.
ISBN 978-0-9582954-1-3
Printed in New Zealand by Massey University Printery, Palmerston North.
Published and distributed by: Integration of Immigrants Programme Massey University Private Bag 102-904 North Shore Auckland New Zealand
In association with Strangers In Town Population Studies Cente University of Waikato Hamilton
CONTENTS
Pages
Preface
1 Pathways to Residence in New Zealand 2003-2010 Richard Bedford, Elsie Ho and Charlotte Bedford 1-49
2 Arrivals, Departures and Net Migration, 2001/02-2008/09 Richard Bedford, Paul Callister and Robert Didham 50-103
3 New Zealand and Its Diaspora Alan Gamlen 104-137
4 Welcome to Our World: Attitudes to Immigrants and Immigration Paul Spoonley and Philip Gendall 136-158
5 Moving to New Zealand in 1997/98: The Experiences and Reflections of Skilled South Africans Andrew Trlin 159-187
Bibliography, 2002-2006 Andrew Trlin and Charlotte Bedford 188-373
Subject Index 374-453
Contributors 454-457
iii
In memory of Charles A. Price
(1920-2009)
A distinguished scholar in the field of international migration
who inspired the series of which this volume is a part.
iv
PREFACE
This is the fifth book in a series that first appeared in 1986. At the time, we noted that there had been a growing awareness of the impact of international migration on all areas of social life in New Zealand. To meet the needs of researchers, teachers, government policy analysts and New Zealanders, each book in the series has sought to explore current issues concerning immigration as well as providing a comprehensive list of publications that have appeared during a particular five year period. A model, in terms of format and content, was provided by the series, Australian Immigration: A Bibliography and Digest, edited by Charles Price. The second, third and fourth volumes of this Australian series had included a bibliography on New Zealand immigration research, and it inspired two of us (Andrew Trlin and Paul Spoonley) to develop a New Zealand publication that would emulate its format, content and function. The major difference was in the greater emphasis on the digest component. The aims were to review and analyse developments in immigration policy, to provide a record of arrivals and departures, and to include articles on special topics of current interest. These aims were accomplished in the first volume with chapters on:
• Immigration policy in the early 1980s by Andrew Trlin.
• Arrivals and departures by Ruth Farmer.
• The basic characteristics of immigrants in New Zealand’s 1981 census by Arvind Zodgekar.
• The Indochinese refugee resettlement programme by Chris Hawley.
• The Lesa case and the Citizenship (Western Samoa) Act 1982 by Barrie Macdonald.
• Immigration health by Ian Prior.
• A description of official birthplace statistics by Paul Brown.
The list is interesting on several counts. These topics reflected, as we envisaged, issues that were current at the time. For example, the Indochinese refugee resettlement programme was described as ‘the most obvious and important new element in New Zealand’s immigration experience since the late 1970s’ (Trlin and Spoonley, 1986:iv). This point was underlined by the picture on the book’s cover of Vietnamese refugees stepping off a plane at Palmerston North airport. Similarly, as Macdonald’s chapter made abundantly clear, the fallout from the overstayers campaign and the moral panic directed
v at Pacific migrants from the mid-1970s was continuing to unfold. New Zealand’s relationship with Pacific migrants was still a troubled one.
The quality and value of chapters included in the digest component ultimately rests upon the contributors, all of whom are recognised for their expertise. We would therefore like to take this opportunity to acknowledge those who inspired and contributed to the first book but who have since passed away. We have already mentioned the debt these books owe to Charles Price. He died in 2009 and this book is dedicated to his memory. During a long and distinguished career at the Australian National University, he was an influential scholar who contributed much to research and our understanding of immigration in this part of the world. As we noted at the time: ‘Charles did the really difficult work many years ago; he was the pioneer who showed that it could be done and in doing so he generously provided space in the Australian series for New Zealand material’ (Trlin and Spoonley, 1986:v). Ian Prior has also passed away and we acknowledge the significant contribution that he made to scholarship and policy. He will long be remembered for his pioneering work on aspects of the health and wellbeing of Tokelauan migrants and their children in New Zealand.
The first book was concerned with events and publications (520) during the first half of the 1980s. The second volume – for the years 1985 to 1989 - explored the emerging issues and features of one of the most significant periods in immigration policy reform this country has seen. The immigration of Pacific peoples and their participation in the labour force was still of interest, along with changes and tensions in ethnic identification and practise as the New Zealand-born became numerically dominant in the country’s Pacific communities. However, attention was now primarily focussed on the nature and consequences of the 1986 immigration policy review, including the characteristics of migrations from Hong Kong and Taiwan under the terms of the new Business Immigration Policy, and the relationship between immigration and economic growth. The significance of the latter topic became more and more evident during the following decade. Reflecting the increasing interest in immigration and immigrant settlement amongst researchers, policy analysts and other writers, a total of 793 publications were identified and listed for the period 1985-1989.
In keeping with the change in official attitudes and objectives evident in the 1986 policy review, the third and fourth volumes in this series, dealing with the periods 1990-1994 and 1995-2003 respectively, focussed on the nature and outcomes of further changes in policy. With immigration policy now recognised and employed by successive governments as an instrument for the purposes of economic and social development, immigration during the 1990s changed in three important respects. First, in 1991, New Zealand adopted the points system developed in Canada and Australia; for selection purposes, the economic and related socio-demographic characteristics of the vi
migrants were given priority and their source country was no longer important. Second, reflecting the impact of the points system, almost two- thirds of the immigrants were chosen because of the skills, experience or capital they could offer the country in relation to its skill shortages and international economic competitiveness. Finally, the ethnic mix of the new arrivals changed profoundly. Traditional source countries such as Britain remained important and there was ongoing migration from the Pacific but migrants from East Asia, South Asia and, to some extent, from the Middle East now contributed a much larger proportion of those arriving as permanent migrants. The nature and outcomes of the above changes were captured in the third and fourth volumes of this series with chapters on: immigration policy; the patterns of arrivals, departures and net migration; the adjustment and employment of Asian migrants; issues concerning the productive potential of new settlers from diverse ethnic backgrounds; and issues in the wider society concerning nationalism and citizenship debates, the politicisation of immigration and print media representations of immigration and immigrants. Finally, reflecting a surge of interest in all aspects of New Zealand’s experience of international migration and immigrant settlement, a total of 894 and 1,940 publications were identified and listed in the bibliographic sections of the third and fourth books. The increase in research outputs during the second half of the 1990s and the beginning of the new millennium was facilitated to some extent by successful competitive funding applications to the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology.
Immigration is a central aspect of New Zealand’s economic and social policies. It is a key part of political and economic debates and there is a growing popular and academic interest in the broad socio-economic implications of immigration, for immigrants and those born in New Zealand. This new volume contributes to these debates and provides an important resource as it chronicles ongoing developments. The five chapters in the digest section examine important contemporary topics that concern: recent developments in immigration policy; the flow and characteristics of arrivals, departures and net migration; the phenomenon of the New Zealand diaspora; attitudes toward immigration and immigrants; and the move to New Zealand by a group of South Africans:
• In chapter 1, Richard Bedford, Elsie Ho and Charlotte Bedford provides an overview of the policy changes that have occurred in the last decade. Since 2000, there have been significant shifts as New Zealand refines its policy development and implementation.
• In the second chapter, Richard Bedford, Paul Callister and Robert Didham provide an extensive and detailed analysis of the migration flows in and out of New Zealand between 2001/02 and 2008/09, and the nature of these flows.
vii
• Alan Gamlen, in chapter 3, provides an overview of the nature and size of the New Zealand diaspora and its implications. New Zealand is third behind Ireland and Luxembourg in terms of the proportion of its citizens who reside in another country. As Gamlen makes clear, it is an issue that puzzles some and concerns others, notably in relation to classic ‘brain drain’ debates. As a result, New Zealand policy is ill-formed and unclear.
• In chapter 4, Paul Spoonley and Phil Gendall provide information on two nation-wide surveys of the attitudes of New Zealand residents towards immigration and immigrants. The surveys took place in 2003 and 2006 and as the same questions were used, it is possible to identify trends. These attitudes surveys are significant because they provide a measure of how welcoming – or otherwise – New Zealand communities are towards immigrants. This has implications for policy goals such as social cohesion.
• Finally, in chapter 5, Andrew Trlin explores the experiences and reflections of a group of skilled South African migrants with regard to their move to New Zealand. Drawing on information collected as part of a longitudinal study, he challenges an assumption that the process of international migration would be relatively unproblematic for such a group. Topics examined were the problems or difficulties which were experienced including: the need for information and its assessment; the use of immigration consultants; getting a job offer before migration or permanent residence; and the submission of a residence application. Such difficulties, among others, were a source of stress that may have affected their wellbeing and the initial phase of post-arrival adjustment and settlement.
These chapters are followed in the second part of the book by a comprehensive bibliography, compiled by Andrew Trlin and Charlotte Bedford, which covers the period 1 January 2002 to 31 December 2006. The criteria employed for the selection and inclusion of items and the way in which the bibliography was compiled are set out in the introduction to this section. Although every care has been taken in compiling and checking the 2,400 entries, Andrew and Charlotte apologise in advance for any omissions or inaccuracies. We welcome information on any items missed or any inaccuracies that may have occurred. As in previous volumes, the bibliography concludes with the subject index to facilitate access to, and utilisation of, the research reports and other material listed.
Finally, we would like to thank all those who have been involved in the completion of this book. In particular, we wish to thank: the authors of the chapters in the first part of this book for their expert contributions; viii
library staff at Massey University, the University of Auckland, Auckland University of Technology and Victoria University of Wellington for their generous, expert help in the compilation of the bibliography; university colleagues and other researchers, both in New Zealand and abroad, who patiently and helpfully responded to requests for copies of publications that were difficult to access; Heather Hodgetts and Tanya Roberts for their valuable assistance in formatting and correcting material – a challenging task given the nature of this book; and the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology for funding the research that underpins much of the work that is represented here. This book is the product of two projects involving Massey University (Integration of Immigrants Programme) and the University of Waikato (Strangers in Town), funded by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology. We hope that it contributes, like previous volumes in the series, to a better understanding of the role and nature of immigration and thereby to the development of effective policies for immigration, immigrant settlement and intergroup relations in contemporary New Zealand.
Paul Spoonley Andrew Trlin Richard Bedford
Reference cited
TRLIN, A. and SPOONLEY, P. (1986): Preface, pp. iii-v in A.D. Trlin and P. Spoonley (eds) New Zealand and International Migration. A Digest and Bibliography, Number 1, Department of Sociology, Massey University, Palmerston North.
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1
PATHWAYS TO RESIDENCE IN NEW ZEALAND, 2003-2010
Richard Bedford, Elsie Ho and Charlotte Bedford
The Government's aim is to create a world class immigration system. It is vital we have immigration legislation which allows us to protect the security of New Zealand's border and the integrity of our immigration system. At the same time, we must manage immigration in a fair and balanced way. This Act allows us to do all of those things (Coleman, 2009).
On 29 October 2009, the most comprehensive revisions to New Zealand’s immigration legislation since the Immigration Act (1987) were approved by Parliament. Just as the Immigration Act (1987) ushered in a new era of immigration policy by providing the legislative framework for the points selection system that has been in operation since 1990 (Trlin, 1992), so the Immigration Act (2009) lays the foundation for another new era in immigration policy in a very different national and global context than the one that existed 20 years earlier. In the mid-1980s, a far-reaching Review of Immigration Policy, August 1986 (Burke, 1986) prepared the ground for new legislation in 1987 that would facilitate the opening up of New Zealand to significant immigration from Asia for the first time since the 1880s. Twenty years later, the Immigration Act Review, April 2006 (Cunliffe, 2006) led to the new legislation in 2009 that provides a framework for more flexible policy responses in a world where the global competition for human resources is more intense than at any other time in the past.
In his press release on the new Immigration Act, the Minister of Immigration, the Hon Jonathan Coleman (2009: 1), observed that: ‘The review of the current Immigration Act began in late 2004. Since then, there has been extensive public consultation, both by the Department of Labour and the Transport and Industrial Relations Committee. This shows the importance that has been placed on getting this legislation right’. The passage of this legislation is an example of effective bipartisan co-operation in Parliament – the extensive period of consultation over the proposed changes became part of the previous Labour Government’s ‘Immigration Change Programme’ which was initiated by David Cunliffe a year after he became Minister of Immigration when the 2005 national elections returned the Labour Government for a third term. While some of the proposed changes proved to be very controversial, especially those relating to the use of classified information and the various amendments to refugee and protection decision-making, including the replacement of four appeal authorities with a single independent tribunal,
1 both the National and the Labour parties supported the overall thrust of the new legislation.
The provisions of the new act are not the specific focus of this chapter but they reflect responses to some of the major challenges that politicians, policy-makers and the public have faced when addressing immigration issues after the terrorist attacks in New York in September 2001. This chapter examines the developments in residence policy during the last five years of the Labour Government’s administration between December 2003 and November 2008 and the initial 18 months of the National Government to June 2010. A summary of the key components of the Immigration Act (2009), prepared by the Department of Labour, is contained in Appendix 1. There is extensive documentation available on the Department of Labour’s website (www.dol.govt.nz/actreview/) on the public consultation phase, the Cabinet’s decisions to proceed with the introduction of the Immigration Bill in 2006, and the subsequent phases of consultation and Cabinet decisions in 2007 and 2008.
The five years between December 2003 and November 2008, when the Labour Government lost the national elections for the first time since November 1999, were ones when there was both some significant continuity in the New Zealand Immigration Programme as well as some major changes in specific areas of immigration policy as this related to pathways to residence in New Zealand. The period begins with the introduction of a new skilled migrant category in December 2003 which, in the words of the Department of Labour (2008: 9), ‘shift[ed] immigration policy from the passive acceptance of residence applications to the active selection of skilled migrants’. An amendment to the Immigration Act (1987) in July 2003 paved the way for the introduction of a new selection system for applicants seeking approval to reside in New Zealand (Bedford et al., 2005). This selection system, in turn, allowed for much more flexibility when it came to transitioning to residence from temporary permits for work or study. A defining dimension of the last five years of former Prime Minister Helen Clark’s Labour-led governments was innovation in policy to meet on-going problems of skill shortages in a very tight labour market, as well as in endeavouring to resolve a worsening crisis in labour supply during the harvest season in the horticulture and viticulture industries.
During the five years to November 2008, there were at least 50 changes made to policy relating to the major categories of migration in New Zealand (Table 1). This compares with around 30 amendments and innovations during the previous five years (December 1999-November 2003) (Bedford et al. 2005: 36-45). The precise number of changes in each category can vary depending on how one counts them – some involve quite minor adjustments to lists of countries included within a particular policy (e.g. the Working Holiday Scheme), while others include multiple amendments to different policies in a single major announcement. Details of the changes, summarised by category and policy, can be found in the Department of Labour’s annual Migration
2 Trends reports (re-named Migration Trends and Outlook in 2008) for the years 2006/07, 2007/08 and 2008/09 (Department of Labour, 2008; 2009; 2010). These reports are available at the Department’s immigration website www.immigration.govt.nz.
Table 1 Changes in Immigration Policy December 2003-November 2008
Stream Policy Changes Residence streams Skilled/Business Skilled Migrant Category 6 Residence from work 2 Investor category 3 Sub-total 11 Family Sibling, adult child 1 Family quota 1 All family categories 2 Sub-total 4 International/humanitarian Samoan Quota 2 Pacific Access Quota 2 Special Zimbabwe residence 3 Sub-total 7 All permanent residence NZ Immigration Programme 1 streams NZ Residence Programme 1 Sub-total 2 Total residence streams 24 Temporary streams Working Holiday Schemes 5 Work to residence 5 Student (incl. study to work) 5 Seasonal work (incl. RSE) 3 Others 2 Total temporary streams 20 All streams Health 2 Immigration Change Programme 1 Legislation 2 Total all streams 5 Total changes 49
Source: Department of Labour (2008; 2009; 2010)
In December 2006, the Minister of Immigration (Hon David Cunliffe) announced ‘The Immigration Change Programme’. While this was a specific initiative to systematically review immigration policy, legislation and service delivery, the label is an appropriate one for the whole of the period under review. Change and innovation, rather than the stability of policy, has been the order of the day, especially during the Ministerial tenures of Lianne Dalziel (November 1999-February 2004) and David Cunliffe (November 2005- October 2007). The ‘Dalziel years’ have been reviewed elsewhere (Bedford,
3 2004; Bedford et al., 2005); this chapter focuses on policy developments with regard to residence streams under three Ministers of Immigration – Paul Swain (March 2004-November 2005), David Cunliffe (November 2005-October 2007) and Clayton Cosgrove (October 2007-November 2008). A brief review of changes to immigration policy between January 2009 and June 2010 is included, especially with regard to the operation of the points selection system while Dr Jonathan Coleman has been Minister of Immigration and has had to deal with rising levels of domestic unemployment and the National Government’s strong preference for policy that will enhance increases in economic productivity. However, a detailed examination of the impact of the economic recession on New Zealand’s immigration policy, which overlaps with the passing of the Immigration Act (2009), is the subject of a future paper.
OVERVIEW OF THEMES
Two related themes have been identified for discussion in this chapter. The first is the operation of the skilled migrant selection system following the introduction of the two-stage process for identifying prospective long-term residents seeking employment in New Zealand. The second is a related process of transitioning from temporary permits for work and study to permanent residence – a process that has led to the selection on-shore of increasing numbers of immigrants who know something about the people, places and conditions in the country in which they are seeking residence rights.
The major changes in policy associated with seasonal employment and other forms of temporary migration for work and study are not reviewed here. The seasonal work policy initiatives from 2005, and the development of the ambitious Recognised Seasonal Employer scheme, have been reviewed in a series of articles in the Pacific Economic Bulletin (Gibson et al., 2008; Luthria, 2008; Ramasamy et al., 2008; McKenzie et al., 2008). There is also an extensive literature on international student migration to New Zealand, including major reviews by Ward and Masgoret (2004) and Ho et al. (2004; 2007). By comparison, the developments in residence policy have been less frequently reviewed although there is a very extensive literature by researchers in the Department of Labour on many of the critical issues to do with refinements made to the points selection system and the shift towards immigrant selection from the burgeoning pools of temporary residents on work and study visas and permits.
The two-stage ‘by invitation’ skilled migrant selection system, which was introduced in December 2003, proved to be a durable anchor for the points system throughout the period under review. There was a significant adjustment to the way this system worked late in 2005 in order to avoid the build-up of a backlog of people qualifying for entry under the specified minimum points threshold (100 points). The effects of these changes on both the sources and the employment outcomes of people approved for residence
4 between February 2004 and December 2008 are examined in the first part of the chapter.
The National Government has retained the two-tier selection system for skilled migrants and the two routes to residence from this selection: direct approval for residence or conditional approval which is subject to obtaining appropriate employment while on a temporary work permit. In July 2009, a large number of occupations were removed from the skill shortage lists and the numbers of expressions of interest (EOIs) selected from the pool of applicants for residence in the skilled migrant category were reduced. Some of the effects of these changes on the pathways to residence are outlined briefly using approvals data between July 2009 and June 2010.
During the last five years of the Labour administration, the proportion of migrants approved for residence under the various streams in the New Zealand Immigration Programme (re-named the New Zealand Residence Programme in July 2006), who had held a temporary permit (visitor, student, work) during the year they were approved for residence, increased steadily. During the year ended June 2008, 69 percent of the applicants (principal and secondary) approved for residence in all of the streams had held a temporary work permit during the year, 22 percent a visitor’s permit and 9 percent a student permit (Department of Labour, 2009: 62). Transitions from temporary permits to residence under the skilled, business, family or international/ humanitarian streams, while based in New Zealand, have become increasingly popular routes to residence by migrants. Transitions to residence are an integral part of the selection system for the SMC and in the year ended June 2008, 87 percent of the principal applicants approved in the skilled/business stream had previously held a temporary work permit in New Zealand.
Pathways to residence in New Zealand also include routes via family reunion and sponsorship as well as a range of international and humanitarian streams. These are reviewed briefly in the final section of the paper with particular reference to the migration of Pacific peoples to New Zealand. More extensive analysis of both the distinctive Pacific categories of entry (the Samoan Quota and the Pacific Access category), as well as via transitioning from temporary work and study permits to residence can be found in Bedford (2008).
The passing of new immigration legislation has initiated several major changes in the development and management of population movement into New Zealand, including the removal of long-standing distinctions between ‘visas’, ‘permits’ and ‘exemptions’ that have been critically important for understanding the language of immigration in this country. From 2010, a single term, ‘visa’, will refer to the authority to travel to, enter and stay in New Zealand. A useful summary of the major differences between between the Immigration Act (2009) and the Immigration Act (1987) has been prepared
5 by the Department of Labour and this has been reproduced for easy reference in Appendix 1.
Under the Immigration Act (1987), visas were issued off-shore to facilitate travel to New Zealand and a corresponding permit was issued on arrival in the country (Department of Labour, 2010: 85). A permit allowed a person to stay in New Zealand in accordnace with the permit’s conditions (visitor, temporary work, study, residence). Given that the great majority of residence approvals discussed in this chapter were granted to migrants who moved to or were in New Zealand before the new legislation was passed, usually on a temporary permit of some kind, the term ‘permit’ is used in this chapter to denote both permits and visas.
SELECTING MIGRANTS, 2004-2010
The selection system for skilled migrants that was introduced in December 2003, and was used to identify prospective immigrants for the first time early in 2004, is summed up well in the following statement from the Minister of Immigration’s (Hon. Lianne Dalziel) package of press releases on 1 July 2003 when she announced what she termed ‘the most significant change in immigration policy for more than a decade’ (Dalziel, 2003: 1):
Instead of lodging applications for residence, potential migrants will, in future, register an expression of interest, based on the existing pre-requisites of health, character and English language. In order to register, a minimum number of points will be required. The current points system will be expanded to include bonus points, for example, by meeting a specific skill shortage or having a skilled job offer in a region outside Auckland. This does not mean Auckland misses out either. It means that Auckland’s needs drive skilled migration to Auckland.
Those who register their interest will be pooled, and those achieving the highest level of points will be invited to apply for residence. Where no invitation to apply has been issued by the end of the registration period, the registration will lapse. This will probably occur quarterly.
Once an application for residence is lodged, two streams will emerge. The first stream will consist of those who have already demonstrated that they can settle and do well here. For example, they may have successfully studied or worked in New Zealand, or they have a skilled job offer, which demonstrates that a New Zealand employer has made that assessment. People in this stream will flow through to residence.
6 The second stream will consist of those who have not yet demonstrated their ability to settle in New Zealand, as in the first stream. The majority of these will be managed through a two year work-to-residence programme, rather than gaining residence outright. This will enable them to demonstrate their ability to settle and gain relevant employment. This essentially means that they carry the risk of not achieving this outcome rather than the New Zealand welfare system that has had to meet the cost of failure until now. …
… The most significant aspect of these changes is that those potential migrants, who best meet New Zealand’s needs, will be at the top of the list for the invitation to apply, and those with the demonstrated ability to settle here, particularly those with a skilled, relevant job offer, will have a fast track to residence.
The skilled migrant category (SMC) was introduced on 17 December 2003 after a six month transition period to clear the backlog of applications under the former General Skills category which was closed in July 2003. The points categories and their respective allocations in December 2003, which were used in the first draw from the pool of EOIs, are listed Table 2. It is clear from the numerous categories relating to employment (job offer and location of employment, previous work experience and location of this experience) that selection into the SMC was very much influenced by factors linked with work. The bias in favour of tertiary-trained graduates, that had characterised the points system introduced in 1991, had been effectively removed – applicants with trades qualifications that were recognised in New Zealand got almost as many points (50) as those with postgraduate qualifications (55). Family support made no contribution to the overall total in the initial allocation of points (Table 2).
Operation of the New Selection System, 2004-05
A high selection point of 195 points was set initially but this did not deter applicants. There were almost 2,000 EOIs in the pool at the time of the first draw on 18 February 2004 and 126 of these, covering 371 people, were selected to receive an invitation to apply for residence. All of the applicants selected either already had jobs in New Zealand or had a job offer. By far the highest share were citizens of the United Kingdom (42%), with South Africa (12%) having the second largest proportion. India (8%) and the United States of America (6%) were the only other countries with more than 3 percent of the total approvals. At this early stage, China did not feature in the top 10 source countries of applicants selected in the draw from the pool – the Chinese citizens who did put in EOIs could not meet the initial very high points threshold for selection.
7 Table 2 Points Categories and Allocations, SMC 2003-05
% Got Points Alloc. Points Category Dec. 03 Dec. 04 2004/05 Skilled employment Skilled employment 12 months or more 60 60 31 Skilled employment under 12 months 50 50 37 Offer of skilled employment 50 50 19 No employment 0 0 13 Bonus points for employment or offer of employment Identified future growth area 5 5 11 Identified cluster area 5 5 1 In an area of absolute skill shortage 5 10 25 In a region outside Auckland 10 10 62 Partner employment or offer of employment 10 10 6 Relevant work experience 2 years 10 10 13 4 years 15 15 12 6 years 20 20 11 8 years 25 25 9 10 years 30 30 35 Bonus points for New Zealand work experience 2 years 5 5 10 4 years 10 10 2 6 years 15 15 0 Additional bonus points for work experience Identified future growth area or cluster (2-5 years) 5 5 3 Identified growth area or cluster (6 years or more) 10 10 4 Area of absolute skills shortage (2-5 years) 5 10 8 Area of absolute skills shortage (6 years or more) 10 15 17 Qualifications (all must be recognised in NZ) Basic qualification (trades and tertiary undergrad) 50 50 71 Postgraduate qualification (Masters/PhD) 55 55 12 Bonus points for recognized qualifications NZ qualification (and at least 2 years study in NZ) 10 10 10 Qualification in an identified future growth area 5 5 7 Qualification in an identified cluster area 5 5 1 Qualification in an area of absolute skills shortage 5 10 29 Partner qualifications 10 10 18 Close family support in New Zealand 0 10 2 Age (20-55 years) 20-29 30 30 31 30-39 25 25 43 40-44 20 20 15 45-49 10 10 7 50-55 5 5 4
Source: Department of Labour (2004: 28; 2005: 30, 39)
8 The selection point dropped to 185 for the fortnightly draws from the pool in March 2004, to 180 for the first two draws in April, then to 160 by the end of May, 150 at the end of June and 130 by the end of July. In all of these draws, 100 percent of those selected from the pool either had jobs in New Zealand or had a firm offer of employment. In August, the points required were reduced to 115 and then 110 before stabilising at 100 from 1 September until the end of December 2005. The proportions either in employment or with job offers fell sharply once the points dropped below 115 and from late August 2004 until December 2005, the proportions of applicants with no job offer who were selected from the pool ranged between 40 and 60 percent. Most of these applicants would be required to follow the route to residence that involved two years in transition via work in New Zealand.
Over the period between 18 February 2004 and 21 December 2005 (the last draw from the pool when the selection point was 100), a total of 36,840 EOIs were selected covering 88,518 people. Citizens of the United Kingdom remained the major group of applicants with points at or above the selection point through to December 2005. The UK share remained above 40 percent until 26 May 2004 when the number of points required for selection dropped to 160. From May 2004 until 23 November 2005, the United Kingdom remained the first ranked source country accounting for between 24 and 38 percent of all applicants at or above the selection point in each fortnightly draw. The second ranked source country fluctuated between South Africa, India, China and the Philippines. In the two draws during December 2005, China had the highest shares of applications at or above the recommended selection point of 100, with the United Kingdom a close second. This was the first time another country had surpassed the United Kingdom as the major source of applicants selected in the fortnightly draws from the pool.
In December 2004, a number of changes were made to the points allocation in the SMC (Table 2). These related especially to the points for skills, qualifications and employment in areas of absolute skill shortage in New Zealand. The amended points are highlighted in Table 2 (bold, italics). An allocation of points in recognition of support provided by close family already living in New Zealand was also made – the first time ‘family in New Zealand’ was allowed to count for something in the new selection system. A greater range of trade qualifications was also recognised under the SMC – testimony to the intensifying demand for labour with a wide range of skills in the New Zealand economy.
The percentages of the 10,054 principal applicants applying under the SMC between July 2004 and June 2005, who qualified for points in the different categories, are listed in the final column of Table 2. Just under three-quarters (74%) gained points for being aged between 20 and 39 years, and 70 percent qualified for points because they had skilled employment in New Zealand at the time of application, with just over 30 percent having had such work for 12 months or more. In terms of qualifications, 71 percent gained
9 points for having recognised trades or undergraduate tertiary qualifications, with only 12 percent gaining points for postgraduate qualifications. Just under 30 percent gained points for having a recognised qualification in an area of absolute skill shortage. Over 60 percent of those who specified a location for their employment or offer of a job qualified for points if the location was outside the Auckland region, with 25 percent getting additional points for jobs in areas of absolute skill shortage (Table 2).
In August 2005, the Department of Labour initiated a review of the NZIP. There were two major concerns at the time: firstly, to ensure that greater account was taken of temporary skilled migration and, secondly, to assess how best to deal with family reunion, especially given the lengthening queue of applications for entry under the family category. This review, along with the review of the Immigration Act (1987), were to become part of a comprehensive reassessment of immigration policy and its implementation after the return of the Labour Government for a third term in the national elections in November 2005.
In the lead up to the elections in 2005, there was some debate about immigration but it was not nearly as intense as it had been in the 2002 elections or those in 1996 (see, for example, Bedford et al. 2003 and Spoonley, 2005). Ruth Berry (2005), reporting on a major speech by Winston Peters at Orewa in May 2005, noted that: ‘While he said in the speech that the country was ‘flooded’ with immigrants and mentioned Asian immigration in particular, it was a minor focus of the speech, billed as being not about problems but about solutions. These involved cutting down on ‘unproductive’ migrants [family members], increasing border security and improving the Immigration Service’. A Herald-Digipoll survey, carried out on the same day as Peters’ speech, showed aupport for immigration levels in 2005 (45,000 residence approvals) but indicated some concern around border security issues and aspects of the implementation of immigration policy (Berry, 2005). The annual quota of approvals for residence had been constant at 45,000 for the three financial years ended June 2003, 2004 and 2005. The policy limits and the actual approvals for each of the major categories of approvals for residence (skilled/business, family sponsored and international/humanitarian) during the three years are summarised in Table 3.
It was the rapid increases in the numbers of temporary work permits, rather than migrants seeking residence approval, that was attracting some public comment in the run-up to the 2005 elections. In the year ended 30 June 2005, 82,479 people were approved for entry on temporary work permits, up by almost 9,000 on the 73,587 approved in the year ended June 2004, and over 15,000 more than was approved in the year ended June 2003 (66,827) (Department of Labour, 2005: 22). When overseas students approved for study in New Zealand are also included, over 160,000 temporary permits for purposes other than visits were issued in the year ended June 2005
10 compared with 48,815 residence approvals.1 The 28,317 principal applicants on labour market tested work permits (i.e. excluding those on working holiday schemes, or on permits issued to partners of New Zealand citizens and the work to residence permits) was almost three times the number of principal applicants approved under the SMC (10,054) in the year ended June 2005 (Department of Labour, 2005: 23, 34).
Table 3 Approval Limits (People) and Approvals by Stream
Year and NZIP Stream Limit Approvals 2002/03 Skilled/business 27,000 (+/-3,000) 30,443 Family sponsored 13,500 (+/-1,500) 14,809 International/humanitarian 4,500 (+/-500) 3,286 Total 45,000 (+/-5,000) 48,538 2003/04 Skilled/business 27,000 (+3,000) 20,596 Family sponsored 13,500 (+1,500) 13,462 International/humanitarian 4,500 (+500) 4,959 Total 45,000 (+5,000) 39,017 2004/05 Skilled/business 27,000 (+3,000) 29,826 Family sponsored 13,500 (+1,500) 13,949 International/humanitarian 4,500 (+500) 5,040 Total 45,000 (+5,000) 48,815
Note: The absence of a minus sign for the discretationary changes from the limits for 2003/04 and 2004/05 reflects the shift to a policy assumption that the limit would be met or slightly exceeded.
Source: Department of Labour (2005): 14)
Following the elections in 2005, the Hon. David Cunliffe was appointed Minister of Immigration and one of his first tasks was to seek a review of the skilled migrant category. It was becoming apparent that the SMC selection mechanism, operating on a points threshold of 100, was resulting in demand for residence approval in excess of the annual approved total of 23,700 (+3,000) skilled migrant principal applicants and their spouses/partners and dependent children.2 By holding the selection threshold at 100 points for over 12 months, despite increases in the numbers of applicants reaching this level or higher, there had been a build-up of EOIs selected which could not be assessed because their numbers exceeded the places available in the SMC. By
1 The numbers of people approved for residence, temporary work and study in each of the June years are shown in Table 6, Chapter 2 where there is an extended discussion of the flows of people into and out of New Zealand from different parts of the world between July 2001 and June 2009. 2 The total of 23,700 for the SMC does not include the 3,300 places allocated for the various business and entrepreneur categories, giving the total of 27,000 places in the skilled and business categories as shown in Table 3.
11 December 2005, the excess demand for residence by applicants with 100 points or more was estimated to be around 9,500.
On 15 December, Cabinet approved the introduction of a two-tier selection mechanism for the SMC in order to limit future over-subscription (Cabinet Business Committee, 2005). The new SMC selection mechanism pooled EOIs meeting the 100 point minimum for up to six months with fortnightly selections at which EOIs scoring 140 points or above were automatically selected while those scoring between 100 and 135 points with a skilled job or a job offer were ranked by their total points and selected in sufficient numbers to meet the requirements of the NZIP according to their points ranking. Other EOIs with the required points but no job offer could be selected but only if places were available. Cabinet also approved a reduction in the period of time an applicant, who was granted a work permit to allow them to transition to residence, would have to find appropriate work. The two year transition period was reduced to six months in the belief that, given the high demand for skilled labour, this would encourage those with provisional approval for residence to move more rapidly to full residence status.
To clear the backlog of applicants selected with 100 or more points during 2005, an additional 3,000 places in the SMC, over and above the 3,000 supplementary places already available, were approved for allocation over the 2005/06 and 2006/07 years. In addition, all of the remaining supplementary places in the 2005/06 year, including 1,000 of those for the family sponsored and the international/humanitarian categories, were allocated to the SMC in recognition of the continuing shortages of skilled labour in New Zealand. It was also agreed that around 1,600 EOIs from offshore applicants without a job offer, and scoring 100 or 105 points, would not be processed further. These applicants would be offered the opportunity to express interest again under the new selection mechanism with no further fee payable (Cabinet Business Committee, 2005: 4).
Operation of the Two-tier Selection System, 2006-08
On 1 February 2006, 1,000 EOIs were drawn from the pool using the new two-tier selection system. Just over a third (34%) were citizens of the United Kingdom and 17 percent from China – a very different mix from those at or above the selection point of 100 on 21 December 2005 when 31 percent were citizens of China and 26 percent UK citizens. The great majority (91%) in the 1 February selection were already in skilled employment or had an appropriate job offer, compared with 63 percent in the 21 December draw. Just under 86 percent of the EOIs selected on 1 February had 140 or more points and thus qualified for automatic selction. The remaining 14 percent scored between 115 and 135 points and all had jobs or offers of jobs.
12 There are six broad categories used in the selection of migrants under the two-tier system. These are:
1. EOIs with 140 points or above with or without a job offer.
2. EOIs with a points total of 100 or more but less than 140, including points for offers of skilled employment or current skilled employment in New Zealand.
3. EOIs with a points total of 100 or more but less than 140, including 15 points for work experience in an area of absolute skill shortage.
4. EOIs with a points total of 100 or more but less than 140, including 10 points for work experience in an area of absolute skill shortage.
5. EOIs with a points total of 100 or more but less than 140, including 10 points for a qualification in an area of absolute skill shortage.
6. EOIs that had a points total of 115 or more but less than 140 without points for offers of employment or current skilled employment, work experience in an area of absolute skill shortage or for a qualification in an area of absolute skill shortage. These EOIs were ranked in descending order of points.
In February and March 2006, only the first three categories were used to fill the fortnightly selections. The 1000 for 1 February was a much larger number than usual for the fortnightly draw from the pool because there had been no selection in January. Throughout 2006, the average number selected each fortnight, counting the 1000, was 670. In most fortnights from March to November, there were EOIs in the 4th category in the list above, and for 12 of the 24 draws (between June and early October), there were selections of category 5 EOIs. In only 5 weeks in 2006 were their selections of EOIs that did not have any points for offers of skilled work or work experience or qualifications in an area of absolute skill shortage. The numbers selected in this category for invitations to apply for residence comprised only 2.8 percent of the 16,067 EOIs selected during the year (Table 4).
During 2007 and 2008, the fortnightly selections were larger than those in 2006 as a result of a decision by the Minister of Immigration and the Cabinet to increase the limits for the three major streams in the New Zealand Residence Programme (NZRP) from December 2006. The average numbers of EOIs selected each fortnight in 2007 and 2008 were 766 and 774 respectively. The distribution of EOIs selected across the six categories was very similar in 2007 to that in 2006, with 77 percent in both years in the first two categories (Table 4). In 2008, the share in the first two categories fell to 73 percent with a larger share in the category with points between 110 and 135 but no points for work experience of qualifications in areas of absolute skill shortage. The
13 limits approved for the skilled and business stream in the 2005/06 and 2006/07 years were 27,000 (+5,000) and 28,200-31,000 respectively, and these are reflected in the larger average selections from the pool each fortnight in the calendar years 2007 and 2008 (Table 4).
Table 4 Selection of EOIs 2006-2008 by Points Category January 2006-December 2008
Calendar Year Points Category 2006 2007 2008 Numbers 140 + points 9,909 12,127 11,621 100-135 pts + job offer 2,460 2,822 2,655 100-135 pts + 15 pts wk exp 1,871 1,665 1,326 100-135 pts + 10 pts wk exp 701 865 820 100-135 pts + 10 pts qual 675 1,087 1,380 110-135 pts no pts wk/qual 451 578 1,555 Total 16,067 19,144 19,357 Average per fortnightly selection 62.69 766 774 Percentages 140 + points 61.7 63.3 60.0 100-135 pts + job offer 15.3 14.7 13.7 100-135 pts + 15 pts wk exp 11.6 8.7 6.9 100-135 pts + 10 pts wk exp 4.4 4.5 4.2 100-135 pts + 10 pts qual 4.2 5.7 7.1 110-135 pts no pts wk/qual 2.8 3.1 8.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: Fortnightly Selection Statistics, Department of Labour website www.immigration.govt.nz/migrant/stream/work/skilledmigrant/
The top five countries in terms of the numbers of EOIs submitted by their citizens that were selected in these three years were: United Kingdom, China, South Africa, India and the Philippines (Table 5). UK citizens had the highest proportion of EOIs in 2006 and 2008 with China having a slightly higher share than the UK in 2007. South Africans, Indians and citzens of the Philippines increased their shares of EOIs in successive years but of these three, only South Africa had a first ranking in a fortnightly selection (in 2008). In 2006, UK citizens accounted for the highest share of EOIs selected in 22 of the 24 fortnightly draws from the pool. Citizens of China (PRC) were first ranked in the other two selections in that year (Table 5). The situation was very different in 2007, however – EOIs for citizens of China were the most numerous in 13 of the fortnightly selections, with UK citizens dominating in the other 12. In 2008, UK citizens reasserted their lead in 15 of the selections, with Chinese leading in 9 and South Africans in the remaining one.
EOIs selected from these five countries accounted for 68-69 percent of the totals selected and over two-thirds of the applications had been made on-
14 shore in New Zealand. The great majority of applicants had a job or a job offer at the time they submitted their EOI – 72 percent in 2006 and 2007 and 65 percent in 2008 (Table 5). The increase in numbers without a job offer in 2008 was clearly associated with the increasing number of selections when EOIs were drawn from all six of the points categories – in 20 of the 25 selections in that year, the six categories were used, whereas in 2006 and 2007, only 5 and 6 selections respectively used all six categories, and especially the category which included applicants with no points for a job offer, work experience or education qualifications in an area of absolute skill shortage in New Zealand.
Table 5 EOIs Selected by Nationality, Location and Job Offer, January 2006 - December 2008
Calendar Year Characteristic 2006 2007 2008 EOIs by nationality (%) United Kingdom 27.4 21.5 19.3 China (PRC) 18.0 23.1 17.5 South Africa 7.3 8.3 12.3 India 8.3 8.3 9.2 Philippines 7.9 8.3 10.7 Sub-total 68.9 69.5 68.4 Other countries 31.1 30.5 31.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Selections when first ranked United Kingdom 22 12 15 China 2 13 9 South Africa 0 0 1 India 0 0 0 Philippines 0 0 0 Total 24 25 25 EOIs processed on-shore (%) 65.5 69.4 66.4 EOIs with job or job offer (%) 72.1 72.2 65.3
Over the three years, few changes were made to the points allocation for the skilled migrant system or to the points required for selection from the pool. The points allocated to the different categories in the years ended June 2006 and 2007 were the same as those listed for December 2004 in Table 5. For the 2007/08 year, the only changes made were3:
(a) under skilled employment to the bonus points for employment or an offer of employment in ‘an identified future growth area’ (up to 10
3 Details of the SMC points for employability and capacity building factors in 2005/06 and from July 2007 can be found in Department of Labour (2006: 54) and Department of Labour (2008: 118).
15 points from 5) and ‘partner employment or offer of employment’ (up to 20 points from 10);
(b) under relevant work experience to the additional bonus points for work experience in an identified future growth area ‘2 to 5 years’ experience (up to 10 points from 5) and ‘6 years or more’ experience (up to 15 points from 10);
(c) under qualifiations to bonus points for ‘NZ qualification (and at least 2 years study in NZ)’ (up to 10 points from 5) and ‘partner qualifications’ (down to 10 points from 20).
Additions were made to the long-term and the immediate skill shortage lists between 2006 and 2008 which increased the opportunities for migrants with appropriate skills to qualify for the bonus points available for relevant work experience. The two Ministers of Immigration (Cunliffe and Cosgrove) between January 2006 and November 2008 maintained a consistent policy of encouraging migrants with skills who were interested in taking up residence in New Zealand. As a result, the numbers of people approved for entry in the EOIs that were selected increased each year from 36,293 in 2006 to 42,347 in 2007 and 45,414 in 2008. The total number of people approved in the three years was just over 124,000 with around 84,000 coming from the five key source countries listed in Table 5.
In July 2008, Cabinet approved the continuation of the six selection categories for EOIs drawn from the pool through to January 2009 thus ensuring that there would be consistency in the application of immigration policy relating to the skilled migrant category through the months leading up to and immediately after the national elections in November. During the period 1 July-30 December 2008, a larger number of EOI (10,026) were selected covering 23,523 people than was the case during the first six months of 2008 (9,331 EOI covering 21,891 people). Immigration continued to be actively encouraged, partly because the outflow of New Zealanders overseas (especially to Australia) was picking up again despite the on-going shortages of workers at all skill levels in the domestic labour market.4 The gradual recognition, from October 2008, that a global financial crisis was going to have a serious impact on economic growth and employment levels did not generate immediate pressure for a change in immigration policy. The new Minister of Immigration from December 2008 (Dr Jonathan Coleman) confirmed in February 2009 that the selection categories would remain in force and indicated that he would maintain the average number of EOIs selected each fortnight during 2008 through until July 2009.
4 See Chapter 2 for an analysis of flows of New Zealanders and citizens of other countries at the end of the decade.
16 Operation of the Selection System in 2009 and 2010
During the first six months of 2009, there was not much change in the numbers and characteristics of the EOIs selected by comparison with those selected during 2008. The 9,238 EOI (21,268 people) selected between 14 January and 17 June were very close to the numbers selected in the first six months of 2008 (see above). The average number of EOIs selected each fortnight during this period was 770, not very different from the average of 774 EOI for the fortnightly selections during the Labour Government’s final year (Tables 4 and 6). The shares of EOIs from the United Kingdom, China and South Africa that were selected between January and June 2010 were smaller than those selected during 2008, while that from the Philippines had remained virtually the same (10.7%) and India’s share had risen to 11.5 percent (Tables 5 and 6). The percentage of applicants with jobs or job offers was higher in the first 6 months of 2009 (70%) than it had been during 2008 (65.3%), and the share appointed on-shore (65.6%) was slightly lower than it had been the previous year (66.4%) (Tables 5 and 6).
The situation changed after July 2009. The Minister of Immigration announced some policy changes in that month, including the removal of several occupations from the long-term skill shortage list. The overall target for new migrant approvals in the residence programme for the year ended June 2010 remained within the range 45,000-50,000, with the skilled migrant intake accounting for between 25,000 and 27,300 people. The number of EOI selected every two weeks was reduced and the fortnightly average fell from 770 to 654 (Table 6). The total number of EOIs selected during the period 1 July to 16 December was 8,502 (18,853 people), down by 736 EOI (2,415 people) on the number selected during the first six months of the year and by 1,524 EOI (4,4670) on the number for the equivalent period in 2008. There was also a further decline in the proportion of EOIs from citizens of the United Kingdom, China and South Africa selected from the pool; the only country in the top five to increase its share was India (Table 6). In the draw from the pool of applicants on 16 December 2009, India was the top-ranked source country for selected applicants. The shares of applicants with jobs or job offers was rising, as was the proportion whose EOIs were processed on-shore.
The final selection from the pool in 2009, and all of the selections through to 17 June 2010, were for less than 600 EOIs. The average number for the 12 fortnightly draws between 13 January and 17 June 2010 was 546 – 108 less than it had been in the second half of 2009 and 224 less per draw than it was between January and June 2009 (Table 6). In 12 months, the average selection had fallen by 29 percent even though the overall annual target for residence approvals remained between 45,000 and 50,000, and the share of this total that was to be in the skilled migrant category was up around 62 percent. The 6,531 EOIs selected during the six months accounted for just under 15,000 people — 6,309 fewer than in the equivalent period in 2009
17 (Table 6). However, 78 percent of them had a job or job offer – the highest proportion since the first six months of 2004 and 73 percent of their applications had been lodged in New Zealand. These were migrants who were much more likely to actually take up residence in New Zealand. The much smaller number of people selected through the EOI process did not necessarily mean that the number taking up residence would be fewer than in years when much higher proportions of selected migrants did not have jobs or job offers when they were approved under the skilled migrant category.
Table 6 EOIs Selected by Nationality, Location and Job Offer, January 2009 - June 2010
Six Months January-June July-December January-June Characteristic 2009 2009 2010 Numbers EOI selected 9,238 8,502 6,531 People selected 21,268 18,853 14,959 Av. per fortnightly selection 770 654 546 EOIs by nationality (%) United Kingdom 17.4 16.5 17.1 China (PRC) 14.7 14.1 8.1 South Africa 10.5 9.3 8.3 India 11.5 12.9 15.2 Philippines 10.8 10.6 10.1 Sub-total 64.6 63.4 58.8 Other countries 35.4 36.6 41.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Selections when first ranked United Kingdom 11 11 8 China 1 1 0 South Africa 0 0 0 India 0 1 4 Philippines 0 0 0 Total 12 13 12 EOIs processed on-shore (%) 70.2 72.4 73.1 EOIs with job or job offer (%) 65.6 66.1 78.4
The mix of migrants continued to change. By 2010, India (15.%) was now the second ranked source of EOIs after the UK (17.1%), and in a third of the 12 fortnightly draws, India was the top-ranked country. China (8.1%) had fallen from second to fourth ranked, with South Africa (8.3%) marginally ahead in the percentage shares. For the first time since February 2004, the proportion of the total EOIs selected each fortnight that was accounted for by the top five sources fell below 60 percent. The immigrant flow during the recession has been become more diverse despite the much more deliberate selection of people with jobs and job offers when they apply for residence. There has not been an obvious return to ‘traditional sources’ at a time of rising
18 unemployment and the shift towards more systematic exclusion of migrants who do not have employment or a job offer. Between January and June 2010, for example, only the first three points categories listed in Table 4 (at least 140 points; 100-135 points plus a job offer; and 100-135 points plus 15 bonus points for work experience in an area of skill shortage) were used in the fortnightly selections from the pool. This compares with the use of all six categories shown in Table 4 in 18 of the 25 selections in 2009. Having a job or job offer, or work experience in an area of skill shortage, was an essential requirement for selection during the first half of 2010.
Conversion of EOIs Into Approvals for Residence
Expressions of interest in taking up residence in New Zealand via the skilled migrant category, that were drawn from the pool every fortnight from February 2004, were followed up by letters of invitation to the successful applicants to complete more comprehensive applications. The Department of Labour maintains monthly and annual statistical records of the numbers of applications that were accepted for processing and the numbers of these applications that were subsequenty granted approval for residence. The conversion of successful EOIs into full applications, and their acceptance for processing and eventual approval for residence, inevitably involves some attrition in numbers. This attrition also varies by the country of citizenship of the prospective migrants both as a result of differences in ability to meet the specific requirements of New Zealand’s points selection system, as well as some differences in their motivation to pursue residence in the country.
These differences in residence outcomes for applicants who expressed interest in migrating to New Zealand are apparent in Table 7. In this table, the total EOIs for the five major sources of applicants at the EOI stage between January 2005 and December 2008 are compared with the numbers of applications approved for processing and subsequently approved for residence between July 2005 and June 2009. The numbers of EOI selected have been estimated from the percentages given in the fortnightly selection statistics reports which show the total numbers of EOI and percentages for the top 10 source countries. The numbers of applications accepted for processing come from Table R7 ‘Residence Applications Accepted for Processing by Financial Year’ and the numbers of applications approved for residence come from Table R2 ‘Residence Decisions by Month’ at the Department of Labour’s immigration website (www.immigration.govt.nz). The six month lag between the totals for the EOIs and the totals for the applications accepted and subsequently approved is necessary because principal applicants invited to apply for residence after being selected from the pool have up to 12 months to lodge their application.
The relationships between the numbers of EOIs selected from the pool (EOI SP), the numbers of applications accepted for processing (AAP) and the numbers of applications approved for residence (AAR) that are shown in Table
19 7 are thus just an approximation. However, they are sufficient for the purpose of showing that there is significant attrition in the numbers of applications between the EOI stage and the approval stage, as would be expected. Just under three-quarters of the estimated 87,760 EOIs submitted between January 2005 and December 2008 eventually became full applications accepted for processing (65,145 between July 2005 and June 2009) and, after some further attrition, around 60 percent were converted into approvals for residence (54,105 between July 2005 and June 2009) (Table 7). Amongst the five key sources of EOIs during the four calendar years 2005-2008, citizens of the United Kingdom and South Africa had much higher proportions of the invitations they were sent (to apply for residence approval) followed up by full applications that were accepted for processing and then favourable decisions regarding residence approval. In both cases, the equivalent of around 72 percent of the EOIs selected were converted into residence approvals (Table 7). Citizens of China (PRC) were not far behind with the equivalent of 66 percent of the EOIs converted to residence and a slightly higher proportion (78%) actually converted into applications accepted for processing than those from UK citizens (75%) (Table 7).
Table 7 EOIs Selected from Pool (EOI SP), Applications Accepted for Processing (AAP) and Applications Approved for Residence (AAR), Calendar and June Years
EOI SP AAP AAR % EOIs % EOIs 2005-08 05/06-08/09 05/06-08/09 Converted Converted (December (June (June to to Nationality Years) Years) Years) AAP AAR United Kingdom 18,230 13,751 13,089 75.4 71.8 China 14,025 10,936 9,247 78.0 65.9 South Africa 6,590 5,307 4,719 80.5 71.6 India 6,570 4,576 3,360 69.6 51.1 Philippines 7,580 4,878 3,182 64.4 42.0 Total 5 countries 52,995 39,448 33,597 74.4 63.4 Other countries 34,765 25,697 20,508 73.9 59.0 Total all countries 87,760 65,145 54,105 74.2 61.7
Data sources: Data on EOI application in the skilled migrant category accepted for processing and on applications approved for residence in the skilled migrant category can be found at the Department of Labour's immigration website, www.immig.govt.nz. Tables R2 and R7 contain the relevant acceptance and approvals information. Information on EOIs is contained in the fortnightly reports containing selection statistics.
The two countries whose citizens had much lower proportions of selected EOIs converting to applications approved for processing and subsequent approval for residence were India and the Philippines. In the case of India, only around half of the invitations to apply for residence after the EOI selection stage actually produced applications that were successful at the
20 final stage of decisions about approvals for residence. An even lower proportion – just over 40 percent - of the EOIs submitted by citizens of the Philippines eventually resulted in approvals for residence. In both cases, over 60 percent reached the approval for processing stage but the respective proportions (69% for applications by citizens of India and 64% for applications by citizens of the Phippines) and the differences between the percentages approved for processing and the percentages approved for residence were greater in the case of these two countries (around 20%) than for the other three countries (between 3% and 13%). It seems clear from the data contained in Table 7 that citizens from India and the Philippines who received invitations to apply for residence under the skilled migrant category, did not follow through with full applications and/or had much less success with full applications at subsequent stages of the approval process than citizens of China, South Africa and the United Kingdom.
For citizens of countries other than the five listed in Table 7, the overall converstion rates from EOIs to accepted and then approved applications lie between the totals for the five top sources of EOIs and the totals for applicants from all countries. There is not much difference between the percentages of EOIs that make the accepted for processing stage – in both groups of countries, this was around 74 percent. In the case of conversion to residence approvals, the ‘other countries’ had a lower proportion that were successful (59%) than the five countries (63%). There will be considerable variability by specific nationality in the ‘other countries’, reflecting the differences found between the top five sources with the prospective immigrants from Europe and North America tending to have greater success at getting through to final approval for residence, than those from many of the countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Latin America. Scoring well on all of the key components of the points system is much easier for people from societies and economies where English is either the lingua franca or a very commonly used second language and employment in the occupations in high demand in New Zealand is widespread. Although the points system does not prioritise, immigration from specific countries directly the components of the system definitely favour prospective applicants for residence as skilled migrants from certain parts of the world over others.
Entry to New Zealand for work and residence is mainly via the skilled migrant category and its associated points selection system. Because the great majority of principal applicants seeking entry under the SMC are approved for residence on-shore, most are already on a work permit at the time the decision is finalised about their application to stay indefinitely in the country. In the year ended June 2009, for example, 94 percent of principal applicants and 77 percent of secondary applicants entering via the SMC, had held a temporary visitor, student or work permit at some stage during that year (Department of Labour, 2010: 41). The most recent permit for 88 percent of these principal applicants was a work permit. For some, this was a permit specifically linked to their residence application – a work to residence permit.
21 The work to residence permit system was introduced in April 2002 when specific policies to attract ‘talent’ came into effect (see Merwood, 2006, for a detailed discussion of these policies). The talent work policies, in association with the long-term skill shortage list (LTSSL) that replaced the priority occupation list in April 2005, were linked with the two-stage points selection system for skilled migrants that came into effect in December 2003. In the year ended June 2009, for example, 3,492 of the 27,011 people approved for residence in the SMC gained their residence via talent (2,312) and LTSSL (1,180) work to residence permits (Department of Labour, 2010: 60). Another 1,097 gained their residence approval via a specific residence from work category, that is not specifically tied to the SMC, but allows applicants who gain entry under the Talent (Accredited Employers) work policy and the LTSSL to transition to residence (Merwood, 2006).
In the next section of the paper, we review the processes of transitioning to residence from temporary permits for work or study in New Zealand. As noted in the introduction to the chapter, transitioning to residence is now very common either via a work to residence permit under the SMC, or via the specific residence from work permits associated with the talent and long-term skill shortage list, or directly from temporary permits for work or study. The latter two transitions — from temporary work or study to residence – are discussed briefly with reference to the increasingly blurred boundary between ‘temporary’ and ‘permanent’ migration to New Zealand
PATHWAYS TO RESIDENCE VIA WORK AND STUDY PERMITS
The Department of Labour (2010: 30) has estimated that ‘about one- third of temporary work permit holders will eventually become permanent residents, and specific work permit policies facilitate this transition’. The number of people in New Zealand on temporary work permits in any given year has exceeded the numbers approved for residence in all streams (skilled/business, family, international/humanitarian) by a rapidly increasing margin since the early 2000s (see Table 6, Chapter 2). During the year ended June 2009, 136,481 people had been issued with one or more work permits by comparison with 46,097 people approved for residence. If one third of the 136,481 work permit holders eventually become permanent residents, this would equate to just over 45,000 — the equivalent of a full year of residence approvals. The fact that 88 percent of SMC principal applicants in 2008/09 had had a temporary work permit lends support to the claim that moving on to residence from work while in New Zealand is now a very common experience.
The numbers of people on permits to study in New Zealand have also increased substantially during the 2000s and have exceeded those entering under the New Zealand Residence Programme in every year since 2000/01. The Department of Labour (2010: 43) notes with regard to transitions to residence for students that ‘almost one-quarter of students (23 percent) gain permanent residence in New Zealand within five years of their first student
22 permit’. During the year ended June 2009, there were 73,926 students on temporary permits for study in a range of public and private educational institutions. If 23 percent of them eventually transitioned to residence from their student permits (often via a temporary work permit) over the subsequent five years, this would translate into 17,000 of the immigrants approved under the NZRP between 2009 and 2014. Facilitating pathways to residence via temporary work and study, especially while the migrants are on- shore, is thus a critically important component of New Zealand’s contemporary immigration policy. This is a marked shift from the situation that prevailed through the 1980s and 1990s and represents one of the most significant innovations in immigration policy in New Zealand, as well as in several other parts of the world including Australia and Canada, in response to intensifying international competition for ‘talent’.
Transitioning from Work Permits to Residence
In their Migration Trends 2005/06 report, the Department of Labour (2006: 4-16) has a special feature on transitions to residence from work and study. Drawing on a database of over 400,000 migrants who had been issued their first work permit between July 1997 and June 2006, they established that 25 percent (98,590) had transitioned to residence from their temporary work permit either via the skilled/business stream (58%), the family sponsored stream (35%) or the international/humanitarian stream (7%). The various types of work permits were grouped into five broad categories encompassing labour market tested work permits, work permits issued to partners of New Zealand citizens or residents (partnership), permits for working holiday makers, long- term business visas and a variety of other permits and visas that entitled the recipient to work for defined periods. Table 8 shows the distribution of the 400,970 first permits during the nine years across the five broad categories and the numbers of permit holders in each category who had transitioned to residence by June 2006.
In terms of the numbers transitioning from their temporary work permits to residence, the dominant categories were people on permits for labour market tested and other skilled work and partners of New Zealand citizens or permanent residents who were seeking approval to live in New Zealand (Table 8). These two broad categories accounted for 75 percent of the 98,580 people who transitioned to residence from a work permit during the period. Only a small proportion (8.5%) of working holiday makers transitioned to residence via their work permits; this was not a common route to residence mainly because of the nature of the work that working holiday makers picked up. This tended to be seasonal work in the horticulture/viticulture and other farming sectors as well as casual employment in the tourism, entertainment and accommodation sectors.
23 Table 8 Transitions to Residence via Work Permits, 1997/98-2005/06
Work Permit First Permit % Total Transition % Total Transition Category 97/98-05/06 Permits to Residence Residence Rate1(%) Labour market tested/other skilled 118,760 29.6 39,110 39.7 32.9 Partnership 57,150 14.3 34,540 35.0 60.4 Working holiday makers 143,060 35.7 8,340 8.5 5.8 Long-term business visa 4,450 1.1 2,310 2.3 51.9 Others 77,550 19.3 14,280 14.5 18.4 Total 400,970 100.0 98,580 100.0 24.6
1 The transition rate is calculated by dividing the numbers transitioning to residence in each work permit category (column 4) by the total number of first permit holders in that category (column 2)
Source: Department of Labour (2006: 10). Note the table on page 10 of the report has been replaced by an erratum containing the data in the table above.
The Department of Labour has not repeated the 2006 study of transitions from work to residence. Given the rapid growth in many of the major categories of temporary work permit that have been issued since their study, it is likely that the numbers transitioning to residence from temporary work have continued to increase over the three years ending June 2007, 2008 and 2009. Table 9 contains a summary of several of the main temporary work permit categories for three periods between 1997/98 and 2008/09 – the six years to June 2003 and the two three year periods ending June 2006 and June 2009. It should be kept in mind that the numbers referred to in these tables are counts of the permits approved, including repeat permits for the same individuals – they do not refer to people who received the particular categories of permit for the first time. The total number of temporary work permits issued to principal applicants for the nine years between 1997/98 and 2005/06 was just over 662,000 — much larger than the 440,970 initial work permits issued to principal applicants shown in Table 8. Two-thirds of the total work permits issued between 1997/98 and 2005/06 were what could be termed initial permits; the other 33 percent were repeat permits for principal applicants.
The total number of permits for temporary work that were approved during the six years between July 1997 and June 2003 (325,011) was slightly smaller than the number issued during the subsequent three years between July 2003 and June 2006 (337,045). Between July 2006 and June 2009, the number of permits approved increased by over 50 percent to reach 514,279 (Table 9). The top three categories remained temporary permits for skilled work, working holidays and work permits issued on the basis of relationships including partners and spouses of New Zealand citizens and residents, as well
24 as the partners/wives of students after July 2005 when changes were made to policies relating to international students. The share in the skilled work category, which does not include the work to residence permits or those on this path in the SMC which are listed as a separate category in Table 9, remained the largest but declined from just over 40 percent in the first period to 26 percent of the total permits approved in the three years ending June 2009. The shares in the working holiday category did not change much although the numbers of approved permits increased by 50 percent between 2004-2006 and 2007-2009. The share in the relationship category ranged between 15 and 22 percent with numbers increasing significantly between each successive period.
Table 9 Temporary Work Permits Decided by Major Category, Years Ended June 1998-2009
Category Period 1998-2003 2004-2006 2007-2009 Number Skilled work 130,702 113,764 134,117 Working holiday 74,672 72,207 108,446 Relationship 48,903 73,630 101,043 Job search 5,851 8,144 29,854 Practical experience post-study 0 1,711 17,362 Ministerial discretion1 5,287 10,470 13,570 Work to residence2 404 7,058 10,226 Work experience students 4,689 6,176 3,391 LTBV/Investor 5,335 1,158 1,233 Others 49,168 42,736 95,037 Total 325,011 337,054 514,279 Percent Skilled work 40.2 33.8 26.1 Working holiday 23.0 21.4 21.1 Relationship 15.0 21.8 19.6 Job search 1.8 2.4 5.8 Practical experience post-study 0.0 0.5 3.4 Ministerial discretion1 1.6 3.1 2.6 Work to residence2 0.1 2.1 2.0 Work experience students 1.4 1.8 0.7 LTBV/Investor 1.6 0.3 0.2 Others 15.1 12.7 18.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
1 In special circumstances, a person unlawfully in New Zealand may be granted a permit as a special case by the Minister of Immigration under section 35A of the Immigration Act 1987. 2 Including those in the SMC transitioning to residence via a work to residence permit.
Source: Table W2, Work Applications Decided by Month, www.immigration.govt.nz
The major changes in shares of permits across the remaining categories were associated with the policies introduced in July 2005 to make New
25 Zealand a more competitive destination for international students. In a series of policy initiatives announced in that month, a Graduate Job Search Permit was introduced for foreign graduates who completed a course that would gain points under the SMC (Department of Labour, 2008: 10-11). There were already provisions for some job search permits, but the addition of a graduate version of these explains the substantial increase in the number of permits approved from 8,144 (2004-06) to 29,854 (2007-09). In addition, a two-year work permit was available for eligible students with a job or an offer of a job relevant to their course or qualification, and the partners of postgraduate students or those studying in an area of absolute skill shortage could apply for an open work permit for the duration of their study (Department of Labour, 2008: 11).
While it is not possible to replicate the analysis done by the Department of Labour in 2006 for the most recent period, a rough estimate of the numbers who might make this transition from the skilled work, working holiday and relationship permit categories can be made using data from Tables 8 and 9. If one assumes the skilled work category in Table 9 is equivalent to the labour market tested/other skilled work category in Table 8, and the relationship category in Table 9 is essentially synonymous with the partnership category in Table 8, then shares of the first permits decided between 2007 and 2009 can be estimated. Once these estimates are obtained, then the transition rates contained in Table 8 can be applied to obtain an indication of the numbers who might transition to residence from these categories of work permit. In making these estimates, it is assumed that the ratios of first permits to total permits decided in 2007-2009 remains the same as those for 1998-2006. The latter are derived using the first permit data in Table 8 and the data on total numbers of permits in Table 9. It is also assumed that the transition rates for the different permit categories remain the same for the permits approved between 2007 and 2009 as the ones contained in Table 8 for 1998-2006.
On the basis of these assumptions, it is estimated that around 76,580 people who received one or more of the 514,279 temporary work permits between July 2007 and June 2009, might eventually transition to residence (Table 10). This compares with around 98,580 who are estimated to have transitioned to residence from the 662,065 temporary work permits approved between July 1997 and June 2006. The percentages of the total who transition to residence from temporary permits for working holidays and for work approved on the basis of relationships with New Zealanders (citizens as well as residents) or other temporary permit holders, do not change much. The percentage of the total gaining residence from skilled work permits is estimated to fall, however, as the share gaining residence in the ‘other’ categories increases (Table 10). This is consistent with the wider range of temporary work permits available after several policy changes between July 2005 and June 2009. Transitioning to residence from various permits favouring work for international students studying in areas of absolute skill shortage in
26 New Zealand, as well as from the specific work to residence permits, is accounted for in the ‘other’ category in Table 10.
Table 10 Estimates of First Permits Decided and Numbers Transitioning to Residence from Selected Temporary Work Categories, July 1997-June 2006 and July 2007-June 2009
Numbers (June Yrs) Percentages Category of Work Permit 1998-2006 2007-2009 1998-2006 2007-2009 Total permits decided Skilled work 244,466 134,117 36.9 26.1 Working holidays 146,879 108,446 22.2 21.2 Relationship 122,533 101,043 18.5 19.6 All other categories 148,187 170,673 22.4 33.2 Total 662,065 514,279 100.0 100.0 Estimated numbers of first permits Working holidays 143,060 105,630 35.7 33.9 Relationship 57,150 47,130 14.3 15.2 All other categories 82,000 93,560 20.4 30.0 Total 400,970 311,470 100.0 100.0 Estimated numbers eventually transitioning to residence Skilled work 39,110 21,460 39.7 28.0 Working holidays 8,340 6,160 8.5 8.0 Relationship 34,540 28,480 35.0 37.2 All other categories 16,590 20,470 16.8 26.8 Total 98,580 76,580 100.0 100.0
Data sources: Tables 8 and 9
The 10,266 work to residence permits approved between 2007 and 2009 accounted for only two percent of the 514,279 approved temporary work permits during the three years (Table 10). These are not the main pathways to residence from temporary work. Much more numerous in the transition flows are temporary migrants who have been granted work permits to fill skill shortages in the labour market, as well as work permits for partners and spouses of permanent and temporary residents in New Zealand. It is estimated that around 50,000 people might transition to residence from these categories of temporary work permit that were approved between July 2007 and June 2009. In the earlier period (July 1997-June 2006), there were only 7,462 work to residence permits that were approved compared with 73,650 people who transitioned to residence from skilled work and relationship-related permits (Tables 9 and 10). Transitioning to residence from working holidays, while much less common, also accounted for around 8,340 new residents during the nine June years to 2006, and might add a further 6,160 to the resident population by 2014 if the transition rates for the earlier period persist for those granted permits during the June years 2007-2009. Much more important as a source of potential residents than young working holiday-makers are fee- paying international students and it is to the transitions to residence amongst this group that the discussion now turns.
27 Transitioning From Study Permits to Residence
The two main groups of students transitioning to residence from temporary permits are fee-paying international students, most of whom have come to New Zealand for English language tuition or for tertiary study, and the dependent children of work permit holders. In the three years ended June 2007, 2008 and 2009, for example, 232,309 (84%) of the 277,658 permits granted for study in New Zealand went to fee paying students (70%) and dependents of temporary permit holders (14%). The remaining 16 percent of permits were granted to students temporarily in New Zealand to study the English language, on exchange visits, on scholarships, and those requesting variations to their existing permits or approval to study at the discretion of the Department of Labour or the Minister of Immigration (Section 35a approvals) (Table 11).
In their study of migrant transitions, the Department of Labour (2006: 14) estimated that around 42,280 people who had been issued with permits to study in New Zealand between July 1997 and June 2006 transitioned to residence. These new residents accounted for 17 percent of the 255,830 students who had been issued with at least one student permit during the nine years. Paul Merwood, who conducted the research into migrant transitions, observed:
On average, the transition to residence for students is lower than it is for work permit holders, and students tend to take longer to make the transition. As is the case with work permit holders, the number of students converting to residence increases over time for any given cohort. Seventeen percent of students granted their permit between 1997/98 and 2005/06 had gained permanent residence by June 2006, although this figure is lessened by the inclusion of the most recent cohorts (where migrants have had less time in New Zealand). If sufficient time is allowed, approximately 20 percent of students gain permanent residence in New Zealand (Department of Labour, 2006: 12).
Merwood established that there was a much higher rate of transitioning to residence amongst dependents of people in the country on temporary work permits (51%) than was the case for those who were full fee-paying students (13%). The great majority of students transitioning to residence in both these groups did so via the skilled and business residence approval stream (83% of dependents and 67% of fee-paying students), either accompanying parents who had sought approval to stay in New Zealand or by meeting the criteria of the SMC in their own right because of their qualifications and the jobs or job offers they had received (Department of Labour, 2006: 13-14). There was a flow of students into residence via the family sponsored categories (23%) and
28 the international/humanitarian approval stream (5%) but these were small by comparison with those transitioning via the skilled and business stream.
Table 11 Number of Permits Granted for Study by Major Category, June Years 2007-2009
Number % Total Category 2007-09 Full fee-paying 193,192 69.6 Dependent of a worker 39,117 14.1 Sub-total 232,309 83.7 English language studies 22,554 8.1 s35a request 8,874 3.2 Vary conditions of permit 6,229 2.2 Exchange students 4,614 1.7 Scholarship holders 2,980 1.1 Others 98 0.0 Sub-total 45,349 16.3 Total 277,658 100.0
Source: Table S1 Student Applications. Decided by Financial Year, www.immigration.govt.nz
Since the 2006 study, there is likely to have been an increase in the numbers of students transitioning to residence via temporary work permits as a result of several policy changes made between July 2005 and November 2007. Reference has already been made to the Graduate Job Search Permit for overseas students who completed courses that would gain points under the SMC, the two year post-study practical experience permit for students with jobs or offers of work relevant to their courses of study, and opportunities for partners of postgraduate students or those studying in an area of absolute skill shortage to apply for an open work permit for the duration of their study. These provisions, introduced in July 2005, while not allowing students to transition to residence directly, were all making possible the accumulation of relevant work experience that could count in a subsequent application for residence. The intention of the policy was clear: New Zealand welcomed applications for residence from suitably qualified international students who had gained some of their graduate and postgraduate training in the country.
In January 2006, the Government reduced the fees for international PhD students to the domestic level and permitted their dependent children to attend schools in New Zealand at domestic fees. This latter fees concession was extended in May 2006 to dependent children of New Zealand residents who were in the process of applying for citizenship (Department of Labour, 2008: 12). In November 2007, the post-study practical experience permit was increased from two to three years for graduates who required three years work experience in New Zealand to qualify for membership or
29 registration with professional bodies. Through these sorts of initiatives, the New Zealand Government was sending powerful signals to potential markets for international students, indicating that there was a life in New Zealand after study for many of those who chose their courses with an eye to where the critical skill shortages were in the domestic labour market.
During the years ended June 2008 and 2009, the numbers of Graduate Job Search permits approved exceeded 10,000 annually. The post-study practical experience permits fell, however, from 6,283 in the year ending June 2008 to 4,131 in the year ending June 2009. This was, in part, a reflection of the impact of the recession from late 2008 on the approval of temporary work permits. Over the same period, the numbers of permits allowing international students to gain work experience also fell by just under 100, from 1,164 (2007/08) to 1,075 (2008/09). The removal of 44 occupations from the Immediate Skill Shortage List (ISSL), along with eight from the Long-Term Skill Shortage List (LTSSL) in June 2009, made it more difficult to easily acquire the work experience that was essential for international students wishing to transition to residence.
The situation facing international students, as well as many migrants who entered New Zealand on temporary permits with an opportunity to consider transitioning to residence, has changed quite dramatically with the onset of recession and the shifting definition of what constitutes ‘immediate skill shortages’. Highly qualified graduates and postgraduates have become quite vulnerable to job losses as employers seek to protect their core permanent work forces. Managing the vulnerabilities to job losses for both skilled migrants on temporary permits, as well as for international students who have come to the country to gain qualifications that will allow them to gain suitable jobs, has required some adjustments to temporary work policy as the job market contracted. In July 2009, some categories of migrants on temporary work permits who were made redundant before they could transition to residence were granted an additional three month visitor’s permit while they worked through their options. Their children were also permitted to stay on at school on domestic fees even though they no longer qualified for this concession with the termination of their employment and their work permit (Immigration New Zealand, 2009; Bedford, 2009).
Transitioning to residence from temporary work or study has been possible through all of the major streams in the New Zealand Residence Programme – skilled and business, family sponsorship and the international/humanitarian scheme. The Department of Labour’s (2006) study of migrant transitions revealed that there was considerable diversity in the pathways to residence from different types of temporary permit, as well as for migrants from different countries. Some of this variability is illustrated in Table 12 with reference to the percentages of temporary migrants on particular permits or from selected countries transitioning to residence via the three streams. The skilled/business stream is a more important route to
30 residence for migrants on temporary work and study permits from South Africa, for example, than it is for temporary migrants from China or India. In some Pacific countries, the international/ humanitarian stream is the main route, especially via the Pacific Access Category (PAC), the Samoan Quota and a transitional policy introduced in October 2000 to allow long-term overstayers who had work to regularise their residence status. The family sponsored stream is especially important for groups of migrants from southeast Asia, especially Thailand and Vietnam.
Table 12 Transition to Residence by Temporary Permit Type and Nationality, 1997/98-2005/06 (Percentages)
Residence Approval Stream Permit Category Skilled/ Family International/ and Nationality Business Sponsored Humanitarian Work permits Labour market tested/skilled 85 11 4 Partnership 31 67 1 Working holiday 60 40 0 Long-term business visa 94 5 1 Other 41 26 33 Total 58 35 7 United Kingdom 70 29 1 China 67 30 3 South Africa 86 13 1 India 63 35 3 Philippines 57 40 3 Tonga 3 53 44 Samoa 2 51 48 Student permits Fee-paying 67 29 3 Dependents 83 10 7 Other 54 31 14 Total 72 23 5 United Kingdom 88 11 1 China 76 23 0 South Africa 92 6 1 India 81 18 1 Thailand 35 62 2 Vietnam 18 78 4
Source: Department of Labour (2008: 10-15)
For much of the period under review in this chapter, the approval limits for the three major streams remained the same – 60 percent of an overall total of 45,000 (+5,000) was allocated to the skilled/business stream, 30 percent to the family sponsored stream and 10 percent to the international/humanitarian stream (see Table 3). As noted earlier, the numbers of places in the skilled and business stream were increased in the 2006 and 2007 June years to clear the backlog of people who had qualified
31 for entry in the SMC in 2005 when the points threshold was only 100. The overall limits for these years were 45,000 (+6,500) and 47,000 (+5,000). In the 2007 June year, the limits were specified changed and in July 2007, the family sponsored stream was split into two – a parent, siblings and adult category, which has remained capped since October 2001, and an uncapped family sponsored category for partners and dependent children of New Zealand residents (Department of Labour, 2008: 13). There has also been a shift in the shares allocated to the three streams since July 2007. The international/humanitarian stream has been progressively reduced from 10 percent of the total in 2006/07 to 9 percent in 2007/08 and 8 percent in 2008/09. The two family categories gained the re-allocated percentage point in 2007/08, and the skilled/business stream the re-allocated two percentage points in 2008/09. The implications of some of these changes for pathways to residence under the family and international/humanitarian streams are reviewed briefly in the next section.
PATHWAYS TO RESIDENCE VIA FAMILIES AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS
Between July 2003 and June 2009, just under 112,000 people gained approval for residence in New Zealand via the family (85,765) and international/humanitarian (26,159) streams (Table 13). Collectively, these streams accounted for just over 40 percent of the 278,206 approvals for residence under the NZPR during the six years with 31 percent of approvals entering under family policies and 9 percent entering under international/ humanitarian (I/H) policies. At the level of the individual country, there was considerable variability in the shares across the streams. Amongst the five leading countries for expressions of interest in skilled migration, much higher shares of citizens of China and India were admitted under the family policies (over 40%) than was the case for citizens of the UK, South Africa and the Philippines which all had around 80 percent or more in the skilled/business stream (Table 13). Within the family stream for China and India, parents, siblings and adult children were more numerous than dependents and partners/spouses – the reverse of the situation found for the other three countries and for all migrants approved for residence between July 2003 and June 2009.
The I/H stream was much smaller (between 0.7 and 1.4%) for the five leading sources of residence applications during the period than the average for all residence applications (9.4%). In some countries, including several in the Pacific Islands which have special quotas for residence, the share of approvals for residence in this stream is much higher than the 9-10 percent for all approvals – up to 60 percent in the case of citizens of Samoa and over 50 percent for Tongans (Table 13). The Samoan Quota and the Pacific Access Category account for over 70 percent of the approvals in the I/H stream from these two countries with most of the remainder being accounted for by Samoan and Tongan overstayers in New Zealand who, between October 2000 and March 2001, registered with the Department of Labour under the October
32 2000 Transitional Policy and, if they were well-settled, were allowed to apply for a two-year work permit and then apply to transition to residence. This policy, and its impact on migration of Pacific peoples to New Zealand between 2000 and 2005, is discussed briefly below and in more detail in Bedford (2008).
Table 13 Approvals of New Residents: Major Streams in the NZRP June Years 2004-2009
Skilled/ Family All Internat./ Citizenship Business PSAC1 UCFS2 Family Humanit. Total Numbers All countries 166,282 31,267 54,498 85,765 26,159 278,206 United Kingdom 54,295 4,084 9,953 14,037 496 68,828 China 20,528 7,281 7,029 14,310 511 35,349 South Africa 20,138 1,697 1,319 3,016 219 23,373 India 10,197 5,293 4,487 9,780 247 20,224 Philippines 10,655 529 1,784 2,313 101 13,069 Fiji 7,516 3,811 2,752 6,563 2,516 16,595 Samoa 141 1,096 3,857 4,953 7,811 12,905 Tonga 296 1,298 1,704 3,002 3,646 6,944 Percentages All countries 59.8 11.2 19.6 30.8 9.4 100.0 United Kingdom 78.9 5.9 14.5 20.4 0.7 100.0 China 58.1 20.6 19.9 40.5 1.4 100.0 South Africa 86.2 7.3 5.6 12.9 0.9 100.0 India 50.4 26.2 22.2 48.4 1.2 100.0 Philippines 81.5 4.0 13.7 17.7 0.8 100.0 Fiji 45.3 23.0 16.6 39.5 15.2 100.0 Samoa 1.1 8.5 29.9 38.4 60.5 100.0 Tonga 4.3 18.7 24.5 43.2 52.5 100.0
1 PSAC -- parents, siblings, adult children (capped from July 2007). 2 UCFS -- uncapped family sponsored (before July 2007 included PSAC).
Source: Table R1 ‘Residence Decisions by Financial Year’, www.immigration.govt.nz
Transitions Through Work and Study Via the Family and I/H Streams
Routes to residence via the family and I/H streams often involved an initial temporary work or study permit in New Zealand. Although data on these transitions are not available for the June years between 2006 and 2009, evidence of the importance of approvals for residence under the family and I/H streams via temporary permits for work and study was compiled for a major inquiry into New Zealand’s Pacific population in 2006 and 2007 (Bisley, 2008; Bedford, 2008). Between July 1997 and June 2005, just under 74,000 (21%) of the 346,539 people who had been granted their first permit for temporary work in New Zealand applied for and were approved for residence in New Zealand (Bedford, 2008: 161). In the case of citizens of Pacific countries, the share of first time work permit holders who transitioned to residence was much higher than the national average – 55 percent of the
33 15,890 Pacific citizens granted work permits applied for and obtained approval for residence. Fiji, Tonga and Samoa were the main sources of both temporary workers as well as people moving from a temporary work permit to a permit entitling them to reside in New Zealand.
In the case of transitions via the various categories in the family sponsored stream, there were some variations between migrants from all countries and those from the Pacific in the importance of marriage, de facto relationships, partnerships and the other categories (including parents, siblings and adult children) as the routes to residence via a work permit (Table 14). However, the overall total percentages for migrants from all countries (35%) and those from the Pacific (34%) were very similar (Table 14). The major differences were in the I/H stream and here the 2000 Transitional Policy for well-established overstayers accounted for the largest share of Pacific people (40%) transitioning to residence from a work permit. Just under 55 percent of the migrants from all countries making the transition to residence via a temporary work permit were approved under the skills and business stream compared with only 21 percent of those from the Pacific (Table 14).
Table 14 Transitions from Work to Residence via the Major Residence Streams, June Years 1998-2005
Numbers Percent Category All Countries Pacific1 All Countries Pacific1 Skills/Business Total 40,269 1,839 54.5 21.2 Family Marriage 16,887 2,387 22.8 27.5 De facto 3,401 159 4.6 1.8 Partnership 4,811 326 6.5 3.8 Other 956 95 1.3 1.1 Total 26,055 2,967 35.2 34.2 I/H Humanitarian 266 92 0.4 1.1 Refugee 1,798 3 2.4 0 PAC 115 115 0.2 1.3 Samoan Quota 43 43 0.1 0.5 2000 transit. 4,394 3,431 5.9 39.5 Ministerial Disc. 1,007 179 1.4 2.1 Others 37 19 0.1 0.2 Total 7,660 3,882 10.4 44.7 Total 73,984 8,688 100.0 100.0
1 Pacific in this table included: Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Solomons and Vanuatu. 111 citizens of other Pacific countries are not accounted for in the totals for the Pacific for each specific residence category.
Source: Bedford (2008: 164)
34 The 2000 Transitional Policy applied to all overstayers in New Zealand in 2000 but it is quite clear from Table 14 that much higher numbers of Pacific citizens (3,341 or 76% of the total of 4,394 from all countries) in this situation applied over the subsequent five years for approval to transition to residence from a temporary work permit than overstayers from other parts of the world (963 or 24%). Despite the fact that this was the largest single route to residence via temporary work for Pacific citizens (followed by marriage and the skilled migrant category), the numbers of Pacific overstayers seeking to regularise their presence via this route were smaller than the Department of Labour had expected and one of the major groups was people with children who had been born in New Zealand. If the 2000 Transition Policy is removed from the list of categories, the shares of Pacific people transitioning from work permits to residence via the regular family sponsorship and skilled migrant routes become more prominent.
Table 15 Transitions from Study to Residence via the Major Residence Streams, June Years 1998-2005
Numbers Percent Category All Countries Pacific1 All Countries Pacific1 Skills/Business Total 20,085 991 69.6 34.6 Family Marriage 3,440 339 11.9 11.8 De facto 490 32 1.7 1.1 Partnership 1,545 117 5.4 4.1 Other 1,205 335 4.2 11.7 Total 6,680 823 23.2 28.7 I/H Humanitarian 263 72 0.9 2.5 Refugee 395 2 1.4 0.1 PAC 227 223 0.8 7.8 Samoan Quota 45 39 0.2 1.4 2000 transit. 743 621 2.6 21.7 Ministerial Disc. 355 84 1.2 2.9 Others 60 8 0.2 0.3 Total 1,430 975 7.2 36.6 Total 28,853 2,863 100.0 100.0
1 Pacific in this table included: Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Solomons and Vanuatu. 111 citizens of other Pacific countries are not accounted for in the totals for the Pacific for each specific residence category.
Source: Bedford (2008: 168)
In the case of transitions to residence via a study permit, Bedford (2008: 163) reported that between July 1997 and June 2005, just over 9,000 of the 221,718 students who gained their first permit to study in New Zealand were from Pacific countries. Many of those who transition to residence from a study permit do so via a work permit first. By June 2005, 7 percent of the
35 students from all countries had been granted their first work permits and 13 percent had been approved for residence. The respective percentages for Pacific students were 11 and 32 – higher than the national averages. In common with the finding for transitions from temporary work to residence, Pacific citizens have much higher shares in the categories relating to the 2000 Transitional Policy — almost 22 percent of the Pacific student approvals for residence were accepted through this policy, most commonly as the children of a parent who was a New Zealand citizen (Table 15). Only 5 percent of the transitions to residence from study permits amongst the migrant population as a whole were approved via categories in the I/H stream compared with 34 percent for Pacific students. In the family stream, the major difference between the two groups was in the ‘other’ category, especially dependent children and siblings, while 70 percent of all people approved for residence via study permits were admitted in the skilled and business stream (35% for Pacific migrants) (Table 15).
The importance of transitioning to residence after experience in New Zealand on a temporary permit was reinforced in the report on the first wave interviews for the Longitudinal Immigration Survey: New Zealand (LisNZ). Masgoret et al. (2009: 47) noted that 80 percent of the sample of 7,137 migrants interviewed between May 2005 and April 2007, six months after arriving to take up residence in New Zealand, had held some form of temporary permit in the country during the three years before being approved for residence. Fifty-five percent had held a temporary work permit during that time. They went on to observe that:
Temporary work permits were most likely to be held by Skilled principal (71 percent) and Family Partner (67 percent) migrants. Family Parent (62 percent) migrants were more likely than other migrants to have held other types of temporary permits [mainly student and visitor permits] in the three years before gaining residence (Masgoret et al., 2007: 47).
The most common types of permits held by these migrants had been work permits (61%, including long-term business work permits but excluding working holiday permits), followed by visitor’s permits (23%) and student permits (7%) (Masgoret et al., 2009: 48).
It is clear from research reported by the Department of Labour (2006), Bedford (2008) and Masgoret et al. (2009) that transitioning to residence in New Zealand from temporary permits is common and, for certain groups of migrants, categories within the family and the I/H streams have provided the most important entry points for the necessary approval to stay on and live in the country. Since July 2007, however, the numbers admitted under most of the categories in family and I/H streams have been declining. There has been an increasing concern by successive Ministers of Immigration since 2006 to increase the numbers and proportions of ‘productive’ migrants being admitted
36 under the NZRP and this can be seen in the gradual reduction in the numbers and percentages of residence approvals in the I/H stream especially.
Residence Approvals in the Family and I/H Streams, July 2007-June 2010
Between the years ended June 2008 and June 2010, the total numbers approved in the family and I/H streams have fallen by eight percent from 18,744 to 17,246 (Table 16). Over the same period, approvals for residence in the skilled and business stream have increased by four percent from 27,303 to 28,473. The major decline has been in the I/H category (-35%) with the biggest hit occurring in the numbers approved under the Pacific Access Category (-67%). The Residual PAC Places Policy, which had allowed for back-filling of the various PAC quotas, was closed on 8 December 2008 and replaced with the Special Pacific Access Category Places Policy to allow for citizens of Fiji, Kiribati, Tonga and Tuvalu, who had made an application for residence under the residual places policy, to be granted residence if that application had not been decided by 7 December 2008. In effect, there would be no further back- filling of places allocated under the PAC that could not be taken up within the prescribed time limit after the annual ballots. The annual Samoan and Refugee Quotas also took hits during these three years with the former falling by 34 percent and the latter by 20 percent (Table 16).
In the family streams, the biggest declines (ignoring the virtual demise of the marriage category) have been in the sibling (-14%), dependent child (-14%) and parent (-8%) categories. The large partnership category experienced some recovery in the 2009/10 year after a fall in 2008/09, as did the adult child category (Table 16). Overall, the trends in the family and I/H streams provide some evidence of the tightening of policy around streams of migrants that are often stereotyped in the public and official discourse as being ‘unproductive’. Closer analysis of the data for citizens of different countries approved for residence in the capped and uncapped family streams between July 2007 and June 2010 revealed that four of the five leading sources of migrants had declines in the numbers of parents, siblings and adult children. Only China had increases over each of the three years from 1,210 in the capped PSAC stream in the year ended June 2007 to 1,632 in the year ended June 2010, equivalent to growth by 37 percent. In the cases of South Africa (-26%), the United Kingdom (-27%), India (-30%) and the Philippines (-38%), the decreases in the numbers of parents, siblings and adult children admitted were all three times or more the national average decrease of -9 percent.
Throughout the 2000s, the major discourse about immigration within government has had a very strong economic focus – temporary as well as permanent migration is promoted mainly because of the benefits it will have for productivity within different sectors of New Zealand’s economy. The social dimensions of immigration, especially where these involve relationships beyond the immediate nuclear family, tend to receive much less attention or sympathy. This is quite common in those countries that use points-based
37 systems to select their prioritised migrant stream – skilled, preferably young adult workers. The upper age limit for selection in New Zealand’s skilled migrant category is 55 years; in Australia, it is 45 years. In an era of ageing workforces internationally, attracting the desired, youthful immigrant workers is going to become an increasing challenge for New Zealand, especially as the majority of the skilled migrants do not choose to come to New Zealand because of the pull of its economic opportunities. As the findings from the LisNZ have demonstrated, ‘relaxed pace of life or lifestyle’, ‘climate or the clean green environment’, and ‘a better future for my children’ were the three most highly ranked reasons respondents at the wave one interviews gave for applying for permanent residence in New Zealand (Masgoret et al., 2009: 49).
Table 16 Residence Approvals in the Family and the I/H Streams, June Years 2007-2010
June Years % Change Stream and Category 2008 2009 2010 2008-10 Skilled/Business Total Skilled/Business 27,303 28,547 28,473 4.29 Family - PSAC Adult Child 262 212 287 9.54 Humanitarian 26 18 0 … Parent 3,723 3,570 3,423 -8.06 Sibling 1,166 1,300 998 -14.41 Sub-total PSAC 5,177 5,100 4,708 -9.06 Family - UCFS Dependent Child 1,163 1,096 1,004 -13.67 Marriage 34 8 5 -85.29 Partnership 8,251 7,814 8,823 6.93 Partnership Deferral 11 28 30 172.73 Same Sex 0 0 0 … Sub-total UCFS 9,459 8,946 9,862 4.26 Total Family 14,636 14,046 14,570 -0.45 International/Humanitarian (I/H) 1995 Refugee Status 213 207 270 26.76 Refugee Quota 795 757 639 -19.62 Pacific Access1 1,117 640 367 -67.14 Samoa Quota 1,202 1,122 788 -34.44 Section 35a 35 141 146 317.14 Other 776 637 466 -39.95 Total I/H 4,138 3,504 2,676 -35.33 Total Family and I/H 18,774 17,550 17,246 -8.14 Total all streams 46,077 46,097 45,719 -0.78
1 Including the special places in the Samoan Quota and the PAC in the 2008/09 and 2009/10 years Source: Table R1 'Residence Decisions by Financial Year' www.immigration.govt.nz
38 REFLECTIONS ON AN ERA OF INNOVATION IN POLICY AND RESEARCH
The period spanned by this review of immigration policy and approvals for residence in New Zealand was one characterised by a mix of stability in the annual targets for migrants in the skilled/business, family and international/humanitarian streams, and considerable innovation in the development of policy and data relating to population movement across the national border. Successive governments, the wider public and the research community were fortunate to have a series of Ministers who have all been willing to engage actively with the challenges arising from on-going rapid growth in the flows of people between countries. There have not been many highly-ranked Ministers of Immigration in the Cabinets of the Labour and National Governments since the major review of immigration policy in 1986 that laid the foundation for policy and practice under the Immigration Act (1987). This has not stopped some Ministers, with the strong support of the Department of Labour, achieving very significant developments in the way New Zealand’s international migration ‘system’ functions. Two examples will suffice: Lianne Dalziel’s on-going support for the development and implementation of the LisNZ, arguably the most significant initiative to improve the evidence base on migration outcomes during the period, and David Cunliffe’s ‘Immigration Change Programme’ which involved the most comprehensive, integrated review of legislation, policy and service delivery since the mid-1980s.
The period has also seen consolidation of an impressive research capability and programme of innovative research and evaluation within the Department of Labour’s Workforce section. IMSED Research (International Migration, Settlement and Employment Dynamics) is now well-established as one of the Government’s most productive research units. Some very innovative studies have been conducted by IMSED Research during the period under review, including Philippa Shorland’s (2006) inquiry, with programming support from James Newell, into the subsequent mobility behaviour of new residents stands out in a range of excellent reports. The annual Migration Trends and Outlook report, which has documented approvals under the New Zealand Immigration Programme (later the New Zealand Residence Programme) since the year ended June 2001, is now the authoritative publication on temporary as well as long-term migration of foreign nationals into New Zealand. Much of the data that is reported in this publication is freely available on the web in the form of pivot tables containing a wealth of information on the different types of movement that are the subject of immigration policy. A large number of the tables in this chapter have been derived from these web-based pivot tables and the information contained in the Migration Trends and Outlook report.
In 2010, the Department of Labour is undergoing another significant restructuring following extensive review of its organisation and core business. A more obvious immigration front door is likely to emerge from this
39 restructuring after several years as a component of the Workforce group within the Department of Labour. The brand name, Immigration New Zealand, has been associated with the Department’s overseas offices and operations. Within the Department of Labour, immigration policy, research and operations has been delivered through different parts of the Department (Workforce, Workplace, Work Directions). Establishing the systems and structures required for the implementation of the Immigration Act (2009) is driving some of the wider organisational change within the Department. Another contributing factor is the National Government’s priority for productivity-led economic growth and an immigration and employment system that supports and sustains this growth.
The first decade of the 21st century saw the development of much more significant flows of people taking up temporary work and study in New Zealand. Initially, there was some ambivalence about considering these flows to be integral parts of New Zealand’s carefully regulated and managed international migration system. Temporary flows were seen to be distinctive and separate from residence migration streams and policies. During the decade, migration researchers and policy-makers alike came to accept that the links between temporary movements and longer-term migration for residence were very strong and that increasing numbers of migrants were moving from one type of permit to another while they were in New Zealand. A better understanding their migration experiences and behaviour necessitated a more integrated approach to population movement and an acceptance of the growing importance of transitions to residence from temporary work, study or visits. The 2000s was a decade when the range of pathways to residence in New Zealand was extended and became better known and understood within and outside the country. The essence of this expanded conceptualisation of ‘immigration’ can be seen in the name of the annual conference which the officials in IMSED Research, along with several university-based and private sector research groups, have been organising since 2006 – the Pathways, Circuits and Crossroads Conference, or Pathways for short.
By June 2010, the Department of Labour was well-advanced in implementing the Immigration Act (2009). Significant work had also been completed on an immigration strategy for New Zealand during the second decade of the century when the challenges of addressing ageing workforces in many parts of the world will become much more important drivers of policy than they have to date. The next decade will also see a much more focussed debate around how societies and their economies adapt to changed environmental conditions that are associated in part with climate change. An integral part of this debate will revolve around how immigration policies can contribute to adaptation strategies and facilitate adjustment to changing circumstances that are beyond the control of local people, their institutions and authorities. In a sense, the 2000s have been a decade of ‘transition’ in thinking about international migration as a process, immigration policy as a
40 strategy for achieving desired national outcomes, and immigrants as human beings rather than just being seen as units of labour in a production process.
The 2010s could be the beginning of a new era for immigration research in New Zealand, especially if some of the major stakeholders in the movement of people across the Tasman Sea get their way and we see the demise of the arrival and departure cards and the emergence of a common customs and immigration border between Australia and New Zealand (Tapalaeo et al., 2010: A1). The impact of the loss of excellent data on population movement between New Zealand and Australia for understanding New Zealand’s contemporary international migration is readily apparent from the analysis of the flows of New Zealanders as well as new immigrants in the next chapter.
The 2010s will also see a greater appreciation of a fundamental contradiction in the contemporary managed residence migration programmes of countries like New Zealand and Australia which discriminate heavily in favour of young people as new settlers. Populations in most of the major sources of immigrants for New Zealand are experiencing both numerical and structural ageing. Workforces are getting older and competition for youthful adult migrants is becoming increasingly intense. Pressure for the immigration of groups that are currently capped in New Zealand’s Residence Programme – parents, siblings and adult children of residents in New Zealand – will inevitably become more intense, especially amongst migrant groups that have very small extended families, such as the younger Chinese who are a product of the ‘one child’ family era. The second decade of the 21st century, like the first, promises to be one of lively debates and innovative research and policy responses in what is truly ‘the age of migration’ (Castles and Miller, 1998).
Acknowledgements
Research for this chapter has been supported by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology funded ‘Strangers in Town’ programme, based at the University of Waikato’s Population Studies Centre (PSC). Muriaroha Muntz in the PSC assisted with data compilation. The authors acknowledge, with gratitude, the assistance provided by Vasantha Krishnan, Paul Merwood, Anne- Marie Masgoret and their colleagues in IMSED Research, Department of Labour. The opportunities they have provided for extended discussions about immigration policy, the Longitudinal Immigration Survey: New Zealand (LisNZ), and the rich database that is maintained on people approved for residence in New Zealand have been greatly appreciated, as has their support for the annual Pathways Conference. Notwithstanding this collegial interaction, it should be noted that the views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors alone and they do not reflect views that might be held by officials in the Department of Labour.
41 REFERENCES CITED
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44 APPENDIX 1: KEY COMPONENTS OF THE IMMIGRATION ACT (2009)
The following text has been extracted from a summary of the Immigration Bill, as passed at its third reading, that can be accessed at the following website (accessed 11 November 2009).
http://www.dol.govt.nz/actreview/update/immigration-bill-third-reading- summary.asp
Significant differences between the new legislation and the Immigration Act (1987) are noted in the text below.
Facilitating passenger processing (various parts) The amendments were made to the Bill by way of the Supplementary Order Paper to support passenger processing, for example, any future Government decisions to facilitate simplified passenger travel between New Zealand and Australia. These changes will ensure the new Act is fit for purpose both now and into the future.
The inclusion of a purpose statement (Part 1) Unlike the Immigration Act 1987, the Bill contains a purpose statement. In summary, the purpose statement provides that the purpose of the new Act is ‘to manage immigration in a way that balances the national interest, as determined by the Crown, and the rights of individuals’.
The legislative ability to use biometrics (Part 2) The new Act will enable the future collection and use of specified biometric information for identity verification purposes. It includes the ability to:
• collect, store and use photographs, fingerprints and iris scans of foreign nationals and to verify their identity and check their character; • use photographs of New Zealand citizens to verify their identity and confirm their citizenship.
The ability to share biometric information nationally and internationally in certain circumstances was enabled through the Supplementary Order Paper. The changes to the biometric provisions were made to ensure New Zealand has up-to-date and internationally comparable measures to address immigration and identity fraud.
A new classified information system with special safeguards (Parts 2, 7) The new Act will enable classified information to be used in immigration and refugee and protection decision-making with special safeguards. It can only be used where the Minister of Immigration (the Minister) agrees and the information relates to security or criminal conduct. The special safeguards to the classified information system are included to balance the right of the
45 Government to use all available information to choose who may travel to, enter and stay in New Zealand and the rights of foreign nationals. Classified information has been rarely used in the immigration system to date. The new Act will update the applicable provisions from the Immigration Act 1987. The provisions in the Act do not herald the start of greater use of classified information.
A universal visa system (Part 3) The new Act will establish a universal visa system that maintains flexibility in managing people’s travel to and stay in New Zealand. It will remove distinctions between the categories of ‘visa’, ‘permit’ and ‘exemption’, and use the single term ‘visa’ to refer to the authority to travel to, enter and stay in New Zealand. A universal visa system means that all foreign nationals will require a visa to be in New Zealand. Visas can be granted or ‘deemed’ to be granted to maintain flexibility in managing risk and the range of unique circumstances under which a foreign national may enter New Zealand. For example, a visa may be deemed to be granted where a foreign national enters New Zealand territory on Antarctica. This is because they may travel directly to Antarctica from another country. Australia is another country that has a universal visa system.
Interim visas (Part 3) The new Act will introduce a new concept in allowing interim visas to be granted for the purpose of maintaining a foreign national’s lawful status in New Zealand where they have applied for a further visa and their application is being considered. This is a positive change that should be of benefit to foreign nationals who wish to extend their stay in New Zealand.
A new refugee and protection system (Part 5) A new refugee and protection decision-making framework is created. The new Act will incorporate into the legislation the United Nations 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, and includes a procedure for determining New Zealand’s existing immigration-related obligations under the Convention Against Torture, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Some changes that were made to the refugee and protection provisions by way of the Supplementary Order Paper primarily focused on managing abuse of the asylum process. The changes include:
• that where a foreign national creates the grounds for a refugee status claim in bad faith, their claim can be declined for consideration but that they may appeal. This provision is based on current New Zealand case law; • an implied waiver of confidentiality in refugee and protection decisions where a refugee or protected person or claimant puts information about their case in the public realm;
46 • that refugee and protection decisions can be released where it is in the public interest and is safe to do so. This will ensure there is a lawful authority to respond to claimants who abuse the refugee process by publicising falsehoods.
A streamlined deportation process (Part 6) The new Act will create a streamlined deportation process that balances efficiency with fairness. The deportation process brings together numerous provisions in the Immigration Act 1987 regarding ‘removal’, ‘revocation’, and ‘deportation’ in an ordered framework that sets out a person’s rights and obligations. The deportation thresholds broadly reflect the status quo, with enhancements to ensure that they are up-to-date and enable New Zealand to remove people who do the wrong thing and do not comply with the immigration system or New Zealand law.
With the exception of foreign nationals who are unlawfully in New Zealand, a key change is that, in most cases, the Act allows a person to remain lawfully in New Zealand while they appeal against their deportation liability. This means that they can work or study (if allowed by the conditions of their visa) during that time. The Act will allow for liability for deportation to be cancelled or suspended at the discretion of the Minister and the Immigration and Protection Tribunal can suspend the deportation liability of residents. A suspension may be used where the Minister wants to put a foreign national who is liable for deportation on a form of good behaviour bond.
The Transport and Industrial Relations Committee recommended an amendment to allow the cancellation of a deportation order of a foreign national unlawfully in New Zealand. This will facilitate the voluntary departure of foreign nationals by ensuring that any ban period does not apply to them. The ability to cancel a deportation order has some protections built around it so it does not become another avenue of appeal for foreign nationals seeking to defer their departure from New Zealand.
One change made by the Supplementary Order Paper was to provide an opportunity for the Minister to order the early release from prison of any foreign national offender who is liable for deportation (not just resident offenders), having considered the safety of the community that the offender will be deported into. Where an offender has been sentenced to two or more years in prison, they may not be released for deportation until they have served the lesser of either a minimum of two years or one-third of their sentence. The requirement that an offender spend a minimum two years or one-third of their sentence in prison in New Zealand is a clear signal about the desirability of offenders serving their sentences in all but exceptional circumstances, such as where:
• there are scarce flights available to deport an offender about to be released during a busy holiday period;
47 • the offender has a serious medical condition and is being deported because of excessive cost to the health care system.
A single independent appeals tribunal (Part 7) A new independent tribunal, the Immigration and Protection Tribunal, is to replace the four existing appeal bodies. It means that the appeal process can be more streamlined than it is under the Immigration Act 1987. The new Act will essentially maintain the existing rights to appeal. Under the Immigration Act 1987, persons with more than one ground for appeal can undertake multiple appeals to the different appeal authorities. Under the Act, a person will generally have a single appeal to the Immigration and Protection Tribunal. Where they have more than one ground for appeal at any one time, for example, on facts and humanitarian grounds, both grounds must be lodged together.
In addition, new rights are included for protected persons under the Convention Against Torture and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provisions. There are also new appeal rights where claims are refused for consideration. The Act has been drafted so that the Prime Minister can designate the department that will administer the Immigration and Protection Tribunal. The former Government had decided the Ministry of Justice would administer the Immigration and Protection Tribunal in order for the Tribunal to be seen to be more independent from the Department of Labour which is responsible for immigration decision making.
More flexible compliance and information powers (Part 8) The new Act will establish flexible compliance provisions. Entry and inspection powers enable general compliance enforcement, as well as the enforcement of employers’ and education providers’ immigration obligations.
It was identified that neither the Immigration Act 1987 nor the Bill included provisions that would fully enable the systematic verification of a foreign national’s identity and the checking of their character. It is also in the public interest that relevant information about a foreign national may be exchanged or disclosed in order to manage access to publicly-funded services and ensure that only those with entitlement access those services.
With the changes suggested by way of the Supplementary Order Paper, the new Act will provide for information matching and sharing provisions that will enable foreign nationals’ (not citizens’) personal information, including their biometric information, to be checked with certain onshore and offshore agencies to manage:
• risks to the integrity of the immigration system; • risks to the safety and security of New Zealand; • publicly-funded services (such as health services).
48 A tiered detention and monitoring system (Part 9) The new Act will provide for a tiered detention and monitoring system that includes a greater ability to use reporting and residence requirements instead of secure detention. Greater discretion is also given to the courts in issuing warrants of commitment except where a foreign national is deliberately hindering their departure. This means that a decision to detain or monitor a person for immigration reasons can be appropriately based on the level of risk they represent.
There is a general six-month limit on immigration detention except where a foreign national hinders their own departure. Those who actively hinder their deportation from New Zealand compromise the integrity of the immigration system. Their actions set a precedent to others that suggests, for example, if you refuse to sign travel documents for long enough, you will secure your release into the New Zealand community because the Government cannot deport you. The detention provisions were strengthened by way of the Supplementary Order Paper so that these people cannot seek to be released from detention due to the length of time they have been detained.
Incentives for third parties to comply with their obligations (Part 10) The new Act will contain a range of offences and penalties aimed at actions that undermine the integrity of the immigration system. Offences in the Act include offences by employers, education providers, and carriers. These third parties are vital to the success of New Zealand’s immigration system but their engagement comes with obligations and increased penalties for non- compliance.
The Act changes the ‘reasonable excuse’ defence for employers who employ a foreign national without entitlement to work. In the current economic climate, it will help ensure that only citizens and others with entitlement can work in New Zealand. It also increases the penalties for education providers who fail to comply with their immigration obligations. To help employers meet their obligations, the Act enables a special provision that lets immigration status information be shared with employers to come into effect early. This is so the Department of Labour can work to develop an online system for employers to use to check a foreign national’s entitlement to work.
The Act creates an infringement system for airlines who fail to meet their immigration obligations. The system will be comparable to that operated to good effect in Australia where airline compliance has increased.’
49 2
ARRIVALS, DEPARTURES AND NET MIGRATION, 2001/02-2008/09
Richard Bedford, Paul Callister and Robert Didham
The last year of the first decade of the 21st century, in common with the last years of the previous four decades (1999, 1989, 1979 and 1969), was a year characterised by recession in New Zealand. It was also a year when many in the media and in Parliament once again became very concerned about the attraction of Australia as a place of residence for New Zealanders. This preoccupation with trans-Tasman migration has been a feature of the concluding years of the past five decades, especially the late 1970s when there were record total net migration losses to New Zealand (Table 1). Yet the permanent and long-term (PLT) migration statistics for the year ended December 2009 show a very different situation with regard to the balance of arrivals over departures. Whereas the previous four decades had all ended in years with net migration losses, the year ended December 2009 recorded a very significant overall net gain of 21,253 people (Statistics New Zealand, 2010a).
Table 1 PLT Arrivals, Departures and Net Migration, December Years 1969, 1979, 1989, 1999, 2009
Permanent and Long-term Year Ended December Arrivals Departures Net Migration 1969 25,636 29,962 -4,326 1979 40,763 82,554 -41,791 1989 49,260 61,535 -12,275 1999 59,743 68,772 -9.029 2009 86,410 65,157 21,253 2008 87,463 83,649 3,814 % change 08/09 -1.2 -22.1 457.2
The substantial net gain at the end of the 2000s, by comparison with the net loss (-9,029) at the end of the 1990s, was due mainly to a much larger number of PLT arrivals in 2009 (86,410) than in 1999 (59,743) – an increase of 26,667 or 44.6 percent. In previous decades, the increases in numbers of PLT arrivals between pairs of years were much lower – 20.8 percent in the case of 1979 and 1989 and 21.3 percent for the comparison between 1989 and 1999. In the case of the 65,157 PLT departures in 2009, there had been a drop by 3,615 (5.2%) over the 68,772 recorded for 1999, and in both of these years, the PLT departures were significantly smaller than the numbers who left in 1979 (82,554; See Table 1).
50 AN UNUSUAL NET MIGRATION OUTCOME, 2009
The year ended December 2009 was quite atypical in terms of net migration outcomes in that numbers of PLT arrivals declined only marginally over the previous 12 months (by 1,053 or 1.2%) while departures fell dramatically by 18,492 (22.1%) from 83,649 in the year ended December 2008 to 65,157 in 2009 (Table 1). The 457 percent increase in net migration between 2008 and 2009 was due entirely to a sharp fall in numbers of New Zealanders leaving the country for 12 months or more – a most unusual situation for a recession year in New Zealand going by the experiences of the previous three decades. Indeed, the numbers of New Zealand citizens leaving for periods of 12 months or more in 2009 was the smallest for the end of decade years since 1979 notwithstanding the increase in the country’s population by more than 1 million over the 30 years.
Table 2 PLT Migration New Zealand Citizens and New Zealand Population, December Years 1979, 1989, 1999, 2009
Permanent and Long-term Year Ended December Arrivals Departures Net Migration Total NZ Population 1979 21,445 64,072 42,627 3,163,900 1989 24,321 49,670 25,349 3,369,800 1999 22,551 53,215 -30,664 3,851,200 2009 26,084 41,558 -15,474 4,346,700 2008 23,553 60,602 -37,049 4,291,600 % change 08/09 10.7 -31.4 -58.2 55,100
During 2009, there was an increase in the number of New Zealanders returning from periods of residence overseas for 12 months or more – the largest for any of the end of decade years shown in Table 2, and just under an 11 percent increase on the numbers returning during the year ended December 2008. In the case of PLT departures of New Zealand citizens, there was a fall by just over 32 percent between the 2008 and 2009 December years – a decline which, in combination with the increased numbers of return migrants, resulted in the net loss of New Zealanders falling by 58 percent.
Trans-Tasman and UK Outcomes
The substantially smaller net loss of New Zealanders during 2009 was due to a combination of larger numbers of people moving from Australia to New Zealand plus a decline in numbers moving to Australia for periods of 12 months or more (Table 3). Numbers moving to New Zealand were larger in 2009 than in any of the other end of decade year since the 1970s, although the number of New Zealand citizens returning in 2009 was slightly smaller than the number that came back in 1989 (Table 3). In the case of PLT departures, the 32,755 leaving for Australia in 2009 was the smallest of the four end of decade years, and significantly smaller than numbers that left in
51 the year ended December 2008 (48,452; see Table 3). In percentage terms, there was a slightly larger decline (34.4%) in departures of New Zealand citizens for Australia than for all migrants (32.4%).
Table 3 PLT Migration To and From Australia, December Years 1979, 1989, 1999, 2009
Permanent and Long-term Year Ended December Arrivals Departures Net Migration All PLT migrants 1979 10,037 46,390 -36,353 1989 13,997 33,929 -19,932 1999 10,506 33,869 -23,363 2009 14,793 32,755 -17,962 2008 13,057 48,452 -35,395 % change 08/09 13.3 -32.4 -49.3 (NZ citizens only) 1979 4,102 39,781 -35,679 1989 10,281 30,663 -20,382 1999 6,802 30,246 -23,444 2009 10,044 28,556 -18,512 2008 8,214 43,518 -35,304 % change 08/09 22.3 -34.4 -47.6
The net migration loss to Australia in 2009 was half that in the year ended December 1979 and the lowest for the four end of decade years (Table 3). It was also just under half that experienced in the year ended December 2008 – the year when the emigration of New Zealanders again became a prominent political issue. Comparable data for the other major destination for New Zealanders, the United Kingdom, are given in Table 4.
They show similar patterns for PLT arrivals and departures of New Zealand citizens – larger numbers returning and smaller numbers leaving for the UK than in 2008 or in any previous end of decade year since the late 1970s, except for the slightly larger number of returning citizens in 1999. As far as net migration is concerned, the year ended December 2009 is distinctive amongst the end of decade years because of the net gains, both of New Zealand citizens as well as of all PLT migrants moving between the United Kingdom and New Zealand.
When the National Party released its immigration policy ‘manifesto’ before the elections in 2008, the first priority mentioned was to reduce the net loss of New Zealanders overseas, both through encouraging more to stay and work at home as well as encouraging return migration from the extensive ‘Kiwi’ diaspora (see chapter by Alan Gamlen in this volume). The international crisis in the finance industry and the associated global recession that was unfolding at the time of New Zealand’s national elections in November 2008, heightened concerns about further increases in the outflow of New Zealanders. In fact, as Tables 2 to 4 show, the reverse happened. There were
52 increases over the 2008 December year in the return of New Zealand citizens, including from Australia, and significant decreases in the numbers leaving the country for Australia, the UK and all countries. In effect, by December 2009, the recession quite fortuitously had delivered the outcome the National Party’s immigration manifesto was seeking with regard to the permanent and long-term flows of New Zealanders in and out of the country. The first decade of the 21st century ended with an unexpected migration dividend by comparison with the last three decades of the 20th century (Table 1).
Table 4 PLT Migration To and From the United Kingdom, December Years 1979, 1989, 1999, 2009
Permanent and Long-term Year Ended December Arrivals Departures Net Migration All PLT migrants 1979 9,666 14,803 -5,137 1989 10,383 13,523 -3,140 1999 14,866 16,624 -1,758 2009 17,391 8,336 9,055 2008 18,655 10,830 7,825 % change 08/09 -6.8 -23.0 15.7 (NZ citizens only) 1979 5,010 9,842 -4,832 1989 6,557 10,339 -3,782 1999 8,059 10,219 -2,160 2009 7,951 4,893 3,058 2008 7,727 7,476 251 % change 08/09 2.9 -34.6 1,118.3
MIGRATION FLOWS IN CONTEXT
This chapter reviews flows of migrants to and from New Zealand over the period April 2001 to March 2009 – the eight March years for which arrival and departure data by birthplace as well as citizenship are available following the re-introduction of the birthplace question on the cards completed by people entering and leaving New Zealand. The chapter follows the practise adopted in earlier editions of this Digest and Bibliography of presenting data on migration flows into and out of New Zealand for reference periods ended March (see Farmer, 1986; Bedford and Lidgard, 1997 and Bedford, Lidgard and Ho, 2005). This is also the month when the New Zealand census is held because March is less subject to seasonal flows than other months commonly used to define reference periods for migration analysis such as June (financial) years or December (calendar) years. This chapter departs somewhat from those in earlier volumes by including a birthplace dimension in the analysis of flows of migrants defined by their nationality (citizenship), as well as an examination of the data collected by the Department of Labour on approvals for residence, work and study in New Zealand – data that are compiled on the basis of citizenship and cover the years ended June 2002- 2009.
53 Table 5 PLT Arrivals, Departures and Net Migration, March Years 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s
Permanent and Long-term Years ended March Arrivals Departures Net Migration 1952-59 193,290 67,380 125,910 1962-69 263,221 158,199 105,022 1972-79 398,725 402,768 -4,043 1982-89 342,513 428,556 -86,043 1992-99 500,112 408,405 91,707 2002-09 687,621 548,423 139,198
The period April 2001 to March 2009 happens to cover eight successive March years that were characterised by PLT net migration gains. The last time there was a similar run of net gains through to the end of a decade was the 1950s (Table 5). The period was also associated with successive years of sustained economic growth and record levels of PLT arrivals, departures and net migration gains. As can be seen from Table 5, immigration more than trebled between the 1950s and 2000s, while the corresponding PLT outflow, largely of New Zealanders, grew by more than 800 percent.
Residence Approvals: Targets and Transitions
The record number of PLT arrivals between 2002 and 2009 is consistent with reasonable stability in the range for the number of residence approvals each year (45,000-53,000) through the period, as well as with significant growth in the number of people approved for temporary work and study in New Zealand. Between July 2001 and June 2009, the Department of Labour approved almost two million people for residence (379,600), temporary work (772,461) and study (606,027) (see their annual report Trends in Residence Approvals, later Migration Trends and Outlook, for the June years 2002-2009) (Table 6). The majority of approvals for temporary work and study were for periods of less than 12 months but the renewal of temporary permits by those with skills deemed to be essential in the labour market was common and these could be extended for several years. The consistent growth in approvals for temporary work over the eight years is a clear sign of an on-going demand for labour in a relatively buoyant economy – an economy that has experienced a persistent leakage of skilled and unskilled labour to Australia since the mid- 1960s.
The great majority of principal applicants approved for residence (over 90% in the 2009 June year) had previously held a visitor’s visa or temporary permit, and for those approved via the points system for entry in the skilled and business stream between July 2008 and June 2009, 88 percent had had a temporary work permit in New Zealand at some stage (Department of Labour, 2009:41). An increasingly important route to residence in New Zealand is transitioning from a temporary work or study permit, especially since the introduction of the two stage application process for residence approval late
54 in 2003 (this process is described in the previous chapter). The transition to residence by work permit holders tends to be greatest in the first two years after the work permit is issued. Students take longer to make the transition and this often involves a move to a work permit before applying for residence (Department of Labour, 2009: 42).
The practice of transitioning to residence from work and study permits is further evidence of the blurring of boundaries between ‘temporary’ and ‘permanent’ migration that has implications for the assessment of net migration gains and losses. Short-term arrivals for stays of less than 12 months can become long-term migrants (in the country for 12 months or more) through gaining extensions to permits. In effect, these migrants change their category from short-term to long-term residents legally by gaining additional study or work permits. If and when they leave New Zealand, they will be termed PLT departures. This ‘category jumping’ is one of the main reasons for the differences between PLT and total (short-term plus PLT) net migration.
Table 6 Approvals for Residence, Temporary Work Study June Years 2002-2009
Approvals Year Ended June Residence Work Study Total 2002 52,856 63,514 73,763 190,133 2003 48,538 69,070 88,046 205,654 2004 39,017 75,306 87,166 201,489 2005 48,815 82,497 77,563 208,875 2006 51,236 99,674 69,223 220,133 2007 46,964 115,457 67,147 229,568 2008 46,077 130,462 69,193 245,732 2009 46,097 136,481 73,926 256,504 Total 379,600 772,461 606,027 1,758,088
Category Jumping and the End-point Effect
The measures of net migration gains and losses that can be derived respectively from PLT, short-term (stays or absences of less than 12 months) and total arrivals in and departures from New Zealand are summarised in Table 7. The total net migration figures have been obtained from the actual arrivals at, and departures from, the border, not from the data produced using a sample of short-term arrival and departure cards processed by Statistics New Zealand. They thus represent a complete record of all arrivals in and departures from the country, in the same way that PLT net migration is derived from all of the arrivals in, and departures from, the country for 12 months or more. The short-term net migration gains and losses have been derived by subtracting PLT from total net migration.
Any given short-term trip involves an individual arriving in and departing from New Zealand within a period of less than 12 months. The net effect of
55 these trips on New Zealand’s resident population over time should be zero, given that the short-term arrivals and departures cancel each other out. However, because migration statistics are presented for specific reference periods (such as the years ended March or June or December), at the beginning and end of the reference period, there can be short-term travellers who have not completed their trips within the year under consideration as well as short-term travellers who completed trips within the year that they started in the previous year. Some overseas visitors temporarily in New Zealand (VTN) will have arrived just before the end of the reference period and will not have had time to complete their trip within the period. In a similar way, some New Zealand residents temporarily overseas (RTO) will have left before the end of the reference period and will not have completed their travel and return within the 12 months that defines a short-term absence. Differences in numbers of VTNs and RTOs at the beginning and the end of the reference period are referred to as ‘the end-point effect’.
For a number of reasons, it is difficult to calculate precisely the magnitude of these end-point effects (see Appendix 1) but, in all reference years, incomplete short-term journeys for both VTNs and RTOs create spurious net migration gains or losses in the total migration flows. The short-term net migration gains and losses shown in Table 7 thus contain variable impacts of end-point effects linked to patterns associated with the flows of visitors into New Zealand and New Zealand residents leaving for absences of less than 12 months. In addition, these gains and losses contain evidence of category jumping – changes in intention by overseas visitors while they are in New Zealand, or by New Zealand residents while they are overseas. These changes in intention can move in both directions. If what started off as a short–term visit to New Zealand (by an overseas traveller) or to another country (by a New Zealand resident) becomes a longer stay, or vice-versa, a planned lengthy stay ends up being for less than 12 months, then the migrant in question will have a different category for arrival and departure.
Category-jumping is a widely acknowledged phenomenon in the literature on international migration and it has become more common in New Zealand as a result of changes in immigration policy since the late 1990s that have made it much easier for people to apply for and gain permanent residence while in New Zealand on temporary visas and permits. It is very difficult to separate precisely the effects of category jumping from end-point effects in the net migration estimates but estimates prepared by Statistics New Zealand suggest that the net effect of category jumping between the censuses of 2001 and 2006 was around 58,000 (Appendix 1). This represents 80 percent of the 72,797 net gain shown for short-term migration for the March years between 2002 and 2006 in Table 7. Category jumping is thus a major factor in net migration estimates for immigrants as well as New Zealand residents.
56 Table 7 PLT, Short-term and Total Net Migration, March Years 2002-2009
Net Migration Year ended March PLT Short-term Total 2002 25,635 41,762 67,397 2003 41,592 22,366 63,958 2004 27,978 6,428 34,406 2005 10,013 4,594 14,607 2006 9,739 -2,353 7,386 2007 12,081 9,700 21,781 2008 4,678 20,420 25,098 2009 7,482 -3,923 3,559
A Gender Dimension – Missing Men or Unaccounted for Women?
There may be a gender dimension to category jumping that contributes part of the explanation for the ‘missing men’ problem that has gained quite a bit of publicity in recent years. Successive New Zealand censuses since the mid-1980s have been showing a widening disparity in the numbers of males and females in the prime working age groups, 20-49 years (Callister et al., 2006; 2007). There were 58,365 fewer men than women in this broad age group in the resident population enumerated in the 2006 Census of Population and Dwellings, with the great majority (30,339) aged between 30 and 39 years. This deficit cannot be accounted for simply by sex selective migration into and out of New Zealand. The sex ratios for arrival, departure and net migration flows have been trending towards greater gender equality over the past 30 years (Table 8). There have been fluctuations in these sex ratios but by the time of the 2006 census, there were more females than males in both the PLT arrival flow and the net migration gain. The PLT departure flow had a sex ratio close to unity (1 female for every male who left) from 2002 to 2005.
There are significant variations in the sex ratios of particular flows of migrants, with far greater male (People’s Republic of China, India) or female (Philippines, Thailand) domination in some of the Asian migrant flows (Badkar et al., 2007). The sex ratios for the net migration losses of New Zealand citizens and gains of citizens of other countries between 2002 and 2009 do not demonstrate significant male or female bias. The ratios for the net losses of New Zealand citizens in each of the March years shown in Table 9 are close to unity – there is no evidence of a male exodus in these ratios. As far as the net gains of citizens of other countries are concerned, the sex ratios for five of the years have a very slight male bias (up to 113 males for every 100 females arriving in 2008) in five of the years and a small deficit of males in the flows of three of the years – there is no evidence of a major female surplus in these net gains (Table 9).
57 Table 8 Sex Ratios for PLT Arrivals, Departures, and Net Migration, March Years
Sex Ratios Years Ended March Arrivals Departures Net Migration 1979 1.061 1.120 1.182 1984 1.025 1.020 1.052 1989 1.046 1.111 1.199 1994 1.026 1.020 1.043 1999 0.960 1.050 1.756 2002 1.042 1.001 1.148 2003 1.050 0.985 1.147 2004 0.998 0.997 1.000 2005 0.986 1.001 0.890 2006 0.989 1.016 0.815 2007 0.989 1.026 0.796 2008 1.046 1.033 1.290 2009 1.059 1.038 1.315
While recorded PLT net migration on its own has been shown to account for only a small part of the 58,365 difference in numbers of men and women in the broad age group 20-49 at the time of the 2006 census (Callister et al. 2006; 2007; Bedford and Didham, 2008; 2009; Bedford et al., 2009), there is some indirect evidence that the estimated short-fall in PLT net migration during the 2001-2006 intercensal period of around 58,000 (see Appendix 1) may well be biased quite significantly in favour of females. Using the actual head count data on total arrivals and departures between 2002 and 2006, and the proportions of males and females in the sampled arrival and departure data as an estimate of the gender distribution in the head count data, it can be shown that the short-term net migration gain of females (44,336) in the intercensal period could be significantly greater than the number of males (28,461) (Table 10).
This suggests that there may well be a bias towards larger numbers of females than males changing their migration intentions while absent from New Zealand (New Zealand residents) or in New Zealand (overseas visitors). The gap between males and females in this regard continued to widen significantly in favour of females between 2007 and 2009.
If this is the case, then it is likely that the number of females enumerated in the census will be higher than expected. They are not being accounted for simply by survivorship from one age group to the next or by recorded PLT net migration in the intercensal period. Part of the unaccounted for ‘deficit’ of men could be the result of an unaccounted for ‘surplus’ of women. This is not because of a higher than expected under-enumeration of women in the census but rather an under-estimate of the net migration gain of women when relying on PLT migration statistics. Explaining the ‘missing men’ phenomenon is not straight-forward; it has the dimensions of what is
58 being termed ‘a wicked problem’ in the literature on complex social situations (Bedford et al., 2009).
Table 9 Sex Ratios for Net Migration, New Zealand Citizens and Others March Years 2002-2009
Sex Ratios Years Ended March NZ Citizens Others Total PLT 2002 1.022 1.086 1.148 2003 0.957 1.094 1.147 2004 1.044 1.013 1.000 2005 0.992 0.957 0.890 2006 1.060 0.983 0.815 2007 1.103 0.995 0.796 2008 1.091 1.113 1.290 2009 1.093 1.130 1.315
Defining Migrant Universes
The final contextual issue that needs to be addressed before examining more closely the nature and composition of the migration flows over the reference period April 2001 to March 2009 relates to the definition of migrant universes. It has already been noted that in October 2000, the birthplace question was returned to the arrival and departure cards after an absence of 14 years. The question was removed in 1987 following a review of the content of the cards and a discussion of the implications of this highly contentious decision can be found in Bedford (1987). For most of the period that migration flows have been monitored since the series New Zealand and International Migration. A Digest and Bibliography was established in the mid-1980s, there has not been data on the birthplaces of migrants available for analysis. This has meant that previous reviews of arrivals, departures and net migration gains/losses have used citizenship as the basis for defining migrant universes.
It is quite legitimate to define migrant universes on the basis of citizenship but with the acceptance of dual or multiple citizenship for residents in an increasing number of countries, a discrete citizenship label is becoming less relevant for migrants who may be using more than one passport to facilitate ease of entry during their travels. This can cause complications when deriving estimates of PLT migration for specific migrant groups defined on the basis of nationality because of another form of ‘category-jumping’ – leaving New Zealand on the passport of the country of destination and then returning to New Zealand later on a New Zealand passport. In this regard, birthplace is a more stable reference point for migrants – it is constant for an individual through time and across their various travel documents.
In the analysis of flows between 2002 and 2009, both citizenship (nationality) and birthplace are used to define migrant groups. To maintain some continuity with previous analyses in this series, the citizenship
59 classification is the primary one, with a basic distinction being made between New Zealand citizens and citizens of other countries. This distinction is maintained because it is New Zealand citizens, travelling on New Zealand passports, who can move without applying for a visa to Australia and who have visa-waiver access for short-term stays in over 50 countries in Europe, the Americas, Asia and Africa. This access is not available for New Zealand residents who are not travelling on New Zealand passports.
Table 10 Male and Female Short-term Net Migration, March Years 2002-2009
Short-term Net Migration Year Ended March Males Females Diff. (F-M) 2002 15,553 26,209 10,656 2003 6,973 15,393 8,421 2004 1,499 4,929 3,429 2005 -3,635 8,229 11,863 2006 8,070 -10,423 -18,494 2007 -1,015 10,715 11,731 2008 1,964 18,456 16,492 2009 -1,613 -2,310 -697 2002-06 28,461 44,336 15,875 2002-09 27,796 71,198 43,401
Within the New Zealand citizen migrant universe, a wide range of birthplaces can be found because of the long-established history of immigration to this country. The overseas-born component of the New Zealand citizen population has increased rapidly since the major changes in immigration policy in the 1980s associated with the Immigration Policy Review of August 1986 and the Immigration Act of 1987 (see Bedford and Lidgard, 1997, for a discussion of these changes and their impact on migration flows). There has also been growth in the New Zealand-born component of the migrant universe that comprises citizens of other countries – these immigrants are not all overseas-born.
The eight years under discussion span two major periods of immigration policy initiatives – one under Lianne Dalziel who was Minister of Immigration between December 1999 and April 2004 and the other under Minister David Cunliffe (December 2005–November 2007). Paul Swain made a significant contribution to the development of policies concerning temporary seasonal work during his brief period as Minister of Immigration between May 2004 and November 2005. Cunliffe’s major initiatives were carried forward by Clayton Cosgrove as Minister of Immigration through to the end of the third consecutive term of the Labour-led Government in November 2008. In many of the tables dealing with citizenship and birthplace, the data are summarised for two four year periods – April 2001-March 2005 and April 2005-March 2009 spanning periods when the Ministers of Immigration were, respectively, Dalziel and Swain (2002-05), and Cunliffe and Cosgrove (2006-09).
60 Table 11 PLT Arrivals and Departures by Citizenship and Birthplace, March Years 2002-2009
Year ended March NZ Citizens Other Citizens Total Arrive Depart Arrive Depart Arrive Depart Numbers Born in NZ 152,192 312,599 4,155 9,936 156,347 322,535 Born overseas 44,577 71,697 481,606 149,233 526,183 220,930 Birthplace n.s. 714 2,636 4377 2,322 5,091 4,958 Total 197,483 386,932 490,138 161,491 687,621 548,423 Percentages Born in NZ 77.1 80.8 0.8 6.2 22.7 58.8 Born overseas 22.6 18.5 98.3 92.4 76.5 40.3 Birthplace n.s. 0.3 0.7 0.9 1.4 0.7 0.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 99.9 100.0
The distribution of New Zealand-born and overseas-born within the New Zealand citizen and other citizen migrant universes in the PLT arrivals in and departures from New Zealand over the eight year period are summarised in Table 11. Between April 2002 and March 2009, just under 198,000 New Zealand citizens returned after absences of 12 months or more overseas, and 77 percent of these returnees had been born in New Zealand. Almost double this number of citizens (386,932) left the country with the intention of staying away for 12 months or more, 81 percent of whom had been born in New Zealand.
In the case of citizens of other countries, just over 490,000 arrived with the intention of staying for 12 months or more and 161,491 left after spending at least 12 months in New Zealand. Over 98 percent of the other citizen PLT arrivals had been born overseas and 92 percent of those departing were overseas-born (Table 11). The 156,347 New Zealand-born arrivals comprised 22 percent of all PLT arrivals during the eight years, while the 322,535 New Zealand-born departures accounted for 59 percent of all PLT departures over the period. The overseas-born accounted for 76 percent of PLT arrivals and 40 percent of PLT departures (Table 11).
The overall PLT net migration gains and losses during the two four year periods are summarised in Table 12. A much higher share of the net loss of New Zealand citizens and the New Zealand-born (62%) occurred during the second four years (2006-09) than in the first four years (2002-05), while the net gains of citizens of other countries (and the overseas-born) were spread more evenly over the two periods (54% 2002-05 and 46% 2006-09). The overall net gain to New Zealand’s population through international migration was three times higher in the first period (105,218) than in the second (33,980) (Table 12). In net migration terms, especially with reference to the movement of New Zealand citizens and those born in this country, this was an eight year period characterised by two distinctive halves.
61 Table 12 PLT Net Migration by Citizenship and Birthplace, March Years 2002-05 and 2006-09
Net Migration Birthplace and Period NZ Citizens Others Total NZ-born 2002-05 -59,709 -2,549 -62,258 2006-09 -100,699 -3,232 -103,931 2002-09 -160,407 -5,781 -166,188 Born overseas 2002-05 -10,129 177,165 167,036 2006-09 -16,991 155,209 138,218 2002-09 -27,120 332,374 305,254 Total1 2002-05 -71,027 176,245 105,218 2006-09 -118,422 152,402 33,980 2002-09 -189,449 328,647 139,198 1 The totals include migrants who did not state a birthplace.
In the next section, we examine more closely the citizenship, birthplace and gender compositions of flows in three key components of New Zealand’s migration system: movements across the Tasman, movements to and from the United Kingdom and Ireland, and movements between New Zealand and other countries. This is followed by a brief examination of the flows between New Zealand and the major source areas of immigrants (the Pacific Islands, Europe, Asia, Africa, the Middle East and the Americas) drawing on information on approvals for residence, temporary work and study.
NEW ZEALAND’S MIGRATION SYSTEM, 2002-2009
Table 13 contains a summary of permanent and long-term migration to and from Australia, the UK/Ireland and all other countries, other than New Zealand, that were specified as countries of last/next permanent residence (CL/NPR). The total numbers of arrivals, departures and the net migration gain are lower than the totals given in Table 5 because people who specified New Zealand as the country where they had last spent 12 months or more, or where they intended to spend 12 months or more, were excluded from this part of the analysis, along with those for whom no CL/NPR was stated.
The majority of the 666,843 PLT arrivals (58%) came from countries other than Australia or the UK/Ireland, while just over 50 percent (270,856) of the 534,795 PLT departures gave Australia as their country of next permanent residence. The UK/Ireland PLT arrivals (172,387) outnumbered the PLT arrivals from Australia (107,842) but were much smaller than the arrivals from all other countries (386,614). In the case of the PLT departures to countries other than Australia, UK/Ireland was the destination for smaller numbers (103,530) than those that went to other countries (160,409).
62 Within the PLT arrival flows, there were just over 194,000 New Zealand citizens returning from overseas, with similar proportions coming back from Australia and the UK/Ireland (35-36% each). Returning New Zealanders accounted for 29 percent of the 666,843 PLT arrivals during the eight years who stated a CL/NPR other than New Zealand; the other 71 percent were citizens of other countries (Table 13). Seventy percent of the 472,787 citizens of countries other than New Zealand who arrived between April 2001 and March 2009 were from countries other than Australia and the UK/Ireland, with Australia being a much smaller source of immigrants (39,467) than returning New Zealand citizens (68,375).
Within the New Zealand citizen migrant populations travelling to and from Australia, it is possible to isolate the New Zealand-born from those born in other countries in the two periods since the changes Australia’s social security provisions in 2001. The net migration losses to Australia of New Zealand citizens born in different places are shown by period in Table 15. There were substantial increases in these losses for both the New Zealand- born and those born in other countries in the late 2000s, and the surpluses of males over females in the net outflows to Australia in both birthplace groups increased slightly (Table 15). The smaller percentage increase in the net loss of those citizens born in places other than New Zealand (54.6%) than that for the New Zealand-born (84.9%) could be due, in part, to the changes in eligibility for labour market-related social security introduced in 2001, although it is difficult to prove this.
The stand-out features in the departure flows defined on the basis of citizenship are the very substantial movement of New Zealand citizens to Australia (239,531) which dwarfed the flows of New Zealanders to the UK (73,631) and to other countries (67,186), and the much larger outflow of citizens of other countries to destinations other than Australia and the UK/Ireland (93,223 or 60% of the 154,447 non-New Zealand citizens who departed for 12 months or more during the eight years).
There were net losses of New Zealand citizens to the three CL/NPR destinations and net gains of citizens of other countries from the three, with the net gains outweighing the net losses for both the UK/Ireland and for other countries (Table 13). In all but one of the net gains/losses, sex ratios favoured males (i.e. they exceeded 1 male per female). The only flow where the net movement favoured females was the small net loss of New Zealand citizens to the United Kingdom over the period — -3,683 with a sex ratio of 0.779, or the equivalent of 799 males per 1000 females (Table 13). The largest male biases were found in the net loss of New Zealand citizens to countries other than Australia and the UK/Ireland (1.145 or the equivalent of 1145 males per 1000 females), the net gain of non-New Zealand citizens from Australia (1.189) and the overall net gain from the UK/Ireland (1.139).
63 Table 13
New Zealand's Migration System: A Summary, March Years 2002-2009
PLT Migration Sex Ratio CL/NPR1 Arrivals Departures Net Net Migration Migration NZ citizens Australia 68,375 239, 531 -171,156 1.052 UK/Ireland 69,612 73,631 -4,019 0.606 Other countries 55,733 67,186 -11,453 1.145 Total2 193,720 380,348 -186,628 1.050 Others Australia 39,467 31,325 8,142 1.189 UK/Ireland 102,439 29,899 72,540 1.118 Other countries 330,881 93,223 237,658 1.032 Total2 472,787 154,447 318,340 1.055 Total Australia 107,842 270,856 -163,014 1.046 UK/Ireland 172,387 103,530 68,512 1.139 Other countries 386,614 160,409 226,205 1.026 Total2 666,507 534,795 131,712 1.062 1. Country of last/next permanent residence 2. Excluding moves where CL/NPR was New Zealand or was 'not stated' (20,778 arrivals; 13,628 departures in total)
The sex ratios for the total net migration gains to New Zealand from the UK/Ireland (1.139) and from other countries excluding Australia (1.026) showed a male bias, while the big net loss to Australia also favoured males (1.046). There were also more males than females (1.062) in overall net gain to New Zealand during the eight years (132,048). During these eight years at least, net migration has been adding to, rather than depleting, the numbers of men in New Zealand’s prime working age population (the equivalent of 1062 males per 1000 females), while at the same time contributing a small surplus of men over women to Australia’s population (the equivalent of 1046 males per 1000 females) (Table 13).
Back-door Migration?
The period under review begins with a significant change in Australia’s social security legislation that was designed to discourage New Zealand citizens, especially those with few skills in demand in Australia, from crossing the Tasman with the intention of picking up employment-related welfare benefits if they could not find a job. The move was explicitly aimed at New Zealand citizens who had been born overseas, especially Pacific people and immigrants from countries in Asia who had obtained New Zealand citizenship and then decided to exercise their right as citizens under the Trans-Tasman
64 Travel Arrangement to move to Australia without having to qualify for a work or residence visa.
This issue was reviewed at some length in Bedford et al. (2005a; 2005b) and has been the subject of considerable debate in the wider context of trans-Tasman relations (see, for example, Birrell and Rapson, 2001; Hoadley, 2002; Bedford et al., 2003; Poot and Sanderson, 2007; Mein Smith et al., 2008). As noted earlier, it was this issue that finally led to the reinstatement of the birthplace question on New Zealand’s arrival and departure cards thus allowing the New Zealand citizen population moving to and from Australia to be identified and monitored by country of birth.
The New Zealand citizen PLT arrivals, departures and net migration between April 1997 and March 2001, the four years that saw the debate intensifying about what the Australians called ‘back-door’ migration, are shown in Table 14 for comparison with the two four year periods after the changes in welfare entitlements for New Zealand citizens moving to Australia after February 2001. Recalling that the late 1990s and 2000-2001 were years of depressed economic activity in New Zealand by comparison with Australia, it is not surprising that the number of New Zealand citizens crossing the Tasman, with the intention of staying away for 12 months or more, was high – over 120,000 for the four year period, while the number returning to New Zealand (27,299) was quite low.
Between April 2001 (just after the new social security provisions came into force in Australia) and March 2005, there was a recovery in the New Zealand economy and the numbers of PLT departures of New Zealand citizens dropped by just under 24,000 (19.5%) over the departures in the previous four years. New Zealand citizens returning from Australia after an absence of 12 months or more increased by almost 8,000 (28%) over the numbers returning in the previous period. How much of this was due to the changes in the Australian social security provisions, and how much of it was due to recovery in the New Zealand economy, is difficult to disentangle but Poot and Sanderson (2007: 28) concluded an innovative analysis of the movement behaviour of New Zealanders living in Australia before and just after the policy changes with the following observation: ‘No difference was detected in the impact on onward and return moves, but settlers arriving after the policy changes had lower attachment to Australia and made more trips away [from Australia]. This is equally true for migrants born in New Zealand as for ‘back door’ migrants [born] elsewhere who arrived in Australia after obtaining citizenship in New Zealand’.
In the four year period between April 2005 and March 2009, the numbers of New Zealand citizens leaving for Australia increased markedly – from 96,745 (2002-2005) to 142,786 (2006-2009) (Table 14) – more than during the recession in the late 1990s. There was also a small fall-off in the numbers returning to New Zealand over the previous four year period (33,359
65 compared with 35,016). This is consistent with the widening gap in incomes for those employed in New Zealand and Australia during the second half of the 2000s, despite the buoyant economies and major shortages of skilled and unskilled labour in both countries, and the declining costs of travel across the Tasman – a factor that is often ignored in analyses of people movements between Australia and New Zealand (Poot, 2007). It is often just as cheap or cheaper to fly to Australia’s major east coast cities (Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane) than it is to fly from Auckland to the major South Island cities. The ease of access to Australia for New Zealand citizens because of the Trans- Tasman Travel Arrangement and the declining cost of travel has encouraged significant Maori migration to Australia, especially since the 1980s (see Hamer, 2007; 2009, and Newell and Pool, 2009, for recent analyses of Maori in Australia).
The PLT arrival and departure flows of New Zealand-born migrants in the trans-Tasman population exchanges between April 2001 and March 2009 are slightly smaller than the numbers of New Zealand citizens travelling to and from Australia (Table 14). This reflects the fact that the New Zealand citizen population includes a sizeable overseas-born component. The total numbers of New Zealand-born and overseas-born PLT trans-Tasman migrants are shown in Table 14 for the March years between 2002 and 2009 (the data are not available for the earlier four year period because there was no birthplace question on the New Zealand arrival and departure cards then). In both cases, the flows to Australia were much larger between April 2005 and March 2009 than between April 2001 and March 2005. The aggregate net losses to Australia of New Zealand citizens, as well as of the New Zealand-born, had sex ratios favouring males in all four year periods shown in Table 14. However, there was a small female surplus in the net losses to Australia of overseas-born migrants and this is revealed in sex ratios that are just under 1.0. The only net gains to New Zealand shown in Table 14 are amongst the flows of citizens of countries other than New Zealand and the aggregate small gains for the three periods since April 2007 all have sex ratios that favour males.
Within the New Zealand citizen migrant populations travelling to and from Australia, it is possible to isolate the New Zealand-born from those born in other countries in the two periods since the changes Australia’s social security provisions in 2001. The net migration losses to Australia of New Zealand citizens born in different places are shown by period in Table 15. There were substantial increases in these losses for both the New Zealand- born and those born in other countries in the late 2000s, and the surpluses of males over females in the net outflows to Australia in both birthplace groups increased slightly (Table 15). The smaller percentage increase in the net loss of those citizens born in places other than New Zealand (54.6%) than that for the New Zealand-born (84.9%) could be due, in part, to the changes in
66 eligibility for labour market-related social security introduced in 2001, although it is difficult to prove this.
Table 14 Trans-Tasman Migration by Citizenship and Birthplace, March Years 1998-2009
PLT Migration Sex Ratio Citizenship and Arrivals Departures Net Net Birthplace Migration Migration NZ citizens 1998-2001 27,299 120,244 -92,945 1.099 2002-2005 35,016 96,745 -61,729 1.021 2006-2009 33,359 142,786 -109,427 1.070 Other citizens 1998-2001 15,720 13,897 1,823 1.106 2002-2005 19,555 13,379 6,176 1.075 2006-2009 19,912 17,946 1,966 1.646 NZ born 1998-2001 n.a. n.a. n.a n.a. 2002-2005 30,505 78,141 -47,636 1.028 2006-2009 28,944 117,377 -88,433 1.078 Overseas born 1998-2001 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2002-2005 23,860 30,972 -7,112 0.946 2006-2009 24,168 42,462 -18,294 0.991
When the net losses to Australia of New Zealand citizens born overseas are examined by broad region of birth, the largest increases over the two periods were amongst those born in countries in Africa and the Middle East (85.4%) and in Asia (55.3%) (Table 16). New Zealand citizens born in South Africa, India and China comprised the main groups of overseas-born from these two regions who moved to Australia during the two periods. The losses of New Zealand citizens born in the Pacific Islands, the UK and Ireland, and the Americas (mainly North America) did not increase as rapidly over the two periods, indicating that there are quite diverse patterns of onward migration to Australia amongst different birthplace groups. Some of the groups that had the greatest potential to get into the Australian workforce, especially those from the UK and Ireland, Europe and the Americas, had smaller percentage increases in net losses to Australia during the late 2000s than the net losses of people born in regions such as Asia that were causing Australian officials so much concern about ‘back-door’ migration at the beginning of the decade.
At the beginning as well as at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, trans-Tasman migration was a political issue – a problem for Australia because of perceived ‘back-door’ migration in 2000 and a problem for New Zealand because of the loss of talent at the time of the 2008 national elections. During the eight years between April 2002 and March 2009, the overall PLT net loss of 171,156 New Zealand citizens to Australia included 34,382 people who had been born in other countries, 35 percent of whom had been born in Asia (-12,161) (Table 17). The second ranked overseas birthplace
67 region for New Zealand citizens in the net loss to Australia was Africa/Middle East (-6,758) followed by the Pacific Islands (-5,972) and the UK/Ireland (-5,150). These net losses were offset by net gains totalling 8,142 from Australia of citizens of other countries (Table 17). However, in the cases of citizens of other countries who had been born in Asia, Africa/Middle East and the Americas, there were net losses to Australia rather than net gains to New Zealand in the trans-Tasman PLT migration exchanges during the eight years. The net migration flows in both directions (losses of New Zealand citizens to Australia; gains of other citizens from Australia) were male-dominated, with New Zealand losing 1,046 males per 1,000 females in the overall trans-Tasman population exchange in Australia’s favour of 163,014.
Table 15 Net Migration Losses of New Zealand Citizens to Australia by Birthplace, March Years 2002-2009
Period Percentage Birthplace 2002-05 2006-09 Change Numbers NZ-born -48,003 -88,771 84.9 Other birthplaces -12,959 -20,033 54.6 Birthplace n.s. -767 -623 -18.7 Total -61,729 -109,427 77.3 Sex ratios NZ-born 1.025 1.076 5.0 Other birthplaces 1.008 1.047 3.9 Birthplace n.s. 1.204 1.010 -16.1 Total 1.021 1.070 4.8
Table 16 Net Migration Losses to Australia of Overseas-born New Zealand Citizens by Region of Birth, March Years 2002-2009
Period Percentage Birthplace 2002-05 2006-09 Change Numbers Pacific Islands -2,595 -3,377 30.1 UK/Ireland -2,263 -2,887 27.6 Other Europe -965 -1,417 46.8 Asia -4,763 -7,398 55.3 Africa/ME -2,368 -4,390 85.4 Americas -390 -532 36.4 Sex ratios Pacific Islands 0.918 0.991 7.9 UK/Ireland 1.133 1.139 0.5 Other Europe 0.956 1.066 11.5 Asia 0.989 1.007 1.8 Africa/ME 1.034 1.081 4.5 Americas 0.84 1.023 21.8
68 Table 17 Trans-Tasman Net Migration by Birthplace, New Zealand Citizens and Citizens of Other Countries, 2002-2009
PLT Net Migration 2002-09 Birthplace NZ Citizens Others Total New Zealand -136,774 705 -136,069 Australia 353 8,669 9,022 Pacific Islands -5,972 26 -5,946 UK/Ireland -5,150 858 -4,292 Other Europe -2,382 133 -2,249 - Asia -12,161 1,371 -13,532 Africa/ME -6,758 -699 -7,457 Americas -922 -100 -1,022 Birthplace n.s. -1,390 -79 -1,469 Total -171,156 8,142 -163,014 Sex ratio 1.053 1.189 1.046
Migration Between the UK/Ireland and New Zealand
The long-established population exchange between New Zealand and the UK/Ireland that is associated with the movement of young New Zealand citizens off-shore to gain ‘overseas experience’ was challenged several times during the first decade of the 21st century by changes in policy in the United Kingdom. During the period under review, the British Government attempted to tighten up on access for extended periods of temporary work in the UK for citizens from several Commonwealth countries, including Australia and New Zealand, that had privileged work visa status. There were reductions in all three measures of the numbers of New Zealand citizens leaving for the UK and Ireland between the first and second periods shown in Table 18 – PLT arrivals in New Zealand, PLT departures for the UK/Ireland, and overall net migration losses to the UK/Ireland (Table 18).
The strong demand for skilled labour in a buoyant economy also largely explains the higher numbers of PLT arrivals and net migration gains of citizens of other countries who moved to New Zealand from the UK and Ireland in the second period. There was also an increase over the previous four years in the numbers of citizens from other countries who left for the UK and Ireland between 2006 and 2009 and this is a reflection of the large numbers who were coming to New Zealand on temporary work permits. There was an 11 percent increase in the numbers of citizens of the UK and Ireland with temporary work permits in the period July 2006-June 2009 (89,727) by comparison with the previous four year period (80,855). While significant numbers of these were for periods of less than 12 months (especially those on Working Holiday Visas), the numbers entering for periods of between one and three years were also rising, including those seeking to transition to permanent residence from a temporary work permit.
69 It is clear from Table 18 that there is very considerable ‘churn’ in the migration flows between New Zealand and the United Kingdom and Ireland. The overall net losses of New Zealand citizens to the UK/Ireland in both four years periods were very small (-2,064 between 2002 and 2005, and -1,619 between 2006 and 2009). The great majority of the New Zealand citizens leaving for 12 months or more in the UK/Ireland would return if the PLT arrival figures for the two periods are anything to go by — in the period 2006-09, for example, the 33,466 PLT departures were almost balanced by the 31,847 PLT arrivals of New Zealand citizens who had spent 12 months of more in the UK and Ireland (Table 18). In the case of the PLT arrivals and departures who were not New Zealand citizens, there was a much greater imbalance in the numbers moving to and from the UK/Ireland. The numbers of citizens of other countries coming to New Zealand were more than three times higher than the numbers going in the opposite direction in both periods (Table 18). Overall, the migration exchanges between the UK/Ireland and New Zealand produced net gains of 31,266 (2002-05) and 37,591 (2006-09) with sex ratios in favour of males in both periods. Net migration gains from the UK/Ireland were contributing more men than women to the New Zealand population in the early 21st century – for every 1000 women, there were 1111 men on average between 2006 and 2009 (Table 18).
The New Zealand citizen migrants comprised quite a mixed group in terms of their birthplaces. Table 19 shows the net migration gains and losses for different birthplaces for the two main groups of migrants: New Zealand citizens and citizens of other countries. In the case of the New Zealand citizens, the net losses of the New Zealand-born were significantly off-set by net gains of people born in the United Kingdom and Ireland – migrants who had come to New Zealand at some stage in the past, gained New Zealand citizenship, and then moved overseas for 12 months or more before returning ‘home’. Between 2002 and 2009, there was a net loss of -8,297 New Zealand citizens who had been born in this country, compared with a net gain of 5,632 New Zealand citizens who had been born in the UN/Ireland (Table 19). There were also small net gains of Australia-born and Pacific-born New Zealand citizens between 2006 and 2009.
In the cases of New Zealand citizens born in countries in Europe, Asia, Africa/Middle East and the Americas, there were more leaving for the UK and Ireland during the two periods than returning to New Zealand resulting in net losses that added to the net loss of New Zealand-born. The sex ratios for the overall net losses of New Zealand citizens favoured females over males — this movement was not making a contribution to the ‘man drought’ in New Zealand.
70 Table 18 PLT Migration Exchanges with the UK and Ireland by Citizenship, March Years 2002-2009
PLT migration Sex ratio Net Net Citizenship Arrivals Departures Migration Migration NZ citizens 2002-2005 38,101 40,165 -2,064 0.471 2006-2009 31,847 33,466 -1,619 1.427 % change -16.4 -16.7 -21.6 203.0 Other citizens 2002-2005 46,991 13,661 33,330 1.112 2006-2009 55,448 16,238 39,210 1.222 % change 18.0 18.9 17.6 9.9 Total 2002-2005 85,092 53,826 31,266 1.175 2006-2009 87,295 49,704 37,591 1.111 % change 2.6 -7.7 20.2 -5.4
Included in the PLT migrant flows of citizens of countries other than New Zealand are small net losses to the UK/Ireland of people born in New Zealand who are travelling on other passports. There is a chance that some of these people might use their New Zealand passport when they arrive in New Zealand and a different passport when they leave, thus inadvertently becoming category-jumpers. It is impossible to control for this in the available arrival/departure data but the possibility should be kept in mind when assessing the movement behaviour of migrants who are not travelling on a passport that coincides with their country of birth. The net losses of New Zealand-born to the UK/Ireland, who are travelling on passports other than a New Zealand one, are approximately half the size of the net losses of New Zealand citizens born in this country (Table 19).
The ‘other citizen’ net migration gain from the UK and Ireland is very heavily dominated by people born in these two countries. Indeed, 98 percent of the net gain of 72,540 between 2002 and 2009 were born in the UK/Ireland. There were also reasonable numbers of people born in other parts of Europe, Africa and the Middle East in the net gains from the UK and Ireland – people who gave countries in these regions as their birthplaces when they arrived in New Zealand. The birthplace compositions of flows into New Zealand from the two major traditional sources of immigrants, Australia and UK/Ireland, are both becoming more diverse over time, reflecting their immigrant heritages and the intensifying global circulation of labour with skills that are in demand everywhere.
71 Table 19 UK/Ireland Net Migration Gains and Losses, Citizenship by Region of Birth, March Years 2002-2009
PLT Net Migration Citizenship and Birthplace 2002-05 2006-09 2002-2009 NZ citizens New Zealand -4,335 -3,962 -8,297 Australia -16 143 127 Pacific Islands -51 53 2 UK/Ireland 3,043 2,589 5,632 Other Europe -35 -83 -118 Asia -225 -378 -633 Africa/ME -165 -241 -406 Americas 3 -39 -36 Birthplace n.s. -253 -37 -290 Total -2,064 -1,955 -4,014 Sex ratio 0.471 0.777 0.606 Other citizens New Zealand -2,208 -2,448 -4,656 Australia 219 193 412 Pacific Islands -4 -10 -14 UK/Ireland 32,794 38,282 71,076 Other Europe 938 1,258 2,196 Asia 367 579 946 Africa/ME 902 1,066 1,968 Americas 302 262 564 Birthplace n.s. 20 28 48 Total 33,330 39,210 72,540 Sex ratio 1.112 1.121 1.118
Migration Between Other Countries and New Zealand
While Australia and the UK/Ireland have had a special place in New Zealand’s migration system since the early years of the 19th century, the role played by movement between other countries of last or next residence (CL/NPR) in the net gains to New Zealand’s population through PLT migration now dwarfs that of the two traditional sources. Between 2002 and 2009, the PLT net gain to New Zealand’s population from movement between countries other than Australia and the UK/Ireland totalled 226,205 – 69 percent of the 328,647 net gain of citizens of countries other than New Zealand. It was this sizeable net gain from other countries that ensured that there was an overall net gain to New Zealand’s population after taking account of the net loss of - 189,449 New Zealand citizens during the eight years.
The movements of New Zealand citizens to and from other countries for periods of 12 months or more were not too different from these movements to and from the UK/Ireland. As can be seen from Table 20, there were 28,380 PLT arrivals of New Zealand citizens from other countries between 2006 and 2009 compared with 31,847 from the UK/Ireland (Table 18). New Zealand citizens departing for the other countries (34,823) in the same period were
72 slightly more numerous than the numbers departing for the UK/Ireland (33,477). The overall net losses of New Zealand citizens to other countries in the two periods were larger than the net losses to the UK/Ireland (Tables 18 and 20). Whereas the arrivals from, and departures to, the UK/Ireland were smaller in the second period, the reverse was the case in the movements between New Zealand and other countries where there was a small increase in numbers between 2006 and 2009 (Table 20). There was a sex ratio in favour of women in the net losses of New Zealand citizens to other countries and to the UK and Ireland in the earlier period and in both cases, the situation was reversed between 2006 and 2009 when the sex ratios for both net flows favoured men (Table 20).
Table 20 PLT Migration Exchanges with the Other Countries by Citizenship, March Years 2002-2009
PLT Migration Sex Ratio Net Net Citizenship Arrivals Departures Migration Migration NZ citizens 2002-2005 27,353 32,363 -5,010 0.980 2006-2009 28,380 34,823 -6,443 1.288 % change 3.8 7.6 28.6 31.4 Other citizens 2002-2005 173,498 42,747 130,751 1.029 2006-2009 157,383 50,476 106,907 1.035 % change -9.3 18.1 -18.2 0.6 Total 2002-2005 200,851 75,110 125,741 1.031 2006-2009 185,763 85,299 100,464 1.020 % change -7.5 13.6 -20.1 -1.1
At the same time, the number of departures was higher in the second period, reflecting an on-going tendency for increasing numbers of people coming to New Zealand for periods of 12 months or more to return or move on to other countries. As a consequence, the net gain from other countries fell between 2006 and 2009 by 18 percent, notwithstanding the consistently high levels of immigration through the eight years covered by this review. The main reason for this was the decline in the net gain from countries in Asia, from just under 89,000 for the 2002-05 period to 53,000 in the late 2000s (Table 21). In most of the other major birthplace regions for immigrants to New Zealand in the early 21st century, there were increases in the net gains to New Zealand’s population through PLT migration from other countries in the second period, although the numbers born in Africa and the Middle East were also smaller in the second period than they had been in the 2002-05 period (Table 21).
Within the other citizen net gains from different birthplace regions shown in Table 21, there are some very similar totals for the eight years between 2002 and 2009. The net gain of people born in the Pacific Islands
73 (27,332) is very similar to the net gain of people born in Africa and the Middle East (27,474) and not very different from the slightly smaller net gain of people born in countries in continental Europe (23,971). There were differences in the relative significance of the net migration of people born in these areas during the two periods, with larger gains from Africa and the Middle East in the first period, while the gains from the Pacific and Europe were larger in the second period (Table 21). The birthplace composition of immigrants from other countries who are not New Zealand citizens fluctuates somewhat depending on the focus of major recruitment drives for residents, temporary workers and students.
The net losses to other countries of New Zealand citizens who had been born in New Zealand were larger than those to the UK/Ireland in both periods. Overall, 12,902 New Zealand-born citizens were ‘lost’ to other countries, compared with 8,297 to the UK and Ireland (Tables 21 and 19). The New Zealand diaspora in countries other than Australia and the UK/Ireland has been attracting increasing attention in recent years (see, for example, Didham 2009; 2010). There is now a much better appreciation both of the dispersed distribution of New Zealanders overseas, especially the New Zealand-born, as well as the diversity in the birthplaces of New Zealanders living off-shore. The largest net gains of New Zealand citizens who had been living in other countries were of people born in the Pacific Islands and in the Americas (especially North America) (Table 21).
These net gains are likely to be reflective of two trends – firstly return to New Zealand of Pacific-born and American-born citizens who had been overseas for over 12 months or more and, secondly, the entry on New Zealand passports of citizens who had left the country on the passport of their country of birth in the Pacific or in the Americas. As noted earlier in the paper, the latter ‘gain’ is due to a form of category-jumping whereby a PLT departure from New Zealand uses a foreign passport that is not matched by the New Zealand passport used on return to the country sometime later. This could result in some over-statement of the net gains of people from some of the birthplace regions.
The three components of New Zealand’s migration system discussed in this section clearly make very different contributions through net gains and losses to the resident population. Australia is the obvious beneficiary when it comes to gaining human capital at all skill levels from New Zealand, while countries other than Australia and the UK/Ireland are the major contributors of human capital to New Zealand. The differing mixes of net gains and losses by birthplace for New Zealand citizens on the one hand, and citizens of other countries on the other, for each of the components are compared in Table 22. In the case of the New Zealand citizens, net losses dominate for virtually all the birthplaces except for Australia (small gains of Australian-born from Australia and the UK/Ireland), the Pacific (a reasonably sizeable — 2,451 — net gain from Pacific countries that are part of the ‘other country’
74 component), Europe (other countries) and the Americas (other countries). There were net losses of New Zealand citizens born in countries in Asia and Africa/Middle East to all components of the system, along with the sizeable net losses of New Zealand-born (Table 22).
Table 21 Other Country Net Migration Gains and Losses, Citizenship by Region of Birth, March Years 2002-2009
PLT Net Migration Citizenship and Birthplace 2002-05 2006-09 2002-2009 NZ citizens New Zealand -5,611 -7,291 -12,902 Australia -25 -33 -58 Pacific Islands 1,030 1,421 2,451 UK/Ireland -52 -224 -276 Other Europe 136 69 205 Asia -817 -925 -1,742 Africa/ME -83 -198 -281 Americas 517 767 1,284 Birthplace n.s. -105 -29 -134 Total -5,010 -6,443 -11,453 Sex ratio 0.980 1.288 1.145 Other citizens New Zealand -679 -1,111 -1,790 Australia 221 124 345 Pacific Islands 11,226 16,106 27,332 UK/Ireland 1,108 720 1,828 Other Europe 9,654 14,317 23,971 Asia 87,802 53,173 140,975 Africa/ME 14,192 13,282 27,474 Americas 6,352 9,737 16,089 Birthplace n.s. 875 559 1,434 Total 130,751 106,907 237,658 Sex ratio 1.029 1.035 1.032
Amongst the flows of PLT migrants who were not New Zealand citizens, there were more net gains than losses from the birthplace regions shown in Table 22. There were net losses to Australia of people born in countries in Asia, Africa/Middle East and the Americas, as well as net losses to the UK/Ireland and other countries of New Zealand-born citizens of other countries. There was also a very small net loss of Pacific-born who were not New Zealand citizens to the UK/Ireland. However, the prevailing pattern was for net gains which, in aggregate, added 18,340 people to the New Zealand population (Table 22). These net gains of citizens from other countries offset the net loss of 186,654 New Zealand citizens over the same period by 131,712.
75 Table 22 Net Migration Gains and Losses, Major Components of New Zealand's Migration System, March Years 2002-2009
PLT Net Migration Citizenship and Birthplace Australia UK/Ireland Others Total1 NZ citizens New Zealand -136,774 -8,297 -12,902 -157,973 Australia 353 127 -58 422 Pacific Islands -5,972 2 2,451 -3,519 UK/Ireland -5,150 5,632 -276 206 Other Europe -2382 -118 209 -2,291 Asia -12,161 -663 -1,742 -14,566 Africa/ME -6,758 -406 -281 -7,445 Americas -922 -36 1,284 326 Birthplace n.s. -1,390 -290 -134 -1,814 Total -171,156 -4,149 -11,453 -186,628 Sex ratio 1.052 0.606 1.145 1.050 Other citizens New Zealand -705 -4,686 -1,790 -5,741 Australia 8,669 412 345 9,426 Pacific Islands 11,226 -14 27,332 27,344 UK/Ireland 858 71,076 1,828 73,762 Other Europe 133 2,196 23,971 26,300 Asia 1,371 946 140,975 140,550 Africa/ME -699 1,968 27,474 28,743 Americas -100 564 16,089 16,553 Birthplace n.s. -79 48 1,434 1,043 Total 8,142 72,540 237,658 318,340 Sex ratio 1.189 1.118 1.032 1.0554 1 Excluding CL/NPR New Zealand and CL/NPR not stated.
The movement of New Zealanders overseas tended to attract much more media comment than immigration of citizens of other countries, especially in the second half of the decade, but it was immigration rather than emigration that was the dominant driver of the contributions international migration was making to population change in New Zealand during the eight years under review. In the final section of the chapter, we review some of the characteristics of the flows into New Zealand from sub-regions and selected countries in Asia, Europe, the Pacific Islands, Africa/Middle East, and the Americas – the major contributors to net gains in New Zealand’s population in the ‘other countries’ component of the migration system in the early 21st century. Specific reference is made in this section to the three main categories of movement into New Zealand for periods of 12 months or more: movement for residence, work and study drawing on the Department of Labour’s approvals database.
76 MIGRATION FOR RESIDENCE, WORK AND STUDY
Between July 2001 and June 2009, 1.758 million approvals for residence (379,600), work (772,461) or study (606,027) in New Zealand were granted by the Department of Labour (Table 23). If these approvals had all translated into actual individual arrivals, they would have been the equivalent of 43 percent of the estimated 4.134 million New Zealand usually resident population in June 2006. However, only the approvals for residence translate directly into numbers of people – the approvals for work and study relate to numbers of people in specific years but when these are aggregated over time, the totals include people who have been counted more than once if they have been granted new work or study permits in successive years.
Notwithstanding the overstatement of the numbers of people in the aggregated totals for work and study, the 1.76 million approvals represents a very substantial number of people who were given approval to spend reasonably lengthy periods in the country. When ‘immigration’ is referred to in the media, reference is usually being made to the approvals for residence – the smallest of the three components shown in Table 23. Indeed, only 22 percent of the 1.76 million approvals shown were for residence. More than double the number of residence approvals were in the temporary work category and they comprised 44 percent of the total. The remaining 35 percent of the approvals were for study – anything from a few weeks or months to several years.
It can be seen from Table 23 that half of the approvals for residence, work and study (900,329) were for citizens of countries in Asia and this region had the largest share of all three categories: 41 percent for residence, 36 percent for work and 76 percent for study. The 2000s were truly a decade of permanent and temporary migration from Asia, with the combined contributions from countries in Europe (including the UK and Ireland) equalling just half of the contribution from Asia (Table 23). The other ‘traditional’ area of migration to New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, came a distant third in terms of contributions to residence approvals (50,531) and was behind the Americas and Africa/Middle East when it came to approvals for work and for study. The key regional driver of New Zealand’s migration system has become Asia, especially the countries of China, India, Korea (ROK) and, since the mid-2000s, the Philippines.
In terms of shares of each region’s approvals in the three categories, Asia had by far the largest proportion (52%) coming for study. The next largest proportion was less than half this (24%) for the Americas (Table 23). In the case of approvals for work, the UK/Ireland, other Europe and the Americas all had in excess of 60 percent of their approvals in the temporary employment category – much more significant than the numbers of approvals for residence. Asia had one of the lowest shares (31 percent) in the temporary work category even though it still had a much larger number of approvals than any other
77 region (Table 23). The largest shares of a region’s approvals that were in the residence category were found for citizens of countries in Africa and the Middle East (40%), the Pacific (39%) and the UK/Ireland (31%) (Table 23). The shares of residence approvals for Asia (17 percent), other Europe (12%) and the Americas (11%) were much smaller.
During the eight year period, there was quite considerable diversity in the patterns of growth and decline in the numbers of approvals for residence, work and study in the different regions (Table 24). In the case of residence approvals, the largest percentage increases between the first four years of the period and the second four years were for immigration from the Americas (38 percent) and the UK/Ireland (25%). The biggest decrease was in approvals for residence from Asia (-15%). There was also a small decrease in the numbers of residence approvals over the two periods in the Pacific (Table 24). Aggregate numbers of approvals for temporary work, on the other hand, grew most rapidly in the Pacific (190%), mainly as a result of the introduction of the Recognised Seasonal Employer work policy in 2007 (see Ramasamy et. al., 2008, for an overview of this policy). There was also considerable growth in temporary work approvals for citizens from countries in the Americas, followed by Asia and Europe (not including the UK and Ireland). Approvals for study for citizens of countries in Asia fell by 26 percent, and increased most for citizens from Africa and the Middle East (78%) and the Pacific (64%).
The numbers and the percentage changes in Tables 23 and 24 provide a useful summary of some of the main changes in the regional composition of flows for residence, work and study between June 2001 and June 2009. New Zealand’s migration system has undergone some significant transformations during the eight years, especially with regard to the increasing prominence of temporary work as a category for approvals. Whereas the total numbers of residence approvals grew by only 0.6 percent during the two periods, and the approvals for study fell by 14 percent (solely because of the dramatic decline in numbers of students from countries in Asia), approvals for temporary work grew by 66 percent in the latter part of the decade.
In the next five sections, we examine the contributions that the selected countries within the broad regions of Asia, Europe (including the UK and Ireland), the Pacific, Africa/Middle East, and the Americas have made to the approvals for residence, work and study during the two four year periods. Following a summary table showing the aggregate numbers of approvals for the period as a whole in each of the categories of approvals for the specified sub-regions and countries, average annual approvals for each category are used in order to compare more directly the actual numbers of people approved for residence, work and study annually, on average, during the two periods.
78 Table 23 Approvals for Residence, Work and Study, Citizenship by Region, June Years 2002-2009
Approvals 2002-09 Citizenship by Region Residence Work Study Total No. of approvals Pacific Islands 50,531 55,034 23,591 129,156 UK/Ireland 84,735 170,582 16,702 272,019 Other Europe 21,816 120,307 40,092 182,215 Asia 156,299 280,138 463,892 900,329 Africa/ME 48,103 47,459 24,644 120,206 Americas 17,481 98,830 37,041 153,352 Other/n.s.1 635 111 65 811 Total 379,600 772,461 606,027 1,758,088 % of row total Pacific Islands 39.1 42.6 18.3 100.0 UK/Ireland 31.2 62.7 6.1 100.0 Other Europe 12.0 66.0 22.0 100.0 Asia 17.4 31.1 51.5 100.0 Africa/ME 40.0 39.5 20.5 100.0 Americas 11.4 64.4 24.2 100.0 Other/n.s.1 78.3 13.7 8.0 100.0 Total 21.6 43.9 34.5 100.0 % column total Pacific Islands 13.3 7.1 3.9 7.3 UK/Ireland 22.3 22.1 2.8 15.5 Other Europe 5.7 15.6 6.6 10.4 Asia 41.2 36.3 76.5 51.2 Africa/ME 12.7 6.1 4.1 6.8 Americas 4.6 12.8 6.1 8.7 Other/n.s.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
1. Includes small numbers of Australians and people who did not have or state their nationality
79 Table 24 Residence, Work and Study Permit Approvals, June Years 2002-05, 2006-09, 2002-09
Period Citizenship Percent by Region 2002-05 2006-09 2002-09 Change Residence Pacific Islands 25,675 24,856 50,531 -3.2 UK/Ireland 37,701 47,034 84,735 24.8 Other Europe 10,221 11,595 21,816 13.4 Asia 84,477 71,822 156,299 -15.0 Africa/ME 23,490 24,613 48,103 4.8 Americas 7,357 10,124 17,481 37.6 Other/n.s.1 304 331 635 8.9 Total 189,225 190,375 379,600 0.6 Work permits Pacific Islands 14,100 40,934 55,034 190.3 UK/Ireland 80,855 89,727 170,582 11.0 Other Europe 43,036 77,271 120,307 79.5 Asia 99,293 180,845 280,138 82.1 Africa/ME 21,344 26,115 47,459 22.4 Americas 31,703 67,127 98,830 111.7 Other/n.s.1 56 55 111 -1.8 Total 290,387 482,074 772,461 66.0 Study permits Pacific Islands 8,929 14,662 23,591 64.2 UK/Ireland 7,849 8,853 16,702 12.8 Other Europe 17201 22891 40,092 33.1 Asia 266,982 196,910 463,892 -26.2 Africa/ME 8,858 15,786 24,644 78.2 Americas 16,681 20,360 37,041 22.1 Other/n.s.1 38 27 65 -28.9 Total 326,538 279,489 606,027 -14.4
Migration From Asia
Migration from Asia to New Zealand is frequently analysed with reference to four sub-regions: north-east Asia (Japan through to Hong Kong and Macau), south-east Asia (Vietnam and the Philippines through to Myanmar), south Asia (the Indian subcontinent from Bangladesh through to Pakistan) and central Asia (Afghanistan and various republics to the south of Russia that were formerly part of the Soviet Union from Armenia east to Uzbekistan) (Bedford and Ho, 2008; Badkar and Tuya, 2010). This is a vast region that contains over 60 percent of the world’s population. The dominant source of migrants for New Zealand is north-east Asia, with the People’s Republic of China being the largest single source of permanent residents (33%), temporary workers (26%) and students (49%) in the region (Table 25). The second major source is the Republic of Korea with less than half the residence, work and study approvals than China but more than the combined totals of south and central Asia. The north-east Asia sub-region provided just under half of the approvals for residence from Asia between 2002 and 2009,
80 just under 60 percent of the approvals for temporary work and 81 percent of the approvals for study.
In south-east Asia, the Philippines has become a significant source of residents and temporary workers in recent years with the on-going demand for skilled labour and plenty of opportunities for staff with paramedical training in rest homes and retirement villages. Citizens of three other countries gained more approvals for study (Thailand 16,825; Malaysia 13,033; Indonesia 7,321) but the Philippines was the main sub-regional provider of residence and temporary work approvals by several thousands in both cases (Table 25). In south Asia, India dominates completely, accounting for 84 percent (residence), 84 percent (temporary work) and 85 percent (study) of the three categories of approvals (Table 25). India, on its own, accounted for almost as many approvals for residence (36,255) for all of the countries in south-east Asia combined (36,245). By contrast, the countries of central Asia provided very small numbers of immigrants, temporary workers and students during the period under review. Immigrants and refugees from Afghanistan contributed 83 percent of the 2,501 residence approvals and this country was the source of 61 percent of the temporary workers. The main source of students was Kazakhstan, accounting for 55 percent of the 396 approvals for study in New Zealand.
Average annual approvals for residence and study were more numerous for citizens of countries in north-east Asia in the early 2000s than the latter four years (Table 26). There was a 16 percent decline overall in annual approvals in the three categories, notwithstanding an increase by 61 percent in the number of approvals for temporary work. A major contributor to the decline was the significant reduction in the numbers of Chinese seeking approval to study in New Zealand – whereas there were 37,219 approvals for study on average each year between 2002 and 2005, there were only 19,583 study approvals per annum between 2006 and 2009 (Table 26). The other sub- regions where there were smaller numbers of residence approvals in the second period compared with the first were south Asia and central Asia. However, in these sub-regions, average annual approvals for temporary work and for study were larger in the late 2000s than they had been earlier in the decade (Table 26). Only south-east Asia had more approvals in all three categories between 2006 and 2009 than had been the case between 2002 and 2005, and the Philippines was the country that had by far the largest percentage increases.
81 Table 25 Approvals for Residence, Work and Study, by Sub-region and Selected Countries in Asia, March Years 2002-2009
Approvals 2002-09 Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total No. of approvals North-east Asia 74,626 166,347 377,167 618,140 China (PRC) 52,089 73,229 227,207 352,525 Korea (ROK) 13,404 32,023 96,310 141,737 South-east Asia 36,245 62,759 53,528 152,532 Philippines 15,906 22,269 13,033 51,208 South Asia 42,927 50,147 32,801 125,875 India 36,255 41,961 27,740 105,956 Central Asia 2,501 885 396 3,782 Total 156,299 280,138 463,892 900,329 % of row total North-east Asia 12.1 26.9 61.0 100.0 China (PRC) 14.8 20.8 64.5 100.0 Korea (ROK) 9.5 22.6 67.9 100.0 South-east Asia 23.8 41.1 35.1 100.0 Philippines 31.1 43.5 25.5 100.0 South Asia 34.1 39.8 26.1 100.0 India 34.2 39.6 26.2 100.0 Central Asia 66.1 23.4 10.5 100.0 Total 17.4 31.1 51.5 100.0 % column total North-east Asia 47.7 59.4 81.3 68.7 China (PRC) 33.3 26.1 49.0 39.2 Korea (ROK) 8.6 11.4 20.8 15.7 South-east Asia 23.2 22.4 11.5 16.9 Philippines 10.2 7.9 2.8 5.7 South Asia 27.5 17.9 7.1 14.0 India 23.2 15.0 6.0 11.8 Central Asia 1.6 0.3 0.1 0.4 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Overall, the average annual number of approvals from countries in Asia for the three categories in aggregate was very similar for the two periods — 112,688 for 2002-2005 and 112,394 for 2006-2009. The big differences between the two periods were the declines in residence (-15%) and study (-26%) approvals, and the increase in temporary work (82%) approvals. The sub-region that bucked the overall regional trend of declines in residence approvals was south-east Asia where the average annual approvals increased from 3,993 in the early 2000s to 5,069 in the period 2006-09 (Table 26). All subregions and countries, other than those in north-east Asia, experienced increases in the numbers of approvals for study. It was the big decline in Chinese student migration to New Zealand from 2004 that was responsible for the overall regional decline in approvals for study.
82 Table 26 Average Annual Approvals for Residence, Work, Study by Sub-region and Selected Countries in Asia, 2002-05 and 2006-09
Average Annual Approvals Sub Region and Country Residence Work Study Total 2002-05 Northeast Asia 10,180 15,926 58,033 84,139 China (PRC) 6,653 4,707 37,219 48,579 Korea (ROK) 2,081 3,291 13,333 18,705 Southeast Asia 3,993 4,205 6,050 14,248 Philippines 1,152 928 253 2,333 South Asia 6,506 4,602 2,633 13,741 India 5,609 3,822 2,076 11,506 Central Asia 441 91 29 561 Total 21,119 24,823 66,746 112,688 2006-09 Northeast Asia 8,477 25,661 36,259 70,397 China (PRC) 6,370 13,600 19,583 39,553 Korea (ROK) 1,270 4,715 10,744 16,729
Southeast Asia 5,069 11,485 7,332 23,886 Philippines 2,825 4,640 1,577 9,041 South Asia 4,226 7,935 5,567 17,728 India 3,455 6,669 4,859 14,983 Central Asia 185 131 70 385 Total 17,956 45,211 49,228 112,394 % change Northeast Asia -16.7 61.1 -37.5 -16.3 China (PRC) -4.3 188.9 -47.4 -18.6 Korea (ROK) -39.0 43.3 -19.4 -10.6 Southeast Asia 26.9 173.2 21.2 67.6 Philippines 145.2 400.1 523.4 287.6 South Asia -35.1 72.4 111.4 29.0 India -38.4 74.5 134.1 30.2 Central Asia -58.1 43.8 138.5 -31.4 Total -15.0 82.1 -26.2 -0.3
The decline in the numbers of approvals for residence and study for citizens of countries in Asia in the second half of the decade need to be placed in context. It can be seen from Table 24 that Asia remained by far the largest regional source of residence approvals between 2006 and 2009 (71,822 or 38% of the total of 190,375 for all regions). These countries were also the largest regional source of approvals for temporary work (180,845 or 38% of the 482,074 total) and study (196,910 or 70% of the 279,489 total for all regions).
83 Despite some reduction in the numbers seeking residence or access to study opportunities, Asia clearly remains the most important regional source of approvals for residence, temporary work and study at the end of the first decade of the new millennium.
Migration From Europe (Including the UK/Ireland)
The traditional European source countries of immigrants to New Zealand, from the mid-1800s until the policy changes in the mid-1980s, had a very different profile of approvals across the three categories. Almost two- thirds (64%) of the approvals for citizens of countries in Europe (including the United Kingdom and Ireland) were for temporary work, by comparison with 31 percent for Asia (Table 27). Most countries in Europe have reciprocal working holiday schemes with New Zealand and visitors taking advantage of the opportunities these schemes provide for seeking temporary work without restriction while they are on holiday account for a significant share of the approvals for work for Europeans during the eight years. Approvals for residence were also much higher for applicants from Europe (24%) than was the case with applicants from Asia (17%). However, there is much more variation across the sub-regions of Europe in proportions of approvals that were for residence with western, northern, southern and eastern Europe having well below the 24 percent for Europe as a whole. The UK/Ireland (31%) and South Eastern Europe (38%) were the only two sub-regions with more than the regional average (Table 27).
Just over three-quarters of the residence approvals and half of the approvals for work for citizens from countries in Europe during the period went to citizens of the United Kingdom (Table 27). The biggest share of approvals for study (45%) went to citizens from countries in Western Europe, with German citizens obtaining a slightly higher proportion (31%) than UK citizens (29%). When the average annual approvals for residence, work and study are compared for the two four year periods, most sub-regions had fewer than 1,000 approvals for residence and study each year, while four (UK/Ireland, western Europe, northern Europe and eastern Europe) had more than 1,000 approvals for work, on average each year (Table 28). Countries like Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary have taken advantage of the working holiday scheme to get quite large numbers of holiday makers into New Zealand with the right to pick up temporary work. The largest percentage increases in temporary work permits across the two periods, though, have been amongst western Europeans, and especially Germans (152%) (Table 28). New Zealand and Australia are very popular destinations for Germans taking extended holidays that feature the outdoors and include opportunities for work while travelling.
84 Table 27 Approvals for Residence, Work and Study, by Sub-region and Selected Countries in Europe, June Years 2002-2009
Approvals 2002-09 Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total No. of approvals UK/Ireland 84,735 170,582 16,702 272,019 United Kingdom 82,152 149,556 16,229 247,937 Western Europe 10,612 74,422 25,363 110,397 Germany 4,615 42,304 17,668 64,587 Northern Europe 1,377 11,448 5,529 18,354 Sweden 606 5,621 1,982 8,209 Southern Europe 923 5,506 2,108 8,537 Italy 538 3,899 1,427 5,864 South Eastern Europe 3,554 4,468 1,254 9,276 Romania 1,850 2,056 462 4,368 Eastern Europe 5,350 24,463 5,838 35,651 Russia 2,689 3,615 3,764 10,068 Total (incl. UK/Ireland) 106,551 290,889 56,794 454,234 % of row total UK/Ireland 31.2 62.7 6.1 100.0 United Kingdom 33.1 60.3 6.5 100.0 Western Europe 9.6 67.4 23.0 100.0 Germany 7.1 65.5 27.4 100.0 Northern Europe 7.5 62.4 30.1 100.0 Sweden 7.4 68.5 24.1 100.0 Southern Europe 10.8 64.5 24.7 100.0 Italy 9.2 66.5 24.3 100.0 South Eastern Europe 38.3 48.2 13.5 100.0 Romania 42.4 47.1 10.6 100.0 Eastern Europe 15.0 68.6 16.4 100.0 Russia 26.7 35.9 37.4 100.0 Total (incl. UK/Ireland) 23.5 64.0 12.5 100.0 % column total UK/Ireland 79.5 58.6 29.4 59.9 United Kingdom 77.1 51.4 28.6 54.6 Western Europe 10.0 25.6 44.7 24.3 Germany 4.3 14.5 31.1 14.2 Northern Europe 1.3 3.9 9.7 4.0 Sweden 0.6 1.9 3.5 1.8 Southern Europe 0.9 1.9 3.7 1.9 Italy 0.5 1.3 2.5 1.3 South Eastern Europe 3.3 1.5 2.2 2.0 Romania 1.7 0.7 0.8 1.0 Eastern Europe 5.0 8.4 10.3 7.8 Russia 2.5 1.2 6.6 2.2 Total (incl. UK/Ireland) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
85 Table 28
Average Annual Approvals for Residence, Work, Study by Sub-region and Selected Countries in Europe, 2002-05 and 2006-09
Average Annual Approvals Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total 2002-05 UK/Ireland 9,425 20,214 1,962 31,601 United Kingdom 9,133 17,864 1,668 28,665 Western Europe 1,079 6,001 2,540 9,619 Germany 429 3,008 1,669 5,106 Northern Europe 160 1,116 753 2,029 Sweden 72 548 278 898 Southern Europe 96 490 206 792 Italy 56 348 145 549 South Eastern Europe 533 562 171 1,266 Romania 279 285 54 617 Eastern Europe 688 2,590 631 3,909 Russia 373 385 359 1,117 Total (incl. UK/Ireland) 11,981 30,973 6,263 49,216 2006-09 UK/Ireland 11,759 22,43 2,213 36,404 United Kingdom 11,405 19,52 2,144 33,075 Western Europe 1,574 12,60 3,801 17,980 Germany 725 7,56 2,749 11,041 Northern Europe 184 1,74 630 2,560 Sweden 80 85 217 1,155 Southern Europe 135 88 321 1,343 Italy 79 62 212 917 South Eastern Europe 356 55 143 1,053 Romania 184 23 62 475 Eastern Europe 650 3,52 829 5,004 Russia 299 51 583 1,401 Total (incl. UK/Ireland) 14,657 41,750 7,936 64,343 % change UK/Ireland 24.8 11.0 12.8 15.2 United Kingdom 24.9 9.3 28.6 15.4 Western Europe 45.9 110.1 49.7 86.9 Germany 68.9 151.6 64.7 116.3 Northern Europe 15.2 56.4 -16.4 26.1 Sweden 10.4 56.7 -21.9 28.6 Southern Europe 41.0 80.9 55.8 69.6 Italy 42.3 79.9 45.6 67.0 South Eastern Europe -33.3 -1.2 -16.7 -16.8 Romania -34.1 -19.3 13.9 -23.1 Eastern Europe -5.5 36.1 31.4 28.0 Russia -19.8 34.7 62.5 25.4 Total (incl. UK/Ireland) 22.3 34.8 26.7 30.7
86 Approvals for residence, work and study for citizens of Europe (including the UK and Ireland) totalled 454,234 over the eight years – around half of the approvals granted to citizens of countries in Asia. As noted earlier, the mix was different with the European approvals being more heavily clustered in the residence and temporary work categories while the Asian approvals were much more heavily skewed towards study. The 106,551 approvals for residence for citizens of Europe over the eight years was smaller than the 156,229 residence approvals for citizens of countries in the Asian region and the 56,794 approvals for study was dwarfed by the Asian total of 463,892. However, there were more approvals for work granted to citizens of Europe (290,889) than is the case for those from countries in Asia (280,138) and the United Kingdom and Ireland especially remain very important sources of settlers and temporary workers for New Zealand.
Migration From the Pacific Islands
There has been a substantial shift in the mix of approvals for residence, work and study for citizens of Pacific countries in recent years and temporary work rather than residence now dominates, accounting for 43 percent of the total approvals (129,153) between July 2001 and June 2009 (Table 29). For most countries in Polynesia, especially those with access via special arrangements such as the Samoan Quota and the Pacific Access Category, residence approvals continue to dominate with half or more of the approvals granted in the three categories, allowing recipients to stay and settle in New Zealand. Citizens of these countries still receive more than half (54%) of the residence approvals granted to Pacific peoples (50,531), although Fiji in Melanesia had the largest single country share (44%) of residence approvals (Table 29). Citizens of Fiji also received just under half of the approvals for temporary work and over 60 percent of the approvals for study during the period. Melanesia more than Polynesia is the dominant player in terms of migration for education in New Zealand reflecting, in part, the much larger youthful populations in countries like Fiji and a lengthy history of links between New Zealand’s Ministry of Education and their counterparts in countries in the western Pacific.
The recent surge in approvals for temporary work in Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu is clearly evident in Table 30 where the average annual levels for approvals are compared for the two four year periods. While annual approvals for residence fell by 3 percent in the late 2000s, approvals for temporary work increased by 190 percent. A major reason for this is the Recognised Seasonal Employer work policy which has generated over 19,000 individual contracts for employment for up to 7 months for Samoans, Tongans and Ni-Vanuatu (9 months for I-Kiribati and Tuvaluans) in New Zealand’s horticulture and viticulture industries (Ramasamy et al., 2009; Bedford and Bedford, 2010). Ni- Vanuatu, Samoans and Tongans have been particularly active in taking up these seasonal work opportunities and this is reflected in the substantial growth in annual approvals for temporary work in Table 30. The significant
87 increase in temporary work approvals for Fiji citizens is due, in large part, to the impact of the December 2006 military coup in Fiji and the on-going tensions surrounding this country’s political and economic development under military rule.
Table 29 Approvals for Residence, Work and Study, by Sub-region and Selected Countries in the Pacific, June Years 2002-2009
Approvals 2002-09 Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total No. of approvals Polynesia 27,014 20,795 5,895 53,704 Samoa 16,557 9,818 2,446 28,821 Tonga 9,234 9,631 2,624 21,489 Melanesia 22,569 32,834 16,830 72,233 Fiji 22,163 26,918 14,683 63,764 Vanuatu 65 4,240 335 4,640 Micronesia 948 1405 866 3,219 Kiribati 896 1226 666 2788 Total 50,531 55,034 23,591 129,156 % of row total Polynesia 50.3 38.7 11.0 100.0 Samoa 57.4 34.1 8.5 100.0 Tonga 43.0 44.8 12.2 100.0 Melanesia 31.2 45.5 23.3 100.0 Fiji 34.8 42.2 23.0 100.0 Vanuatu 1.4 91.4 7.2 100.0 Micronesia 29.5 43.6 26.9 100.0 Kiribati 32.1 44.0 23.9 100.0 Total 39.1 42.6 18.3 100.0 % column total Polynesia 53.5 37.8 25.0 41.6 Samoa 32.8 17.8 10.4 22.3 Tonga 18.3 17.5 11.1 16.6 Melanesia 44.7 59.7 71.3 55.9 Fiji 43.9 48.9 62.2 49.4 Vanuatu 0.1 7.7 1.4 3.6 Micronesia 1.9 2.6 3.7 2.5 Kiribati 1.8 2.2 2.8 2.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
The numbers of approvals for residence, work and study granted to Pacific citizens were very small by comparison with those granted to citizens of countries in Europe – 129,153 compared with 454,234 during the eight June years 2002-2009. However, given the sizeable Pacific communities in New Zealand, and the special relationships that are associated with quotas for residence approvals in selected countries, population movement from island countries remains a critical component of permanent as well as temporary migration streams. Pacific people have come to assume a very prominent place in New Zealand’s sporting, entertainment and cultural industries (Macpherson et al., 2001) and are now an integral part of the country’s
88 identity as a south Pacific nation. The sporting prowess of the Fijians, Samoans and Tongans in particular is not lost on another major stream of permanent and temporary immigrants from South Africa - another sports-mad society that features prominently in New Zealand’s contemporary migration system (see the chapter by Andrew Trlin for a detailed examination of South African migration in the late 1990s and early 2000s).
Table 30 Average Annual Approvals for Residence, Work, Study by Sub-region and Selected Pacific Countries, 2002-05 and 2006-09
Average Annual Approvals Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total 2002-05 Polynesia 3,597 1,436 628 5,661 Samoa 2,055 626 230 2,910 Tonga 1,393 678 301 2,372 Melanesia 2,746 1,988 1,504 6,237 Fiji 2,693 1,835 1,208 5,736 Vanuatu 9 19 42 70 Micronesia 77 101 100 278 Kiribati 70 92 64 225 Total 6,419 3,525 2,232 12,176 2006-09 Polynesia 3,157 3,763 846 7,765 Samoa 2,085 1,829 382 4,295 Tonga 915 1,730 355 3,000 Melanesia 2,897 6,221 2,703 11,821 Fiji 2,848 4,895 2,463 10,205 Vanuatu 7 1,041 42 1,091 Micronesia 160 250 117 527 Kiribati 155 215 103 472 Total 6,214 10,233 3,665 20,112 % change Polynesia -12.2 162.0 34.7 37.2 Samoa 1.4 192.1 66.4 47.6 Tonga -34.3 155.4 17.8 26.5 Melanesia 5.5 213.0 79.7 89.5 Fiji 5.8 166.7 103.8 77.9 Vanuatu -24.3 5453.3 1.8 1469.1 Micronesia 107.8 146.9 16.5 89.2 Kiribati 122.3 133.2 61.2 109.4 Total -3.2 190.3 64.2 65.2
Migration From Africa and the Middle East
Residence and temporary work are the two dominant categories of approval for citizens of countries in Africa and the Middle East (Africa/ME) who are coming to New Zealand for reasons other than a short-term visit. Unlike the situation described above for Asia, where study permits account for over 50 percent of the approvals granted between 2002 and 2009, only 21 percent of the approvals for Africa/ME were for this purpose (Table 31). The
89 Middle East was the exception with 40 percent of all approvals in the study category. The Middle East was also the source of 35 percent of the study approvals – the majority of the other 65 percent came from southern and eastern Africa (Table 31). The great majority of approvals for residence (63%) and for temporary work (64%) went to citizens of South Africa, followed by Zimbabwe citizens (13 and 15% respectively). Citizens of countries in the rest of southern and eastern Africa, together with western, central and northern Africa, accounted for only 11 percent of the residence approvals and 8 percent of the approvals for temporary work (Table 31). Migration to New Zealand from Africa and the Middle East is highly country-specific with some quite large student flows from Saudi Arabia (5,009 between 2006 and 2009), temporary work flows in excess of 1,000 from Israel and Turkey, and over 1,000 refugees from Somalia and Sudan between 2002 and 2005.
All categories of approval showed increases in Africa and the Middle East between 2002/05 and 2006/09 (Table 32). The most prominent increase was in the average annual numbers of approvals for study with the Middle East, and especially Saudi Arabia, showing the most prominent growth. In terms of residence approvals, the two sub-regions that went against the general trend of increases were North Africa and the Middle East. In both cases, it was smaller refugee intakes from these two areas in the late 2000s that were responsible for the decline. The country that experienced declines in all three categories of approval was Zimbabwe where approvals for temporary work and study halved and residence approvals declined by almost 20 percent. The reasons for these shifts are linked with the changing political situation in Zimbabwe after the elections that saw the emergence of an uneasy power-sharing arrangement between the two major parties. It was no longer so easy for residents of Zimbabwe to claim refugee status following the elections. There was also a decision by NZAID to focus its scholarship support more on Asia and the Pacific, rather than the wider frame of reference that had existed in the early 2000s. Except for South Africa, the African continent remains a relatively insignificant contributor to New Zealand’s migration system.
Migration between Africa/ME and New Zealand is likely to remain strongly focused on particular countries with South Africa being the primary source of residents and temporary workers, while Saudi Arabia and some of the more secular oil-rich Arab countries becoming increasingly important as sources of international students seeking an education in English-speaking institutions. Family reunion amongst earlier refugee flows from the Horn of Africa as well as from Iraq and Iran will be the main drivers for on-going residential migration from these countries. However, with the exception of South Africa, this region is unlikely to grow in significance as a source of residents and temporary workers as Latin America will become more important, based on recent trends. The discussion now turns to migration from the Americas – a broad region that, like Africa/ME, is characterised by
90 some quite distinctive country-specific patterns with regard to links with New Zealand through approvals for residence work and study.
Table 31 Approvals for Residence, Work and Study, by Sub-region and Selected Countries in Africa and the Middle East, June Years 2002-2009
Approvals 2002-09 Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total No. of approvals South/East Africa 39,599 39,141 15,364 94,104 South Africa 30,310 30,133 11,187 71,630 Zimbabwe 6,047 7,226 2,753 16,026 Central/West Africa 884 900 507 2,291 Nigeria 361 455 279 1,095 North Africa 1,133 920 230 2,283 Egypt 603 514 168 1,285 Middle East 6,487 6,498 8,543 21,528 Iran 1,681 1,531 681 3,893 Total 48,103 47,459 24,644 120,206 % of row total South/East Africa 42.1 41.6 16.3 100.0 South Africa 42.3 42.1 15.6 100.0 Zimbabwe 37.7 45.1 17.2 100.0 Central/West Africa 38.6 39.3 22.1 100.0 Nigeria 33.0 41.6 25.5 100.0 North Africa 49.6 40.3 10.1 100.0 Egypt 46.9 40.0 13.1 100.0 Middle East 30.1 30.2 39.7 100.0 Iran 43.2 39.3 17.5 100.0 Total 40.0 39.5 20.5 100.0 % column total South/East Africa 82.3 82.5 62.3 78.3 South Africa 63.0 63.5 45.4 59.6 Zimbabwe 12.6 15.2 11.2 13.3 Central/West Africa 1.8 1.9 2.1 1.9 Nigeria 0.8 1.0 1.1 0.9 North Africa 2.4 1.9 0.9 1.9 Egypt 1.3 1.1 0.7 1.1 Middle East 13.5 13.7 34.7 17.9 Iran 3.5 3.2 2.8 3.2 Total 40.0 39.5 20.5 100.0
91 Table 32 Average Annual Approvals for Residence, Work, Study by Sub-region and Selected Countries in Africa and the Middle East 2002-05 and 2006-09
Average Annual Approvals Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total 2005-05 South/East Africa 4,566 4,384 1,688 10,638 South Africa 3,251 2,946 1,034 7,230 Zimbabwe 836 1,249 475 2,560 Central/West Africa 88 125 61 273 Nigeria 44 58 30 132 North Africa 178 108 26 312 Egypt 90 51 16 158 Middle East 1,041 719 465 2,225 Iran 255 228 71 554 Total 5,873 5,336 2,240 13,448 2006-09 South/East Africa 5,334 5,402 2,178 12,914 South Africa 4,327 4,588 1,763 10,678 Zimbabwe 676 557 213 1,446 Central/West Africa 133 100 66 300 Nigeria 46 56 40 142 North Africa 105 122 32 259 Egypt 61 77 26 164 Middle East 581 906 1,671 3,157 Iran 166 155 100 420 Total 6,153 6,529 3,947 16,629 % change South/East Africa 16.8 23.2 29.0 21.4 South Africa 33.1 55.8 70.5 47.7 Zimbabwe -19.2 -55.4 -55.1 -43.5 Central/West Africa 51.9 -20.0 9.5 9.6 Nigeria 5.1 -2.2 32.5 8.2 North Africa -40.9 12.5 23.3 -17.1 Egypt -32.5 50.7 58.5 4.0 Middle East -44.2 25.9 259.3 41.9 Iran -35.0 -32.1 40.6 -24.2 Total 4.8 22.4 76.2 23.7
Migration From the Americas
The Americas — Canada, the USA, the Caribbean, Central America and South America — is the region that accounted for the smallest number of residence approvals between July 2001 and June 2009 — 17,481 or just under 5 percent of the total of 379,600. Over three-quarters of the approvals were citizens of the United States of America (60%) and Canada (18%) (Table 33). Even though these two countries belong to that group of ‘traditional’ sources of migrants for New Zealand, they have never been major contributors to the flows of people seeking permanent residence. Partly for language reasons, countries in Latin America have also been minor sources of migrants for New Zealand — over the eight years under review, only 3,481 Latin Americans were
92 approved for residence, less than half the number from Tonga. Much more important have been the approvals for work — over 29,000 citizens of countries in South America gained entry on visas that allowed them to work while in New Zealand (Table 33). The working holiday visa schemes that have been negotiated with countries like Brazil, Argentina and Chile have been instrumental in increasing the circulation of people between South America and New Zealand in recent years. Approvals for work accounted for almost two-thirds of the 153,352 approvals for residence, work and study in most of the sub-regions in the Americas — only Central America had less than 50 percent in this category and there, mainly in Mexico, study permits accounted for close to 40 percent of the total (Table 33).
The major changes between the early and late 2000s in the average annual approvals were in the temporary work category for central and South America. In the case of Brazil, approvals for work increased by more than 600 percent – temporary work while in New Zealand on holiday in tourist resorts such as Queenstown has become an attractive option for growing numbers of young Brazilians (Table 34). Flowing on from this expanding circulation of Latin Americans has been the growth in residence approvals with increases of over 100 percent for Brazil and Chile between the average annual approvals in the period 2002-05 and the annual averages for the period 2006-09 (Table 34). The numbers of residence approvals remain very small with only 215 Brazilians and 109 Chileans being approved each year in the late 2000s. But the Americas are slowly becoming more prominent players in New Zealand’s migration system, even if the circulation of people rather than relocation at the destination remains the prevailing pattern of movement.
A useful summary of the key changes in the comparative size and composition of migrant approvals for entry to New Zealand for residence, work and study from different broad regions during the first decade of the 21st century can be found in Table 35. Here the average annual approvals in the three categories are compared for each region in the early 2000s and the late 2000s. Two things are immediately apparent from the figures in this table. Firstly, the annual averages for approvals of citizens of countries in Asia in all categories in both periods are much greater than those from other regions. Indeed, the average annual approvals for study from the Asia region exceeded the total number of approvals from all other regions for residence in both periods.
93 Table 33 Approvals for Residence, Work and Study, by Sub-region and Selected Countries in the Americas, June Years 2002-2009
Approvals 2002-09 Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total No. of approvals Northern America 13,606 67,314 24,730 105,650 United States 10,404 45,815 20,427 76,646 Canada 3,198 21,496 4,295 28,989 Caribbean 110 501 166 777 Central America 284 1,160 937 2,381 Mexico 210 960 711 1,881 South America 3,481 29,855 11,208 44,544 Brazil 1,219 12,594 6,802 20,615 Chile 628 7,594 1,577 9,799 Argentina 609 6,690 613 7,912 Total 17,481 98,830 37,041 153,352 % of row total Northern America 12.9 63.7 23.4 100.0 United States 13.6 59.8 26.7 100.0 Canada 11.0 74.2 14.8 100.0 Caribbean 14.2 64.5 21.4 100.0 Central America 11.9 48.7 39.4 100.0 Mexico 11.2 51.0 37.8 100.0 South America 7.8 67.0 25.2 100.0 Brazil 5.9 61.1 33.0 100.0 Chile 6.4 77.5 16.1 100.0 Argentina 7.7 84.6 7.7 100.0 Total 11.4 64.4 24.2 100.0 % column total Northern America 77.8 68.1 66.8 68.9 United States 59.5 46.4 55.1 50.0 Canada 18.3 21.8 11.6 18.9 Caribbean 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.5 Central America 1.6 1.2 2.5 1.6 Mexico 1.2 1.0 1.9 1.2 South America 19.9 30.2 30.3 29.0 Brazil 7.0 12.7 18.4 13.4 Chile 3.6 7.7 4.3 6.4 Argentina 3.5 6.8 1.7 5.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
It is little wonder that media comment on Asian students in Auckland particularly was very prominent, especially in the early 2000s when approvals exceeded 66,000 on average each year (Table 35) (see chapter by Spoonley and Gendall for a discussion of the media and migration in New Zealand in recent years). It is also apparent from Table 35 that the main driver in the growth of approvals in four of the six broad regions were work permits with the Pacific experiencing the greatest percentage increase (190%), followed by the Americas (111%), Asia (82%) and Europe excluding the UK/Ireland (80%). Significant growth in residence approvals was found in the Americas (38%)
94 followed by UK/Ireland (25%). Africa/Middle East (76%) and the Pacific Islands (64%) were the two regions where study approvals grew much most.
Table 34 Average Annual Approvals for Residence, Work, Study by Sub-region and Selected Countries, the Americas, 2002-05 and 2006-09
Average Annual Approvals Sub-region and Country Residence Work Study Total 2005-05 Northern America 1,493 6,483 2,882 10,858 United States 1,168 4,236 2,371 7,774 Canada 325 2,247 510 3,082 Caribbean 12 63 20 95 Central America 31 68 102 201 Mexico 21 50 73 144 South America 304 1,311 1,167 2,782 Brazil 90 374 752 1,215 Chile 48 340 130 518 Argentina 71 390 80 540 Total ,839 7,926 4,170 13,935 2006-09 Northern America 1,908 10,346 3,301 15,555 United States 1,434 7,218 2,736 11,388 Canada 475 3,128 564 4,166 Caribbean 16 62 22 100 Central America 40 222 133 395 Mexico 32 190 105 327 South America 567 6,153 1,635 8,354 Brazil 215 2,775 949 3,939 Chile 109 1,332 265 1,706 Argentina 82 1,509 74 1,664 Total 2,531 16,782 5,090 24,403 % change Northern America 27.8 59.6 14.5 43.3 United States 22.8 70.4 15.4 46.5 Canada 46.2 39.2 10.4 35.2 Caribbean 34.0 -2.0 12.8 5.6 Central America 30.9 224.9 30.2 96.5 Mexico 50.0 282.4 44.3 127.7 South America 86.7 369.2 40.1 200.3 Brazil 139.6 642.4 26.2 224.1 Chile 128.8 291.6 104.4 229.7 Argentina 15.2 287.1 -7.2 208.1 Total 37.6 111.7 22.1 75.1
When changes in the total approvals for each region between 2002-05 and 2006-09 periods are compared, it can be seen that the major increases have been in the numbers for the Americas (75%), the Pacific Islands (64%) and continental Europe (59%) — regions that had between them 72,455 approvals – 65 percent of the total approved for Asia (112,395). The only region to experience an overall decline in approvals over the two periods was China (-0.3 percent), and this was despite growth by 82 percent in the number of
95 approvals for work (Table 35). It was the major fall in average annual approvals for study (-26%), coupled with a less dramatic fall in residence approvals (-15%), that effectively neutralised the growth in approvals for work (82%) and produced marginally smaller total average numbers of approvals for citizens of countries in Asia. Despite the changes, approvals from all of the other regions combined (125,488) accounted for just over half of the total average annual approvals in the late 2000s – Asia remained by far the most important regional player in the migration system for people who needed approval to reside, work or study in New Zealand.
Table 35 Average Annual Approvals for Residence, Work, Study by Region, 2002-05 and 2006-09
Average Annual Approvals Region and Period Residence Work Study Total 2002-05 Pacific Islands 6,419 3,525 2,232 12,176 UK/Ireland 9,425 20,214 1,962 31,601 Other Europe 2,555 10,759 4,300 17,614 Asia 21,119 24,823 66,746 112,688 Africa/ME 5,873 5,336 2,240 13,449 Americas 1,839 7,926 4,170 13,935 Total 47,230 72,583 81,650 201,463 2006-09 Pacific Islands 6,214 10,233 3,665 20,112 UK/Ireland 11,759 22,432 2,213 36,404 Other Europe 2,899 19,318 5,723 27,940 Asia 17,956 45,211 49,228 112,395 Africa/ME 6,153 6,529 3,947 16,629 Americas 2,531 16,782 5,090 24,403 Total 47,512 120,505 69,866 237,883 % change Pacific Islands -3.2 190.3 64.2 65.2 UK/Ireland 24.8 11.0 12.8 15.2 Other Europe 13.5 79.6 33.1 58.6 Asia -15.0 82.1 -26.2 -0.3 Africa/ME 4.8 22.4 76.2 23.6 Americas 37.6 111.7 22.1 75.1 Total 0.6 66.0 -14.4 18.1
LOOKING AHEAD
New Zealand’s migration system in 2009 and 2010 was reflecting very different responses to a global recession by both New Zealand citizens and citizens of other countries than had been found in other periods of economic contraction during the previous three decades. Overall, annual net migration gains have persisted through the early months of 2010 and monthly departures of New Zealand residents to Australia, as well as to all destinations, remain lower than they were in the same months in 2009 (Statistics New Zealand, 2010b). The numbers of New Zealanders returning from all countries in the
96 year ended March 2010 reached 26,446 – higher than at any previous year since the early 1990s and over 10,000 of these were returning from Australia.
The inflow of citizens from other countries who are intending to stay for 12 months or more has fallen, although it was slightly higher in the March 2010 year flow from Australia than was the case in 2009. The numbers of people who were not New Zealand citizens, who were leaving after stays of 12 months or more, were continuing to rise maintaining a pattern that has prevailed since 2006. The overall net migration gain for the year ended March 2010 (20,973) was the highest for a March year since 2004. New Zealand’s unexpected positive ‘migration dividend’ during a period of recession is likely to continue into the next decade.
Any analysis of New Zealand’s migration system in the 21st century will require much more attention to temporary movements for work, study and limited periods in residence than has been the case in the past. The traditional focus on permanent and long-term migration no longer adequately captures the extent to which international migration is impacting on New Zealand’s population and economy. Temporary movements, often for periods of less than 12 months, are having a profound impact on the labour market, education institutions and New Zealand’s communities in many parts of the country.
The recent decision by Statistics New Zealand to record the permit status of PLT arrivals and departures who are not New Zealand citizens will assist in tracking changes in the key categories of entry. For the March 2010 year, for example, Statistics New Zealand (2010b: 8) has reported that: ‘Of the 53,900 PLT arrivals who did require a permit, 20,700 arrives on work permits, 15,300 arrived on student permits, 13,400 arrived on residence permits and 4,100 arrived on visitor permits’. On the basis of these figures, it can be seen that only 25 percent of the PLT arrivals requiring approval to be in New Zealand, were coming as intending residents – a share that is very similar to 22 percent of the 1.76 million approvals for residence, work and study between July 2001 and June 2009 in the residence category (Table 13).
Population movement in and out of New Zealand, for reasons other than being a tourist or short-term visitor, is dominated by temporary forms of movement, much of which is characterised by circularity. The contemporary interest amongst policy makers, especially those in Europe, with forms of ‘spontaneous’ and ‘managed’ circular migration, has considerable relevance for New Zealand. As Kathleen Newland (2009: 18) pointed out in a thought- provoking paper entitled ‘The paradox of permanency: an incentive-based approach to circular migration policy in the European Union’:
Many governments and intergovernmental institutions think of circular migration as a combination of temporary migration and return migration. More innovative thinking about circular
97 migration recognizes it as a pattern of mobility particularly suited to an era of intense transnational interaction, in which many people [high-skilled and low-skilled] transact important parts of their lives in more than one country and travel back and forth between or among them.
There is nothing new about circulation in the context of population movement to and from New Zealand and there is an extensive literature on its importance for Pacific peoples moving within island countries as well as to and from countries on the Pacific rim (see Bedford, 2008, for a recent review). However, as Newland (2009: 18) goes on to note, while circulation is more the rule than the exception in international migration, this fact cannot be detected in the migration data collected in most countries. As the data for migration into and out of New Zealand during the 2000s has demonstrated, we need to be constantly aware of the evolving relationships between different forms of mobility – short-term and long-term; temporary and ‘permanent’, circular and one-way – if we are to understand the implications of contemporary international migration for societies and economies in the 21st century.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Much of the research that informs this chapter was funded by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology (FRST) through the program ‘Education capital formation, employment, migration, gender, work-life balance and missing men’, led by Associate Professor Paul Callister, Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington. Grant Brown in the Customer Services section of Statistics New Zealand and Paul Merwood, senior analyst in the Department of Labour’s IMSED Research, assisted with the provision of data. Muriaroha Muntz in the Population Studies Centre at the University of Waikato compiled most of the aggregated data sets that form the substance of many of the tables. We gratefully acknowledge all of this support.
REFERENCES CITED
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99 BIRRELL, B. and RAPSON, V. 2001: New Zealanders in Australia: the end of an era? People and Place, 9(1): 61-74. CALLISTER, P., BEDFORD, R.D. and DIDHAM, R. 2006: Globalisation, Gendered Migration and Labour Markets. Department of Labour Working Paper http://www.dol.govt.nz/future of work/workforce-sex-ratios.asp. CALLISTER, P., DIDHAM, R. and BEDFORD, R.D. 2007: Changing sex ratios in New Zealand: real change or a statistical problem? New Zealand Population Review, 32(1): 117-129. DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR 2009: Migration Trends and Outlook 2007/08, IMSED Research, Department of Labour, Wellington. DIDHAM, R. 2009: Intersections: Southeast Asia and Diaspora Engagement, Outlook Series 11, AsiaNZ Foundation, Wellington. DIDHAM, R. 2010: Future Potential and the Invisible Diaspora: New Zealand and South Asia Diasporas, Outlook Series 12, AsiaNZ Foundation, Wellington. FARMER, R.S.J. 1986: Arrivals and departures, 1979/80-1983/84, pp. 22-39, in Trlin, A. and Spoonley, P. (eds), New Zealand and International Migration: A Digest and Bibliography, Number 1, Department of Sociology, Massey University, Palmerston North. HAMER, P. 2007: Maori in Australia: Nga Maori I Te Ao Moemoea, Te Puni Kokiri, Wellington. HAMER, P. 2009: One in six? The rapid growth of the Maori population in Australia, New Zealand Population Review, 33/34: 153-176. HOADLEY, S. 2002: Administrative issues and political debate in trans-Tasman migration, pp. 111-128, in Catley, B. (ed.), NZ-Australia Relations: Moving Together or Drifting Apart? Dark Horse Publishing, Wellington. MACPHERSON, C., SPOONLEY, P. and ANAE, M. (eds) 2001: Tangata o te Moana Nui, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North. MEIN SMITH, P., HEMPENSTALL, P. and GOLDFINCH, S. 2008: Remaking the Tasman World, University of Canterbury Press, Christchurch. NEWLAND, K. 2009: The paradox of permanency: an incentive-based approach to circular migration policy in the European Union, Proceedings of the Conference on Labour Migration and its Development Potential in the Age of Mobility, Round Table 2, Circular Migration, Malmo, Sweden, 15- 16 October. POOT, J. 2007: Twenty years of econometric research on trans-Tasman migration. Paper presented at the Motu seminar, Wellington, 8 November. POOT, J. and SANDERSON, L. 2007: Changes in the social security eligibility and international mobility of New Zealand citizens in Australia. PSC Discussion Paper No. 65, Population Studies Centre, University of Waikato, Hamilton. RAMASAMY, S., KRISHNAN, V., BEDFORD, R.D. and BEDFORD, C.E. 2008: The Recognised Seasonal Employer policy: seeking the elusive triple wins for development through international migration, Pacific Economic Bulletin, 23(4): 171-186.
100 STATISTICS NEW ZEALAND 2010a: International travel and migration: December 2009, Table 8, Hot Off the Press, 4 February, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington. STATISTICS NEW ZEALAND 2010b: International travel and migration: March 2010, Hot Off the Press, 23 April, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington.
101 APPENDIX 1: END-POINT EFFECTS
For the purposes of both migration flows and population estimation, the definition of residence in New Zealand is a stay of 12 months or more. Thus, overseas visitors and people who are, for example, studying or working in New Zealand for less than 12 months are not classed as residents. It is common to use net permanent and long-term (PLT) migration as recorded from arrival and departure cards to measure change in the resident population through migration. However, recorded PLT migration figures may differ, sometimes significantly, from actual PLT migration for a number of reasons, chief among which are people changing their intentions, making errors on their migration arrival or departure cards, or being incorrectly classified during the processing of the records.
People recorded as short-term travellers but who should actually be PLT migrants, or vice-versa, are referred to as 'category jumpers'. The net effect of category jumping is actual net PLT migration minus recorded net PLT migration. Category jumping is accounted for in the creation of the official population estimates and projections. Estimated net effects of category jumping (between the short-term and long-term categories) between New Zealand’s censuses, in terms of gains (positive) and losses (negative) to the New Zealand resident population, are as follows:
Intercensal Estimated Net Period Category Jumping 1981-86 26,600 1986-91 24,600 1991-96 -9,000 1996-01 18,400 2001-06 58,400
The vast majority of border crossings are short-term visitors. It follows that if short-term migration can be accurately estimated, an accurate estimate of PLT migration can be derived. Because short-term trips involve one arrival and one departure within a 12 month period, the net effect of trips between the beginning and the end of the reference period is zero. Short-term net migration gains or losses in the de facto population at the end points of the reference period results from short-term travellers who have not completed their trips. As noted in Chapter 2, these travellers fall into two broad groups: (1) overseas visitors temporarily in New Zealand (VTN) who have arrived but are yet to depart within the 12 month reference period and (2) New Zealand residents temporarily overseas (RTO) who have departed for a period of less than 12 months but have yet to return.
Differences in the number of RTOs and VTNs at the beginning and end of the reference period are referred to as the 'end-point effect'. For example, if there are 30,000 VTNs and 25,000 RTOs at the beginning of the period and 40,000 VTNs and 40,000 RTOs at the end of the period, unadjusted
102 data would show 10,000 more visitor arrivals than departures and 15,000 more RTO departures than arrivals (a net 5,000 departures). Thus, if the net total migration were 25,000 for the period, the adjusted true net PLT migration would be 30,000.
The calculation of end-points is subject to a number of difficulties. Firstly, both the time of arrival and departure need to be known (to determine when each traveller was in or out of New Zealand at the reference point) and to determine the length of stay. Secondly, the incorrect classing of travellers and category jumping needs to be identified and accounted for. Historically, this has generated significant uncertainties but since September 1997, detailed arrival and departure records which can be matched have resulted in good quality information on who is in and who is out of the country, as well as some ability to verify the classing (as PLT migrants, overseas visitors and NZ residents) using a travel history.
Similarly category jumping can occur throughout the period whenever people arrive as a visitor and depart permanently or long-term, or vice versa. Among the various mechanisms giving rise to category jumping is on-shore approvals. In this case, people arrive as visitors and are accurately and correctly recorded as short-term arrivals. However, they may subsequently be granted permanent or long-term status and this is not reflected in any arrival or departure card data. In other cases, people may arrive and be classed as short-term and depart as a PLT departure.
Births, deaths and migration interact in ways which cannot be ignored when calculating category jumping. For instance, a non-resident baby (under one year of age) born in New Zealand should depart as a visitor (as they will not have resided in New Zealand for 12 months or more) but the baby does not have an arrival registered in the migration records, thus causing an imbalance in net total migration. Similarly, a visitor dying in New Zealand has an arrival record but not a departure record. This process adds approximately 360 departures (births to overseas resident mothers) and 800 arrivals (deaths of visitors in New Zealand) each year.
In summary, to minimise the effect on the population, a de facto population estimate may be derived (from total births, total deaths and net total migration) and then be converted into a resident population by subtracting VTNs and adding RTOs. The error because of the interaction between births, deaths and migration would then be only a few hundred at the most, mainly at age zero. It will occur mainly at age zero because all births are aged zero at some time during the year, while deaths are distributed across all ages. An important caveat is that this error would not accumulate over time, thus distorting estimates of net migration over periods of longer than one year (for example, for intercensal periods or for decades or other arbitrarily defined periods).
103 3
NEW ZEALAND AND ITS DIASPORA
Alan Gamlen
Since the term entered the popular imagination in the late 1990s, the ‘kiwi diaspora’ has been the focus of various debates. The most visible of these surround three questions:
• Is there a New Zealand ‘diaspora’ and, if so, what does it look like?
• Is it an important issue?
• Are current policy responses adequate?
This chapter is divided into three sections, addressing each of these questions in turn. The first section draws on an analysis of the ‘Every One Counts’ survey of New Zealand Expatriates collected by Kea New Zealand in early 2006. The second section outlines why the diaspora is an important policy issue in both prudential and normative political terms. The third section examines how New Zealand relates to its diaspora, drawing on documentary and ethnographic research across eight international locations. The chapter concludes that New Zealand has a substantial ‘diaspora’ although its overall size and durability are uncertain; that the diaspora is an important policy issue in terms of New Zealand’s interests and its obligations; and that current responses are ad hoc rather than coordinated, with inefficient and unfair consequences.
THE NATURE OF THE DIASPORA
Over the past three decades, 45,211 New Zealand citizens departed from New Zealand on a Permanent or Long Term basis (around 870 per week), while only 23,366 (around 450 per week) have arrived.1 As a result, a comparatively large proportion of New Zealanders live abroad. Lower-bound estimates derived from 2000-round census figures range from 459,322 (Bryant and Law, 2004) to 528,597 (Migration DRC, 2007). Scholars estimate that the diaspora population is in the range of 600,000 to 850,000 (Bedford, 2001; Hugo et al., 2003). An upper-bound estimate of 1 million is often cited in media reports (e.g. see Dusevic, 2006). The high variance of estimates is not unique to New Zealand; as an increasing number of origin countries take an interest in their diasporas, there is growing recognition that international data
1 These figures represent Permanent and Long Term migration between 1979 to 2009 (March years). Statistics New Zealand, Infoshare database.
104 collection systems on expatriates are poor (Dumont and Lemaître, 2004; Hugo, 2006). Thus, it is likely that somewhere between one in five to one in seven New Zealanders lives abroad. These figures indicate how many New Zealand- born people live abroad. However, the really important questions are: who identifies and connects with New Zealand from abroad, and why? In other words, what kind of ‘diaspora’ does New Zealand have?
The meaning of the term diaspora has shifted over time and as a result of debate. It derives from the Greek verb speiro (to sow) and the preposition dia (over) (Cohen, 1997: ix), and has etymological links to the Greek ‘diaspeirein’: a scattering of seeds as from a bursting pod (Tölölyan, 1996: 10). Over a period of centuries, it became associated with Jews and thereby with groups who, although forcibly dispersed from their homeland in the past, have maintained real and symbolic institutionalised ties (Tölölyan, 1996: 10).
This limited definition was overhauled from the late 1960s and the term diaspora quickly became inflated, often referring vaguely to ‘that segment of a people living outside the homeland’ (Connor, 1986). This inflation precipitated an extended debate over the main types and distinguishing features of diasporas (see Armstrong, 1976; Marienstras, 1989; Safran, 1991; Cohen, 1995; Cohen, 1996; Vertovec, 1997; Van Hear, 1998; Safran, 1999). Reis (2004) makes a useful distinction between ‘classical’ diaspora theorists who focus on the Jewish archetype and those who discuss diaspora alongside issues of transnationalism and globalisation. Most theorists now see the following characteristics as central to any definition of diaspora (see Butler, 2001; Brubaker, 2005):
1. Dispersion, usually to a minimum of two destinations; 2. Homeland orientation, often expressed through transnational activities; 3. ‘Boundary maintenance’, i.e. the ongoing maintenance of a group identity over a significant period of time.
DATA AND METHODOLOGY
There are two main types of quantitative data on New Zealand expatriates:
1. Census-based estimates aggregated from countries where New Zealand-born expatriates live (Bryant and Law, 2004; Dumont and Lemaître, 2004; Migration DRC, 2007); 2. ‘Snowball’ samples such as the ‘Every One Counts’ survey (EOC) of 18,000 ‘kiwi expatriates’ across 155 countries, conducted by Kea New Zealand in 2006 to coincide with the national census.
105 While census-based estimates provide relatively reliable measurements of expatriates, EOC provides a more valid measure of ‘diaspora’. Census estimates count New Zealand-born expatriates. Birthplace is a statistically reliable (i.e. consistent and repeatable) measure and census data in theory measure every member of the target population (although, in practice, they are known to systematically undercount foreign-born residents; Hugo, 2006). However, birthplace is not a statistically valid measure of ‘diaspora’. A valid measure is one that measures the concept it is supposed to but birthplace is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition of diasporic belonging. Not all New Zealand-born expatriates identify and connect to New Zealand, and some people born outside New Zealand, such as spouses and descendants of expatriates, may strongly identify with New Zealand – particularly those for whom belonging is defined by ancestry, such as Māori.
Because self-ascription to a particular identity is an important aspect of diasporic belonging, self-selected samples such as EOC partially trade off reliability for greater validity. The questionnaire was distributed through an email originating in New Zealand and completed by self-identified ‘New Zealand Expatriates’. Considering its novelty, wealth of accessible demographic detail, and inclusion of unique questions (for example on transnational involvements), EOC constitutes an important source of data on the New Zealand diaspora.
DISPERSION
EOC indicates that New Zealand expatriates are dispersed across more than 150 countries, but concentrated in three main regions: the UK and Ireland (48.9%), the USA (11.6%) and Australia (26.3%). Census-based estimates are distributed differently (Australia 67%, UK and Ireland 11%, and USA 5%), either suggesting selection biases, or that emigrants to Australia do not identify as strongly as emigrants to other regions, particularly the UK and Ireland (see Figure 1; see also Callister, 2006).).
Figure 1 Geographical Distribution of New Zealand Expatriates
ercentage ercentage P
Source: (1) Global Migrant Origin Database, Migration and Development Research Centre, University of Sussex. Accessed 2007; (2) Kea New Zealand, ‘Every One Counts’, 2006. Author’s analysis.
106 Figure 2 Age-Sex Pyramids, New Zealand Residents vs. Expatriates
(1)
(2)
Source: (1) New Zealand Census 2006; (2) Kea New Zealand, ‘Every One Counts’, 2006. Author’s analysis.
Overall, expatriates in the sample differed significantly from the resident New Zealand population in terms of age-sex profile, number of children and skill level. Females outnumbered males in both the resident and expatriate populations but the age distribution of the two populations looked somewhat different (see Figure 2). While residents had a coffin-shaped age- sex profile indicating gradual ageing, expatriates had a ‘spinning top’ profile: virtually all EOC respondents were adults and most were concentrated in the 25-39 age range (either because fewer young people have developed a strong New Zealand expatriate identity or because they were too young to receive and/or fill out the email questionnaire). There were more than 5,000 non- respondent children present in the households of respondents; including these would make the age distribution look considerably younger. The age-sex distribution of the various regional populations differed, with respondents in the UK and Ireland more heavily concentrated in the 25-34 age group than those in other regions. Expatriates were less likely to have children than New Zealand residents (see Figure 3) and more likely to have tertiary qualifications. Bachelor’s degrees were most common everywhere except Australia, where secondary-school qualifications were most common,
107 reflecting the absence of skills-favouring immigration controls between the two countries. There were relatively high proportions of masters and doctorates amongst USA-based respondents, reflecting selective immigration policies, high labour market returns to skills and the presence of many world- leading research institutions in this region.
Figure 3 Number of Children and Highest Qualification, Residents vs Expatriates
(1)
Percentage
(2) Percentage
Source: (1) New Zealand Census 2006; (2) Kea New Zealand, ‘Every One Counts’, 2006. Author’s analysis.
HOMELAND ORIENTATION
Following Snel et al. (2006), it is useful to distinguish between behavioural and ideational orientations towards a homeland, or ‘transnational activities’ (which are discussed in this section) from ‘transnational identifications’ (which are discussed in the next). Transnational activities
108 refer to ‘cross-border activities of an economic, political or socio-cultural nature’, as differentiated from ‘activities aimed at the host country’ (Snel et al., 2006: 289), such as participation in the cultural or social activities of organisations based in the country of residence.
Kea respondents were presented with several lists of cross-border activities and asked to choose the types that they practised. During analysis, these response categories were grouped into three classes: social, economic and civic. Simple additive indices were then created for each type of link (see Figure 4).2 On average, social connections were most dense, followed closely by civic connections and somewhat further back by economic connections.
Figure 4 Expatriates’ Transnational Connections to New Zealand
(1)
0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage
(2)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Percentage
2 ‘Many friends’ responses were weighted more than ‘few friends’, and ‘regular’ media viewing was weighted more than ‘irregular’ media viewing. Each index was multiplied by a coefficient for comparison on a standard scale of one to ten (see Figure 4).
109 (3)
0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage
(4)
Source: Kea New Zealand, ‘Every One Counts’, 2006. Author’s analysis.
Despite strong overall similarities, there were statistically significant variations in patterns of transnational connection among locations. USA-based expatriates had slightly higher average economic and civic connections than those in the UK and Ireland and in Australia (partly, no doubt, due to the higher age and income of respondents there). Respondents in Australia averaged fewer links than those living everywhere else – adding further support to the hypothesis that low response rates in Australia reflect weaker ‘diasporic’ ties to New Zealand.
Connections also differed by gender, age, place of education and time spent in the host country in more or less expected ways. Females maintained slightly higher levels of social connection than males, but slightly lower levels of civic and economic connection, consistent with a traditional ‘patriarchal’ gender divide. Linkages of all types peaked noticeably in the 25-40 age bracket, reflecting the heightened commitments of those in this age group. Social and economic links dropped off steadily above this point but not civic links. Respondents who completed their education outside New Zealand had fewer links, especially in the social and economic categories. All types of linkage tapered off steadily – but not steeply – over time, consistent with assimilationist notions of migrant adaptation.
110 The survey also asked whether expatriates had return plans and, if so, what was the timeframe of these plans. Together, those with definite return plans and those likely to return comprised almost 50 percent of the sample, though the largest single category was undecided (32%). Less than 4 percent definitely planned to stay away. Return plans also differed by location, with those in the USA and Australia substantially less likely to have return plans. The citizenship status of a spouse and children was highly correlated with return plans and with levels of connection. Respondents with a spouse or child(ren) with another citizenship were much less likely to intend to return or remain connected to New Zealand. These responses indicate an ambivalence towards return characteristic of diasporic experience: a ‘myth of return’ (King, 1986: 12-13) that is never relinquished but always deferred (Safran, 1991; Cohen, 1997: 146-48).
Figure 5 Expatriates' Return Inclinations
Plans regarding Children's Citizenship Spouse's Citizenship return to Percentage Percentage All New Zealand NZ Dual Other NZ Dual Other Percentage Will return 26.0 15.1 7.0 36.2 26.6 11.7 22.4 Likely to return 27.7 21 15.8 29.3 25.7 22.8 27.4 Don’t know 29.8 36.8 37.2 23.2 29.4 38.5 32.2 Likely not to return 12.8 21 28.9 9.1 13.3 21.2 14.2 Will not return 3.7 6.1 11.2 2.3 5.1 5.8 3.8 Total observations 2,289 2,788 1,459 4,134 1,889 6,135 17,805
Source: Kea New Zealand, ‘Every One Counts’, 2006, author’s analysis.
These findings suggest that the New Zealand expatriates in this sample are socially and civically engaged with New Zealand but not very economically engaged or strongly inclined to return. However, this may in part be due to the limited range of economic connections measured in EOC. For example, the survey did not ask about remittances to New Zealand despite the fact that, in 2005, the International Organization for Migration (IOM, 2005: 494) reported remittances to New Zealand for the year 2003 at US$1.313 billion (2.24% of New Zealand’s GDP) and, in 2006, the United Nations (UNDESA, 2009: 251) calculated New Zealand’s remittance receipts at 3.1 percent of GDP in 1995 and 1.2 percent in 2004. New Zealand officials have questioned these figures and the definition of remittances on which they are based. Personal correspondence with officials in the Department of Statistics suggests that New Zealand uses a minimalist Balance of Payments (BOP) definition of remittances, which excludes money sent home by permanent and long-term migrants as ‘transfers’. However, notwithstanding ongoing variations in the way countries collect remittance statistics, Carling (2008: 46) notes an increasing tendency to regard ‘remittances’ as the aggregate of three BOP categories: ‘workers’ remittances’, ‘compensation of employees’ and ‘migrants’ transfers’. Such a definition includes transfers sent by the migrant to him or herself, sometimes with considerable delay, as for example when
111 pension funds accrued in one country are transferred to another on retirement (Carling, 2008: 48). Such issues of classification reflect the fact that remittances to New Zealand have not received serious study to date.3
BOUNDARY MAINTENANCE
Current ideas about ethnicity still strongly reflect the influence of Roland Barth who regarded ethnicity as the product of both ‘internal’ and ‘external’ definitions. Internal definition refers to the way that ‘actors signal to in or out-group members a self-definition’, either through an ‘ego-centred, individual process or a collective, group process’. External definition refers to the way ‘one person or a set of persons defines the other(s) as ‘X’, ‘Y’, or whatever’ in a way that either validates the individual’s internal definition or imposes a categorisation onto them (Jenkins, 2003: 60). Two useful approaches to studying boundary maintenance, therefore, are through self- ascribed ethnic identification and measures of integration in the host society.
EOC indicates the existence of a bounded ‘New Zealand Expatriate’ identity, but it is one with porous external borders and strong internal distinctions and its durability is uncertain. The self-selected nature of the EOC sample ensured that respondents all self-identified as ‘Kiwi’ expatriates. However, this was not an exclusive group: ‘friends of New Zealand’ were also invited to complete the survey and around 1 percent of respondents were neither New Zealand citizens nor New Zealand permanent residents. Moreover, expatriates did not constitute a homogeneous group but one characterised by important internal ethnic boundaries.
Expatriates in the sample were broadly similar to the resident population in terms of self-ascribed ethnic identity (see Figure 6).4 European, Māori, Asian, Pacific Peoples, and ‘Other’ were the largest ethnic groups in both EOC and the 2006 Census, and represented roughly similar proportions of both samples (although EOC contained a significantly higher proportion of Europeans and significantly lower proportions of Māori, Asians and Pacific Peoples).5 The composition of these main groups was also comparable; for example, 42 percent of those who identified as Māori in the census population also identified as European (Statistics New Zealand, 2006), compared to around 40 percent of those who identified as Māori in EOC. Similarly, the largest share of the ‘Other’ ethnic group came from those who voluntarily referred to themselves as ‘New Zealander’. These comprised around 11 percent of the New Zealand Census (see Kukutai and Didham, 2007; see
3 Discussion of ‘cultural remittances’ to New Zealand – a term with similar connotations to Levitt’s ‘social remittances’ – can be found in Didham and McGregor’s (2008) work on ‘reverse remittances’. 4 Respondents were allowed to choose more than one ethnic designation and choices were not ranked. 5 In terms of national identity, most respondents were New Zealand citizens by birth (88%), although there were also significant numbers of citizens by descent (5%) and citizens by grant (5%) – that is, first generation migrants to New Zealand who re-emigrated after ‘naturalising’ there. The New Zealand Census does not collect data on citizenship status, so it was not possible to compare these figures with the resident population.
112 Callister and Didham, 2008; Didham and Callister, forthcoming) 6 and 7 percent of EOC respondents, making them the third-largest ethnic group in both samples. New Zealander EOC respondents often wrote a complaint, such as the one below:
Figure 6 Self-Ascribed Ethnicity, New Zealand Residents vs Expatriates
Percentage
Source: (1) Kea New Zealand, Every One Counts 2006; (2) Statistics New Zealand 2006 Census Data - Quick Stats about Culture and Identity, Table 1. Author’s analysis.7
Regarding the NZ Census Ethnicity questions, as an 8th generation New Zealander on both sides, I find it irritating that I have to describe myself as NZ European. There is nothing European about me at all and nor do I have any family connection with Europe. I am a New Zealander - where is that box? Male, aged 34, Australia
Each of the three main ethnic groups in the EOC sample had a significantly different demographic profile. As the largest ethnic group by far, New Zealand Europeans closely approximated the sample mean on most demographic measures. Around 51 percent were female – the same proportion as in the overall sample. Their average age was just under 35.7 years (vs 35.5
6 Around 20,000 people identified as ‘New Zealander’ in the 1986 New Zealand Census. By 2001, the figure had risen to around 89,000 (approx. 2% of the population) and, in 2006, it leapt to around 430,000 (some 11% of the population), partly due to an email protest campaign prior to the census (also see New Zealand Herald, 2009, Apr. 29), http://blogs.nzherald.co.nz/blog/your-views/2009/4/29/should-you-be-able-describe-your self-new-zealander-census-forms/?c_id=1501154&commentpage=5, accessed 25 May 2009; and Easton, Brian, ‘On being Pākehā: Some Thoughts of a New Zealander http://www.eastonbh.ac.nz/?p=685. 7 Multiple ethnic choices are allowed, so totals exceed 100 percent. Not all groups coded in the 2006 Census are included here. The ‘Other’ category in EOC includes groups that have been coded into other groups in the 2006 Census output. For example, ‘European’ in the Census output includes ‘New Zealand European’ and ‘Other: European’, while the latter remain coded as ‘Other’ in the analysis of EOC presented here.
113 overall) and, on average, they had 2.2 children each (vs 2.5 overall). Over 62 percent had a bachelor’s degree or above (the same proportion as in the overall sample). By contrast, Māori and New Zealanders were both demographically distinct. Both groups were younger than New Zealand Europeans – especially New Zealanders, at an average age of just 33.1 years, while the average age for Māori was 34.8 years. New Zealanders had similar education levels to New Zealand Europeans (62% bachelor’s degree or above), but they were more likely to be male (55%) and to have fewer children (1.6). Māori were significantly less educated than New Zealand Europeans (41% bachelor’s degree or above), and they were more likely to be female (56%) and to have more children (2.7).
Region and ethnicity were highly correlated: over 51 percent of New Zealanders lived in the UK and Ireland, 44 percent of New Zealand Europeans, and only 31 percent of Māori (vs. 43% of the overall sample). Conversely, 44 percent Māori lived in Australia but only 26 percent of New Zealand Europeans and 20 percent of New Zealanders lived there (vs 26% overall). These findings interestingly complement Kukutai and Didham’s (2007) observation that the ‘New Zealander’ identity in the 2006 Census of New Zealand residents was ‘especially appealing to middle aged men residing in the South Island’. EOC suggests that New Zealander identity also has a younger, more cosmopolitan face, appealing particularly to young, university-educated males in the UK and Ireland.
Figure 7 Length of Residence in Host Country
Kiwi ExpatriatesNew Zealandby Length Expatriates of Residence by by Main Regions Length of Residence by KeaMain 2006 Regions, Kea 2006 UK & Ireland USA 20 15 10 5 0 Australia Rest of world 20 Percentage 15 10 5 0 r y s s yr s rs yrs yrs yrs 1 yrs y yrs <1 -3yrs 5 0 0 < -2yrs -5yrs 0 0 1-2yr 2 3-5yr -10yrs -2 3 1 2-3yr 3 -15 6 6 > 6-1 1 1-3 >30yrs 11-1 1 21-30yrs 1 16-20yrs2 Time in host country Graphs by main kiwi expatriate locations Time in host country
Source: (1) New Zealand Census 2006; (2) Kea New Zealand, ‘Every One Counts’, 2006. Author’s analysis.
114 Different measures of integration in the host country told different stories. On one hand, roughly half had a local-citizen spouse and roughly a quarter had at least one local-citizen child. The median pay category was NZ$70-100,000, around three times the national median of NZ$24,400 for people over the age of 15. However, only a third of respondents lived in their own home (compared with 55% of the resident New Zealand population; Statistics New Zealand, 2007) and only around a quarter held local citizenship. Around a fifth of respondents were locally educated.8 These factors of integration were strongly related to settlement time. The median period of time spent in the country of residence was 3-5 years. Respondents in Australia and the USA reported longer periods in residence than those in the rest of the world (see Figure 7).
DURABILITY OF IDENTITIES
Theorists generally agree that diasporas are characterised by the maintenance of group boundaries over a substantial period of time (Cohen, 1997; Butler, 2001; Brubaker, 2005). Research on ‘second generation’ migrants is a particularly important field within studies of transnationalism, but there is little data on the New Zealand case. Kea can help to fill this gap.
Firstly, the sample includes at least two potential second-generation groups: those who inherited citizenship from a parent (New Zealanders by descent), who comprised 4.8 percent of the sample, and ‘child-aged New Zealanders’ who did not fill in the survey but were indicated by the respondent to be present in the same household. No doubt many of the latter are respondents’ children but, because they did not fill in the survey, it is not certain that they self-identify as New Zealand expatriates – no matter how much their parents might want them to. Many may not retain New Zealand identity into adulthood. Notwithstanding these issues, including non- respondent children yields an upper-bound estimate of 5,153 second- generation New Zealanders – almost 18 percent of all those reached by the survey.
Secondly, probit regression models indicate that Māori identity persists longer than New Zealander identity among expatriates (see Table 8). After controlling for a wide range of variables including demographic characteristics, factors of integration and region of residence, the longer the respondent had been in the residence country, the less likely they were to identify as a New Zealander and the more likely they were to identify as Māori. Examining the interrelation of settlement factors (such as age, number
8 ‘Local citizens’ are defined as those who indicated a second citizenship corresponding to their region of residence. Those who received their highest qualification outside New Zealand are assumed to have obtained it in the country of residence. Where spouses and/or children are indicated as dual New Zealand or ‘Other’ citizens, it is assumed that their second or other citizenship is that of the region of residence. Pay is measured in 2006 New Zealand dollars.
115 of children and time in residence) shows that respondents who were more settled (older with more children) were less likely to identify as New Zealanders, and that they were more settled because they had been in the country for longer (columns 2-4).
The persistence and intensification of Māori identity over time is less easily explained by the EOC results alone. There are at least two possible explanations, which have to do with the timing of migration and the self-other defined character of ethnic identity.
Firstly, the apparent persistence of Māori identity may be a cohort effect: Māori may have formed a larger proportion of earlier departure cohorts, resulting in a relatively large proportion of Māori who have been abroad for longer. It is not possible to verify this hypothesis with reference to EOC data alone because it lacks a longitudinal component. It is not possible to distinguish age and cohort effects using cross-sectional data. However, the results of other studies tend to discount this hypothesis. For example, Hamer (2007: 41-42) found that Māori emigration rates to Australia between 1956 and 2006 ‘largely match known trends’. Indeed, to the extent that there were differences, Māori ‘were slower to join the 1970s exodus than other New Zealanders’.
An alternative explanation for the persistence and intensification of Māori identity over time relates to the way ethnicity arises through a combination of ‘internal’ and ‘external’ definitions (Barth, 1969). On one hand, the internally defined characteristics of Māori identity are more likely to persist through time and dispersion to some overseas regions. Whereas New Zealand nationality – as expressed in New Zealand citizenship law – has a ‘civic’ bias, emphasising residence over ancestry criteria for membership, Māori identity has an ‘ethnic’ bias, emphasising characteristics such as whanau (extended family), hapu (kinship group), iwi (tribe), and whakapapa (ancestry) as membership criteria. Such criteria are relatively durable over time and distance. On the other hand, the externally defined characteristics of Māori identity are also more likely than those of New Zealander identity to persist over time and thereby reinforce self-definition processes. To the extent that Māori identity carries phenotypical markers, it is possible that racism plays a part in this persistence and intensification. That is, while ‘white’ expatriates may gradually ‘melt in’ (as one New Zealand official posted offshore put it), ‘brown’ expatriates may become gradually more aware that they ‘stand out’. The impact of region of residence is consistent with this interpretation: residence in Australia and North America strongly increased the likelihood of identifying as Māori and strongly decreased the likelihood of identifying as a New Zealander. Both are regions where a racial divide between a dominant ‘white’ group and a disadvantaged ‘black’ group remains a particularly strong social cleavage and it seems likely that, in these contexts, some Māori may seen by others as being ‘black’.
116 Table 8 Probit Regressions on Māori and New Zealander Ethnicity
Coefficients (probit regression) Māori (8% of New Zealander (7% of sample) Predictors sample) 1 2 3 4 Without Age Without With Age or Time Time and Time Sex (binary, 0=male) 0.094 ** *** *** -0.191 *** Number of children 0.162 *** 0 169 *** 0 180 N/S Age (years) -0.017 *** excluded0 058 N/S *** N/S Time in the residence 0 009 country 0.035 *** excluded excluded -0.060 Lives in own home (binary) -0.143 *** N/S Income (2006 NZ$) -0.011 * N/S N/S N/S N/S N/S Place of highest education (binary, 0=in NZ) N/S -0.244 *** -0.237 *** -0.176 *** Qualifications (compared to ‘Secondary school only’) Undergraduate -0.280 *** N/S Postgraduate -0.551 *** N/S N/S N/S Citizenship (compared to NZ citizen by birth or descent)N/S N/S NZ citizen by grant or permanent resident -1.276 *** -0.400 *** -0.389 *** -0.428 *** Holds local citizenship (binary) -0.082 *** -0.094 *** -0.084 *** -0.059 ** Spouse’s citizenship (compared to those not in a relationship) NZ citizen or dual NZ citizen 0.169 *** N/S N/S N/S Non-NZ citizen 0.077 * N/S Region of residence (compared to UK & Ireland) N/S N/S Australia 0.334 *** *** *** -0.158 *** USA & Canada 0.131 * 0 180 * 0 166 * -0.108 * Asia N/S 0 119 0 098 N/S Europe & Central Asia N/S N/S N/S N/S Other regions N/S N/S N/S N/S Constant -0.893 *** N/S *** N/S *** -0.964 *** Number of observations: 15,427 1 246 0 976 15,530 Pseudo R-squared: 0.07 0.04 Significance levels: *p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001. N/S:003 variable included003 in regression, but result not significant. Description: In these regressions, the variables in the left-hand column predict the likelihood of identifying as Māori (column 1) or as New Zealander (columns 2-4) compared with the likelihood of identifying as any other ethnic group.
Source: Kea New Zealand, ‘Every One Counts’, 2006. Author’s analysis.
117 WHY THE DIASPORA MATTERS
Although unlikely to become a first-order policy issue, the New Zealand diaspora is important in terms of New Zealand’s interests and its obligations, and for these reasons, ought to be dealt with in coherent fashion by New Zealand government institutions.
Firstly, the diaspora represents both an opportunity and an imperative for New Zealand to adapt to increasing globalisation. On one hand, large-scale emigration and the formation of a diaspora present specific costs and challenges that New Zealand needs to meet. Large surges of New Zealand- citizen emigration over the past three decades have not been offset by a steady trickle of returnees, and it is dubious to posit new ‘replacement’ migrants as perfect substitutes for those who leave (Nichol, 2000; Bedford, 2001). There is an inevitable churning cost involved in exporting people with localised social, cultural and human capital and replacing them with people whose social, cultural and human capital are specific to another location. This cost is particularly high at the specialised end of the skill spectrum. At the other end of the skills spectrum, although emigration may provide a ‘safety valve’ for problems of unemployment and declining living standards, it does not remove the imperative to find real solutions to such problems. These problems cannot be reduced to measures of GDP per capita, nor solved by economic growth alone. They are also related to problems with public education, health and welfare and to patterns of discrimination within New Zealand communities. In an increasingly interconnected world, such problems tend not to just ‘go away’, even if those who are most disadvantaged move to another place. Dealing with the diaspora in a more coherent fashion is one part of addressing systemic failures that contribute to particularly high emigration pressures among certain groups in the first place. On the other hand, there is a growing feeling of optimism amongst academic researchers and international policy makers regarding potential positive side-effects of emigration, which may offset its costs provided certain conditions are met (see Nyberg-Sorensen et al., 2002; Newland, 2007; Faist, 2008). There is also increasing recognition that one of these necessary conditions is to ensure that emigrants either return or remain positively engaged in developing their homelands from afar ( see Portes, 2009). In this sense, the diaspora is a cloud with a silver lining: it represents both a loss that must be faced up to and a valuable resource to be cultivated. From either perspective, it is important enough to warrant coherent, efficient policy approaches.
Secondly, diasporic New Zealanders – or at least significant proportions of them – remain ‘stakeholders’ (Bauböck, 2008) in New Zealand society and, to this extent, deserve fair treatment at the hands of the New Zealand institutions they interact with, particularly where this interaction involves an involuntary component. The personal life circumstances of many New Zealand expatriates tie them to New Zealand – whether because they grew up and were educated there, maintain family or other interests there, intend to
118 return, or live abroad according to restrictions imposed by their New Zealand citizenship. On one hand, it is unfair to arbitrarily penalise people for living abroad – for example, by allowing their overseas welfare entitlements to be withdrawn because it provides a disincentive to emigration, by arbitrarily discounting their pension entitlements, or by delivering consular service in arbitrarily different ways in different locations. Yet, as is discussed further below, New Zealand does all of these things – not so much by intention, but by default, through an ad hoc range of institutions and practices that have come into being at different times for different reasons. On the other hand, it is imprudent to exhort expatriates to make contributions to New Zealand at the same time as disregarding them in this way. Both the injustice and imprudence of an arbitrary approach to expatriates point to the need for greater coordination and coherence among the various policies that impact on the diaspora. Although governments have, to date, managed to avoid major efforts of this kind, if the significance of overseas voting continues to increase at the current rate, future governments may face increasing pressure for reform from expatriate electors and interest groups.
CURRENT POLICY
Any ‘domestic’ programme that applies to a non-resident population carries the assumption that those affected are in some sense members of the origin society, with some degree of incumbent privileges and responsibilities. It is therefore useful to think of any state’s relationship with its diaspora as having two basic components: diaspora building and diaspora integration (Gamlen, 2006; Gamlen, 2008; Gamlen, 2009a; Gamlen, 2009b). Diaspora building measures include efforts to constitute and recognise diaspora communities, for example through awards, celebrations, media and educational outreach, special ID cards, consular programmes, and dedicated bureaucratic units. Diaspora integration measures include privileges such as a tolerance of dual citizenship, external electoral provisions, welfare portability regimes and double taxation agreements. They also include informal ‘extractive’ initiatives such as encouraging diaspora remittances, investments, professional network formation and lobbying initiatives.
Collectively, it is useful to think of these mechanisms as forming an ‘emigration state system’ (Gamlen, 2008), which is configured differently in different states. Most states interact with their diasporas through an ad hoc collection of mechanisms that have come into being at different times, for different reasons. Their ad hoc and unplanned nature makes them susceptible to inefficiencies and injustices. An increasing number of governments are trying to reduce these inefficiencies and injustices and to maximise strategic gains by coordinating their approach to relations with the diaspora. However, as demonstrated below, New Zealand’s ‘emigration state system’ remains uncoordinated. This discussion draws on an analysis of media reports and official documents obtained under New Zealand’s Official Information Act, as well as over 190 interviews with policymakers, business leaders and migrants,
119 carried out periodically since 2004 in eight main locations: London, Sydney, Paris, Tokyo, Osaka, Shanghai, Wellington and Auckland.
DIASPORA BUILDING
Most offshore New Zealand government postings have evolved various activities to cultivate and recognise national identity among expatriates, including symbolic, logistical and financial support for offshore national celebrations such as Waitangi Day and Anzac Day, the provision of public space, and the dedication of official time for migrant associational activities. In practice, the level of such engagement depends on an ‘ad hoc, evolutionary’ (to quote one senior diplomat) combination of available resources (based on current and historical diplomatic priorities), size and level of organisation of the local expatriate population and – crucially – the personal enthusiasm of individual officials (particularly the head of the posting). Many expatriates and officials expressed frustration at the ad hoc and often fickle way in which consular posts related to expatriates. As one expatriate businessman in a European city put it:
It should ultimately not depend on the changing ambassador or the changing staff, it should be a policy…. if they want to get something back for it then they’ve got to put something in…. [It should not] be dependent on a friendly ambassador and a cold ambassador and temporary people.9
These arrangements at the point of service delivery are somewhat removed from relatively recent diaspora initiatives of successive Labour-led coalition governments between 1999 and 2008. However, as the following discussion shows, these initiatives were also disjointed and characterised by unfocused objectives, inconsistent political will and uncoordinated bureaucratic responses.
Most of the diaspora initiatives that emerged between 1999 and 2008 have their origins in the government’s Growth and Innovation Framework (GIF) (Office of the Prime Minister, 2002). Announced in February 2002 after extensive consultation with private-sector stakeholders – amongst whom a number of expatriates were prominent – GIF articulated a strategic vision of arresting New Zealand’s long-term economic slide since preferential trading terms with Britain came to an end in the early 1970s. The framework came out of what one of its writers described as a ‘stew’ of influences, the most important of which were reports from the Science and Innovation Advisory Council on Innovation (SIAC) (Science and Innovation Advisory Council, 2002), from the Boston Consulting Group on foreign direct investment (Boston Consulting Group, 2001) and LEK Consulting on talent strategies (L.E.K Consulting, 2001). The Knowledge Wave Conference in 2001 – in which the
9 Anonymous interview with author.
120 potential use of the diaspora as ambassadors and/or sources of information were particularly prominent – ‘played a catalytic role’ in bringing these and other influences together around four strategic themes: enhancing New Zealand’s innovation system; developing skills and talent; increasing global connectedness; and focusing government’s resources (Office of the Prime Minister, 2002).
The idea of ‘harnessing’ or ‘engaging’ the diaspora became a prominent theme in discussions surrounding the Growth and Innovation Framework. The idea seems to have been introduced first by members of a ‘ginger group’ of new-generation business leaders whom the new Labour-led Government began to court in a ‘smoked salmon offensive’ (Laugeson, 2000; O’Sullivan, 2000), culminating in the Knowledge Wave Conference of 2001. Prominent among these were Microsoft CFO Chris Liddell and McKinsey and Company Director Andrew Grant. Grant explained how he, Liddell and others had put the case to Cabinet ministers that, ‘we’re just not proactive enough around the New Zealand diaspora’.10 As Liddell explained, their case was as follows:
… there’s out to a million [expatriates] outside of New Zealand, and a reasonable proportion of those still have an interest in New Zealand. Generally speaking they’re all reasonably talented people, reasonably wealthy to some degree – they represent a ... resource ... an asset for New Zealand if you like, which is reasonably intelligent and got some resources and they’re willing to contribute to New Zealand. They’re also not a drain on New Zealand, so it’s a relatively free resource which could have a relatively high impact if focused in the right fashion.11
From here, the idea of ‘harnessing the diaspora’ seeped into the rhetoric of Ministers such as Jim Anderton, who later declared:
I believe that New Zealanders, wherever they are in the world, are always New Zealanders. They retain a commitment to their homeland and identify themselves as New Zealanders. We need to network and keep our people contributing. I can see New Zealand as a nation with, in at least one sense, no frontiers (Anderton, 2001) .
This optimistic attempt to rethink ‘brain drain’ as ‘brain gain’ precipitated two initiatives: the World Class New Zealand Programme headed by the Ministry of Economic Development’s operational arm, New Zealand Trade and Enterprise, and government support for Kea New Zealand (short for Kiwi Expats Association).
10 Interview with the author. 11 Interview with the author.
121 Initially funded at $2.25 million per annum, the first of these two initiatives – the World Class New Zealand Programme – had two main platforms: a business growth service set alongside funding for international business exchanges, and a network and awards scheme for ‘World Class New Zealanders’. The exchanges involved funding and facilitating visits between expatriates and New Zealand firms. These aimed to facilitate the transfer of international best practices into New Zealand and to accelerate the internationalisation of New Zealand firms. The awards ceremony aimed to celebrate prominent expatriates and other high-flying New Zealanders, and the network aimed to link this top tier of expatriates and ‘friends of New Zealand’ with a view to enhancing their engagement with and contribution to the country. Although the exchanges were soon found to have underperformed and were cut from the budget, the awards and the network continued to expand.
Prior to 2007, the second of the two initiatives – Kea New Zealand – was largely supported by the financial contributions of its private-sector founders. Government’s involvement was largely opportunistic. In 2005, as part of the World Class New Zealand programme, Kea was contracted to provide a sub- portal of high-profile experts within its database and to deliver the World Class New Zealand Awards. The Foundation for Research, Science and Technology provided funding to help Kea develop its website and various other agencies had informal or small-scale project-based relationships with Kea. In 2007, however, Kea secured around $2 million over three years to employ regional managers in key markets. To that point, Kea had received around $2.4m in government grants for infrastructure, mainly through the Ministry of Economic Development, in addition to a total of around $1m in connection with World Class New Zealand.
Kea has spearheaded several diaspora building initiatives, particularly the World Class New Zealand Network and Awards. Established in response to calls for a greater celebration of New Zealand ‘talent’, the awards mark a rhetorical shift from treating all expatriates as unpatriotic deserters to hailing transnational elites as national heroes – the same shift that has been highlighted in many states attempting to engage ‘their’ diasporas (e.g. see Martinez-Saldana, 2003; Nyiri, 2004; De Haas, 2007; Bakewell, 2008: 289-90; Castles, 2008: 271). Kea has worked to constitute new diasporic groups and networks. Kea’s worldwide network of membership chapters and its online database have been particularly central to the constitutive aspect of its work. Kea’s first chapter started in California, near founder and Berkeley Professor David Teece and Silicon Valley. By 2009, there were chapters in Brisbane, Melbourne, Sydney, China, France, Hong Kong, Ireland, Korea, Los Angeles, the Middle East, the Netherlands, New England, New York, San Francisco, Singapore, South Africa, Toronto, the United Kingdom, Washington and in the South Island of New Zealand itself. Several of these chapters were arranged loosely under region-wide umbrella networks for Australia and North America, and a number were headed by paid regional managers with funding from the
122 Ministry of Economic Development and a patchwork of private-sector sponsors. Kea was also responsible for the ‘Every One Counts’ survey, which aimed to build the organisation’s own database as well as providing data for diaspora researchers.
However, notwithstanding MED’s proactive and reactive initiatives, New Zealand’s overall policy approach to the diaspora remains ‘very dispersed’ (as one prime-ministerial advisor put it).12 Indeed, the new initiatives were comparatively small and time-limited, their bureaucratic implementation was relatively uncoordinated, and the wider messages they were designed to convey often came across as unfocused.
Firstly, despite grand rhetoric, the Ministry of Economic Development’s investments in ‘harnessing the diaspora’ were relatively small and piecemeal by comparison with these return and retention efforts in other areas of government. For example, the Department of Labour commenced a three-year ‘Expatriates Programme’ in 2005 aimed at enticing expatriates home using a range of marketing techniques. Though only allocated the modest sum of around $3 million over three years, the Programme was unprecedented insofar as, unlike other migration-related programmes in the Department of Labour, it was funded by Treasury rather than through Immigration Service fees. Moreover, the programme was aligned with two fiscal return incentives: a five-year tax holiday on foreign income sources for returning long-term expatriates, and a full interest write-off on student loans for New Zealand residents which came with a ‘fresh start’ amnesty on missed-repayment penalties for overseas borrowers. Administrative and operating costs for the tax holiday were costed at approximately $1.1m in year one and $330,000 thereafter, and annual fiscal costs were estimated at $10-13 million. The amnesty came with an estimated net fiscal cost of $15 million per annum. The Ministry of Economic Development’s investments of around three million (detailed above) were thus dwarfed even before taking into account the biggest return and retention initiative: an interest-free student loan policy, announced as an election campaign sweetener in 2005, costed at around $300 million per annum.
Secondly, bureaucratic efforts to implement the idea of ‘harnessing the diaspora’ were uncoordinated and often conflicting. Attempts to institute an interdepartmental working group on diaspora policy dissipated quickly and no single department or agency was given overall responsibility for policy coherence. As a result, there were overlaps and conflicts, particularly between the Department of Labour’s Expatriates’ Programme and the Ministry of Economic Development’s investments in Kea and the World Class New Zealand Programme. Official documents show that the Department of Labour tried to block the Ministry of Economic Development’s burgeoning engagements with Kea, while Kea called for a debate over the aims of the
12 Anonymous interview with the author.
123 Expatriates Programme as soon as it was launched. Both camps set up websites with overlapping content.
Finally – and partly as a result of the scale of investments and the nature of their implementation – the overall message conveyed by the initiatives often lacked consistency and coherence. On the one hand, there was a high-level attitude that emigrants had abandoned New Zealand and that the diaspora was a problem to be fixed through massive investments such as an interest-free student loan policy. On the other hand, there were high-level statements about ‘engaging’ and ‘harnessing’ the diaspora. The tension between these two stances was nowhere more evident than in comments by the Prime Minister, Helen Clark, and Deputy Prime Minister, Jim Anderton, in 2000 and 2001. Clark commented that New Zealanders in Australia, who were about to be stripped of all welfare entitlements, had ‘turned their backs’ on New Zealand and ‘should not get a bean’ (Alley, 2000). Meanwhile, Anderton soon declared, ‘I believe that New Zealanders, wherever they are in the world, are always New Zealanders’. These two messages were not well integrated and often came across as finger-wagging reminders of a neglected duty to New Zealand, which were met with an understandably cynical response. For example, when the Expatriates Programme was announced, the New Zealand Herald reported one expatriate complaining, ‘That sense of loyalty has gone for many of us…. We’ve been chased away by low salaries, higher taxation and crippling student loans, and feel a bit cynical when the cry to return is shouted from the rooftops’ (New Zealand Herald, 2005).
DIASPORA INTEGRATION
The term diaspora integration refers to the ways in which government institutions in the home country extend more or less formal rights and obligations to emigrants and their descendants.
(i) Extracting Obligations Although governments generally lack strong extra-territorial coercive powers, there are some formal and informal mechanisms and techniques for extracting obligations from expatriates. For example, it is possible to remain ‘tax resident’ while being based abroad for a significant proportion of one’s time. Because a person can be deemed tax resident in more than one country simultaneously, a bilateral agreement is needed in order to decide which country’s tax claims take precedence and to prevent ‘double taxation’. New Zealand has 35 double taxation agreements, negotiated since the 1960s – although the bulk of the agreements were signed in the 1980s, during New Zealand’s abrupt neoliberal re-opening to the world.
In some cases, social enforcement techniques – such as appeals to patriotic, civic and familial virtues – partially substitute for coercive techniques. For example, New Zealand’s Ministry of Economic Development’s recent diaspora initiatives have been based around efforts to leverage
124 expatriates’ feelings of patriotic and filial duty toward kith and kin. On one hand, in the lead-up to the Knowledge Wave Conference in 2001, some Government Ministers appealed to a sense of neglected patriotic duty among expatriates. For example, Economic Development Minister, Jim Anderton, announced:
… we have been looking at ways to ensure that the talent and skills of New Zealanders are not lost to us. In some cases the best and the brightest have left, many, of course, to return later, but in the meantime we are not getting the advantages of their knowledge and experience…. I believe that New Zealanders, wherever they are in the world, are always New Zealanders. They retain a commitment to their homeland and identify themselves as New Zealanders. We need to network and keep our people contributing. I can see New Zealand as a nation with, in at least one sense, no frontiers (Anderton, 2001).
On the other hand, Government Ministers appealed to a sense of neglected family obligations among expatriates. Amidst increasing concerns about who would care for retired returnees, for emigrants’ dependant parents, and for their grandchildren (Lunt et al., 2006: 30-35)13 – particularly in an ageing population (Bedford et al., 2003: 61), some government ministers began to target ‘families here [in New Zealand] – particularly grandparents – to encourage their offspring to return’.14
Such techniques for tapping into the economic, social, human and cultural capital of expatriates became increasingly of interest to policy makers, politicians and business-people in New Zealand under Labour-led coalitions between 1999 and 2008. However, as the next section demonstrates, this preoccupation with ‘what the diaspora can offer’ (to paraphrase one senior policy analyst)15 has not been balanced by an understanding of – or even an interest in – what the diaspora wants or needs.
(ii) Extending Rights New Zealand extends political and social rights to expatriates through an ad hoc range of mechanisms – particularly external voting rights, consular service and social security portability provisions. This section briefly describes these mechanisms and discusses their consequences.
13 I am grateful to Dr. Sally Keeling for sharing her insights surrounding the linkage between these issues. Also see ‘Skilled Ambassadors or Brain Drain? New Zealand’s Diaspora in an Ageing Population’, IPS Seminar, 20 March 2007, Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington. 14 Immigration Minister Paul Swain paraphrased in New Zealand Herald (2005), ‘Kiwis come home please’, 12 March. 15 Anonymous interview with the author.
125 (a) Social Rights Social rights of varying thicknesses are extended to expatriates through consular service and social security portability provisions, including international social security agreements. Consular relations are governed by Article 5 of the Vienna Convention 1963 (United Nations, 1963), which names several essential functions specifically: issuing passports and travel documents to nationals of the sending state, acting as notary and civil registrar, safeguarding the interests of nationals in matters of inheritance, protecting unaccompanied minors of the sending country, and arranging appropriate legal representation for nationals where needed.
Discretionary consular activities are not consistent across New Zealand consular postings. The contrast between London and Sydney – the two major expatriate centres – illustrate this. New Zealand House, the seat of the New Zealand High Commission in London, has operated as the focal point of London’s New Zealand expatriate community for almost a century. Thirty or so clubs and societies hold meetings and events there; its penthouse suite is the closest thing the local expatriate community has to a town square. The High Commission’s website hosts a dense, interactive web of links that connects deep into expatriate networks and provides a broad and up-to-date range of informational resources. A full-time Public Diplomacy Officer dedicates a significant portion of time to interaction with various expatriate groups and many other officials are active in the governance of local clubs and societies. By contrast, the Sydney Consulate-General is equipped to provide essential consular services only, details of which form the content of its basic website section on New Zealanders in Australia. The government delegation there is more fragmented, meeting less regularly on a formal and informal basis, and its offices lack space for expatriate community activities. Its role in local governance does not seem to extend beyond the personal, out-of-hours interests of a few employees.
New Zealand has healthcare portability agreements with the UK and Australia, deriving from its longstanding colonial and migration linkages with both countries. However, its broader social security agreement with Australia has been progressively tightened in recent years, owing primarily to concerns on the Australian side about the increasing imbalance between large flows from New Zealand to Australia and comparatively small flows in the opposite direction. These concerns came to a head in the first years of the new millennium when New Zealand refused to contribute more towards the social security payments of New Zealanders in Australia. As a consequence, Australia made eligibility for social security payments contingent on permanent residence (Birrell and Rapson, 2001; Bedford et al., 2003; Sanderson, 2009). Free migration between the two countries would continue, as would the social security entitlements of Australians in New Zealand. However, low-skilled New Zealanders emigrating across the Tasman might now end up in the precarious position of having residence rights without citizenship rights.
126 New Zealand maintains a range of provisions regarding overseas payment of New Zealand pension entitlements and payment of overseas entitlements into New Zealand. Firstly, overseas payment has been possible since the 1990s through ‘General Portability’, whereby one can receive 50 percent of New Zealand Superannuation entitlement in any country. The 50 percent reduction was made to account for the lack of New Zealand taxation and a means-tested surcharge on overseas payments. The domestic surcharge was abolished in 1998 but the reduction on portable payments remains in place. New Zealand Superannuation is also portable to Pacific Island countries through the more accommodating ‘Special Portability’ provision, primarily for Pacific peoples returning ‘home’. This was originally designed to acknowledge New Zealand’s special relationship with three Pacific states but has now been extended to 22.
A seven year review of pension portability provisions concluded in 2008 was initially scathing. The Ministry of Social Development officials found them to be ‘out of date and inequitable.... [and] significantly out of step with ... other countries overseas’. They also involved ‘considerable administrative problems’ (Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Social Development and Employment, 2004:10). These issues were a result of the provisions having ‘developed in an ad hoc manner in response to specific pressures’ (Ministry of Social Development (2003:7) ‘with the system as a whole never having been reviewed’ (Ministry of Social Development, (2003:3). Arrangements had undergone ‘various policy changes which have not only made them depart from their original principles, but have also made them inconsistent with one another’ (Ministry of Social Development, 2003:8). A series of internal reports developed a package of reforms that they claimed ‘achieves equity’, ‘provides a single portability system’, ‘is simple to administer, resolving existing administration difficulties’, ‘generates significant savings for Government’ (NZ$230 million per year by 2010/11), ‘establishes genuine cost-sharing between New Zealand and other countries’, ‘assists New Zealand to negotiate social security agreements with other countries’, ‘resolves obstacles to [a] US social security agreement and portability of US benefits’, ‘better facilitates inbound and outbound migration flows’ and ‘is fiscally acceptable to Government’ (Minister of Finance, Ministry of Social Development and Employment, 2004). However, the final report from the Minister of Social Development in 2008 rejected these proposals on the grounds that the existing arrangements were favourable to lifelong New Zealand residents and that those negatively affected constituted only 10 percent of all superannuitants. The existing arbitrary system has been justified to the extent that it maintains the philosophy that ‘once a person left New Zealand’s shores they are not New Zealand’s concern’ (Ministry of Social Development, 2003:3). According to one senior official, the general attitude towards expatriates regarding pensions and welfare more generally was ‘goodbye and good luck – and shouldn’t we wash our hands of them’.
127 (b) Political Rights An attitude of disregarding expatriates’ entitlements may not be indefinitely sustainable if current trends in overseas voting continue. New Zealand has similar external voting rights to many other countries. Special provisions were made during both world wars to allow voting by overseas military personnel. The Electoral Act 1956 extended the same rights to civilians in peacetime (see Atkinson, 2003: 166-67). Since 1975, the voting franchise has included all citizens and permanent residents who have visited the country in the past three or one years respectively. New Zealand operates the same external electoral system as most countries: expatriates vote as if they were still resident within their last electorate of residence in New Zealand (rather than, for example, voting in a designated electorate, or having to return to vote; Collyer and Vathi, 2007).
New Zealand’s overseas votes have expanded in periods of globalisation (see Figure 8), during which time they have had three main types of impact: direct swings, interregnums and self-fuelling effects. A direct swing occurs when the overseas votes, counted in the days and weeks after the election, overturns the election-night result. Interregnums occur when the final results are unclear during the wait for the overseas vote count and this has an effect on coalition bargaining. Self-fuelling effects occur when the perceived importance of the overseas votes encourages overseas campaigning, thereby drawing in more overseas voters and increasing their actual importance.
The overseas votes caused direct swings during both world wars. After a hiatus in overseas voting – during the cold-war period when most of the cross border flows characterising globalisation were at an ebb – direct swings appeared to occur in 1993 and 1999. In actuality, however, interregnum and self-fuelling effects were more important in these instances. Election night 1993 ended in a hung parliament, with the balance of power split between two minority parties. Nevertheless, the incumbent National Government feared they would both go over to the Opposition, with which they shared a ‘change’ agenda. Seeking to avoid this result at all costs, National offered compromises on core policy, ditching unpopular Finance Minister Ruth Richardson and placing a question-mark over their flagship Employment Contracts Act. It must have chafed when the overseas and special votes gave National a clear majority, revealing that no bargaining had actually been necessary. Although the overseas votes do not appear to have directly swung the results, they created an interregnum during which the formation of the government was impacted by distortions in the bargaining power of the political parties.
Similarly, in 1999, the Green Party long maintained, mistakenly, that the overseas votes had swung it into parliament too late to enter the coalition government. The coalition had been formed by agreement before the special votes had been tallied, at which time the Greens had no parliamentary seats. After the Specials were counted, however, the Greens leapt to seven seats. As
128 Party co-leader Rod Donald (2000: 56) remembered it, ‘the overseas special votes ... guaranteed us our seventh seat.’ Moreover, as Boston (2000: 252) notes, the Greens seemed ‘plainly frustrated’ that they had been excluded from coalition negotiations by what one commentator called an ‘accident of history’ (Armstrong, 1999). However, this ‘late arrival’ narrative does not stand up to closer examination. Firstly, although the special votes as a whole did swing the result in the Greens’ favour, analysis of the data shows that the overseas votes themselves did not significantly impact on their percentage independently. Secondly, it is not certain that a coalition among Labour, the Alliance and the Greens would have eventuated in any case (Boston, 2000).However, the ‘late arrival’ narrative stuck, fuelling the impression of the overseas votes as an important constituency.
Figure 9 New Zealand’s Overseas Votes and Total Votes, 1914-2008
Symbols Key: †: Estimated overseas military. *: Liquor Licensing Referendum. p: Party vote.
Source: Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives of New Zealand. Author’s analysis.
This impression fed into the campaign strategies of the parties in future elections, encouraging a marked increase in overseas campaigning. In addition to the ‘self-fuelling effect’ of the overseas votes in previous elections, key factors in this increase have been the rise of the internet (journalist Fran O’Sullivan, 2002, referred to 2002 as an ‘e-lection’), and the increasing political organisation of expatriate communities. Kea New Zealand’s ‘Every Vote Counts’ enrolment campaign of 2008 was particularly notable in this respect and substantially increased overseas voter enrolments on previous years. This, in turn, has drawn new voters into the electoral process (Oliver, 2008), thereby increasing the actual importance of the overseas votes as a
129 whole. In 2008, the overseas vote was at its highest peace-time total and was responsible for the direct swing of one seat away from Labour and another to the Greens. If increases occur at the current rate, this may just be the beginning.
CONCLUSION
Three sets of conclusions can be drawn from the preceding discussion. The first is that there is a substantial New Zealand diaspora, in the sense of ‘an imagined community living away from a professed place of origin’ (Vertovec, 2009: 5). Kea New Zealand’s ‘Every One Counts’ survey reveals a group of highly-educated adult New Zealand expatriates spread around the world and concentrated in the UK, Australia and North America. These expatriates have strong social connections to family, friends and communities in New Zealand but are ambivalent about return and have relatively weak economic ties to home. As in the resident New Zealand population, New Zealand Europeans, Māori and ‘New Zealanders’ are the largest ethnic groups. Analysis shows a young, cosmopolitan aspect to the ‘New Zealander’ identity that has become a prominent feature of recent national censuses but also shows that this identity is less durable than Māori identity.
The second set of conclusions drawn from this discussion is that the current policy approach towards the diaspora is not coherent and that this results in a number of inefficiencies and injustices. The New Zealand government has no strategy or ‘policy’ as such concerning the diaspora. Nor does any single department or agency have responsibility for ensuring government has a ‘joined up’ approach to the diaspora. Instead, the diaspora is ‘managed’ through a disjointed collection of mechanisms across different agencies and levels within government, all of which have come into to being at different times for different reasons. This ad hoc system for relating to expatriates is often inefficient and unfair. The delivery of ‘discretionary’ consular service differs arbitrarily among consular posts, often reflecting neither expatriate demand nor government policy but, instead, depends on the personal enthusiasm of individual officials to the frustration of many who are affected. Recent attempts to ‘harness the diaspora’ resulted in a few small-scale and time-limited initiatives that were stunted by unfocused messages, unrealistically constrained resources and inter-departmental conflicts. Moreover, at the same time as rhetorically courting expatriates, the government disregarded their social security entitlements – allowing the withdrawal of social security benefits for New Zealanders in Australia and rejecting proposals to increase the fairness and efficiency of pension portability arrangements.
The third and final set of conclusions is that New Zealand should take a coherent policy approach towards its diaspora. On one hand, many New Zealanders abroad should be regarded as ‘stakeholders’ in New Zealand society, who deserve fair and consistent treatment by New Zealand
130 institutions – some of which they interact with through necessity rather than choice. On the other hand, the diaspora represents both an opportunity and an imperative for New Zealand to adapt to important aspects of globalisation. If addressed in a coherent fashion, ‘brain drain’ may be mitigated by ‘brain gain’. If unaddressed, this – along with genuine solutions to the systemic causes of excessive emigration – is likely to remain elusive.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This chapter draws on doctoral research funded by a Top Achiever Doctoral Scholarship from New Zealand’s Tertiary Education Commission. The paper uses data from Kea New Zealand’s ‘Every One Counts’ survey, from the 2006 New Zealand Census, from the global database of the Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty (Migration DRC), and from the Chief Electoral Office of New Zealand. I am very grateful to Dorzhi Dondukov and Rulof Burger for technical advice on analysis of the Kea data. I am also grateful to Victoria University’s Institute of Policy Studies and Sydney University’s Department of Geosciences for generously hosting periods of fieldwork. The piece has been influenced by the insightful comments of Alexandra Délano, Paul Spoonley, Alisdair Rogers, Richard Bedford, Ross McConnell, Paul Callister, Gary Hawke, David Brommell and Robert Didham among others. Parts of the chapter have been published previously in Gamlen, A. (2007) Making hay while the sun shines: Envisioning New Zealand's state- siaspora relations, Policy Quarterly 3 (4):12-21.
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135 4
WELCOME TO OUR WORLD: ATTITUDES TO IMMIGRANTS AND IMMIGRATION1
Paul Spoonley and Philip Gendall
The diversity of immigrant flows to New Zealand has produced periods of significant public reaction, most notably from 1993 to 1996 (see Spoonley and Trlin, 2004). The ‘Inv-Asian’ articles in Auckland newspapers in 1993 marked the beginning of a moral panic about the numbers and ethnicity of immigrants, culminating in the 1996 General Election when New Zealand First gained significantly from the anti-immigrant sentiments of part of the New Zealand electorate. What should not be underplayed in these reactions is the rapidity with which New Zealand diversified its immigration flows, the numbers of non-traditional immigrants involved (especially, but not only, from Asia) in the mid-1990s (Bedford, Lidgard and Ho, 2005b).
The fact that there was a negative public reaction might have been anticipated. New Zealand had been rapidly exposed to quite new global dynamics and local communities (at least for those in the main cities) had been altered by the cultural diversity of immigration flows. New Zealand was now linked with Asia in fundamentally new ways (and less so with Europe) and immigrants were increasingly seen as critical to economic development. When expressed as a percentage of the total population, New Zealand has one of the largest overseas-born populations in the world. Accounting for almost 19 percent of the population after 2000, New Zealand’s overseas-born percentage is double that of the USA, ahead of Canada and only slightly behind that of Australia (see OECD, 2006).
In this context, there are inevitably expectations about the settlement and integration of immigrants from both governments and local communities and the acceptance of immigrants is partial and conditional. This is hardly new; there have historically been expectations about what immigrants should do after their arrival. However, these normative expectations are built around conforming to local conditions, including local cultures. Li (2003:177) describes these expectations in the Canadian context but they apply equally to New Zealand:
1 This chapter is based on material from two New Settler research reports: P. Spoonley, P. Gendall and A. Trlin, 2007: Welcome to Our World: The Attitudes of New Zealanders to Immigrants and Immigration, Palmerston North, New Settlers Programme, and P. Gendall, P. Spoonley and A. Trlin, 2007: The Attitudes of New Zealanders to Immigrants and Immigration: 2003 and 2006 Compared, Palmerston North, New Settlers Programme, Massey University. We would like to thank our colleague, Andrew Trlin, for his contribution.
136 Immigrants are seen as outsiders who are expected to adapt to Canadian lifestyle, in terms of its norms, values, and traditions, and who should conform over time to the economic performance and other behavioural standards of native-born Canadians.
These expectations about conforming in a New Zealand context have long existed and even British immigrants were subjected to these expectations about ‘fitting in’ (Hutching, 1999; Spoonley, 1993). But when those arriving are more significantly different in culture from host communities, there are likely to be more explicit demands for conformity (see Li, 2003:175).
Opinion surveys on public attitudes towards immigrants and immigration provide an indication of who is welcome – and who is not – as well as the reaction of different sections of the community. Such information highlights the nature of the welcome that immigrants will receive and identifies the concerns of host populations and the expectation about immigrant settlement. These attitudes are a critical factor in the successful settlement of immigrants and will contribute to the ongoing project of building a nation, particularly in relation to the incorporation of newcomers.
ATTITUDINAL INFLUENCES
Certain demographic characteristics are particularly associated with attitudes towards immigrants and immigration while others have been less influential. For example, gender has not been shown to produce significant attitude effects and age, despite an assumption that the young might be more tolerant, has only a minor effect (Crawley, 2005:19-20). Much more important are ethnicity and education. The first relates to what is referred to as the impact of cultural affinity (Crawley, 2005:20). Those who share the characteristics of ethnic difference from the mainstream (‘visible difference’ as the Canadians refer to it) are most likely to feel some sympathy for those immigrants who are seen as different and who might be racialised as a different and problematic ‘other’. Equally, education ‘tends to moderate ethnic hostility, racism, and anti-immigrant sentiment’ (Hatton and Williamson, 2005:346).
Educational level and qualifications have a significant impact on attitudes towards immigrants; the more highly educated, the more tolerant people are. Education has been found to powerfully decrease reported opposition to immigrants for two reasons. On the one hand, the relatively strong direct effect of education may be seen as an expression of certain values held by the well-educated at a more general level. Secondly, a person’s educational level represents a significant resource in relation to the labour market (Crawley, 2005:17-18). Immigrants are less of an economic threat.
137 Two other characteristics are typically seen to have an impact on attitudes concerning immigration and immigrants. The first is contact and its impact on ameliorating negative attitudes. However, ‘…it is not just contact itself, but the nature and quality of that contact that is important’ (Crawley, 2005:23). Given this coda, contact has a positive effect. Equally, a knowledge of immigrants and immigration tends to be associated with positive attitudes. For example, personal knowledge about immigrant communities as well as knowledge about the broader issues presented by immigration tends to be associated with more positive attitudes.
Those who lack knowledge and who ‘regularly overestimate the proportion of the population that consists of asylum seekers, refugees, migrants and ethnic minority populations’ are also likely to believe that non- white immigration is responsible (for example) for ‘undermining British identity and social and community cohesion’ (Crawley, 2005:24). The contact and knowledge literature on attitudes towards immigrants does make some important distinctions, especially in terms of workplace and neighbourhood proximity, the length of time that particular immigrant communities have been in the host country and the origin and culture of the immigrants in relation to those of the host communities (Hatton and Williamson, 2005:360). Changes in attitudes are often related to shifting sources of immigration (Hatton and Williamson, 2005:360).
In addition to contact and knowledge, there is the question of economic circumstances. The less skilled tend to favour immigrant restrictions and are more likely to express negative attitudes towards immigrants (Hatton and Williamson, 2005:355). This is reinforced when economic conditions are difficult and communities are less prosperous, indicating an economic self- interest, particularly amongst the less skilled and less well-educated (Hatton and Williamson, 2005:352-353).
These demographic and economic factors do not exhaust the possibilities in terms of anti-immigrant attitudes. There is also the question of societal tolerance, including the approach and attitudes adopted by opinion makers such as politicians and the media. As Crawley (2005:31) comments: ‘…hostility is driven by and in turn exacerbates and legitimises racism’. Some immigrant communities have been racialised by politicians and political parties, or by other anti-immigrant organisations, because they are regarded as a ‘threat’ to the host community. They are defined by their racial difference and seen as a problem in some way (Spoonley, 1993). One aspect that is not canvassed here is the association between attitudes towards immigrants and political party choice, an association that has been found to be significant in Australia (Goot and Watson, 2005: 1999).
138 NEW ZEALAND OPINION SURVEYS ON IMMIGRATION
The most consistent surveys concerning New Zealanders’ attitudes to immigrants have been conducted by the media, specifically the National Business Review (NBR). Interest in regular surveys on attitudes towards immigrants began in the early 1990s once the negative reaction to immigrants became apparent and the ‘Inv-Asian’ articles appeared in community newspapers in Auckland in 1993. The reaction provided a number of anti- immigrant groups with an opportunity to target particular immigrant groups, especially Asians. By the time of the General Election in 1996, public opposition was sufficient to significantly increase the support for New Zealand First and its leader, Winston Peters. Media coverage during this period, and effectively up until 2000, portrayed Asian immigrants as a problem for New Zealand in a variety of ways – poor driving skills, pressure on interest rates, placing demands on schools and providing a threat to New Zealand ‘values and culture’ (see Spoonley and Trlin, 2004). But even at the height of the anti- immigrant and anti-Asian feelings in the mid-1990s, New Zealanders were still less likely to express negative attitudes than the citizens of many other countries, including Australia and the USA (but more so than Canada) according to the ISSP 1995 survey on national identity (Gendall, 2004).
The NBR polls show how New Zealand public attitudes to immigration have changed over time. In 1995, when immigration was exceptionally high (see Bedford, 1996), 51 percent of those polled felt that there were ‘too many’ immigrants from Asia, while 36 percent thought the number was ‘about right’ and only 5 percent thought there were ‘not enough’ immigrants from Asia (Trlin et al., 1998:231). By the late 1990s, when the number of Asian immigrants had declined due to changes in New Zealand’s immigration policy (see Bedford et al., 2005b), an economic downturn in Asia and the fact that the pressure for some to migrate had eased (e.g. Hong Kong Chinese), public opinion was more moderate. Indeed, by 2000, NBR polls were indicating that many of those interviewed wanted more Asians to come. These numbers rose through 2001, reached a high in 2003 and began to decline in 2004 (Liu, 2005).
The negative attitudes towards Asian immigrants need to be qualified in one important aspect. While there have been relatively high levels of anti- Asian feeling, especially in the mid-1990s, they still do not equal the ongoing negative attitudes held towards Pacific peoples, which have remained high since the 1970s and the racialisation of these migrants during the ‘overstayers’ campaign. When questions are asked about Asian and Pacific immigrants, the levels of negative attitudes are higher towards Pacific peoples than towards Asians. For example, in surveys in North Shore City in 1996 when anti-Asian sentiments were at their peak, ‘Pacific Islanders’ were still seen as less acceptable as neighbours than Asians (Spoonley, 1997). The same comparison is the subject of questions in the surveys reported here. It is clear that there is a level of ongoing hostility towards Pacific peoples that has
139 not been displaced by any hostility that might be felt towards the more recent migrants from Asia.
Another consideration is the concern expressed by Maori at current immigration policies (see Walker, 1995). There are a range of reasons for this concern, including seeing immigrants as a competitive threat despite having more contact with them than other New Zealanders (see Ward and Masgoret, 2005). Maori see immigrants as a threat in terms of employment and because of the promotion of their values at the expense of local values. Maori are more likely than other New Zealanders to indicate that they want to see fewer immigrants (Ward and Masgoret, 2005).
As the cultural diversity of immigrants arriving in New Zealand has increased since 1986, the question of host attitudes has gained in importance (although not for the first time in the post-war period; see the negative reactions to Pacific peoples in the 1970s and 1980s, Spoonley, 1993). In terms of achieving social cohesion, mapping host attitudes is important in identifying the policy challenges. Trlin, Spoonley and Watts (2005) provide details of the material that has been published on attitudes towards immigrants. Some of this is available in theses (see Williams, 1998 and Zavareh, 1997) as well as from general surveys by the media (National Business Review) and academics (Gendall, 2004; Ward and Masgoret, 2005). The surveys reported here add to the available information.
METHODOLOGY
Two mail surveys of random samples of New Zealanders over the age of 18 were conducted in 2003 and 2006. The first survey had 1,118 valid responses (from an initial sample of 2,200) and an effective response rate of 60 percent; the second had 750 valid responses (from an initial sample of 1,260) and an effective response rate of 62 percent. As a rule of thumb, a response rate of at least 60 percent is considered ‘good’ for analysis and reporting as compared to a response rate of at least 50 percent which is generally considered to be ‘adequate’ (Babbie, 1990:182).
Both survey samples were randomly selected from the New Zealand electoral roll and the methodology was similar for each survey; namely, an initial contact followed by two reminders to non-respondents. The survey questionnaire for the 2003 survey was a 13-page, A4 booklet containing 92 questions. These questions covered the current immigration situation in New Zealand, attitudes to immigrants and immigration, New Zealand’s immigration policy and support for new immigrants. A number of questions were also included about the demographic characteristics of those answering. The questionnaire used in the second survey was a shorter version of the original questionnaire and included approximately half of the questions asked in 2003. The questions omitted in 2006 were specific knowledge, opinion and
140 demographic questions that were not expected to provide any useful trend data.
The data for the second survey were weighted so that the age-sex distribution matched that of the first survey and to ensure that the proportion of Maori and non-Maori was the same in both surveys. This was done to make sure that any observed differences in attitudes between 2003 and 2006 were not the result of age, sex or ethnicity differences between the two samples.
SURVEY RESULTS
Manifestations of Racism
One broad indicator of attitudes is the public expression of racist remarks which demean others in a way that focuses on their cultural and/or ‘racial’ differences (Spoonley, 1993). Such remarks typically signal beliefs about the inferiority of others and rely on negative stereotypes. In both surveys, respondents were asked if they had heard racist remarks about immigrants. This provides one indicator of the level of racism apparent in New Zealand, as well as the willingness of respondents to report such comments.
Comparing the 2003 and 2006 results, there was an increase in those who had heard racist remarks. The proportion of respondents who had ‘often’ or ‘very often’ heard racist remarks made about immigrants increased from 40.9 to 46.7 percent between 2003 and 2006 (see Table 2). This increase of 5.8 percent was matched by a decrease of 6 percent in the proportion who had only ‘sometimes’ or ‘never’ heard such remarks. Obviously this finding is a cause for concern, especially given the proportion of overseas-born in New Zealand as a whole and is a matter that has serious implications for social cohesion.
Table 1 Have You Personally Heard People in New Zealand Make Racist Remarks about Immigrants?, 2003 and 2006 (percentages)
Responses 2003 2006 Never 4.6 2.5 Sometimes 52.4 48.5 Often 26.4 25.8 Very often 14.5 20.9 Not sure/Don’t know 2.1 2.3
In the 2003 survey, a question was asked about discrimination and where it was likely to occur (Table 2). Despite almost all respondents in the 2003 survey reporting that they had heard (at least ‘sometimes’) people in New Zealand making racist remarks about immigrants, fewer than half had actually seen or heard immigrants being discriminated against in most common situations. Very few – usually less than 10 percent - had seen or heard this happening either ‘often’ or ‘very often’. Among the respondents
141 reporting discrimination, most typically said this happened only ‘sometimes’, usually when walking, using public transport, shopping or at work.
Table 2 Have You Personally Seen or Heard Immigrants Being Discriminated Against in New Zealand in Each of the Following Situations?, 2003 (percentages)
Very Not Never Sometimes Often Often Applicable When walking on the street or using public transport 45.8 35.7 5.6 2.3 10.6 When shopping 44.9 34.6 6.1 1.9 12.5 At school, polytech, or university 39.4 18.8 5.1 2.1 34.6 While at work 37.1 30.9 7.8 3.7 20.5 When renting or buying a home 43.6 20.3 4.9 2.2 28.9 When dealing with police, courts… or similar agencies 42.4 21.9 6.4 3.1 26.2
Impact of Immigrants on Society and Culture
As Table 3 shows, there has been little or no change between 2003 and 2006 in attitudes concerning the social behaviour of immigrants and their impact on New Zealand society and culture. Essentially, three-quarters of respondents remain convinced that immigrants stick to their own group and do not mix with others, while almost 60 percent agree that immigration adds to the cultural diversity of New Zealand in a positive sense. About half still feel that immigration, if it continues at the present rate, will ‘overwhelm New Zealand culture’, although quite what these respondents understand by New Zealand culture is not clear. Overall, with one notable exception, the remaining responses indicate the continuing ambivalence of respondents with regard to the benefits or otherwise of immigration. The exception is a stronger feeling (a rise from 59.8 to 71.3%) in the view that immigrants make New Zealanders more open to new ideas and cultures (see Table 3). This 11.5 percent increase is a favourable development that indicates a growing acceptance that immigration has some positive outcomes.
These responses (a mix of positive and negative views) suggest that New Zealanders struggle with the issues raised by immigration and immigrants and whether or not they are having positive outcomes for the country. Aside from a continuing appreciation of the diversity immigration adds to New Zealand culture, and especially its contribution to standards of cuisine and food, the responses to statements on other facets of New Zealand society and culture (such as the effect of the recent arrival of many Asian immigrants) remain less positive. Perhaps these varied responses are not surprising, given the extent and rapidity of changes to immigration policy since the late 1980s and the increase in the superdiversity of New Zealand communities.
142 Table 3 Attitudes Toward Immigrants and Impact of Immigration Upon Aspects of New Zealand Society and Culture, 2003 and 2006 (percentages)
Opinions about recent immigrants Percent Agreement 2003 2006
Many immigrants stick to their own and do not mix with 76.7 75.4 others
The standard of New Zealand’s cuisine and food has been 73.7 74.6 improved by decades of immigration
Immigrants make New Zealanders more open to new ideas 59.8 71.3 and cultures
The diversity immigration adds to New Zealand culture is a 58.7 58.8 good thing
Other cultures threaten to overwhelm New Zealand culture 47.7 51.4 if immigration continues at its present rate
The recent arrival of many Asian immigrants is changing 46.2 48.3 New Zealand in undesirable ways
Immigration can help New Zealanders appreciate values 45.2 45.9 such as hard work and family ties
Immigrants make a good contribution to many New 41.8 42.0 Zealand sports
Immigration, Employment and the Economy
Between the 2003 and 2006 surveys, the proportion of respondents agreeing that immigrants provide skills that are in short supply in New Zealand increased from 39.0 to 45.8 percent. Responses to other statements concerning immigrants and their role in the economy were largely unchanged (see Table 4). These findings are not surprising given the thirty year high in skill shortages in the labour market, the media coverage that these skill shortages have received and the growing emphasis placed on the need for suitably qualified immigrants to fill these shortages. Furthermore, since 2000, immigration policy has been more obviously based on the recruitment of skilled immigrant workers (see Bedford et al., 2005a) so the connection between local skill shortages and immigrants to filling these gaps has received a lot of public attention.
This increase in the perceived value of immigrants to the New Zealand economy is matched by more positive perceptions of the contribution made to the economy by immigrants from the Pacific Islands, India, Britain and elsewhere in Europe (see Table 4). It is not clear why perceptions of the
143 positive contribution of other immigrant groups (i.e. South Africans, Chinese and other Asians) have not changed in the same period. In relation to whether immigrants take jobs away from people born in New Zealand, the attitudes of respondents have remained almost exactly the same over the three year period (see Table 5).
Table 4 Immigrants and the Economy, 2003 and 2006 (percentages)
Opinions about recent immigrants Percent Agreement 2003 2006
New immigrants who have not contributed to the country 71.1 67.6 are putting too much strain on our limited resources
Many immigrants are a burden on the New Zealand social 53.8 52.2 welfare system
Attracting new immigrants…is vital if New Zealand is to 51.0 47.5 prosper economically
Immigrants provide skills that are in short supply in 39.0 45.8 New Zealand
Immigrants and Crime
In 2006, as in 2003, Pacific peoples were most likely to be identified as the ethnic/immigrant groups most likely to contribute to increases in crime, a perception which played a key role (along with taking jobs away from New Zealanders and the decline of inner city urban areas) in the moral panic about Pacific immigrants in the mid-1970s. Given that many Pacific peoples are New Zealand-born, and that the Pacific Island-born (i.e. immigrant) population has significantly declined as a proportion of those who identify as Pacific peoples in New Zealand by the period of the survey, it is not clear whether the respondents were referring to all Pacific peoples or to only those who have immigrated to New Zealand. Nevertheless, the perception that they contribute to crime is a particularly powerful one according to the responses reported here. Chinese and other Asian immigrants were also perceived to contribute to increases in crime by more than 40 percent of the respondents (see Table 5), perhaps reflecting the media coverage given to the involvement of Asians in gangs, extortion, kidnapping, drugs and gambling (see Spoonley and Trlin, 2004:39-41; Spoonley, 2005).
144 Table 5 Which Immigrants Increase Crime Rates, Take Jobs Away from People Born in New Zealand, Are Good for New Zealand’s Economy?, 2003 and 2006 (percentages)
Increase crime Take jobs from NZers Good for economy Country, region 2003 2006 2003 2006 2003 2006 Pacific Islanders 73.3 69.3 23.0 23.0 11.7 18.0 Chinese 43.4 47.4 28.2 29.7 48.0 48.5 Other Asians 48.8 44.2 30.4 29.1 35.7 36.8 Indians 8.7 8.0 26.5 26.3 29.4 42.3 Other Europeans 6.8 7.7 17.2 18.4 49.9 59.4 South Africans 3.3 3.7 17.0 19.4 48.7 52.8 British 3.6 2.9 20.5 20.0 55.4 65.6
Multiculturalism, Customs and Traditions
New Zealand’s move away from a highly selective immigration policy – in terms of attracting immigrants from a narrow range of countries as compared with the culturally diverse flows that have occurred since 1986 – has raised questions about multiculturalism and the expectations concerning what is acceptable and desirable. The 2003 survey looked at the issues of tolerance towards immigrants (see Table 6).
Respondents were almost equally divided on the question of whether New Zealanders should all be part of one common culture; 38.1 percent agreed while 39.5 percent disagreed. Nevertheless, 55 percent agreed that the ‘white majority’ in New Zealand needs to get used to a more multicultural society. This view was reflected in strong support (88%) for immigrants adopting New Zealand traditions and customs whilst keeping (rather than giving up) their own customs. This attitude is consistent with the idea discussed earlier that one of the benefits of immigration is the diversity it adds to New Zealand society.
The results from 2006 when the same questions were asked showed that there has been little or no change in attitudes to multiculturalism between 2003 and 2006. However, there is a suggestion of increasing support for the idea that we ‘should all be part of one common culture’ and that immigrants should conform to this culture, rather than New Zealanders being more tolerant of immigrants’ customs and traditions.
The issue of what this ‘common culture’ entails is unclear. One interpretation might be that there is a national culture which everyone should subscribe to in some way. But the very presence of culturally diverse immigrants, especially those from the Pacific or Asia, combined with Maori political and cultural developments particularly in recent decades, has made the idea of a national culture more problematic. Nevertheless, with over 40 percent indicating their support for the ‘common culture’ statement, it is a matter that warrants further attention. It should also be noted that support for this statement was exceeded by agreement with two other statements
145 concerning the need for Pakeha (‘the white majority’) to become more accustomed to a multicultural society and for New Zealanders to be more tolerant of immigrants. In both cases, more than half of the respondents agreed.
Table 6 Attitudes to Multiculturalism, 2006 (percentages)
Statements about multiculturalism Agree Neither Disagree Can’t etc. choose The white majority in New Zealand needs to get used to a more multicultural society 55.0 22.2 20.8 2.0 Maori interests will be overwhelmed as New Zealand becomes more multicultural 28.1 22.7 45.7 3.6
New Zealanders need to be more tolerant of immigrants who settle here 56.8 22.9 18.9 1.4 New Zealanders should all be part of one common culture 38.1 19.3 39.5 3.1
The government should develop policies to support multiculturalism in NZ 53.2 22.3 21.9 2.7
Immigration Policy
Support for the need for consultation on New Zealand’s immigration policy was high and relatively stable between 2003 and 2006; around 78 percent of the respondents maintained that there ‘should be more consultation with the general public’, while only about one-fifth agreed that ‘Maori should be consulted…as a matter of right’ (Table 7). Such responses reflect the view of some about Maori claims to rights under the Treaty of Waitangi and for the concept and practice of biculturalism.
Table 7 Do You Think There are Too Many Immigrants in New Zealand from Each of the Following Countries or Parts of the World?, 2003 and 2006 (percentages)
‘Yes’ (too many in NZ) Country or region 2003 2006 China 47.4 50.9 India 36.4 36.2 Other Asian countries 47.1 47.6 Pacific Islands 51.6 50.0 Middle East 32.5 39.0 South Africa 12.9 14.9 United Kingdom and Ireland 8.4 8.0 Other European countries 8.1 6.9
Less stable were attitudes toward the number of immigrants coming to New Zealand. Although just under half of all of respondents in 2006 thought that the number of immigrants should be reduced, a shift in opinion on this
146 issue is indicated by a gain of 3.3 percent for those favouring at least a little increase and a gain of 4.2 percent for those supporting the status quo (Table 8). This shift might be associated with the growing emphasis on the role of immigrants in contributing to the pool of skills available to the economy and the strong message concerning the importance of immigrant labour in filling skill shortages. However, the fact remains that the predominant view was still one favouring a reduction in the number of immigrants. This might indicate that there are two divergent opinions: those who want to see the current numbers maintained or even increased (34% in 2003 and 41.5% in 2006), and those who want to see them decreased a little or a lot (56% in 2003 and 48% in 2006). As a point of comparison, 74% of Britons polled in 2003 wanted a reduction in the number of immigrants (Park et al, 2004: 172).
The question then is whether New Zealanders would argue that the number of arrivals for particular immigrant groups should be reduced as opposed to all immigrants. The likely answer to this question is provided in Table 8. China, the Pacific Islands and ‘other’ Asian countries remain the leading countries or regions from which around 50 percent of respondents think there are too many immigrants coming to New Zealand. The arrival of Asian immigrants, especially post-1987, and the enduring negative perceptions about Pacific immigrants, are still a cause for concern for about half of those surveyed. There is also some evidence that support for reducing the number of Middle Eastern immigrants has increased since 2003; the percentage of respondents who thought there were too many immigrants from this region rose from 32.5 to 39 percent. The public interest and media debates concerning Islamic fundamentalism, the war in Iraq, terrorism, the case of asylum seeker Ahmed Zaoui, and even the wearing of the burqa in certain situations, might well have contributed to the growing negative perception of the acceptability of immigrants from this region (see Butcher et al, 2006: 29-31; Manning et al., 2004; Smith, 2004).
Table 8 Do You Think the Total Number of Immigrants Coming to New Zealand Should be Increased, Decreased or Stay the Same?, 2003 and 2006 (percentages)
Response categories 2003 2006 Increased a lot 2.3 3.4 Increased a little 9.6 11.8 Remain the same as it is 22.1 26.3 Reduced a little 27.1 26.9 Reduced a lot 29.5 21.3 Can’t choose 8.9 10.3
147 Table 9
Do You Think There are Too Many Immigrants in New Zealand from Each of the Following Countries or Parts of the World?, 2003 and 2006 (percentages)
‘Yes’ (too many…in NZ) Country or region 2003 2006 China 47.4 50.9 India 36.4 36.2 Other Asian countries 47.1 47.6 Pacific Islands 51.6 50.0 Middle East 32.5 39.0 South Africa 12.9 14.9 United Kingdom and Ireland 8.4 8.0 Other European countries 8.1 6.9
Immigration Policy Issues
Although there were small increases between 2003 and 2006 of those who thought that the government is doing a good job of both managing applications for immigration and of adjusting immigration policy to meet New Zealand’s needs (Table 10), both the increases and the level of support are modest. Elsewhere, opinion has remained firmly opposed to both government post-arrival settlement assistance for new immigrants and to allowing asylum seekers to remain in New Zealand. On the other hand, support has remained strong for: the screening of immigrants for tuberculosis and hepatitis; prohibiting the entry of immigrants with HIV/AIDS; and for restricting family reunification to ‘close family members’. Finally, as in 2003, barely more than half of respondents in 2006 agreed that the government should develop policies in support of multiculturalism. Steps have already been taken to develop and implement the New Zealand Settlement Strategy (New Zealand Immigration Service, 2004), but there is a minority (around a quarter of all respondents) who would like to see the government provide settlement support.
The ability to speak English and the possession of professional trade qualifications were regarded as either ‘high’ or ‘very high’ priorities for selecting immigrants in almost 90 percent of the respondents (see Table 11). These criteria, together with a firm offer of a skilled job (given a high/very high priority by 83.2%), were the main criteria respondents believed the government should be applying when selecting skilled immigrants. A number of other criteria, such as a job outside Auckland, the amount of money they plan to bring into the country and having New Zealand educational qualifications, were also rated as high/very high priority areas by more than half of the respondents, perhaps reflecting a measure of pragmatism with regard to the widely publicised employment difficulties faced by new settlers. Finally, the criteria of family reunification, age and previous New Zealand experience, though not so widely valued, were deemed to be of high/very high priority by between 44 percent and 48 percent of respondents (see Table 11).
148 Table 10 Attitudes to Immigration Policy Issues, 2003 and 2006 (percentages)
Opinions about recent immigrants Percent Agreement 2003 2006 The government is doing a good job of managing applications for immigration to New Zealand 13.9 16.2 The government is doing a good job of adjusting immigration policy to meet New Zealand’s needs 16.1 18.7 The government should be responsible for helping new immigrants for three to five years after their arrival 24.1 25.7 Asylum seekers who have suffered political oppression in their own country should be allowed to stay in New Zealand 33.6 30.6 The government should develop policies to support multiculturalism in New Zealand 52.3 51.8 Immigrants should only be allowed to bring their close family members to New Zealand 66.3 68.6 No immigrants with HIV/AIDS should be allowed into New Zealand 71.8 71.3 All immigrants should be screened or tested for tuberculosis and hepatitis before being allowed into New Zealand 89.6 90.5
Table 11 Criteria for Selecting Immigrants, 2003 (percentages)
Government priority for Very high High Low No Can’t immigrants priority priority priority priority choose Ability to speak English 46.5 43.3 6.6 1.8 1.7 Firm offer of a skilled job 33.0 50.2 10.3 3.4 3.1 An offer of a job outside 21.9 31.6 22.4 15.8 8.3 Auckland Family reunification 11.3 36.7 33.0 10.2 8.9 Amount of money brought into the country 19.5 34.0 31.8 9.6 5.1 Professional or trade 40.9 48.3 6.3 1.5 3.0 qualifications
NZ educational qualifications 21.4 35.3 27.8 10.1 5.5 Age 15.8 32.9 30.6 14.2 6.5 Experience of living and working in New Zealand 13.9 30.7 32.4 16.5 6.6
FACTORS AFFECTING ATTITUDES
Attitudes on topics concerning immigrants and immigration will vary from one section or group to another within a society (see Crawley, 2005; Ward and Masgoret, 2005). This section of the report focuses upon variations in attitudes according to the residential location (Auckland vs the rest of New Zealand), age, education, ethnicity as well as the knowledge and contact of the respondents. It should be noted that the following tables and discussion only include statements for which the differences between groups was
149 significant (around p = .1). The results illustrate the complexity of attitudes towards immigration, immigrant settlement and multiculturalism.
Auckland vs the Rest of New Zealand
It is often assumed that the effects of immigration are felt most strongly in Auckland since this is where large numbers of recent immigrants, particularly Asians, have settled. The reality of this assumption appears to be reflected in more negative attitudes to immigrants and immigration among Aucklanders than among respondents in the rest of New Zealand. However, the differences, where they do occur, are generally relatively small and often statistically non-significant. (The figures in Table 12 are based on respondents who had an opinion, and consequently they may differ from those in earlier tables).
As shown in Table 12, there are only three issues on which the differences in attitudes between Aucklanders and other respondents from elsewhere in New Zealand were found to be statistically significant (p = .10 or less). These are: (a) the belief that ‘New Zealanders should all be part of one common culture’; (b) the view that ‘the government is doing a good job of managing applications for immigration’; and (c) that ‘the government should be responsible for helping immigrants for three to five years after their arrival’. In other words, Aucklanders were less supportive of multiculturalism and more supportive of both controls on immigration and post-arrival settlement assistance – attitudes that perhaps reflect their greater exposure to and/or experience of the issues and problems of immigration in New Zealand’s main destination for new arrivals.
In addition to the results presented in Table 12, Auckland respondents were slightly more likely to report hearing racist remarks about immigrants than were other respondents but the difference was not statistically significant (p = .484). Similarly, though Aucklanders were slightly more in favour of increasing the number of immigrants coming to New Zealand than were other respondents, the difference was again not statistically significant (p = .138).
Finally, it was found that Aucklanders are somewhat more likely to agree: that Pacific peoples and Chinese immigrants increase crime rates; and that Chinese and other Asians take jobs away from people who were born in New Zealand. Aucklanders are also less likely to agree that no immigrant groups are responsible for these negative outcomes. Although these differences were not statistically significant, the general pattern of attitudes tends to support the conclusion that those living in Auckland are more negative about the consequences of immigration than those in other parts of the country.
150 Table 12 Attitudes to Immigrants and Immigration: Auckland vs. Rest of New Zealand, 2006 (percentages)
Percent Agreement Opinions about recent immigrants Auckland Rest of NZ Sig p Impact on NZ society and culture Immigrants make a good contribution to many New Zealand sports 37.6 46.4 .064 Other cultures threaten to overwhelm New Zealand culture if immigration continues at its present rate 60.1 50.2 .055 Immigrants and the economy Immigrants supply skills that are in short supply in New Zealand 41.0 49.6 .084 Multiculturalism New Zealanders should all be part of one common culture 47.1 43.8 .047 Maori interests will be overwhelmed as New Zealand becomes multicultural 33.7 28.2 .064 Immigration policy issues The government is doing a good job of managing applications for immigration to New Zealand 21.4 15.8 .016 The government should be responsible for helping new immigrants for three to five years after their arrival 32.7 23.8 .004
Age Effects
There appears to be a fairly consistent relationship between age and attitudes to immigrants and immigration. Younger people tend to be less tolerant of immigrants and less supportive of immigration than older people. This is illustrated by the differences in attitudes shown in Table 13, though the difference was statistically significant (p= 05 or less) only with respect to the contribution of immigrants to many New Zealand sports.
Education Effects
Generally, those with tertiary education have more liberal attitudes to immigrants and immigration than those with primary or secondary education only (see Park et al, 2004, for similar results internationally). This is shown in Table 14 where respondents with tertiary education have consistently higher levels of agreement with positive statements about immigration and lower levels of agreement with negative statements than do those with non-tertiary education. Moreover, for all but three of the statements (not all are shown in the following table), the differences in attitudes between the two groups are statistically significant (p= .05 or less). It was found that those with tertiary education are more in favour of the number of immigrants increasing or staying the same than those with less education – a difference that is also statistically significant (p= .000). Similarly (though the difference is not statistically significant), tertiary-educated respondents are more likely to
151 agree that immigrants are good for New Zealand’s economy, regardless of where they come from, whereas those with non-tertiary education are less likely to agree. Presumably this pattern reflects, in part, the fact that those with less education are more susceptible to the economic effects of immigration (e.g., on the cost of housing and the competition for jobs).
Table 13
Attitudes to Immigrants and Immigration: Age Effects, 2006
Percent Agreement Opinions About Recent Immigrants Under 35 35-54 55 & over Sig p Impact on NZ society and culture Immigration can help New Zealanders appreciate values such as hard work and family ties 42.6 44.9 51.1 .065 Immigrants make a good contribution to many New Zealand sports 33.8 40.9 51.2 .012 Immigrants and the economy Attracting new immigrants is vital if New Zealand is to prosper economically 40.0 49.7 53.4 .108 Immigrants provide skills that are in short supply in New Zealand 41.5 43.8 53.0 .096 Multiculturalism Maori interests will be overwhelmed as New Zealand becomes multicultural 29.5 26.9 32.5 .088 Immigration policy issues There should be more consultation with the general public about New Zealand’s immigration policy 81.1 75.6 81.9 .035
Ethnicity Effects
The strongest factor influencing attitudes to immigrants and immigration is that of ethnicity, in this case, Maori versus non-Maori. Maori attitudes to immigrants and immigration are consistently less positive and more negative than those of non-Maori. In addition, it was also found that Maori are much less in favour of increasing the number of immigrants to New Zealand, and much more in favour of reducing it, than are non-Maori (p = .000). Similar differences in attitudes between Maori and non-Maori existed in 2003 but many of these differences are more pronounced in the 2006 survey.
It is worth noting (despite the differences not being statistically significant) that Maori are more likely to agree than non-Maori that Chinese, other Asians and Pacific peoples take jobs away from people who were born in New Zealand. Despite this, they are no less likely to agree that these groups of immigrants are good for the economy, whereas they are less likely to agree that immigrants of British or European origin are good for the economy. By contrast, Maori are much less likely than non-Maori to agree that Chinese, other Asians or Pacific peoples increase crime rates.
152 Overall, these differences in attitudes between Maori and non-Maori might be expected. For Maori, the results appear to be consistent with: (a) the protection of their interests in maintaining a bicultural society and the assertion of their rights under the Treaty of Waitangi; and (b) their recognition that employment opportunities might be compromised by the size and skill associated with migration flows. The Maori Party reflected these attitudes in public statements (see Turia, 2007) especially in relation to what is perceived as a lack of input to immigration policy.
Knowledge Effects
Many people do not know how many immigrants New Zealand takes each year; among those who do, perceptions of the numbers involved are reasonably accurate, though typically overestimated. Understanding where these immigrants come from is, however, much less accurate. People tend to underestimate the number of British immigrants and overestimate the number of Pacific immigrants in particular. People not only think there are more Pacific peoples coming into New Zealand than there are, they also think that, of all the immigrant groups, they are the most likely to increase crime rates and least likely to contribute to the economy.
Increasing knowledge about the current immigration system tends to be associated with more positive attitudes to immigrants and immigration. Although the effect is generally weak. Respondents with the most knowledge about immigration are more likely to agree that many immigrants stick to their own and do not mix with others and that new immigrants who have not contributed to the country are putting too much strain on our limited resources. By contrast, this group is more likely to believe New Zealanders need to be more tolerant of immigrants, that the diversity immigrants add to New Zealand’s culture is a good thing, and that attracting new immigrants to New Zealand is vital for its economic prosperity. In fact, on most attitude measures, better knowledge of the immigrant situation is associated with more tolerant views.
Knowledge of the immigration situation also has some effect on attitudes to the number of immigrants coming to New Zealand. Those with better knowledge are more in favour of increasing immigrant numbers but this knowledge effect is relatively small. However, there are much clearer trends in attitudes to immigration policy related to knowledge about immigration. Those with better knowledge are stronger supporters of policies to support multiculturalism in New Zealand; but they are also more adamant that immigrants should only be allowed to bring their close family members to New Zealand, that immigrants with HIV/AIDS should not be allowed into the country, and that all immigrants should be compulsorily screened for tuberculosis and hepatitis.
153 Table 14 Attitudes to Immigrants and Immigration: Education Effects, 2006
Percent Agreement Opinions about recent immigrants Non-Tertiary Tertiary Sig p Impact on NZ society and culture Many immigrants stick with their own and do not mix with others 79.7 71.7 .009 The standard of NZ’s food and cuisine has been improved by decades of immigration 72.4 80.2 .011 Immigrants make NZers more open to new ideas and cultures 68.7 76.7 .034 The diversity that immigration adds to NZ ulture is a good thing 54.7 68.7 .001 The recent arrival of many Asian immigrants is changing NZ in undesirable ways 54.5 41.2 .001 Other cultures threaten to over-whelm NZ culture if immigration continues at its present rate 60.5 42.5 .000 Immigrants make a good contribution to many NZ sports 47.3 39.4 .026 Immigrants and the economy Many immigrants are a burden on the social welfare system 62.5 42.4 .000 New immigrants who have not contributed to the country are putting too much strain on our limited resources 76.7 57.5 .000 Multiculutalism NZers need to be more tolerant of immigrants 50.8 56.2 .004 who settle here NZers shold all be part of one common culture 48.6 38.8 .033 Maori interests will be overwhelmed as NZ becomes multicultural 33.3 25.0 .017 The government should be developing policies to support multiculturalism in NZ 49.3 59.5 .013 Immigration policy issues The government should be responsible for helping new immigrants for three to five years after their arrival 22.7 31.0 .002 Asylum seekers who have suffered political repression in their own country should be 27.3 40.0 .002 allowed to stay in NZ Immigrants should only be allowed to bring their close family members to NZ 73.4 66.3 .068 There should be more consultation with the general public about NZ’s immigration policy 83.7 73.3 .003 No immigrants with HIV/AIDS should be allowed into NZ 76.4 68.8 .055 All immigrants should be screened or tested for tuberculosis and hepatitis before being allowed into NZ 94.2 88.2 .004
Contact Effects
Though contact with immigrants and knowledge of the immigration situation are correlated, the effects of contact with immigrants on attitudes
154 to immigration are much stronger and do not always mirror the knowledge effects. The more direct contact people have with immigrants, the more positive and tolerant they are on virtually all immigration issues. Those with higher levels of contact with immigrants are invariably more positive about the contribution of immigrants to the New Zealand economy and society, more in favour of immigrant groups keeping their own customs and traditions, and more supportive of government policies for helping immigrants and promoting multiculturalism. They are much less concerned with the negative aspects of immigration, such as the possibility of immigrants taking jobs away from people born in New Zealand or being a burden on the social welfare system.
CONCLUSION
In 2006, more respondents reported hearing racist remarks about immigrants than in 2003, while more respondents in 2006 considered that the number of immigrants to New Zealand should be increased or remain the same and fewer that it should be reduced. It would be tempting to assume that these views signal the beginning of a more ‘mature’ and liberal stance in public attitudes, a position that comes with considered reflection on local experiences and the accrual of knowledge.
There is some evidence, though it is rather weak, of a ‘hardening’ of attitudes on the matter of immigrants adopting New Zealand traditions and customs as part of a ‘common culture’. There is also evidence, again weak, of a desire for some tightening of immigration policy with regard to asylum seekers and for restricting family reunion (an important factor in the flow of new arrivals) to close family members of those immigrants already here. However, these are rather speculative conclusions that may do no more than mirror media attention to particular issues such as the case of Ahmed Zaoui.
There is also some evidence of an increasing recognition of the value of immigrants to the New Zealand economy in terms of supplying skills that are in short supply. With unemployment at a relatively low level and the need for skilled labour highlighted in the media, such recognition is understandable. The question, of course, is whether or not a positive view of skilled immigrants and their role in the economy would endure if New Zealand were to suffer a reversal of its fortunes in the global economy. It is interesting that the level of satisfaction with the government’s management of immigration applications and immigration policy remains low. This might reflect respondent discomfort with the experience of numerous social, economic and cultural pressures associated with the arrival and settlement of large numbers of immigrants from diverse non-English speaking backgrounds who are often distinctive in terms of ethnicity or ‘race’. Park et al (2004: 196) argue that British respondents were less concerned about the economic impacts associated with immigration (partly because of rising economic prosperity) but
155 were concerned about the social consequences of immigration, especially given media coverage.
A useful indicator with regard to the latter argument is provided by the attitudes of respondents in Auckland compared with respondents elsewhere in New Zealand. The attitudes of Aucklanders proved to be somewhat more negative than those of other New Zealanders, though perhaps less so than might be expected given the greater impact immigration has had on Auckland.
When the effect of age, education and ethnicity on attitudes were examined, some interesting and sometimes surprising results emerged. In particular, younger people generally tended to be less tolerant of immigrants and less supportive of immigration than older people. This pattern of attitude differences runs contrary to what would be expected and warrants further investigation in order to provide a satisfactory explanation. More straight forward was the effect of higher education; those with tertiary education generally have more liberal attitudes to immigrants and immigration than those with non-tertiary education. Finally, with regard to ethnicity, it was found that Maori attitudes to immigrants and immigration were consistently less positive and more negative than those of non-Maori. These differences, suggest that Maori respondents are committed to a bicultural New Zealand; assert a right (under the Treaty of Waitangi) to consultation on immigration policy; and recognise their vulnerability in competition with immigrants for employment opportunities.
REFERENCES CITED
BABBIE, E. 1990: Survey Research Methods (second edition), Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California. BEDFORD, R., HO, E. and LIDGARD, J. 2005a: From targets to outcomes: immigration policy in New Zealand 1996-2003, pp. 1-43, in A. Trlin, P. Spoonley and N. Watts, (eds.) New Zealand and International Migration: A Digest and Bibliography, No. 4, School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work, Massey University, Palmerston North. BEDFORD, R., LIDGARD, J. and HO, E. 2005b: Arrivals, departures and net migration, 1996/97-2002/03, pp. 44-69, in A. Trlin, P. Spoonley and N. Watts (eds.) New Zealand and International Migration: A Digest and Bibliography, No. 4, School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work, Massey University, Palmerston North. BUTCHER, A., SPOONLEY, P. and TRLIN, A. 2006: Being Accepted: The Experience of Discrimination and Social Exclusion by Immigrants and Refugees in New Zealand, New Settlers Programme Occasional Publication No. 13, Massey University, Palmerston North. CRAWLEY, H. 2005: Evidence on Attitudes to Asylum and Immigration: What We Know, Don’t Know and Need to Know, Working Paper No. 23, Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, University of Oxford, Oxford.
156 GENDALL, P. 2004: National Identity, International Social Survey Programme, Department of Marketing, Massey University, Palmerston North. GENDALL, P., SPOONLEY, P. and TRLIN, A. 2007: The Attitudes of New Zealanders to Immigrants and Immigration: 2003 and 2006 Compared, New Settlers Programme, Massey University, Palmerston North. GOOT, M. and WATSON, I 2005: ‘Immigration, multiculturalism and national ‘identity’, pp.182-203 in S. Wilson, et al (eds) Australian Social Attitudes, UNSW Press, Sydney. HATTON, T.J. and WILLIAMSON, J.G. 2005: Global Migration and the World Economy. Two Centuries of Policy and Performance, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. LI, P.S. 2003: Destination Canada. Immigration Debates and Issues, Oxford University Press, Toronto. MANNING, S., RYAN, Y. and SMALL, K. 2004: ‘I Almost Forgot the Moon’: The Disinformation Campaign Against Ahmed Zaoui, Multimedia Investments, Auckland. NEW ZEALAND IMMIGRATION SERVICE 2004: A Future Together: The New Zealand Settlement Strategy in Outline, Department of Labour, Wellington. PARK, A., CURTICE, J., THOMSON, K., BROMLEY, C. and PHILLIPS, M. 2004: British Social Attitudes, London, Sage. SPOONLEY, P. 1993: Racism and Ethnicity (second edition), Oxford University Press, Auckland. SPOONLEY, P. 1997: North Shore: A Post-Suburban Landscape? North Shore Project, Working Paper No. 1, Department of Sociology, Massey University, Albany. SPOONLEY, P. and TRLIN, A. 2004: Immigration, Immigrants and the Media: Making Sense of Multicultural New Zealand, New Settlers Programme Occasional Publication No. 9, Massey University, Palmerston North. SPOONLEY, P. 2005: Print Media representations of immigration and immigrants, 1993-2003, pp. 86-106 in A. Trlin, P. Spoonley and N. Watts, (eds.) New Zealand and International Migration: A Digest and Bibliography, No. 4, School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work, Massey University, Palmerston North. SPOONLEY, P., GENDALL, P. and TRLIN, A. 2007: Welcome to Our World: The Attitudes of New Zealanders to Immigrants and Immigration, New Settlers Programme Occasional Publication No. 14, Massey University, Palmerston North. SMITH, N. 2004: Lifting the veil, Listener, 196(3368):14-17. TRLIN, A.D., HENDERSON, A. and PERNICE, R. 1998: Asian immigration, public attitudes and immigration policy: patterns and responses in New Zealand, pp.227-248, in E. Laquian, A. Laquian, and T. McGee (eds.) The Silent Debate: Asian Immigration and Racism in Canada, Institute of Asian Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. TRLIN, A.D., SPOONLEY, P. and WATTS, N. (eds.) 2005: New Zealand and International Migration: A Digest and Bibliography, Number 4, School of
157 Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work in association with the New Settlers Programme, Massey University, Palmerston North. TURIA, T. 2007: ‘Maori concerns can not be brushed aside’, Press release, Maori Party, 2 February. WARD, C. and MASGORET, A-M. 2005: Attitudes toward immigrants, immigration and immigration policy. Invited presentation at the Foundation for Research, Science, & Technology’s End-users’ Seminar on Migration, Wellington.
158 5
MOVING TO NEW ZEALAND IN 1997/98: THE EXPERIENCE AND REFLECTIONS OF SKILLED SOUTH AFRICANS
Andrew Trlin
After decades of a small but steady stream of arrivals and net gains for permanent and long-term residence (PLT), the flow of South African citizens to New Zealand began to increase in the mid-1980s (Trainor, 1990; Bedford, 2004). This PLT flow surged in the early 1990s with 5,642 arrivals (and a net gain of 5,375 arrivals over departures) for the period 1 April 1991 to 31 March 1996, and reached ‘spring tide’ proportions in the second half of the 1990s with 10,318 arrivals (yielding a net gain of 10,094) between 1 April 1996 and 31 March 2001.
However, as Bedford (2004:365) points out, these figures fail to convey the true magnitude of South African immigration during the 1990s. They do not include temporary migrants arriving on visitor or work permits and subsequently approved for permanent residence. Nor do they include persons choosing to travel or apply for residence with a British or Dutch passport to avoid difficulties in the late 1980s and early 1990s before the end of apartheid. Another measure of the change that occurred is the number of applications for permanent residence approved by the New Zealand Immigration Service for South African citizens; 18,500 for the five years ending 30 June 2001 (during which time they were ranked as either the second or third nationality for approvals). Multiply 18,500 by a factor of three or four to roughly account for single as well as married applicants (accompanied by a spouse and two or more children), and a total of 55,500- 74,000 individuals is startling until one realises that not every application approved is actually taken up and translated into permanent arrivals. Even the New Zealand census birthplace statistics (e.g. 26,061 South African-born in the 2001 census) are misleading as an indicator of an immigrant group’s size or growth from one census to another because many ‘South Africans’ were born elsewhere – Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia), the United Kingdom, or other African and European countries. In other words, immigration from South Africa increased rapidly during the 1990s but both the magnitude of the inflow and the size of this immigrant population are open to debate.
Whatever the true scale of immigration and growth, settlers from South Africa have become one of New Zealand’s largest foreign-born groups. But like British migrants, they were all but ignored by New Zealand researchers in comparison to the attention given to contemporary immigration from Taiwan,
159 Hong Kong, South Korea, China and India (see Trlin, 1992; Trlin and Barnard, 1997; Trlin, 2005; and Trlin and Bedford in this volume). This paucity of research has been noted in Australia as well (Louw and Mersham, 2001:306). In both cases, the ‘invisibility’ of South Africans has been posited as an explanation, albeit for different reasons – their inherent lack of ethnic and socio-economic distinctiveness (Bedford, 2004:355) and their desire ‘to simply assimilate’ (Louw and Mersham, 2001:306).
An interest in ‘visible’ others is easily justified by reference to their difficulties and hardships experienced in the course of adjustment to the new society and their encounters with its members, organisations and institutions. There are, however, two obvious drawbacks with such a justification. They are a tendency to: belittle the difficulties faced by ‘less visible’ and ‘invisible’ others; and to assume that research on such groups will add little of value to our knowledge about international migration, immigrant settlement and related issues. But are the difficulties faced by an ‘invisible’ group such as the South Africans so minor that they escape the hardships, stresses and strains experienced by other ‘visible’ immigrant groups? Does the experience of such a group really add little to our knowledge of international migration and immigrant settlement, to a better comparative appreciation of the experience of ‘visible’ groups or even to the informed development and implementation of policies that enhance benefits accruing to the country of destination?
With the above points and questions in mind, this paper explores the experience and reflections about moving to New Zealand in 1997/98 of a group of skilled South Africans. Topics examined include: the decision to migrate; the reasons for migration; pre-migration knowledge and experience of New Zealand as a destination; the need for information and its assessment; the use of immigration consultants; getting a job offer before migration or permanent residence; and the submission of a residence application. In addition to addressing a phase in the process of international migration too often neglected in research, the key objectives are: to contribute to an understanding of a group that has been more or less ignored by researchers; to demonstrate that the difficulties experienced by this group were far from minor; and to provide a point of reference for further studies of South African migration and settlement in New Zealand.
PARTICIPANTS AND DATA COLLECTION
This paper is based on data collected in the first phase of a five-year longitudinal study (1998-2002) conducted as part of ‘The New Settlers Programme’ (see Trlin et al., 1998). Dictated by the resources available under a contract with the funding body, the study involved three small panels of recent immigrants and their families from China, India and South Africa. The South African panel consisted of Principal Applicants (PAs) and their accompanying family members approved for residence under the terms and
160 conditions of the General Skills Category regulations introduced in 1995 or its predecessor, the General Category introduced in 1991. The PAs were assessed using a points system which focused upon age, educational qualifications, work experience and the capacity to settle (see Appendix 1). Proficiency in the English language, though not awarded points, was also taken into account.
Participant recruitment for all three panels was difficult. In the absence of reliable, comprehensive sampling frames, random sampling techniques could not be employed. However, it was known that new skilled migrants tended to settle primarily in the Auckland and (to a lesser extent) Wellington metropolitan areas. Recruitment was therefore directed to potential participants in these two areas and (in the case of the South Africans) was accomplished with the assistance of the New Zealand Immigration Service (NZIS). Using official records, a list was made of South African PAs who: had been approved under the General Category or General Skills Category; had taken up permanent residence between late July 1997 and the end of July 1998 – as part of the ‘spring tide’ phase (Bedford, 2004) of immigration from South Africa; and who were resident in either the Auckland or Wellington metropolitan areas. To protect the identity of potential participants and to ensure voluntary participation, the NZIS posted to persons included in the list a brochure containing information about the New Settlers Programme and an invitation to participate in the longitudinal study, together with a covering letter.
This recruitment procedure yielded a total of 35 South African PAs, all of whom were residing in the Auckland metropolitan area. They were predominantly males (80%), typically accompanied to New Zealand by a spouse/partner (91.4%) and 1-3 children (77%). Reflecting the General Category/General Skills Category points system selection criteria (see Appendix 1), they were: in the age range 20-45 years, with a mean age of 41 years; and in most cases well educated professionals – 66 percent had either a degree and/or another post-graduate qualification. English (85.7%) or Afrikaans (14.3%) were identified as their first language, with the latter also identified as the most common second language. Twelve of the 35 PAs reported that they (4) and/or their spouse partner (10) were born outside South Africa – usually Zimbabwe (7) or the United Kingdom (3). Consisting almost completely of ‘whites’ (usually Anglos or Afrikaners), the panel also included 1 ‘coloured’ family and 1 ‘South African Indian’ family.
To maintain confidentiality and privacy, the participants (PAs) will be referred to by their first names alone with a family name first letter initial where required to distinguish between two or more participants with the same first name. This technique provides those concerned and their immediate family members with an accessible record of their experience and reflections.
161 Data were collected via an annual in-depth questionnaire administered in English, usually via a face-to-face interview. For the first phase of the longitudinal study, the PAs were interviewed over the period May to August 1998, approximately 1-9 months after taking up residence in New Zealand. Information collected included personal details about the migrant and other resident members of his/her household, together with data about housing, language, employment, social participation and health. The first interview also included a section on the immigration process that consisted of a set of closed-ended questions and two open-ended questions, one of which invited the PA (with the spouse/partner joining in) to reflect on his/her experience and to indicate what advice would be offered to a friend coming to New Zealand. Responses to the open-ended questions proved to be very important in clarifying and augmenting answers to other questions, and for identifying significant additional topics or issues.
THE IDEA AND DECISION TO MIGRATE
As expected, the idea of migrating to New Zealand was claimed to be the PA’s – either alone (42.9%) or jointly with a spouse/partner (48.6%). Only rarely was it attributed to a spouse/partner alone (8.6%). On the other hand, it became clear in the interviews that the actual decision to migrate was typically a joint decision for each couple – a ‘crucial’ feature according to one PA, who said ‘If it’s one-sided it’s doomed’ (Vorster). Sometimes, this decision could be triggered by a relatively mundane matter or event:
…I actually sat down applying for posts in England and the greyness of the weather descended upon me, and I thought I couldn’t do this especially for [my wife’s] sake. She’s the last of the big sun worshippers… A number of our friends were leaving [for New Zealand] at the same time and we said ‘We know these people so well, it must be okay. Let’s just go for it’ (Ernest).
More commonly, however, it was clear that the decision was reached after a lengthy process of fact finding and a careful consideration of various factors, both at home and abroad.
No matter how carefully the decision was made, however, its implications and effects could weigh heavily upon the future migrant. Facing up to the often difficult and emotional task of saying farewell to relatives and friends, for example, was hard enough at the best of times. But it now signaled that one was also leaving: a way of life; a culture; a place that one was intimately familiar with and at ease in; a web of personal relationships that might or might not be maintained; and a once assured but now uncertain future for another that (in some respects) was equally uncertain. A feeling of loss could develop and, with it a kind of grief:
162 …it’s more difficult leaving your family and friends behind than you ever think… Ah, I found it very stressful… And I now know why. I actually got reasonably depressed... Yeah, the year before we left, when I really decided that we had to go to New Zealand and that was the right place to be, I went through quite a mourning kind of process… (Ray).
Four decision-making themes emerged from their reflections and statements on advice they would offer to friends. First was the need for informed decisions because the immigration process was found to be stressful, and ‘the stress lessens as your knowledge increases’ (Stuart A.). To achieve this, friends would be advised to seek out the best information available from various sources, such as: people who had already migrated (often cited as the most useful and reliable source); the internet; official government publications (for the quality of life, housing costs, schooling etc.); and the NZIS, which provided a comprehensive package that enabled a GSC applicant to determine their ‘real chances…[in terms of] the points system’ (Paula).
Another theme, well illustrated by two wives, was the need to recognise the enormity of the decision with regard to the change that followed and the adjustment to be made:
…it’s very difficult to give advice to somebody about this because it’s such a personal thing and a really, really big step… I mean it’s not just the move from one place to another. It’s really a total change in your whole life and everything you do…
Just make sure that they know what they are letting themselves in for… there’s a lot of adjusting you have got to make… It’s quite traumatic leaving everything you know behind and coming to a strange place… Well I think it’s the fear of the unknown, you don’t actually know what’s waiting for you there.
While change and adjustment would be faced by all family members, both wives were indirectly referring to a topic that few were willing to be more explicit about; namely, that for a variety of reasons, migration was harder for women. This was evidenced in part in later interviews which revealed that women (be they PAs or spouses/partners) were more susceptible to being homesick.
The third theme concerned the impact of migration on children, and especially their ability to cope with the outcomes of a decision imposed on them by parents. Preparation was the key to success: ‘…be sure that they have got the general understanding of where they are going, what’s going to happen, [because] it affects them as well’ (Vorster). In general, it was agreed that younger children were best able to adjust and adapt but caution was strongly advised if the decision to move involved teenagers:
163 …what’s maybe even worse is separating your kids from their friends. I would say that if you move with children over the age of thirteen, think very carefully about doing that. Just from experience and what I have seen with other people, by the time they are fifteen it’s [very difficult]… (Ray).
… think it through very, very carefully if you are going to immigrate with a teenager. That’s a very difficult thing. And I think you have just got to be prepared for the worst… (Andria).
Similar points about the needs and vulnerability of children, especially teenagers, have been made by Harrison and Nortje (2000).
Finally, there was what could be described as a psycho-social dimension to the decision-making which appeared to embrace three aspects. First, recognising that a delay in decision-making was unsettling for a family and could prolong a period of potentially harmful instability, there was a need to avoid procrastination. As one PA put it:
Just make up your mind. Are you going to go or not? And if you are going to go, just go full out and go for it…there are so many people that are spending two, three years dilly-dallying between should I go, shouldn’t I go…I would just say make a decision and then stick with that decision… (Susan).
Second, having made the decision, there was a need to ‘…believe in yourself and that you are doing the best thing for your family’ (Andria). In essence, this was a matter of self-confidence to avoid back-sliding and to provide the positive leadership needed by other family members. And last but not least in importance was the willingness to make a commitment to New Zealand ‘…because you can’t just come along, live here and, you know, skim the surface’ (Doug). In other words, if the decision to take up permanent residence in New Zealand was to produce anything more than long-term sojourners mixing with other South Africans and nostalgically pondering the prospects for return migration, it was necessary (before moving) to make a conscious commitment to engage in a process of social integration.
THE REASONS FOR MIGRATION
Why did they leave South Africa and why did they come to New Zealand? To answer this question, the PAs were asked to specify up to three main reasons for: (a) their departure from South Africa; and (b) their migration to New Zealand. Not all of the 35 participants offered three reasons in each case (with a possible total of 105 reasons). As expected, given the nature of the questions, the general pattern of responses was one of negative ‘push’ and positive ‘pull’ factors or reasons for leaving South Africa and migrating to New Zealand, respectively.
164 As shown in Table 1, three categories accounted for almost all (91%) of the reasons given for leaving South Africa. Of these three categories, the first was by far the most important. Encompassing various reasons for emigration (ranging from deteriorating economic conditions to declining social, educational and political standards), it was dominated by one particular factor – increasing crime and violence and an associated fear for personal and/or familial security which accounted for 33 of the 40 responses. Extreme examples of crime and violence cited by PAs as victims included the attempted rape of a daughter and aggravated robbery. More common was the daily need for various security measures at home and security conscious restraints on behaviour in the public domain. Recalling their home and neighbourhood in South Africa, for example, one PA (Yvonne) and her husband declared that:
…there were other things that made it unpleasant to live there. Like you could set your watch on a Friday night by the time you heard the first gunshots… We come back to the same things, we come back to the crime, the violence, all that sort of thing…We wouldn’t consider walking from our apartment block down to the local shopping area, simply because we didn’t feel safe any time of the day or night. We lived behind remote controlled electric gates in a building that had two security guards full-time. We lived within a prison of our own making simply because we wanted to feel secure.
The reasons for emigrating included in the second and third categories were relatively straightforward. With over three-quarters of the PAs accompanied by children, a predictable concern for their child(ren)’s future (notably their education) figured strongly among the ‘push’ factors. This concern, like the perceived lack of career and/or employment opportunities for themselves, reflected an assessment in the mid-1990s by some PAs of less favourable prospects in the new South Africa. Having witnessed the end of apartheid, the advent of a government led by the African National Congress (ANC), the deterioration of the economy and living standards, and especially the introduction of affirmative action programmes for black South Africans, many were sceptical about their social standing and prospects once the moderate, stabilising influence of an elderly Nelson Mandela came to an end. One PA bluntly declared that he saw ‘limited opportunities for whites’, another pondered ‘the prospect of second class citizenship’, and a ‘coloured’ PA claimed that – being ‘neither black nor white’ – he was ‘caught in a stagnant position career wise’.
165 Table 1 Main Reasons for Leaving South Africa and Migrating to New Zealand
Leaving Migrating to South Africa New Zealand Main reasons No. % No. % Social and economic reasons 40 44.9 11 12.4 Child(ren)’s future 25 28.1 11 12.4 Opportunities lacking/offered for oneself 16 18.0 12 13.5 Lifestyle and/or culture 6 6.8 28 31.5 Contacts (relatives etc.) in New Zealand - - 8 8.9 New Zealand’s immigration policy - - 8 8.9 Other reasons 2 2.3 11 12.4 Total 89 100.0 89 100.0
Together accounting for 38.3 percent of responses, the first three categories of reasons for migrating to New Zealand (Table 1) were the mirror opposites of those for emigrating from South Africa. New Zealand was perceived to be politically stable, economically sound with reasonably good social services, and (in particular) to be relatively free of the crime and violence that threatened personal safety in South Africa. These features underpinned positive assessments of future prospects for both children and the PA’s own career advancement or employment. That said, the fourth category of reasons – ‘lifestyle and/or culture’ – was clearly the most important individual category (31.5% of responses) and probably influenced other perceptions and assessments. The reasons here mainly concerned New Zealand’s similarities with South Africa (e.g. English language, cultural heritage, outdoor living and sport) and/or its slower pace of life and perceived social ‘openness’ in comparison with other overseas destinations. Finally, two other reasons (each accounting for almost 9% of responses) were also of some importance, namely: ‘contacts’ – the attraction of and/or favourable reports from relatives and friends – the significance of which is understated here (see below); and New Zealand’s immigration policy. With regard to the latter reason, it was discovered that while 3 PAs had simultaneously applied to migrate to New Zealand and another country, at least 5 others had either previously applied for or considered residence elsewhere and found that they only qualified in relation to New Zealand’s points system for skilled migrants. It seems, therefore, that in the great majority of cases, New Zealand was positively chosen as a preferred destination, rather than being a default option with negative implications for adjustment and long-term settlement.
Allowing for differences in emphasis and ranking, the reasons for leaving South Africa identified in this study are consistent with those reported by other researchers in South Africa and elsewhere (e.g. van Rooyen, 2000:72- 114; Louw and Mersham, 2001:315-322; Horowitz and Kaplan, 2001:12-17; Crush, 2002:152-155), and by journalists and other South Africans in New Zealand (e.g. Chamberlain, 1998; van den Berg, 1999; Harrison and Nortje, 2000; Smith, 2001; Schoonees, 2005). In particular, the issue of increasing
166 crime, violence and personal safety has figured very prominently. That said, there are two further points to note.
First, the perceived effect of affirmative action programmes, mentioned by several PAs, appeared to underlie (to some degree) concerns about the perceived and actual deterioration of social services (notably education), economic conditions and opportunities for both PAs and their children. This is understandable. As Louw and Mersham (2001:316-322) argue, the affirmative action programmes: were introduced to redress decades of black deprivation in accord with the ANC’s policies of black empowerment and corrective action; could easily be interpreted as the latest phase in a history of hierarchical re-ranking and catch-up nationalism that had previously advantaged Anglos and then Afrikaners; and which therefore suggested that South Africa would remain a race-based society characterised by racial conflict. Such perceptions would have been reinforced by Thabo Mbeki’s view of South Africa as a country of ‘two nations’, an impoverished black majority and a well-off white minority, which offered no real prospects of peace, reconciliation and unity until the social and economic position of blacks was more rapidly and substantially improved (see van Rooyen, 2000:108-112; Louw and Mersham, 2001:317-318). Mbeki first aired his views publicly in May 1998, shortly after some of the participants in this study had departed for New Zealand and as others were either leaving or preparing to depart.
The second point concerns the financial incentive to emigrate. Not directly addressed by the PAs but perhaps implied in their first and third reasons for leaving South Africa, this incentive has been examined by Myburgh (2002) via an emigration index. With the incentive to emigrate made up of the difference between dollar wages, purchasing power parity wages, unemployment and the value of savings in South Africa versus the destination country (e.g. New Zealand), the index is worked out by adding together the present values (positive and negative) of emigrating for ages 22 to 65 to determine the balance of incentives across all ages. His analysis for New Zealand revealed (Myburgh, 2002:19) ‘a stronger relationship between emigration and the incentive to emigrate during the 1990s than during the 1980s’ and that emigration ‘lagged [behind] changes in the incentive to emigrate by one year’. Significantly, he (Myburgh, 2002:19) also pointed out that:
The sharp increase in emigration to New Zealand that followed the dramatic increase in the incentive to emigrate [1990-1993] coincided with the relaxing of emigration controls…[which allowed] South Africans to take advantage of these incentives in a way that they could not do during the 1980s.
The relaxed ‘emigration controls’ referred to are in fact the points system policy for skilled migrants introduced in New Zealand in 1991 and amended in 1995. A relaxing of restrictions on the removal of currency from
167 South Africa did not occur until the second half of the 1990s but may have benefited the PAs in this study, contributing to the ‘spring tide’ (Bedford, 2004: 364-368) of South African arrivals between 1996 and 2001.
Obviously Myburgh’s argument about the relaxing of ‘emigration controls’ adds weight to the importance of New Zealand’s immigration policy which was mentioned by only a few of the PAs as a reason for coming here. Substantive support for the other reasons – less crime and violence, better opportunities etc. – is lacking in the absence of a large body of research on South African immigrants but can be gleaned from anecdotes in the reports of journalists (e.g. van den Berg, 1999:33; Smith, 2001:61) or the short accounts of other South African new settlers (e.g. Schoonees, 2005). Finally, it is worth noting that lifestyle and/or culture, the most important category among the reasons for migrating to New Zealand, was matched by the perception of shared culture and other similarities as an explanation for Australia as the destination of choice (see Louw and Mersham, 2001:325-326). The similarities and cultural connectivities between Australians and especially Anglo-Africans (i.e. British colonial histories, English language, sport etc.) could, of course, be just as easily applied to New Zealanders and South Africans.
PRE-MIGRATION NEW ZEALAND EXPERIENCE AND CONTACT
The array of positive ‘pull’ factors or reasons for migrating to New Zealand strongly implies that the PAs, rather than embarking for terra incognita, had developed informed perceptions of their destination before deciding to move, departing from South Africa and/or taking up permanent residence here. If so, their perceptions would have been developed (at least in part) as a result of personal experience in and/or various types of contact with their new home country. As shown in Table 2, this proved to be the case. In particular, it was found that: more than two-thirds had friends and more than one-third had family members or other relatives in New Zealand; almost one-third had previously established ‘business contacts’ (often with organisations or individuals involved in the participant’s own professional, trade or business area); almost two-thirds had previously visited New Zealand; almost half were actually ‘living’ here as temporary migrants when their residence applications were approved; and almost half were already employed or had a job arranged here before taking up permanent residence.
Although the presence of relatives and friends abroad is well known as a significant source of information, encouragement and assistance in the process of migration – and would be emulated during their first four years in New Zealand by many of the PAs for their own relatives and friends still in South Africa (see Trlin et al., 2001; Johnston et al., 2006) – less attention has been given to the importance of personal experience. This is understandable given the restraints placed on short-term international travel in previous decades by the transport available, the time needed, the costs involved and
168 the visa and other immigration requirements in place. But times have changed. By the mid-1990s, prospective migrants found that they could take advantage of rapid air travel (albeit still relatively expensive) and more flexible visa arrangements to undertake short trips in order to explore, gather information and to make informed first-hand assessments of possible destinations (as well as to assess their personal ability to adjust or adapt). Such trips could also be combined with job hunting to bolster their ‘points score’ for a permanent residence application.
Table 2 Personal Experience of and/or Contacts in New Zealand Before Permanent Residence Approved (N=35)
Experience and/or contacts before taking up permanent residence No. % Had previously visited New Zealand 23 65.7 Already in New Zealand when residence approved 17 48.6 Already employed or had job arranged in New Zealand 17 48.6 Had family members or other relatives in New Zealand 13 37.1 Had friends in New Zealand 24 68.6 Had ethnic association contact(s) in New Zealand 4 11.4 Had business contacts in New Zealand 11 31.4
But was the personal experience via a previous visit as reported by the PAs (65.7%) typical of all South Africans approved for residence at about the same time or was it a feature unique to the members of the panel involved in this study? An answer to this question was provided by the NZIS (1999) in an examination of links between temporary entry and residence using a random sample of PAs approved for residence in 1998. For South African citizens in three combined residence categories (i.e. the 1991 General Category, 1995 General Skills Category and 1995 Business Investor Category), it was found that 69.4 percent had been to New Zealand as temporary migrants on either a visitor’s (45.1%) or a work permit (24.3%) before being approved for residence. Comparable percentages for PAs who were citizens of Great Britain, China and India were 48.3, 23.6 and 16.3% respectively. Clearly, the personal experience of panel members involved in the present study was not unique, and skilled South African PAs as a whole were leading the field in their use of a short-term permit as a precursor to residence.
Seventeen PAs (48.6%) included a so-called ‘look see’ trip in the advice they would give to a friend, and several others – apparently taking it for granted – advocated activities commonly undertaken during such a trip. A measure of the perceived importance and value of a pre-migration visit can be readily gained from the following comments:
I think it’s not just important that people try and visit, I think it is imperative that they do visit… [to see for themselves] how you live here and if they can relate to the values…it’s not just this beautiful green and virgin land of the long white cloud… That’s
169 not the reality of the lifestyle and the existence of the people…there is the ugly side to the society… they need to know everything about what it is that they are going into (Doug).
…the country is completely different from what you are coming from so that’s why I think the ‘look see’ trip is vital…it’s a bit of a culture shock... And I feel that if you get off the plane and you have never been here before, it could be quite overwhelming. So I think that money that we spent the first time to come over was well worth it because it helps to acclimatise you to the country... I know people that have never been here before, that arrive here and they all say ‘Oh it’s wonderful’. I’m sorry, I don’t see how you can adapt to something completely different from what you are so used to... I think those are the people that after a couple of months are going to say ‘I want to go back’ (Stuart A.).
…Ernest came to have a look. I didn’t come for a visit before we arrived. But I think somebody in the family must so that you know what you are going to. I would hate to set off and not have a clue what I was going to (Ernest’s wife).
Similar points were made by others. The general theme, expressed in one way or another, was that it was only through the personal experience of a ‘look see’ trip that prospective migrants could really determine whether or not they liked the people, the weather, the lack of domestic help, the smaller houses, the roads or any other ‘stupid small thing that can send somebody home’ (Peter L.).
INFORMATION NEEDS AND ASSESSMENTS
Despite the benefits of personal experience and/or contacts with New Zealand, there was still a widely reported need among the PAs for information before, after or in lieu of a ‘look see’ trip. This need included (see Table 3) information about two topics of particular importance to skilled migrants – job prospects and the recognition of qualifications – as well as housing, health care, the culture and customs of New Zealanders, and sundry other topics (e.g. the cost of living, insurance, a driver’s license etc.) which were predictably dominated by parental concerns for their children’s education and school access under residential zoning regulations.
Prompted by the decision-making process, forward thinking about numerous aspects of settlement in another country or to cover the contingencies of international travel, the need for information was sometimes disquieting when an apparent void was encountered. In the great majority of cases, however, some or all of the information was obtained from one or more sources that included newspapers and magazines, immigration consultants, relatives and friends and other New Zealand contacts (e.g. the NZIS). For the
170 recognition of qualifications, for example, the two main sources of information were immigration consultants and other New Zealand contacts, with the latter being by far the most important and including organisations directly related to the skills and qualifications of the PA or the PA’s spouse/partner (e.g. New Zealand Nursing Council, New Zealand Institute of Charted Accountants) as well as the New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA).
Table 3 Felt Need for Information on Various Topics Before Taking Up Residence in New Zealand (N=35)
Felt need for information about New Zealand concerning.. No. % Job prospects 30 85.7 Recognition of qualifications (for self and/or spouse) 19 54.3 Housing 28 80.0 Health care 25 71.4 Culture/customs 20 57.1 Other topics/issues (e.g. children’s education) 29 82.9
Unfortunately, the information obtained did not always meet the PA’s needs. For example, a rating of ‘helpful’ or ‘very helpful’ for information obtained was made by 16 of the 19 PAs (84.2%) who needed and got the type of information they required on the recognition of qualifications but by only 16 of the 29 PAs (55.2%) who got information on job prospects. The rating for information on the recognition of qualifications probably reflected the authoritative standing of providers (see above), though this was not always the case:
..[the information received] was not helpful at all… One is left – after having NZQA assess your qualifications – with the impression that that’s it, you are able to go to New Zealand and work there as a teacher because…they recognise your qualifications, but in actual fact that’s not true at all. You need to go through the [professional] registration process (Doug).
For job prospects, on the other hand, the sources were more often limited or misleading with regard to the information and advice provided:
The whole purpose in fact of subscribing to the newspaper was to try and find a job to get the extra couple of points we needed [for the residence application]… And it was unable to do that. So it wasn’t very helpful simply because it was a very limited information source. It was just adverts that we were looking at (Graham).
…the information we were given was not accurate. We came with the specific expectation that [my husband] would be able to get
171 work immediately because a nursing agency had been in South Africa, and they said that – literally – ‘You can walk tomorrow and the next day we will organise you a job’ and that information wasn’t correct. So that wasn’t particularly helpful. We came with the wrong expectations (Susan).
As for information about a host of other topics concerning life in New Zealand, there was little doubt among those who commented on the matter that one of the best sources – ‘incredibly useful’, though ‘a lot of it is pretty meaningless until you get here’ (Pierre) – was the settlement kit provided by the NZIS when a residence application was approved. The problem, however, was that not everyone received it. Those missing out included PAs still in South Africa when their application was approved as well as those who had lodged, and had their applications approved, while in New Zealand on a short- term permit/visa. It was an unfortunate system failure that left some PAs and their families to make do with less useful or unhelpful information as they grappled with the whole process of migration and/or initial settlement in a new country.
USING AN IMMIGRATION CONSULTANT/AGENT
Over 70 percent of the PAs used an immigration consultant (a.k.a agent) in either South Africa or New Zealand to assist with their application for residence, while the remainder completed an application on their own. The main reasons for using this service concerned the time, effort and sometimes the expertise needed by already busy applicants: to collect supporting documents; to complete, check and submit the application in accord with the requirements of the GSC for permanent residence in New Zealand; and (in the absence of New Zealand diplomatic representation in South Africa until 1996) to get guidance regarding measures needed to attain the necessary ‘points score’ for a successful application (see Appendix 1). Given a desire to save time, to be hassle free or simply to dispel uncertainty or waning confidence, the majority of the PAs using a consultant also took advantage of other assistance provided by the consultant before (and in a few cases after) they took up permanent residence to facilitate decision making, moving and initial settlement (see Table 4).
But did the immigration consultants actually meet the needs or fulfill the expectations of the PAs involved? Reflecting on their experience, only 12 of the 25 who had used a consultant were positive, 9 were negative and 4 were more or less neutral in their assessments. In most cases, their reasons were straightforward. On the positive side, the reasons were well illustrated by three participants as follows:
…he just pointed me in the right direction, even about where to buy a cheap bed… [He had] a web site [called Soft Landings] which is very useful for new immigrants…and sometimes when I
172 was feeling very stressed out, he was just a reassuring kind of person… Just calmed me down…made me feel it was going to be okay… (Debbi).
Well he was our major source of information. Whatever we needed information on, we went to him and we asked him about the schools, we asked him about the housing… He also had in his office a lot of [up to date] newspapers from New Zealand. …and what was also very nice was that he was from New Zealand, so one could say ‘Look we live in this area…what is more or less the equivalent in New Zealand?’ Because that’s quite a thing just to arrive in a place and you don’t know any area whosoever… So that was extremely helpful to us (Susan).
…he took all the information we had and he also took photocopies of our birth certificates…he realised yes he could get us in…and he then filled out all the documentation, couriered it to us, put crosses in the margins where we had to sign or where there was some information missing. Did all that. We then had the medicals done, police clearance and whatever was necessary and then couriered it back to him. We sent it back to him in November and, by February, we were accepted (William).
Other participants praised the efficiency, upfront honesty and/or the sound knowledge and expertise of their consultant with regard to immigration policy and admission criteria. But all of these were the fortunate PAs. Often well aware of the dubious reputation of some consultants, thanks to media reports and the experience of friends or associates, they had by good luck or careful selection found a consultant who was worth the money paid.
Table 4 Use of an Immigration Consultant/Agent and Service Provided
‘Yes’ Questions No. % Did you use an immigration consultant/agent to help you with your 25 71.4 application for residence in New Zealand? (N=35) Did the immigration consultant/agent provide you with any other 15 60.0 assistance before you took up permanent residence? (N=25) Did this immigration consultant/agent provide you with any help 6 24.0 after you took up permanent residence in New Zealand? (N=25)
Regrettably, many other participants were not as fortunate. Their experiences and reflections included cases of gross inefficiency, inaccessibility, failure to keep appointments, failure to provide services agreed upon, extortion and exploitative fees for services of inferior quality. Among the examples cited by dissatisfied PAs were the following:
173 It cost us almost ZAR10,000 – which is about $NZ3,500 – and it was not value for money. …our brief to them was ‘Here is our application’, a big envelope about an inch thick, ‘it’s complete. I only need a job, get me a job’ [to get the required number of points]. So I gave him my CV and copies of all my certificates, everything they could possibly need, and they met me more than once. And off they went. In the meantime, in January 1997, the points [needed to gain entry under the GSC] came back down to 25. And I phoned the consultant, and I said to him, ‘The points came down yesterday…what have you done with my application?’ Of course, the answer is nothing but – from my phone call – they then pushed everything through to London and…it went through… So the only reason we had employed the consultants was in fact to get me a job. They never got me a job (Graham).
[We initially used an immigration consultant, to do some of the documentation etc., but didn’t carry on with the consultant]…the main reason was they bungled our NZQA application… We actually submitted it in South Africa in March. We came here [to New Zealand] in July, but it hadn’t been approved… NZQA had sent it back to South Africa because the consultant didn’t complete it properly… And we kept on phoning them and they would never return the phone calls or the faxes we sent them and there was just delay after delay. Eventually we decided to just take things into our own hands and I did the whole application right here, by myself (Jeremy).
…it was just a money making racket right from the beginning. We lost ZAR5,000 with just one signature. That was it. The information that he took from us and sent in to NZQA and that sort of thing, would not be released to us, after like several months, unless we paid another ZAR3,000. I had closed my workshop, I’d had no source of income for the last five months, but he has got ZAR5,000 of mine, he has got all my personal documents, my apprenticeship papers, everything which he didn’t want to release unless I paid him the further ZAR3,000…Well I took my personal documents from him. I took them out of the file, and I said to him I would carry it further with lawyers and that, which I didn’t do because you do feel that you would never get anywhere (Quinton).
Identified by the participants, the consultants involved in these and other such cases were not all South African-born. They included New Zealanders operating in South Africa, some of whom had offices or contacts in Auckland as well. Occasionally appearing in media reports of malpractice, these consultants were part of an industry that was acknowledged by a majority of its New Zealand members during the late 1990s to be in need of
174 professional regulation and registration (Lovelock and Trlin, 2000:24-31; see also New Zealand Immigration Service, 2001).
While the PAs reflecting on their experience were roughly split between the positive and negative assessment categories, a marked shift in attitudes occurred when it came to the advice they would offer to a friend. Only 6 stated they would recommend using a consultant, 13 said they would not and the remaining 6 were neutral or somewhat ambivalent (explaining that it depended on the degree of urgency, available time and money, and selection of a proven service provider). At odds with the advice offered by Harrison and Nortje (2000) to South Africans emigrating to New Zealand, the key to these responses was not the predictable stance of those who had fared poorly in the hands of consultants but the realisation of PAs across the board (particularly those whose assessment of their own experience was positive) that the application for residence was not as difficult or as demanding as it had initially seemed. Time and money could also be saved:
We have spoken to people who did their own applications, and the guy was saying that even including fees, couriering documents from Johannesburg to London…he came out about 40 percent better off than we were. And he did the whole process in six weeks whereas ours took six months (Yvonne and husband).
Moreover, on the basis of their experience and what they had learned, there was a belief among the participants that – if required – they were quite able to assist a friend with the completion of an application. Overall, experience had brought them close to the position of the ten independent spirits who had gone their own way, avoiding consultants because of adverse publicity, the costs involved and/or their discovery that they would be doing most of the work anyhow to complete an application for which the instructions and points system selection criteria were clear cut. Needless to say, most of the independent spirits said they would not recommend the use of a consultant.
GETTING A JOB
Reference has already been made in passing to one of the most difficult problems encountered by many of the PAs – namely, their need to secure a validated offer of skilled employment. Assuming they met the selection criteria for qualifications, work experience and settlement capability, there was still the hurdle of age to be dealt with. Given that about half of the participants were 40 years and over when applying for residence, and that points for age were biased in favour of the young (18-35 years), a job offer worth five points was often essential to achieve a points total at or above the floating pass mark for approval (see Appendix 1). But even if the issue was not one of attaining the required number of points, a job offer was also desirable as a measure of security. Many participants (young and old
175 alike) wanted to be sure that they had a job to come to, a source of income: ‘you can’t live off your assets, you know, you have got to have paid work’ (Andri).
Whatever the motivation, the need for a job offer enhanced the importance of an exploratory ‘look see’ trip, and, in some cases, prompted an early move from South Africa on a short-term permit/visa with the expectation that everything would turn out well in due course. If a job was needed or desired, it wasn’t going to be found sitting in South Africa:
Kevin was applying for posts from South Africa. I lost count of how many [he] applied for, and I don’t think they even looked at them because they [did not] know whether [he was] actually going to come here, even though he said he had permanent residence (Kevin H’s wife).
However, it quickly became obvious that once in New Zealand, the visitor’s path to securing a job offer could still be difficult, stressful and entail a compromise (i.e. accepting a position below one’s level of ability or outside one’s normal field of work). That said, the fact remains (as noted earlier in Table 2) that almost half of the PAs were either employed or had a job arranged in New Zealand before they took up permanent residence.
Two particular difficulties recalled by PAs concerned newspaper advertisements and the attitudes of recruitment agencies. Visitors or prospective immigrants, unfamiliar with the New Zealand scene, could easily get confused about where to start their search for employment: (a) when job advertisements seemed to be scattered all over the place, as well as appearing in newspaper supplements on certain weekdays; and (b) when they did not know which types of jobs were routinely advertised and which were to be found by calling on employers. There was also the problem posed by the general nature of some job advertisements that seemed to give no indication that a particular skill or specific job experience was required.
Such difficulties, however, were small in comparison with those posed by recruitment agencies. The key issue with agencies was their view that it was a waste of time and effort to even consider overseas visitors or prospective migrants for advertised positions, not to mention putting them forward for an interview. For example:
When I went to Opus they said ‘We do have some jobs but because you are not here on a permanent basis it’s basically wasting [our] time’…and they wouldn’t let me go for an interview. They said, ‘If you were here with your suitcases and your family we would look at it’. But they said they had a lot of South Africans who had come across on a ‘look see’, applied for jobs, got them and then changed their minds (Steven).
176 Underlying this agency’s view was probably a simple calculation of the return to be gained from the time and effort expended; if a New Zealander or other permanent resident was placed in a job, the agency could expect to be paid fairly quickly, whereas payment could be months away (if ever) in the case of a South African on a ‘look see’ trip. And to make matters worse for the overseas visitor or prospective migrant, a feeling of negativity was aroused when asked if they realised how little they would earn in comparison to their salary in South Africa. ‘So, you know, that didn’t engender a feeling of confidence at all’ (Peter M.).
A useful case study of these and other difficulties is provided by a PA and his wife. Knowing that he needed a job offer for the extra points, but not wanting to leave his family behind while he came to look for employment, they took the plunge and emigrated without residence approval, expecting to ‘get a job quite easily’:
…when we arrived, I made appointments with employment consultants but I had very little luck getting to see them… Okay, so we sent out 60-70 CVs and we had about 70 percent of them come back as ‘Dear John’ letters where the people weren’t even interested, and those that I managed to contact on the phone said that they would come back to us in about a week’s time. We had a couple that wrote to us to say that I’m going on the shortlist, but we never heard [any more] from them. I found that I had to chase up the prospective employers and agencies myself ... Okay, if I wasn’t on the phone to them everyday, I wouldn’t hear from them which is a bit demoralising for somebody looking for work… The main thing is to get that initial interview… The first one that gave me an interview, I was actually given the job – not there and then [but] subject to my [having a] work permit. In fact my work permit came through one day too late [because of a processing delay in the NZIS]… I lost that job… (Selwyn).
Fortunately, another opportunity came up shortly afterwards. Responding to a Friday morning newspaper advertisement, Selwyn immediately sent in his CV. On Monday morning, he phoned the company to see if it had been received and arranged to go in for a talk at midday. ‘At half past one I walked out of there with the job’ (Selwyn). In essence, he succeeded (like many others) because of his perseverance. On the other hand, his wife’s account stands as a salutary reminder that sometimes the outcome is little more than a matter of good luck:
…I hadn’t started looking yet. Somebody pointed out the advertisement to me. I phoned. I explained to them that [New Zealand] residency was imminent but it wasn’t through yet. Would they be prepared to wait until I got a work permit? And they said I should go in and discuss it. There and then…they
177 wanted to offer me a position and we started working on a work permit. I think three days after I saw them, the residency came through and I started work. So I was out of the ordinary, and it doesn’t happen too often.
Without detracting from the experiences of Selwyn and his wife, it should be noted that they came from an English-speaking background, were skilled, had recognised qualifications and work experience, and could not be readily categorised as ‘visible others’. New Zealand studies show that two of these attributes, relative ‘invisibility’ and language (even allowing for an accent), probably gave them – and most other South Africans – an advantage in their dealings with recruitment agencies, HR personnel and employers (see Singer and Eder, 1989; Department of Internal Affairs, 1996; Burns, 2000; Oliver, 2000; Ward et al., 2004; Henderson et al., 2006).
SUBMITTING AN APPLICATION, AWAITING APPROVAL
Having made a decision to emigrate from South Africa or to apply for permanent residence during a visit to New Zealand, the PAs were faced with submitting an application and awaiting the outcome. Putting aside the use or non-use of an immigration consultant, and whether or not a job offer was needed to attain sufficient points, their experience was often marked by unanticipated delays, frustration and stress. Surprisingly, problems were often encountered with applications made either from South Africa via London or in Auckland.
Until a High Commission was opened in Pretoria in 1996 and an official immigration office was opened later still, PAs applying from South Africa for a short-term permit/visa or permanent residence had their application processed in London. In such cases, the adverse effects of distance, communication difficulties and some aspects of established bureaucratic systems – individually or collectively – were commonplace. Documents received in London could get lost or separated, and with the unreliability of the South African postal service ‘you [had] no idea whether your documents [had] even reached London’ (Peter M.). While one participant (Peter W.) found the officials in London ‘very pleasant and polite’, another (Peter M’s wife) found a staff member who would not respond to faxes or letters to be ‘the most inefficient, unapproachable, unhelpful person’ she had ever dealt with. Coupled with requests for additional information and the unavailability of key staff or staff shortages, these difficulties resulted in protracted processing times and delays of up to nine months that did nothing to overcome uncertainty or inspire confidence. For example:
Five months and you don’t know whether you are going or not going and the family’s unsettled and the kids want to know what’s going to happen. Ya…they had all the information that they required…[but] it took them five months (Kevin D.).
178
…we were under the impression that our departure was [on] the 6th of January. And then we had to send in further medical information which we did. And then our next leaving date was middle of February. Then we discovered that the Medical Officers in London had all gone on holiday so there was no-one to actually process our medicals. Then our next leaving date was the first week of March. Then they requested further medical information… So then our departure date was toward the end of March…it was quite hair-raising, unsettling and frustrating…[also] the lady who was dealing with our file in London was on leave at the same time as the two Medical Officers, and we understood that she’s the only person who handles the file and no-one else can get involved with the cases that she’s looking after (Yvonne and husband).
Little wonder that some applicants recalled that they or their friends gave serious thought to visiting London or actually made the trip (perhaps as part of other overseas travel) in order to speed things up.
The processing of applications appeared to be quicker in New Zealand. But even here there were problems, with the participants citing examples of what they perceived to be: staff differences in interpretation with ‘different sets of standards for different people at different times’ (Kevin L.); ‘arbitrary decisions’ as well as instances of ‘the rules being applied differently’ (Cornelis); and even dishonesty about the processing of a mislaid file:
…[They] told us, ‘Yes we are working on it and it should be ready by the end [of the visa period]’ and then [said] it should be ready by [another date] and I ended up phoning a couple of times a day…only at the very end did [they] let slip that in fact they didn’t even know where my file was. They said it could have been in Sydney, in London, Christchurch [or] Wellington. They didn’t in fact know, and all of that time we were really bleeding anxiety… They eventually found it…[but at the time] they were in fact lying to me… (Ernest).
Ernest’s ‘anxiety’ was shared by others. Whether waiting for a work permit (like Selwyn, see above) or residency approval, they became increasingly conscious of their time limit with a three month holiday visa. As one PA said: ‘…you start stressing out because, you know…your papers haven’t come through yet, so that is a bit nerve racking’ (Debbi).
Allowing for glitches in the proper completion of their applications, these processing difficulties in both London and New Zealand were commonly and rather charitably attributed by PAs to the large number of applications received by the NZIS. Though not without merit, this explanation obscures a
179 more fundamental factor. That is, the structural problem of inadequate resourcing for a department juggling responsibilities for policy advice, implementation and management during a period of far-reaching, government driven, politicised policy change and development (see Lange, 1997; Trlin, 1997; Bedford, 2002; Bedford et al., 2005). At a practical level, it could be argued also that NZIS resourcing was poorly aligned to the economic importance and benefits of immigration (e.g. building human capital, transfers of settlement and investment funds, international linkages) as part of a growth strategy for developing an open, competitive economy as a precondition for improvements in the quality of life and living standards of all New Zealanders.
MAKING THE MOVE: PAYING, PACKING ETC.
With few exceptions, the cost of moving to New Zealand was covered via personal savings and/or the sale of assets (house, cars, furniture, company shares etc.). With emigration in full flood during the 1990s, however, asset sales were not always easily accomplished and a few PAs left their house or business to be disposed off at a later date. In some cases, a home mortgage was increased or advantage taken of a single access bond that allowed a homeowner to borrow on a mortgage that had been largely paid off. For others, there was the windfall of severance pay from teaching or other government employment that added substantially to their pension payout. Overall, the bottom line was that the participants were typically paying their own way – a cost of ‘up to NZ$20,000 in fares, freight, immigration and consultants’ fees’ according to an estimate made in 1998 by Auckland-based immigration consultant Iain MacLeod (see Chamberlain, 1998:76). Only one PA reported that substantial assistance was provided by friends while another remembered a small family loan that was obtained (and repaid) to pay for a shipping container.
Packing was a task that ultimately depended upon the answer to a basic question. Do you sell everything – furniture, other furnishings, appliances, tools, books, the children’s toys etc. – and travel light or do you take everything with you? Reflecting on their own experience and the advice they would give to a friend, the participants generally favoured taking everything (apart from older cars and some appliances, such as TVs, that were known to be incompatible with New Zealand systems) for two reasons. First, most possessions disposed of would need to be replaced. Given the conversion rate for the South African Rand, replacement could be more expensive and constrained by a family’s need to support itself from its own limited resources until employment was secured. Second, and perhaps more important, was the need for the PA or other family members to have things they were familiar with in order to ease their relocation and the process of settlement. This was particularly important for children: ‘Bring their beds and their cots and…things that will make them feel at home’ (Paula). There were, of course, some drawbacks with the ‘lock, stock and barrel’ approach that became
180 evident later on. Furniture well suited to larger, more spacious South African homes, for example, could prove to be too big and cumbersome for smaller, less spacious New Zealand homes built to different environmental conditions.
Finally, in addition to packing, there were still dozens of other things, some more routine than others, which needed to be attended to in the process of moving from one country to another. The list included things such as bank accounts, a driver’s license, updating a will, power of attorney for business and property transactions, forwarding of mail, travel insurance, making arrangements for the care and security of older parents and grandparents, etc. Among these items, there was bound to be something that added to already high levels of stress or highlighted the momentous nature of the step being taken. Life insurance was a case in point:
Things like life insurance terminate the minute you leave [South Africa]. And yet you try and buy a New Zealand life insurance in South Africa before you get here, you can’t. So you can go for a period of ten days where you don’t have life insurance, don’t have health insurance, don’t have anything…you literally wind everything to a halt and you are starting a new life, and you have to start all those things again (Pierre).
CONCLUSION
Two interesting features have emerged from the findings presented above. First, although the migration of this group of skilled South Africans can be seen to begin with the idea to move for various reasons and to end when they take up residence in New Zealand, their experience demonstrates that there is no uniform intervening sequence of tasks and events. Indeed, a researcher seeking to analyse their migration finds a kaleidoscope of tasks and events that confounds the identification of useful analytical categories and enduring patterns. An informed decision to move (as opposed to an idea), for example, can vary in time in relation to the collection of information by various means (including a ‘look see’ trip) and from a range of sources. Similarly, a migrant’s preparation and submission of an application for residence may overlap with and vary in timing in relation to aspects such as the collection and assessment of information, the use/non-use of an immigration consultant, a need or desire to secure a job offer and efforts to do so. Even residence approval may occur while the applicant is either still in South Africa or a temporary resident/visitor in New Zealand. A neat, definitive explanation for this feature is elusive and, at this point, is best accepted as primarily the product of interaction between (a) the provisions and administration of New Zealand’s immigration policy and (b) the particular situations, needs and resources of individual migrants.
The second feature is relatively clear cut. Contrary to an assumption that the migration and eventual settlement of ‘invisible’ immigrants (i.e.
181 white, from English-speaking backgrounds) would be more or less trouble free, the experience and reflections of the participants have revealed a broad spectrum of difficulties, problems and consequent stresses. Examples cited in the findings presented above include: stress and depression in coming to terms with the implications of a decision to emigrate; frustration with access to and the quality of information received about job prospects, the recognition of qualifications and aspects of life in New Zealand; disappointments, frustrations and stresses in dealing with immigration consultants; difficulties, frustrations, demoralisation and stress arising from efforts to secure a job offer, especially to gain points required for a GSC application; and frustration, anxiety and stress in meeting the GSC application submission requirements, dealing with NZIS staff, and waiting (often for months on end) for a decision. Time and again, the participants referred to huge changes following the decision to move, explaining that almost every aspect of their life in South Africa was coming to a halt, and that they were not immune to some elements of culture change or culture shock as they faced the task of beginning a new life in a new society and environment. In comparison with assisted immigrants in earlier decades (see Hutching, 1999, for example), the onus was completely on the participants to manage each and every aspect of their move. It is obvious, therefore, that some (not all) of these and other difficulties and stresses were the outcome of efforts to negotiate the path to emigration within the parameters of an immigration policy developed in accord with the prevailing economic philosophy of the 1990s, and implemented and administered by a government agency (NZIS) with inadequate resources.
Finally, an important implication of the second feature needs to be acknowledged. Following the approach of previous overseas research, two studies have sought to explain the experience and management of stress (Bennett and Rigby, 1997) and relatively poor mental health (Pernice et al., 2000) among South African immigrants, primarily in relation to one or more aspects of their life in New Zealand. Only limited attention was given to possible pre-migration factors. For example, using data collected at the same time and for the same group of participants as the present study, and finding no positive relationship between their employment status and mental health, Pernice et al. (2000) suggested that an explanation might lie in their reasons or motivations for migration. More specifically, it was argued that (Pernice et al., 2000:27):
…[the] ‘pull’ forces [attractions of New Zealand] did not appear to have had as much weight in their decision to migrate as the ‘push’ forces [of South Africa]. South Africans may, therefore, be considered semi-voluntary migrants and as such may feel quite ambivalent about leaving their country of origin.
In the light of the difficulties, problems and associated stresses identified in the present study, however, it appears now that other – often
182 neglected – aspects of the process of relocating to a new society also need to be considered. In this respect, the findings presented here may contribute to a better understanding and more robust explanations of immigrant adjustment, adaptation and settlement in New Zealand and elsewhere.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The New Settlers Programme was funded by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology. Assistance with the first round of interviews (1998) with members of the South African panel, as part of the New Settlers Programme Longitudinal Study, was provided by Dr R. Pernice and S. Sliedrecht. The generous co-operation, patience and hospitality of panel members during the interview process are also gratefully acknowledged.
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185 APPENDIX 1
Points System Assessment for 1991 General Category (GC) and 1995 General Skills Category (GSC) Principal Applicants
Categories Points 1991 GC 1995 GSC Qualifications (Max.15) (Max.12)* Successful completion 12 yrs schooling 2 - Diploma/Certificate, at least 1 and under 2 yrs full- 4- time study Diploma/Certificate, 2-3 yrs full-time study 8 10 ** Bachelors degree (not in science, technical, 12 10 engineering area) 12 10 Trade certificate 12 11 Advanced trade/professional qualification Bachelors degree (in science, technical or 15 10 engineering area) Postgraduate degree (Masters or better) 15 12
see Offer of skilled employment Settlement 5 factors
Work experience (Max.10) (Max.10) 1 point for every 2 yrs relevant work experience up 1-10 1-10 *** to 20 yrs
Age (Max.10) (Max.10) 18-24 yrs 8 8 25-29 yrs 10 10 30-34 yrs 8 8 35-39 yrs 6 6 40-44 yrs 4 4 45-49 yrs 2 2
Settlement factors (Max.5) (Max.7 ) NZ$100,000 settlement funds 2 1 NZ$200,000 settlement funds - 2 Investment funds, 1 pt. each additional NZ$100,000 1-3 - to max. NZ$300,000 Spousal human capital: base degree, trade or 3 - 1 year diploma/certificate advanced qualification - 2 New Zealand work/business experience: 1 year 2+ - 1 years - 2
New Zealand citizen/resident close family resident 23 sponsor Community sponsorship 3 - Offer of skilled employment 3 see above
Maximum points, total all categories 40 44 * 10 point minimum requirement ** Specified as trade or recognised 3 year qualification *** Minimum of 2 years experience required to qualify for work experience points Source: New Zealand Immigration Service (1991a; 1991b; 1995)
186 In addition to the points system criteria specified above for the GC and GSC, a number of other requirements for residence approval should be noted. First, there were the usual health and character requirements. Second, for the 1991 GC, a PA was required to meet a minimum English language ability level which was enhanced for the 1995 GSC with the PA required to meet a minimum standard (IELTS Level 5) before arrival, to ensure at least a partial command of the language. The latter requirement also applied to others accompanying a GSC applicant – a spouse, partner and children aged 16 years and over – though any of these persons failing to meet the standard could still qualify for residence upon payment of a $20,000 fee. Finally, and perhaps most important for South African PAs, statutory professional registration was introduced as a requirement in 1995 for GSC applicants before they could earn points for certain professional qualifications.
The control provided by the points system was not limited to applicant quality but included the number of approvals in relation to an immigration target. With 1991 GC applicants ranked by points scored, it was possible: to nominate a high score at which applicants were guaranteed automatic approval (‘autopass’ level); to nominate a minimum score below which applicants were declined; and to define those between the high and minimum scores as a ‘pool’ from which applicants could be approved as required to attain an immigration target for all approvals and not the GC alone. Since applicants meeting the criteria for other categories all gained residence, the GC acted as a ‘residual category’ to make up the balance in the targeted number of approvals.
To achieve more effective control of approvals, numerical controls in the operation of a quota management system were introduced in 1995 and the GC ‘autopass’ was abolished. Working from a global target of all persons approved for residence and then subtracting established category quotas, estimates for closed policies and annualised expected approvals for other categories, yielded a nominal target for GSC approvals. Selection and approval in relation to the GSC nominal target was then accomplished via points-based ranking in a new ‘autofail’ system. Involving a fail mark set at 24 points or less, this system identified applicants who would be approved in principle but subject to a floating pass mark (25+) that could vary from week to week to deliver the appropriate number of approvals.
For further details on the points system, discussion of the rationale for the GC and GSC criteria, and especially changes made in 1995, see Trlin (1997).
187 BIBLIOGRAPHY 2002-2006
Andrew Trlin and Charlotte Bedford
Designed and produced primarily as a resource to assist and promote research, inform policy development and public discussion on all aspects of international migration in New Zealand, this bibliography is the seventh instalment of a series originally published in Australian Immigration: A Bibliography and Digest (see Trlin, 1976; Spoonley and Trlin, 1980). It covers the period I January 2002 to 31 December 2006, but also includes relevant items omitted from and ‘discovered’ since the publication of the previous instalment for the years 1995-2001 (Trlin, 2005).
THE COMPILATION PROCESS
The bibliography has been compiled using a systematic three-step cumulative procedure as described below. Despite the care taken to find and include all relevant titles, no doubt some significant items have still been missed. Information on such items is welcomed and should be sent to either Professor Paul Spoonley (Massey University) or Professor Richard Bedford (AUT).
Step 1
Using a broad range of key words and focusing on the periodicals consulted for the compilation of the previous instalment of this bibliography (Trlin, 2005), an initial search was made of New Zealand’s main bibliographic data sets and library catalogues. The aim was to identify and locate relevant or possibly relevant books, monographs, official reports and periodical articles published during the period of interest (2002-2006) or lodged in libraries as ‘unpublished’ academic theses, dissertations and research reports. This initial search was carried out by Charlotte Bedford with the support of the Migration Research Group at the University of Waikato. Although this search provided a very useful base of about 800 items to work from, it quickly became clear that it was incomplete and illustrated all too well the variability of the data sets and catalogues consulted in terms of their coverage and data entry accuracy.
Step 2
In response to known shortcomings in Step 1 with regard to the limitations of New Zealand databases for the identification of periodical articles, and following the procedure set for previous instalments of the bibliography, a total of 99 periodicals were selected for detailed examination by the first author (Trlin) to seek out additional relevant items. Included among these periodicals were a number of leading overseas journals likely to
188 publish the work of New Zealand researchers (see Periodicals Consulted below). For each of the selected periodicals: (a) all issues published (as at September 2007) for the years 2002-2006 inclusive were examined; and (b) for periodicals not among those selected for the previous edition of this bibliography (Trlin, 2005), each issue published between 1995 and 2001 was also examined where possible to further enhance the coverage of research reported during a period of major change in New Zealand’s immigration policy, international migration flows and immigrant settlement. Extensive use was made of the internet to access journals available on-line via the Massey University Library and in some cases the Victoria University Library. Where an on-line journal was part of a larger ‘stable’ of publications managed by a particular provider (for example: SwetsWise, ScienceDirect, Academic Search Elite, IngentaConnect etc.) the provider’s search facility was used to identify and download from other journals in the ‘stable’ any relevant items not already identified.
Literally hundreds of relevant articles found in the course of Step 2 were recorded, and where items identified in Step 1 were encountered, all bibliographic details were checked (corrected if necessary) and a decision was made to either confirm or reject the article for inclusion on the basis of predetermined criteria (see Inclusion Criteria below). For articles confirmed as relevant, content details and/or key words were noted for later subject indexing, and references cited in the work were perused for other possibly relevant items not already identified (a fruitful exercise that yielded dozens of additional items – typically chapters in edited books and some articles in overseas journals). Overall, Step 2 proved to be the most time consuming and arduous but also the most rewarding stage in the compilation process.
Step 3
Attention here was focused primarily upon items recorded but not sighted in the course of Steps 1 and 2. Activities during this step included: (a) a systematic check of New Zealand university library catalogues to find ‘unpublished’ theses and research reports; (b) visits to university libraries in Auckland and Wellington; (c) requests to researchers in government and non- government organisations and to academic colleagues in tertiary institutions in New Zealand and abroad to provide copies of various publications; and (d) further use of the internet to locate, verify and access some of the more elusive items. An observed trend for government departments to have reports available on their website and for a couple of universities (Auckland University of Technology, University of Auckland) to have a substantial number of recent academic theses available on-line was particularly helpful. The books, monographs, theses, government reports and especially journal articles located and accessed were then subjected (primarily by the first author) to the normal process of examination for acceptance or rejection, verification and/or correction of bibliographic details, and the recording of content details or key words for subject indexing. Inevitably, during this process some
189 additional relevant or possibly relevant items were identified among those cited in these publications and these also were located and examined.
It should be obvious that the successful completion of the above compilation process, especially Step 3, could not have been achieved without the willing cooperation, generous assistance and good humour of librarians, researchers and academic colleagues in various institutions. Their continued support is gratefully acknowledged.
CONCLUSIONS ARISING FROM STEPS 1-3
Three important conclusions arising from Steps 1 to 3 should be noted.
1) Internet access to on-line journals confirmed a marked increase since the mid-1990s in overseas publications by New Zealand researchers. It seems likely that this increase reflects the impact of enhanced research funding opportunities and perhaps the implementation of assessment criteria for Performance Based Research Funding (PBRF) in New Zealand tertiary education. 2) While the increase in overseas publications can be applauded as a possible indicator of the international standing of New Zealand’s academic researchers, the effort required to locate and access such items should be a matter of concern to research funding providers seeking to improve the flow and quality of knowledge available to New Zealand-based end users. In our opinion, exactly how all publicly-funded research published abroad could be made known and more readily accessible to New Zealand end users is a matter that warrants urgent attention and action. 3) A rapid increase in the availability of research reports on institutional websites is also gratifying in terms of access and the dissemination of knowledge, but raises questions concerning the durability of websites and hence the possibly limited ‘lifespan’ of important research outputs. In the course of compiling this bibliography, a number of cases were noted where websites had been changed, terminated or ‘remodelled’ (in scope, function and listed resources), and hence where reports cited in the literature were no longer available at the designated website. An obvious solution to this problem is to ensure that ‘hardcopies’ of reports published on websites are produced and deposited in the National Library as well as two or more university libraries in New Zealand.
190 INCLUSION CRITERIA
An item was deemed to be relevant for inclusion in the bibliography if it:
1) Was concerned with or gave appreciable attention to any feature, aspect or consequence of immigration to or emigration from New Zealand, including the experiences and/or settlement of New Zealanders abroad. 2) Was concerned with or gave appreciable attention to any aspect of the arrival, settlement or adjustment of immigrants, refugees or asylum seekers, their children or descendants in New Zealand, including intergroup relations. 3) Was one in which the variable of ‘birthplace’ or overseas ‘ethnic origin’ or ‘ethnicity’ was employed for either discussion or analytic purposes and yielded useful information.
If an item was judged to be relevant, inclusion then depended upon whether or not it had been published or lodged in a university library in accord with requirements for educational qualifications. Reports in daily newspapers, statements made in the course of parliamentary debates and unpublished conference papers (i.e. those not included in an official collection of proceedings) have been excluded. Overall, 2,399 items (plus seven late entries) were found to fit the above criteria for inclusion (cf. 1,940 in Trlin, 2005).
As in previous instalments of the bibliography, the breadth of the second and third categories as specified above was necessitated by two factors: first, a continuing flow of genealogical research and publications (especially family histories); and second, by the on-going response of researchers and writers (typically in health research) to the now well established settlement of Pacific peoples and the more recent settlement of new streams of immigrants from Asia. Readers will often find that the terms, labels, categories or attributes ‘Pacific Islander(s)’, ‘Pacific Island people(s)’ and ‘Asian(s)’ are widely used in published research for both descriptive and analytical purposes but often without a precise definition of birthplace (overseas- or New Zealand-born) or national or ethnic origin. Indeed, use of the ‘Asian(s)’ term, label or category has been subject to some criticism by medical researchers (see Rasanathan et al., 2004, 2006). However, rather than exclude scores of items where such terms, labels or categories (or those of ‘Samoan’, ‘Tongan’, ‘Chinese’, ‘Indian’, etc.) are used without precise definition, it was decided to include them for the sake of comprehensive coverage. Readers and/or users are, however, reminded of the need for caution and to carefully consider any item of interest in terms of its scope or limitations with respect to birthplace and/or ethnic origin.
191 INDEXING
When the first volume of New Zealand and International Migration: A Digest and Bibliography was being prepared, it was decided that the value and utility of the bibliography for users (e.g. policy analysts, journalists, postgraduate students, academic researchers) would be significantly enhanced with an accompanying index. This decision was prompted by the example of Australian Immigration: A Bibliography and Digest, wherein the entries were arranged by broad subject categories, and by the perceived limitations of annotated bibliographies. But how detailed should such an index be? The only logical answer to this question, of course, is that it should be as detailed as available time and resources permit for the recording of content and/or key words in the examination of individual items during the compilation process described above.
With the experience gained from the production of successive volumes since the mid-1980s, the scope and detail of the index has increased and changes have been introduced as required: to correct previous shortcomings; to better meet the actual and perceived needs of users; to reflect changes in the nature, origins and experiences of New Zealand’s immigrants; and to attempt to accommodate the huge range of topics encompassed in a growing body of relevant literature. With this point in mind, users are cautioned not to assume strict comparability between successive instalments of the bibliography with respect to either (a) the recording of content and key words, or (b) the classification of content and key words under specific subject headings. Indeed, users are strongly urged to examine and become familiar with the full range of headings in the subject index if extensive use of this resource is intended to find particular items of interest.
As in previous instalments, the list number of each item in the bibliography has been employed for the index. With an average of about 10 entries for each item included in the bibliography, the word processing task for some 24,000 index entries proved to be a long and difficult process.
REFERENCES CITED
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192 Bibliography and Digest, No.4, Department of Demography, Australian National University, Canberra. TRLIN, A. 1976: Bibliography of New Zealand immigration (1970-1974), pp.65- 86, in Price, C.A. and Martin, J.I. (eds.) Australian Immigration: A Bibliography and Digest, No.3, Department of Demography, Australian National University, Canberra. TRLIN, A. 2005: Bibliography 1995-2001, pp.122-335, in Trlin, A., Spoonley, P. and Watts, N. (eds.) New Zealand and International Migration: A Digest and Bibliography, Number 4, Department of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work, Massey University, in association with New Settlers Programme, Massey University, Palmerston North.
193 PERIODICALS CONSULTED
Access: Critical Perspectives on Australia and New Zealand Journal Communication, Cultural and of Law and Education Policy Studies Australia and New Zealand Education Institute of Cultural Discourse and Law Association Communication, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology Agenda Australian Academic Press Pty. Ltd., Journal of the Faculty of Economics Queensland, for Australian and and Commerce, Australian National New Zealand Society of Criminology University, Canberra (Inc)
Archaeology in New Zealand Australian and New Zealand New Zealand Archaeological Journal of Family Therapy Association, Dunedin Australian Academic Press Pty. Ltd., Queensland Art New Zealand Art Magazine Press, Auckland Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry Asia Pacific Viewpoint Taylor and Francis Ltd., Abingdon Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, (UK), for the Royal Australian and England; edited by Institute of New Zealand College of Geography, School of Earth Sciences, Psychiatrists, Melbourne Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health Asian and Pacific Migration Blackwell Publishing Ltd Journal Scalabrini Migration Center, Quezon Childrenz Issues City, Philippines Children’s Issues Centre, Dunedin
Australasian Journal of Market and Communication Journal of Social Research New Zealand Australian Market and Social New Zealand Communication Research Society, Glebe, NSW, Association Australia Demographic Trends Australasian Journal on Ageing Statistics New Zealand, Wellington Council on the Ageing (Australia), Melbourne Early Education College of Education, Massey University, Palmerston North
194 English in Aotearoa Journal of Management and New Zealand Association for the Organisation (formerly Journal of Teaching of English, Christchurch the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management) Equal Opportunities International eContent Management Pty Ltd, Barmarick Publications, Partington, Maleny, Queensland, Australia in Hull, United Kingdom association with Australian and New Zealand Academy of Graduate Journal of Asia-Pacific Management Studies Faculty of Arts, University of Journal of Maori and Pacific Auckland, Auckland Development School of Maori and Pacific History Now Development, University of Waikato, Department of History, University of Hamilton Canterbury, Christchurch Journal of New Zealand Studies International Journal of (formerly New Zealand Studies) Intercultural Relations Stout Research Centre, Victoria Elsevier Ltd., Oxford, for University of Wellington International Academy for Intercultural Research Journal of Refugee Studies Oxford University Press International Migration Blackwell Publishers Ltd., Oxford, Journal of Sociology for International Organization for Sage Publications Inc., for the Migration Australian Sociological Association
International Migration Review Journal of Studies in International Center for Migration Studies of New Education York (Inc), New York Sage Publications Inc., for Association for Studies in Journal of Cross-Cultural International Education Psychology Sage Publications Inc., for the Journal of the Australian and Centre for Cross-Cultural Psychology, New Zealand Student Services Western Washington University, in Association affiliation with International The Australia and New Zealand Association for Cross-Cultural Student Services Association Psychology Journal of the New Zealand Journal of Intercultural Studies Dietetic Association Carfax Publishing, Oxford New Zealand Dietetic Association (Inc)
195 Journal of the Polynesian Society New Zealand International Review Polynesian Society (Inc), University New Zealand Institute of of Auckland, Auckland International Affairs, Wellington
Kai Tiaki: Nursing New Zealand New Zealand Journal of Adult New Zealand Nurses’ Organisation, Learning Wellington College of Education, Massey University, Wellington Campus, Labour Market Bulletin Wellington Department of Labour, Wellington New Zealand Journal of Applied Listener Business Research New Zealand Magazines Limited, Christchurch College of Education, Auckland Christchurch
Many Voices New Zealand Journal of Asian Learning Media, Ministry of Studies Education, Wellington New Zealand Asian Studies Society
Metro New Zealand Journal of ACP Magazines, Auckland Counselling New Zealand Association of New Zealand Annual Review of Counsellors, Christchurch Education School of Education Studies, Victoria New Zealand Journal of Disability University of Wellington, Wellington Studies Donald Beasley Institute New Zealand Economic Papers New Zealand Association of New Zealand Journal of Economists (Inc) Educational Studies New Zealand Council for Educational New Zealand English Journal Research, Wellington Department of English, University of Canterbury, Christchurch New Zealand Journal of Employment Relations (formerly New Zealand Family Physician New Zealand Journal of Industrial Royal New Zealand College of Relations) General Practitioners ER Publishing Ltd, Auckland
New Zealand Geographer New Zealand Journal of Geography Blackwell Publishing, for (until 2004 and then absorbed by New Zealand Geographical Society, New Zealand Geographer) Christchurch New Zealand Geographical Society, University of Waikato, Hamilton
196 New Zealand Journal of History New Zealand Research in Early Department of History, University of Childhood Education Auckland, Auckland New Zealand Research in Early Childhood Education, Whitby, New Zealand Journal of Human Porirua Resources Management Human Resources Institute of New Zealand Slavonic Journal New Zealand, Wellington School of Asian and European Languages and Cultures, Victoria New Zealand Journal of Psychology University of Wellington, Wellington New Zealand Psychological Society (Inc) New Zealand Sociology Sociology Programme, Massey New Zealand Journal of Teachers’ University, Palmerston North Work School of Educational Studies, New Zealand Studies in Applied College of Education, Massey Linguistics University, Palmerston North Applied Linguistics Association of New Zealand New Zealand Language Teacher New Zealand Association of Language New Zealand Universities Law Teachers Review Brookers Ltd, Wellington New Zealand Medical Journal New Zealand Medical Association, North and South Wellington Australian Consolidated Press NZ Limited, Auckland New Zealand Memories New Zealand Memories, Green Lane, Nursing Praxis in New Zealand Auckland Nursing Praxis in New Zealand (Inc), Palmerston North New Zealand Political Review Political Press, Dunedin NZ Business Adrenalin Publishing Ltd., Auckland New Zealand Population Review Population Association of Oral History in New Zealand New Zealand, Wellington National Oral History Association of New Zealand, Wellington New Zealand Public Health Surveillance Report Otago Law Review (formerly New Zealand Public Otago Law Review Trust Board Inc., Health Report) Dunedin Institute of Environmental Science and Research, Porirua Pacific Health Dialog Resource Books, Auckland
197 Pacific Journalism Review Social Work Review School of Communication Studies, (now Aotearoa New Zealand Social Auckland University of Technology, Work) Auckland Aotearoa New Zealand Association of Pacific Studies Social Workers (Inc) Brigham Young University, Laie, Hawaii South Pacific Journal of Psychology Political Science University of Papua New Guinea, School of History, Philosophy, National Capital District, Papua New Political Science and International Guinea, and Massey University, Relations, Victoria University of Albany Campus, Auckland Wellington, Wellington, in association with New Zealand Te Reo: Journal of the Linguistic Political Studies Association Society of New Zealand Linguistic Society of New Zealand Population Centre Discussion (Inc) Papers Population Studies Centre, The Bulletin University of Waikato, Hamilton New Zealand Psychological Society
Public Sector The Contemporary Pacific New Zealand Institute of Public University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu Administration (Inc), Wellington The First Years: New Zealand Set: Research Information for Journal of Infant and Toddler Teachers Education New Zealand Council for Educational Faculty of Education, University of Research, Wellington Auckland, Auckland
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198 University of Auckland Business Review University of Auckland Business School, University of Auckland, Auckland
Urban Policy and Research Carfax Publishing, Melbourne
Victoria University of Wellington Law Review Law Faculty, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington
Waikato Journal of Education School of Education, University of Waikato, Hamilton
Waikato Law Review School of Law, University of Waikato, Hamilton
Wellington Working Papers in Linguistics School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington
Whitireia Nursing Journal School of Nursing and Health Studies, Whitireia Community Polytechnic, Porirua
Women’s Studies Journal New Zealand Women’s Studies Association (Inc), with University of Otago Press, University of Otago, Dunedin
Working Papers in Applied Linguistics Department of General and Applied Linguistics, University of Waikato, Hamilton
199 BIBLIOGRAPHY 2002-2006 (plus items missed in previous edition for 1995-2001)
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373 BIBLIOGRAPHY SUBJECT INDEX
Abortion 82, 723, 746, 1414, 1415, 1565, 1604, 1605, 1823, 1959, 2105
Absence from New Zealand 1545, 1550, 1557, 1903 absentee migrants, characteristics of 1903
Abuse 1246, 1767
Academics 508, 587, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801 mobility 2129
Accents 262, 310, 671, 672, 861, 874, 1311, 1932, 2113, 2132, 2248
Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) cultural competence issues 551, 2140 service use, non-use 551, 1415, 2140
Accidents 246, 461, 911, 1234, 1586, 2315 motor vehicle/traffic 26, 82, 98, 463, 911, 917, 1415, 1619, 2022
Accommodation (see: Housing or accommodation)
Accountancy 1052, 1053
Acculturation 4, 5, 10, 98, 118, 133, 134, 139, 189, 316, 317, 318, 372, 387, 388, 407, 409, 423, 430, 435, 449, 491, 492, 570, 616, 658, 708, 749, 785, 786, 806, 919, 956, 1015, 1017, 1024, 1045, 1048, 1056, 1089, 1126, 1132, 1135, 1142, 1156, 1161, 1205, 1206, 1215, 1415, 1516, 1517, 1566, 1567, 1622, 1631, 1633, 1648, 1649, 1655, 1698, 1713, 1715, 1716, 1717, 1748, 1767, 1804, 1841, 1850, 1855, 1874, 1875, 1904, 1907, 1953, 2070, 2071, 2095, 2136, 2138, 2141, 2148, 2181, 2188, 2221, 2225, 2227, 2287, 2343, 2344, 2375, 2393 (see also: Adaptation and/or adjustment; Assimilation; Culture, loss and/or maintenance)
Achievement (see: Educational achievement)
Actors (film and theatre) 369, 651, 819, 893, 1002, 1109, 1276, 1282, 1449, 1757, 1758, 1967, 2088, 2285, 2331
Adaptation and/or adjustment 8, 11, 31, 76, 85, 106, 107, 118, 124, 133, 134, 139, 144, 148, 165, 196, 199, 223, 232, 233, 238, 240, 264, 290, 350, 357, 359, 360, 392, 394, 396, 398, 408, 423, 430, 431, 435, 449, 475, 490, 509, 510, 512, 532, 542, 544, 546, 558, 570, 579, 615, 622, 632, 641, 643, 688, 689, 699, 700, 723, 741, 743, 768, 768a, 785, 794, 798, 818, 874, 893, 901, 908, 914, 919, 920, 921, 923, 937, 949, 997, 1017, 1045, 1074, 1082, 1083, 1090, 1093, 1118, 1134, 1135, 1142, 1146, 1156, 1161, 1169, 1196, 1248, 1307, 1308, 1313, 1335, 1336, 1375, 1383, 1394, 1455, 1516, 1517, 1707, 1713, 1714, 1717, 1725, 1744, 1750, 1759, 1761, 1764, 1772, 1795, 1827, 1841, 1850, 1853, 1855, 1874, 1875, 1878, 1896, 1897, 1899, 1907, 1911, 1953, 1955, 2012, 2044, 2061, 2075, 2092, 2095, 2119, 2121, 2128, 2138, 2175, 2178, 2188, 2215, 2225, 2231, 2233, 2250, 2286, 2287, 2293, 2313, 2314, 2317, 2318, 2334, 2343, 2344, 2348, 2360, 2365, 2368, 2370, 2371, 2393 (see also: Acculturation; Assimilation; Integration)
374 Adolescence/adolescents 11, 15, 17, 47, 53a, 70, 73, 87, 98, 102, 116, 123, 133, 134, 196, 313, 412, 430, 431, 449, 511, 530, 583, 638, 644, 645, 646, 677, 688, 697, 710, 715, 716, 717, 718, 729, 837, 877, 932, 965, 1015, 1017, 1019, 1036, 1045, 1135, 1222, 1321, 1400, 1401, 1404, 1497, 1499, 1546, 1562, 1577, 1598, 1604, 1605, 1619, 1636, 1638, 1726, 1748, 1760, 1767, 1826, 1827, 1838, 1847, 1848, 1868, 1869, 1882, 1883, 1890, 1891, 1895, 1910, 1953, 1954, 1979, 2026, 2034, 2042, 2104, 2121, 2149, 2193, 2199, 2225, 2227, 2234, 2250, 2341, 2343, 2393 (see also: Children and/or infants; Students; Youth)
Adoption 1923, by Pacific extended families 168, 178 intercountry 168, 178, 486, 502, 530, 757, 1331, 1339, 1641, 1850, 1851, 2297 (see also: ICANZ)
Advanced Choice of Employment scheme 1724
Advertising and/or advertisements 462, 945, 1358, 1438, 1448, 2219
Advocacy 41, 397, 466, 790, 1279, 1358, 1508, 1742, 2290
Afghans 11, 105, 416, 435, 484, 519, 539, 730, 775, 795, 892, 994, 1108, 1376, 1545, 1546, 1550, 1887, 1895, 1938, 1997, 2378
Africans (n.o.d.) 165, 176, 177, 181, 182, 246, 365, 413, 414, 562, 634, 892, 915, 1020, 1022, 1243, 1330, 1357, 1391, 1408, 1509, 1584, 1779, 1861, 2006, 2205, 2229, 2364 (see also: Congolese; Ethiopians; Kenyans; Somalis; South Africans; Zimbabweans)
Afrikaans (see: South Africans, language)
Ageing 74, 2221
AIDS (see: HIV/AIDS)
AIMHI (Achievement in Multicultural High Schools) 131, 871
ALAY Community Centre for Refugees and Migrants 77, 1120
Albanians 552, 1093, 2300
Albertland settlement and/or Albertlanders 1163, 1459, 1636
Alcohol and/or alcoholism 30, 32, 76, 82, 98, 188, 189, 409, 625, 669, 670, 686, 687, 720, 744, 745, 913, 917, 1054, 1127, 1159, 1270, 1357, 1381, 1410, 1414, 1415, 1451, 1562, 1589, 1603, 1613, 1617, 1619, 1767, 1809, 1838, 1848, 1870, 1915, 1916, 1959, 2018, 2070, 2076, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2317, 2359
Algerians 183, 227, 229, 336, 337, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 348, 349, 931, 1099, 1203, 1253, 1361, 1743, 1780, 1807, 2179, 2326
Aliens 144, 592, 660, 769, 854, 1360, 1369, 1484, 1968 enemy aliens 96, 144, 232, 250, 299a, 780, 781, 834, 1824, 2126 internment (enemy aliens) 96, 299a, 780, 781, 875, 1368, 1735, 1824, 2126 (see also: Citizenship; Naturalisation)
Allergies 7, 82
375 Alley, Rewi 34, 237, 252, 513, 2389
Americans (USA) 33, 65, 66, 67, 68, 170, 177, 182, 199, 246, 253, 281, 282, 283, 285, 326, 456, 519, 570, 592, 750, 751, 862, 874, 919, 1165, 1280, 1299, 1340, 1380, 1399, 1405, 1500, 1545, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1553, 1608, 1835, 1898, 1903, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2049, 2100, 2205, 2318, 2330
Anaemia 82, 762, 1638
Anger management 744
Anglo-Indians 1359
Anorexia nervosa 992, 1589
Anthropometry and/or anthropomorphic measurement 99, 747, 759, 760, 1047, 1189, 1381, 1638, 1749, 1829, 1830, 1870, 2070, 2071
Anti-Semitism 1825
Anxiety and/or anxiety disorders 142, 278, 447, 686, 687, 744, 982, 1114, 1589, 1616, 1767, 1838, 1953, 1954, 2292 intergroup anxiety, concept/measurement of 2230
Arabs 37, 38, 1017, 1998, 2161 language 37, 38, 905 (see also: Middle Easterners; Palestinians)
Archaeology and/or artefacts 250, 390, 623, 984, 1804
Architects and/or architecture 71, 110, 262, 462, 1094, 1582, 1778
Archives New Zealand 299
Argentineans 771, 1553
Arrears or debts 402, 413 (see also: Students, debt and/or loans)
Art, artists and/or craftsworkers 12, 13, 45, 77, 132, 212, 232, 361, 466, 505, 517, 566, 577, 578, 589, 590, 591, 599, 641, 679, 819, 946, 1094, 1120, 1124, 1130, 1133, 1136, 1185, 1220, 1240, 1242, 1385, 1590, 1683, 1684, 1685, 1686, 1704, 1820, 1824, 1925, 2023, 2100, 2126, 2174, 2183, 2215, 2315, 2320, 2321, 2380
Arthritis 1870
Arts Access Aotearoa 1120
Asian as ethnic category for research 1769, 1770 Health Chart Book 6, 98 Health Support Service 1103 investment in New Zealand 2160 Problem Gambling Services 1103 Public Health Project 82
376 Social Services of New Zealand Inc 1103 Youth Trust 883 (see also: Business and/or entrepreneur migrants; Economic considerations/effects, of emigration/immigration; Entrepreneurs)
Asianisation 1362
Asians 81, 82, 97, 106, 109, 110, 131, 132, 133, 134, 141, 143, 149, 152, 162, 168, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 192, 193, 199, 202, 208, 210, 238, 246, 268, 270, 281, 282, 283, 301, 303, 305, 310, 325, 326, 329, 358, 365, 374, 392, 393, 401, 409, 424, 432, 442, 443, 444, 455, 462, 463, 500, 557, 564, 583, 594, 631, 632, 705, 725, 745, 746, 754, 800, 846, 858, 864, 865, 866, 867, 890, 891, 911, 961, 982, 985, 986, 1022, 1043, 1065, 1096, 1103, 1116, 1125, 1127, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1152, 1166, 1170, 1174, 1176, 1194, 1196, 1197, 1205, 1220, 1239, 1270, 1278, 1315, 1321, 1338, 1348, 1362, 1370, 1395, 1404, 1424, 1433, 1434, 1456, 1461, 1462, 1500, 1503, 1509, 1518, 1528, 1545, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1564, 1565, 1571, 1574, 1576, 1601, 1609, 1630, 1633, 1663, 1665, 1666, 1677, 1692, 1705, 1726, 1730, 1741, 1751, 1755, 1756, 1767, 1768, 1769, 1770, 1773, 1779, 1841, 1860, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1874, 1876, 1953, 1954, 1969, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1981, 1996, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2007, 2014, 2022, 2042, 2044, 2046, 2059, 2114, 2118, 2133, 2135, 2138, 2141, 2160, 2172, 2200, 2225, 2227, 2228, 2229, 2231, 2267, 2275, 2279, 2291, 2296, 2339, 2342, 2364, 2370, 2397, 2398 crime 268, 309, 455, 463, 489, 556, 563, 1166, 1239, 1278, 1565, 1973, 1981, 2022 discrimination 310, 432, 813, 865, 961, 1205, 1338, 1601, 1751, 1874, 1953, 1954, 2044, 2059, 2140, 2161, 2227, 2308, 2397 drivers 268, 463, 911, 2022 education, training and/or learning 48, 106, 111, 119, 127, 133, 152, 192, 202, 208, 210, 270, 301, 306, 308, 374, 392, 409, 463, 489, 509, 510, 604, 632, 650, 697, 729, 798, 799, 800, 836, 842, 864, 883, 885, 1020a, 1056, 1116, 1125, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1152, 1174, 1176, 1239, 1338, 1370, 1394, 1404, 1434, 1435, 1461, 1527, 1528, 1628, 1629, 1741, 1751, 1773, 1783, 1803, 1828, 1874, 1899, 1932, 1953, 1954, 2020, 2077, 2135, 2138, 2139, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2228, 2229, 2231, 2279, 2342, 2352, 2396 employment, unemployment, underemployment 41, 48, 82, 97, 133, 134, 245, 409, 432, 489, 557, 879, 881, 985, 986, 1043, 1116, 1196, 1197, 1205, 1338, 1348, 1395, 1421, 1456, 1601, 1606, 1751, 1760, 1768, 1870, 1874, 1971, 1975, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2006, 2044, 2114, 2135, 2308, 2364, 2397 health and welfare 6, 82, 98, 103, 130, 131, 150, 216, 246, 277, 278, 279, 289, 303, 365, 370, 371, 401, 406, 409, 418, 455, 500, 511, 519, 535, 548, 550, 556, 562, 583, 584, 586, 598, 600, 659, 745, 813, 845, 846, 852, 858, 879, 881, 910, 911, 915, 982, 1016, 1040, 1071, 1096, 1103, 1194, 1196, 1197, 1221, 1269, 1321, 1338, 1366, 1373, 1381, 1391, 1408, 1410, 1518, 1526, 1571, 1584, 1601, 1604, 1605, 1622, 1692, 1726, 1760, 1767, 1768, 1769, 1770, 1775, 1811, 1812, 1823, 1826, 1870, 1876, 1953, 1954, 2019, 2046, 2097, 2114, 2118, 2135, 2136, 2137, 2139, 2140, 2141, 2172, 2199, 2200, 2225, 2231, 2260, 2274, 2275, 2339, 2370, 2377 language 41, 119, 123, 127, 133, 210, 374, 409, 489, 650, 697, 729, 772, 773, 836, 864, 879, 881, 1116, 1144, 1145, 1174, 1176, 1196, 1197, 1338, 1370, 1394, 1527, 1528, 1564, 1673, 1751, 1767, 1773, 1803, 1932, 1984, 1987, 1988, 1996, 1998, 2007, 2044, 2138, 2140, 2200, 2231, 2267, 2342, 2352, 2364, 2396 mortality 24, 25, 82, 370, 401, 911, 1040, 1194, 1860, 2118, 2260 needs 41, 82, 289, 392, 409, 632, 745, 858, 1096, 1338, 1518, 1528, 1622, 1628, 1741, 1826, 1874, 1899, 2135, 2140, 2228, 2339, 2342, 2364 politics, politicisation in NZ etc. 41, 109, 133, 162, 164, 268, 393, 1166, 1362, 1564, 1751, 1973, 1974, 1975, 2133
377 prejudice and/or racism toward 109, 133, 143, 268, 432, 865, 879, 881, 961, 1116, 1205, 1338, 1362, 1445, 1740, 1751, 1768, 1953, 1954, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1981, 2044, 2059, 2225, 2227, 2229, 2279, 2291, 2308, 2397 residential and/or geographic distribution/location 82, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1008, 1338, 1395, 1396, 1730, 1738, 1996, 2138, 2275 (see also: Bangladeshi; Burmese; Cambodians; Chinese; Filipinos; Goans; Hong Kong Chinese; Indians; Indonesians; Japanese; Javanese; Kampucheans; Khmer; Koreans; Laos; Malaysians; Nepalese; Pakistanis; Singaporeans; Sihks; Sri Lankans; Students, Asian; Taiwanese; Thais; Tibetans; Vietnamese)
Aspirations 70, 73, 133, 134, 394, 665, 806, 887, 965, 1085, 1129, 1325, 1419, 1546, 1554, 1723, 1843, 1877, 1946, 1994, 2093
Assimilation 76, 105, 133, 139, 185, 197, 249, 250, 251, 408, 423, 449, 475, 480, 543, 545, 568, 776, 806, 849, 854, 882, 908, 909, 963, 964, 968, 971, 974, 1052, 1135, 1171, 1180, 1205, 1206, 1254, 1371, 1375, 1580, 1581, 1855, 1860, 2112, 2181, 2182, 2213, 2227, 2287, 2337, 2371, 2380
Assisted immigrants/immigration 28, 96, 164, 232, 235, 382, 487, 564, 597, 630, 712, 713, 817, 821, 822, 849, 1090, 1309, 1310, 1311, 1332, 1448, 1460, 1519, 1520, 1635, 1698, 1700, 1702, 1703, 1707, 1710, 1845, 2112, 2126, 2175, 2180, 2212, 2304, 2348, 2380 (see also: British; Dutch; English; Germans; Irish; Scandinavians; Scots)
Assyrians 61, 73, 147, 795, 1546, 1998, 2234, 2338 (see also: Iraqi)
Asthma 7, 82, 98, 287, 288, 289, 317, 373, 530, 610, 669, 670, 913, 1286, 1410, 1414, 1415, 1870, 2309, 2310, 2311
‘Astronaut’ migrants 133, 168, 178, 306, 432, 449, 624, 859, 860, 877, 878, 879, 881, 882, 960, 963, 965, 1027, 1089, 1126, 1169, 1510, 1551, 1979, 2188, 2333, 2336 (see also: ‘Cosmonaut’ couples/kids; ‘Parachute’ kids)
Asylum seekers (a.k.a. Convention refugees) 86, 115, 147, 164, 183, 227, 229, 336, 337, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 348, 349, 365, 397, 413, 416, 484, 485, 593, 823, 889, 891, 892, 930, 931, 936, 982, 1099, 1108, 1154, 1203, 1205, 1206, 1253, 1357, 1361, 1376, 1390, 1392, 1400, 1407, 1506, 1508, 1510, 1544, 1545, 1546, 1550, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1639, 1743, 1756, 1780, 1807, 1808, 1879, 1913, 1945, 1981, 2113, 2123, 2179, 2326, 2338, 2378 (see also: Refugees, status determination; Zaoui, Ahmed)
Attachment (theory, experience etc.) 530
Attitudes, beliefs, views 377, 1355, 1851, 1931, 1932, 1953, 2296 and interactions, model of 2229, 2232 of immigrants, emigrants and ethnic group members etc. 37, 41, 53a, 57, 58, 74, 97, 113, 116, 118, 121, 122, 126, 129, 134, 139, 150, 196, 197, 213, 224, 226, 232, 238, 248, 250, 254, 263, 266, 268, 277, 285, 290, 299a, 312, 314, 356, 379, 384, 385, 389, 394, 404, 405, 408, 412, 422, 435, 438, 439, 451, 457, 464, 480, 489, 503, 527, 531, 547, 548, 554, 570, 579, 581, 589, 594, 602, 615, 671, 689, 690, 723, 724, 740, 743, 751, 768, 768a, 782, 799, 800, 806, 814, 824, 828, 859, 867, 874, 879, 881, 887, 907, 919, 921, 922, 923, 932, 949, 954, 955, 964, 974, 979, 985, 986, 989, 993, 1010, 1011, 1015, 1017, 1021, 1022, 1045, 1047, 1048, 1049, 1050, 1052, 1053, 1071, 1080, 1091, 1097, 1104, 1113, 1116, 1127, 1142, 1155, 1156, 1157, 1161, 1162, 1165, 1168, 1171, 1189, 1190, 1205, 1206, 1208, 1209,
378 1261, 1279, 1307, 1308, 1309, 1310, 1311, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1319, 1338, 1341, 1364, 1368, 1375, 1433, 1461, 1462, 1484, 1490, 1503, 1516, 1521, 1525, 1532, 1541, 1543, 1553, 1556, 1558, 1564, 1568, 1582, 1585, 1592, 1594, 1596, 1679, 1692, 1713, 1714, 1715, 1716, 1717, 1740, 1765, 1791, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1806, 1815, 1850, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1884, 1885, 1902, 1904, 1911, 1946, 1948, 1962, 1973, 1981, 1994, 2012, 2031, 2041, 2044, 2053, 2062, 2075, 2086, 2095, 2099, 2112, 2127, 2134, 2140, 2160, 2168, 2193, 2200, 2202, 2203, 2218, 2221, 2225, 2227, 2237, 2246, 2249, 2250, 2257, 2258, 2263, 2276, 2279, 2287, 2295, 2313, 2317, 2330, 2336, 2340, 2343, 2344, 2353, 2361, 2362, 2363, 2381 of Pacific peoples 4, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 29, 36, 46, 47, 70, 72, 83, 84, 90, 107, 108, 129, 137, 150, 277, 287, 288, 300, 315, 320, 377, 398, 402, 492, 496, 497, 512, 574, 579, 622, 625, 635, 636, 638, 644, 645, 649, 652, 665, 680, 681, 699, 763, 802, 825, 826, 827, 837, 893, 912, 916, 944, 985, 986, 999, 1028, 1042, 1076, 1083, 1084, 1085, 1088, 1127, 1129, 1137, 1159, 1164, 1187, 1193, 1225, 1229, 1251, 1275, 1285, 1286, 1389, 1404, 1416, 1434, 1435, 1451, 1461, 1464, 1496, 1497, 1569, 1577, 1611, 1619, 1631, 1632, 1638, 1648, 1687, 1692, 1719, 1723, 1740, 1748, 1809, 1817, 1834, 1847, 1848, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1883, 1907, 1910, 1915, 1967, 1986, 1992, 1994, 2016, 2017, 2034, 2076, 2090, 2105, 2119, 2120, 2144, 2145, 2148, 2157, 2167, 2172, 2290, 2325, 2357, 2358, 2388 of refugees and displaced persons 9, 51, 73, 105, 310, 514, 552, 593, 616, 617, 784, 789, 790, 791, 792, 794, 941, 982, 983, 1115, 1154, 1208, 1209, 1254, 1279, 1452, 1453, 1454, 1472, 1544, 1546, 1554, 1582, 1679, 1718, 1808, 1887, 1938, 1944, 2113, 2172, 2338, 2350, 2351, 2368 of returned/returning migrants 305, 344, 380, 490, 1149, 1453, 1489 of second and/or third generation New Zealand-born 16, 17, 23, 43, 44, 46, 47, 79, 138, 198, 251, 417, 422, 459, 483, 527, 638, 651, 652, 653, 654, 658, 708, 815, 851, 893, 1015, 1028, 1062, 1124, 1131, 1159, 1232, 1235, 1254, 1285, 1325, 1364, 1419, 1427, 1432, 1446, 1479, 1496, 1497, 1597, 1611, 1632, 1691, 1740, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1910, 1993, 2034, 2035, 2090, 2091, 2104, 2148, 2227, 2258, 2313, 2327, 2337, 2358, 2386 of students, international and others 87, 104, 117, 123, 133, 157, 159, 192, 199, 207, 270, 301, 302, 305, 309, 359, 360, 374, 392, 431, 489, 509, 574, 604, 608, 626, 631, 632, 633, 635, 636, 652, 680, 681, 737, 745, 774, 796, 801, 825, 826, 827, 836, 841, 876, 885, 898, 900, 901, 914, 999, 1055, 1056, 1072, 1085, 1135, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1152, 1210, 1237, 1238, 1335, 1404, 1434, 1435, 1496, 1497, 1527, 1528, 1604, 1605, 1611, 1668, 1669, 1706, 1750, 1751, 1767, 1803, 1839, 1843, 1847, 1848, 1877, 1910, 1927, 1930, 1953, 1954, 1955, 2016, 2017, 2189, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2220, 2224, 2228, 2267, 2286, 2355, 2356, 2360, 2365, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2395 towards immigrants, immigration, refugees, international students and ethnic group members 8, 19, 30, 76, 105, 109, 113, 139, 144, 162, 165, 190, 193, 199, 205, 206, 232, 248, 249, 250, 251, 268, 270, 299a, 301, 376, 377, 393, 431, 432, 442, 452, 453, 463, 471, 475, 527, 530, 545, 564, 604, 617, 643, 660, 661, 701, 725, 768, 799, 801, 854, 861, 865, 874, 883, 885, 890, 891, 902, 941, 945, 960, 964, 970, 1035, 1042, 1055, 1056, 1077, 1080, 1082, 1122, 1123, 1127, 1132, 1135, 1162, 1168, 1170, 1185, 1197, 1205, 1206, 1220, 1236, 1259, 1315, 1341, 1348, 1349, 1350, 1354, 1360, 1390, 1421, 1428, 1429, 1441, 1472, 1484, 1487, 1493, 1494, 1497, 1498, 1502, 1509, 1532, 1549, 1553, 1556, 1584, 1601, 1641, 1698, 1707, 1708, 1751, 1777, 1808, 1841, 1844, 1850, 1851, 1904, 1923, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1963, 1964, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1977, 1978, 1981, 2029, 2054, 2055, 2060, 2133, 2135, 2160, 2161, 2181, 2182, 2202, 2204, 2224, 2225, 2227, 2228, 2229, 2232, 2233, 2247, 2248, 2250, 2251, 2252, 2279, 2308, 2328, 2336, 2341, 2350, 2360, 2371, 2372, 2379, 2380
379 integrative model of 2230 (see also: Prejudice; Mass media, portrayal of ethnic groups, immigrants, refugees, international students)
Attribution 2287
Auckland Central Migrant Work Track Programme 1341 North Auckland Migrant Engineers Programme 1341 Refugee Health Service 82 Regional Chamber of Commerce 2133 Regional Migrant Services (ARMS) 1209 Regional Settlement Strategy 538, 1258, 1259, 1260, 1755, 1980 Sustainable Cities Programme 1258, 1259, 1260
Australians 28, 48, 164, 172, 173, 176, 182, 245, 281, 282, 283, 326, 399, 452, 453, 519, 536, 557, 570, 576a, 592, 683, 692, 738, 919, 961, 973, 1005, 1124, 1188, 1234, 1317, 1355, 1395, 1500, 1547, 1548, 1592, 1608, 1609, 1673, 1700, 1730, 1925, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2100, 2204, 2225, 2241, 2299, 2346 (see also: Trans-Tasman, migration)
Austrians 144, 187, 203, 212, 232, 299a, 376, 1094, 1139, 1582, 1997, 2300
Authority 108, 1201, 1725
Autobiography or memoir 12, 23, 34, 43, 47, 51, 53a, 54, 84, 100, 105, 138, 145, 184, 203, 223, 226, 247, 261, 276, 368, 383, 384, 391, 396, 403, 417, 459, 512, 529, 558, 566, 571, 572, 573, 587, 614, 615, 642, 649, 651, 677, 708, 740, 743, 757, 803, 815, 834, 835, 851, 896, 1060, 1062, 1083, 1090, 1091, 1130, 1131, 1232, 1235, 1254, 1273, 1351, 1379, 1466, 1469, 1505, 1520, 1530, 1588, 1600, 1627, 1693, 1761, 1762, 1789, 1872, 1902, 1906, 1911, 1926, 1929, 1956, 2012, 2051, 2061, 2086, 2099, 2107, 2121, 2144, 2155, 2162, 2168, 2170, 2173, 2174, 2175, 2178, 2222, 2236, 2238, 2261, 2269, 2271, 2283, 2284, 2314, 2317, 2318, 2348, 2373, 2374
Ayurvedic medicine 1814, 2177
Backpackers 1531, 2171
Baha’i 147, 1511, 1861
Bangladeshi 569, 795, 949, 1874, 1997, 1998
Banking, banking services, profession etc. 503, 1102, 2024
Baptism 439, 441
Beauty pageants 1133
Behaviour 1855, 1953, 2225 adolescents and/or children 87, 116, 123, 124, 126, 127, 131, 133, 134, 334, 412, 430, 435, 449, 492, 530, 561, 583, 688, 785, 798, 830, 837, 944, 991, 999, 1015, 1045, 1046, 1135, 1157, 1254, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1304, 1321, 1953, 2202 in job interviews 1205, 1206 modification 1014
380 of students 1750, 1751, 2202 (see also: Bullying or intimidation)
Belgians 2302
Belonging and/or attachment, sense/feeling of 73, 133, 134, 359, 387, 388, 1251, 1326, 1452, 1455, 1666, 1725, 1953, 1954, 2174, 2338, 2360, 2392
Bessarabians 105
Bibliography 585, 1499, 1551, 1957, 2056, 2131
Biculturalism 109, 135, 164, 170, 178, 249, 251, 405, 437, 595, 723, 741, 749, 971, 1096, 1106, 1292, 1294, 1440, 1665, 1701, 1744, 1781, 1831, 1850, 1972, 1976, 1978, 2397
Bilingualism 8, 40, 56, 60, 89, 122, 123, 124, 191, 232, 250, 320, 331, 435, 483, 503, 523, 559, 613, 662, 686, 695, 697, 698, 739, 742, 798, 885, 918, 974, 1036, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1097, 1110, 1164, 1190, 1191, 1264, 1271, 1292, 1293, 1304, 1338, 1343, 1370, 1393, 1400, 1495, 1523, 1566, 1567, 1616, 1668, 1669, 1674, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1773, 1883, 1886, 1887, 1909, 1931, 1933, 1985, 1987, 1988, 2007, 2011, 2045, 2057, 2058, 2062, 2075, 2081, 2083, 2084, 2089, 2111, 2142, 2185, 2200, 2336, 2352, 2355, 2381, 2390, 2391 (see also: Communication; Education, bilingualism and language; English, as second language; English, for speakers of other languages)
Bilingual tutor training project 1886, 1887
Bint, construction of 1017
Biography 13, 14, 22, 28, 35, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55, 71, 90, 101, 187, 196, 200, 203, 204, 213, 224, 225, 237, 240, 244, 250, 251, 252, 259, 261, 265, 266, 267, 269, 276, 285, 298, 311, 312, 313, 323, 330, 335, 351, 367, 368, 379, 380, 381, 399, 427, 451, 458, 464, 474, 477, 478, 482, 504, 505, 515, 526, 566, 575, 576, 576a, 578, 580, 582, 588, 589, 590, 591, 601, 602, 623, 640, 671, 678, 683, 691, 692, 702, 707, 709, 712, 721, 736, 779, 780, 781, 803, 804, 819, 838, 839, 840, 870, 875, 906, 940, 942, 943, 973, 974, 975, 976, 977, 980, 987, 997, 1004, 1012, 1032, 1039, 1057, 1069, 1074, 1075, 1099, 1104, 1105, 1107, 1109, 1124, 1136, 1188, 1192, 1204, 1248, 1276, 1280, 1281, 1282, 1283, 1295, 1296, 1299, 1300, 1301, 1311, 1313, 1342, 1345, 1347, 1351, 1352, 1353, 1362, 1368, 1369, 1372, 1374, 1387, 1439, 1443, 1446, 1449, 1463, 1469, 1473, 1481, 1483, 1524, 1530, 1573, 1578, 1579, 1580, 1582, 1587, 1591, 1614, 1633a, 1657, 1660, 1683, 1686, 1699, 1704, 1710, 1747, 1766, 1776, 1777, 1784, 1785, 1786, 1791, 1815, 1820, 1824, 1827, 1856, 1863, 1866, 1867, 1881, 1898, 1901, 1905, 1908, 1925, 1940, 1945, 1949, 1958, 1962, 1967, 2018, 2024, 2025, 2027, 2028, 2034, 2038, 2039, 2072, 2075, 2091, 2098, 2100, 2106, 2124, 2125, 2134, 2150, 2151, 2155, 2165, 2180, 2183, 2191, 2192, 2236, 2242, 2243, 2244, 2255, 2257, 2263, 2264, 2266, 2277, 2281, 2282, 2284, 2287, 2289, 2292, 2315, 2321, 2323, 2325, 2330, 2335, 2382, 2383, 2389, 2399
Birth control (see: Abortion; Contraception) gestational age, pre-term etc. 494, 612, 720 weight 373, 511, 720, 1322, 1323
‘Black Pacific’ 758
Blindness 1458
381 Blood pressure 32, 98, 370, 525, 579, 598, 659, 686, 720, 727, 913, 1016, 1047, 1357, 1381, 1410, 1415, 1812, 1833, 1870, 1918, 2070, 2071, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2359
Body 1320, 1767 fat/Body Mass Index (see: Anthropometry and/or anthropomorphic measurement; Obesity) feminisation 1853, 1855 funeral preparation of 1861 image 76, 579, 688, 1133, 2354 size 1047, 1189, 1749, 1829, 1830, 1959, 2070, 2071, 2354 view of 723, 1320
Bohemians 630
Booksellers 1439
Bosnians 196
Botany and botanists 13
‘Brain drain’, ‘brain exchange’, ‘brain gain’ 141, 155, 161, 180, 181, 182, 236, 311, 326, 366, 425, 426, 456, 536, 719, 857, 888, 907, 954, 1148, 1149, 1334, 1447, 1470, 1471, 1481, 1626, 1840, 2216, 2240 (see also: Emigration; New Zealanders abroad; Trans-Tasman migration)
Brazilians 1, 570, 671, 672, 883, 1340, 1399, 1405, 1997
Breastfeeding 10, 82, 315, 318, 400, 547, 637, 1229, 1248, 1415, 1646, 1655, 1692, 1959
Brides letter/mail-order brides 250, 1277 war brides 240, 689, 690, 1336, 1520, 2049, 2317
British 33, 35, 57, 81, 97, 110, 153, 166, 170, 172, 176, 177, 181, 184, 185, 197, 204, 230, 245, 246, 249, 281, 282, 283, 285, 321, 326, 335, 365, 367, 436, 452, 453, 487, 495, 564, 592, 689, 725, 743, 751, 769, 821, 822, 961, 1005, 1025, 1039, 1107, 1163, 1231, 1233, 1285, 1287, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1309, 1317, 1332, 1340, 1360, 1372, 1380, 1399, 1448, 1476, 1500, 1531, 1532, 1545, 1547, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1553, 1592, 1608, 1635, 1636, 1662, 1663, 1665, 1666, 1667, 1698, 1700, 1701, 1707, 1710, 1730, 1736, 1776, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1846, 1903, 1916, 1978, 1979, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2028, 2086, 2101, 2112, 2171, 2203, 2204, 2218, 2225, 2255, 2298 child migrants 1923 (see also: English, migrants; Irish; Scots; Shetlanders; Ulster and Ulstermen; Welsh)
Broadcasting Standards Authority 1361
Brogden’s navvies 1636, 2180
Bulgarians 51, 630, 2300, 2319
Bulimia 387, 388, 686, 687, 1589
Bullying or intimidation 87, 632, 681, 1045, 1767, 1953, 1954
382 Bureaucracy 757, 1024, 1422, 1874, 2140, 2297
Burial and cremation 1861
Burmese (Myanmar) 416, 570, 599, 1120, 1249, 1546, 1550, 1588, 1895, 1949, 2096, 2234, 2239
Burqa (see: Clothing, burqa)
Burundians 1120
Business and/or entrepreneur migrants 97, 168, 170, 178, 195, 431, 432, 564, 878, 880, 882, 891, 965, 969, 1044, 1170, 1447, 1543, 1545, 1547, 1550, 1551, 1555, 1557, 1558, 1559, 1609, 1879, 1903, 2203, 2210, 2367, 2376 retail 462, 576a, 596, 1585, 1659, 2237, 2329
Cambodians 365, 435, 519, 539, 570, 739, 879, 881, 932, 982, 1120, 1150, 1340, 1545, 1550, 1887, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2007, 2338
Cambridge Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults (CELTA) 2094
Campylobacter 1526
Canadians 48, 68, 246, 282, 283, 326, 557, 570, 689, 919, 1328, 1380, 1532, 1545, 1550, 1552, 1553, 1608, 1997, 1998, 2049, 2284
Cancer 24, 26, 82, 98, 214, 215, 216, 220, 277, 278, 279, 525, 615, 669, 670, 685, 686, 765, 767, 996, 1054, 1373, 1414, 1415, 1451, 1694, 1842, 1870, 1892, 1893, 2011, 2307, 2375
Canterbury Association/Canterbury settlement 1039
Capital, circulation of 1970, 1978
Cardiovascular and/or coronary disease 24, 26, 82, 98, 214, 215, 220, 246, 370, 511, 525, 598, 669, 670, 677, 686, 720, 813, 852, 939, 1016, 1040, 1333, 1381, 1410, 1414, 1415, 1451, 1458, 1768, 1847, 1870, 1918, 2011, 2127, 2147
Career(s) 394, 472, 473, 490, 887, 919, 921, 922, 923, 955, 1102, 1116, 1325, 1370, 1421, 1490, 1528, 1690, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1799, 1800, 1994, 2095, 2114, 2121, 2384, 2395 global 366
Cartoons and/or cartoonists 961, 970, 1487, 1576
Category jumping 161, 319, 425
Celts 1998
Censorship 945, 1364, 1365, 1437, 1438
Central Region Migrants Programme 1341
383 Chain migration 28, 198, 213, 232, 248, 250, 264, 382, 390, 394, 395, 480, 594, 597, 702, 815, 882, 1010, 1074, 1118, 1162, 1195, 1199, 1214, 1218, 1310, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1613, 1659, 1698, 1700, 2047, 2126, 2206, 2211 (see also: Brides, letter/mail order brides)
Chefs 2040
Child abuse 83, 944, 1031, 1274, 1923, 2064, 2065 behaviour 530 care and/or safety 534, 884, 1031, 1274, 1288, 1401, 1923 discipline 83, 944, 1646, 1682, 1953, 2064, 2065, 2234 Migrant Scheme 1923 rearing (see: Parenting and child rearing) soldiers 2239
Child Youth and Family Service 551
Children and/or infants 4, 8, 9, 10, 17, 39, 47, 53a, 56, 73, 87, 89, 97, 98, 102, 108, 116, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131, 144, 191, 196, 202, 232, 257, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292, 313, 315, 318, 327, 334, 373, 385, 395, 406, 421, 423, 428, 435, 486, 488, 492, 494, 502, 504, 530, 534, 547, 561, 568, 570, 580, 586, 610, 620, 629, 637, 640, 644, 645, 646, 667, 668, 689, 695, 697, 710, 715, 716, 717, 718, 720, 728, 739, 740, 747, 749, 757, 759, 760, 761, 762, 778, 785, 786, 794, 797, 798, 800, 830, 841, 846, 852, 910, 912, 915, 918, 941, 944, 987, 990, 991, 999, 1019, 1031, 1046, 1054, 1065, 1084, 1086, 1097, 1100, 1110, 1113, 1157, 1186, 1189, 1190, 1191, 1223, 1229, 1245, 1254, 1278, 1284, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1288, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1304, 1322, 1323, 1326, 1331, 1339, 1343, 1370, 1377, 1400, 1401, 1414, 1415, 1469, 1475, 1499, 1526, 1528, 1546, 1554, 1570, 1577, 1598, 1600, 1610, 1627, 1629, 1637, 1638, 1639, 1641, 1646, 1647, 1649, 1650, 1651, 1652, 1682, 1687, 1695, 1713, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1748, 1749, 1760, 1827, 1828, 1830, 1834, 1845, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1879, 1890, 1891, 1895, 1909, 1923, 1990, 2007, 2011, 2026, 2032, 2033, 2037, 2038, 2057, 2058, 2073, 2102, 2105, 2121, 2152, 2153, 2156, 2158, 2166, 2184, 2185, 2190, 2193, 2203, 2234, 2239, 2250, 2258, 2259, 2297, 2312, 2325, 2332, 2336, 2341, 2353, 2378, 2381, 2399 children’s literature 471, 2073 sleeping arrangements 10, 637, 1655 weight estimation 2097 (see also: Adolescents; Orphans; Youth)
Chileans 147, 560, 570, 1405, 1997, 2170, 2301 (see also: Latin Americans)
Chinese 5, 53a, 63, 69, 74, 81, 87, 98, 109, 110, 132, 146, 147, 166, 168, 170, 180, 195, 198, 210, 246, 249, 302, 326, 332, 338, 357, 359, 360, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 378, 381, 385, 387, 388, 390, 393, 394, 404, 405, 407, 417, 420, 422, 429, 430, 431, 432, 438, 439, 440, 449, 452, 453, 455, 464, 489, 503, 507, 528, 533, 539, 547, 551, 559, 564, 570, 571, 576a, 602, 613, 621, 633, 643, 656, 660, 661, 671, 672, 673, 724, 725, 726, 729, 769, 801, 824, 838, 841, 854, 859, 860, 865, 878, 880, 882, 885, 898, 900, 901, 932, 945, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971, 973, 984, 998, 1000, 1001, 1002, 1010, 1011, 1031, 1052, 1053, 1101, 1102, 1103, 1113, 1122, 1123, 1124, 1135, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1147, 1157, 1158, 1161, 1167, 1168, 1169, 1171, 1184, 1189, 1190, 1191, 1198, 1237, 1238, 1239, 1248, 1278, 1279, 1322, 1323, 1354, 1374, 1380, 1385, 1388, 1424, 1432, 1440, 1441, 1484, 1485, 1486, 1487, 1503, 1510, 1543, 1545, 1547, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1557, 1563, 1564, 1566, 1567, 1568, 1574, 1601, 1629, 1633, 1659, 1666, 1668, 1669, 1700, 1706, 1731, 1750, 1751, 1766, 1767, 1768, 1777, 1784, 1804, 1821, 1841, 1843, 1861, 1870, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1903, 1904, 1921,
384 1927, 1928, 1935, 1941, 1954, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2018, 2041, 2059, 2060, 2070, 2071, 2100, 2114, 2134, 2140, 2186, 2188, 2189, 2197, 2209, 2210, 2217, 2219, 2220, 2222, 2223, 2225, 2228, 2257, 2258, 2267, 2291, 2292, 2293, 2328, 2329, 2332, 2333, 2334, 2335, 2336, 2337, 2340, 2341, 2353, 2354, 2355, 2356, 2359, 2360, 2361, 2362, 2363, 2365, 2367, 2371, 2372, 2375, 2381, 2390, 2391, 2392, 2393, 2395 attitudes, prejudice and/or racism towards 109, 143, 146, 190, 198, 249, 332, 338, 393, 422, 431, 432, 452, 453, 564, 643, 660, 661, 725, 769, 854, 859, 860, 865, 945, 959, 960, 961, 964, 967, 969, 970, 973, 1052, 1053, 1122, 1123, 1132, 1135, 1248, 1354, 1360, 1441, 1484, 1486, 1487, 1563, 1601, 1633, 1751, 1777, 1904, 1954, 2059, 2060, 2223, 2225, 2227, 2229, 2291, 2308, 2328, 2335, 2336, 2337, 2341, 2360, 2371, 2372, 2395 crime, drugs 87, 455, 865, 1278, 1354, 1750, 1870, 1904, 1941, 2060 diet and food 110, 357, 407, 420, 656, 1189, 1804, 1870, 2070, 2071, 2359, 2360 discrimination 110, 198, 359, 432, 449, 564, 643, 660, 769, 841, 854, 859, 860, 865, 945, 959, 960, 961, 963, 964, 966, 967, 969, 970, 971, 973, 1122, 1123, 1161, 1484, 1486, 1487, 1563, 1601, 1633, 1666, 1751, 2059, 2060, 2132, 2134, 2308, 2328, 2335, 2337, 2372 education and training 1, 87, 104, 106, 117, 210, 270, 306, 357, 364, 378, 385, 392, 417, 429, 430, 431, 489, 559, 611, 633, 729, 801, 832, 836, 841, 860, 876, 883, 885, 898, 900, 901, 1000, 1001, 1124, 1135, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1157, 1169, 1179, 1190, 1191, 1237, 1238, 1340, 1392, 1396, 1405, 1527, 1628, 1629, 1668, 1669, 1706, 1750, 1751, 1832, 1877, 1927, 1928, 1930, 1954, 2077, 2132, 2220, 2228, 2258, 2336, 2353, 2354, 2355, 2356, 2365, 2390, 2391, 2393 employment/unemployment 63, 110, 195, 198, 338, 381, 390, 394, 417, 420, 432, 449, 452, 453, 489, 507, 576a, 643, 656, 671, 672, 768, 838, 841, 854, 859, 860, 880, 882, 963, 967, 969, 973, 1010, 1052, 1053, 1102, 1169, 1374, 1380, 1441, 1552, 1563, 1585, 1601, 1659, 1766, 1777, 1870, 1878, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2060, 2114, 2132, 2133, 2219, 2223, 2257, 2308, 2329, 2334, 2361, 2362, 2367, 2372, 2395 family, family relationships, kinship 53a, 74, 87, 198, 303, 359, 386, 390, 394, 417, 430, 449, 576a, 724, 838, 960, 1010, 1011, 1113, 1157, 1158, 1161, 1167, 1168, 1169, 1184, 1190, 1248, 1374, 1527, 1566, 1567, 1568, 1870, 1875, 1878, 2114, 2134, 2188, 2258, 2332, 2333, 2335, 2336, 2337, 2341, 2353, 2381 gambling 1147, 1870, 1904, 2060, 2334 health and social services 1103, 1870, 2222, 2334, 2375, 2392 health and welfare 5, 87, 98, 246, 359, 365, 386, 387, 388, 389, 449, 519, 551, 724, 824, 879, 881, 1010, 1020, 1031, 1103, 1147, 1161, 1248, 1322, 1323, 1586, 1601, 1706, 1739, 1750, 1767, 1768, 1811, 1870, 1878, 1954, 2060, 2070, 2071, 2114, 2134, 2140, 2189, 2225, 2292, 2293, 2340, 2354, 2359, 2375, 2392 Heritage Trust 1755 identity or self concept 74, 198, 387, 388, 422, 431, 854, 963, 968, 969, 971, 1001, 1002, 1101, 1122, 1123, 1135, 1161, 1484, 1629, 1633, 2059, 2186, 2222, 2257, 2335, 2365, 2371, 2381, 2393 language (English and/or Mandarin etc.) 53a, 117, 195, 210, 359, 362, 363, 364, 378, 392, 394, 422, 431, 449, 489, 533, 551, 559, 613, 729, 836, 841, 859, 860, 876, 898, 900, 901, 905, 968, 1135, 1144, 1145, 1157, 1161, 1179, 1190, 1191, 1237, 1238, 1527, 1566, 1567, 1629, 1633, 1633, 1668, 1669, 1673, 1750, 1832, 1875, 1878, 1887, 1927, 1928, 1930, 1987, 2007, 2132, 2222, 2257, 2267, 2336, 2355, 2356, 2360, 2365, 2372, 2381, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2395 legal and/or political status 959 literary representations of 332 mass media (newspapers, radio, television – provision, use etc.) 533, 945, 963, 968, 970, 1171, 1633, 2186, 2219, 2362 model minority 393, 394, 422, 824, 966, 971, 1628
385 politics (ethnic, national, local body, etc.) 381, 393, 945, 962, 963, 964, 968, 969, 971, 1484, 1629, 1633, 2328 religion and/or spirituality 301, 305, 439, 440, 621, 963, 973, 1184, 1784, 1861, 2018, 2329 residential patterns and/or geographic distribution 1005, 1135, 1441, 1563, 1804, 1904, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2371 social interaction, relationships, participation 110, 198, 270, 302, 359, 360, 431, 489, 559, 801, 854, 859, 883, 898, 899, 964, 966, 1010, 1135, 1146, 1147, 1171, 1184, 1237, 1238, 1659, 1677, 1777, 2059, 2060, 2257, 2333, 2334, 2336, 2365, 2371, 2390, 2391 students 1, 59, 87, 104, 106, 117, 166, 246, 270, 302, 303, 306, 357, 359, 360, 362, 363, 364, 378, 429, 430, 431, 533, 559, 608, 611, 613, 633, 673, 729, 832, 836, 841, 876, 883, 885, 898, 900, 1000, 1001, 1103, 1135, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1147, 1179, 1190, 1191, 1198, 1237, 1238, 1239, 1340, 1392, 1396, 1399, 1405, 1406, 1527, 1628, 1668, 1669, 1677, 1706, 1750, 1751, 1832, 1843, 1877, 1927, 1928, 1930, 1954, 2077, 2189, 2197, 2217, 2220, 2228, 2267, 2336, 2341, 2353, 2354, 2355, 2356, 2360, 2365, 2390, 2391, 2395 voluntary associations 621, 883, 945, 962, 963, 965, 967, 968, 969, 973, 1184, 1633, 1731, 1904, 2060, 2328, 2329, 2335, 2392 (see also: Asians; Haining Street Oral History Project; Hong Kong Chinese; Poll tax and apology; Singaporeans; Taiwanese)
Chineseness, in New Zealand history/life 1440
Chinoiserie 332, 1935
Cholesterol 98, 501, 1016, 1381, 1410, 1415, 1638, 1812, 1870, 1918, 2309, 2310, 2311
Christchurch Refugee and Migrant Centre 1209
Church(es), ethnic/immigrant (see: Places of worship; Religion and spirituality)
Cinema or motion picture industry exhibitors/distributors/theatre owners 1446 films and film-makers (directors, producers, etc.) 743, 1220, 1240, 1281, 1670, 1908, 2331 (see also: Actors)
Circumcision female ( a.k.a. genital mutilation) 534, 790, 792, 1330, 1357 male 17, 197, 1330
Circus performers 1368
Citizens Advice Bureaux International Students Service Centre 883
Citizenship 33, 45, 133, 135, 139, 196a, 414, 540, 572, 573, 576a, 627, 660, 705, 758, 769, 809, 930, 954, 971, 1010, 1106, 1360, 1362, 1484, 1486, 1554, 1662, 1663, 1664, 1665, 1666, 1667, 1672, 1744, 1755, 1756, 1844, 1889, 1923, 1968, 1969, 1976, 1978, 1995, 2112, 2245 cultural 1781 (Western Samoa) Act 758, 769, 1360, 1755, 1844 (see also: Aliens; Naturalisation)
Climate change and/or natural disasters 484
386 Clothing 400, 462, 565, 577, 654, 689, 785, 786, 794, 800, 933, 997, 1080, 1081, 1118, 1133, 1164, 1185, 1376, 1516, 1635, 1837, 1896, 1935, 1940, 2091, 2181 burqa 20, 775, 776, 933, 1080, 1081, 1755, 1938, 2181
Code of Practice for the Pastoral Care of International Students 296, 307, 604, 605, 608, 951, 981, 1055, 1143, 1397, 1401, 1403, 1676, 1899
Cognitive behaviour therapy 2292, 2293
Colombo Plan (students etc.) 301, 2077
Comedians 1815, 1961, 1967, 2331
Comics (Manga etc) 2042
Commodification 193, 1855
Communication 121, 277, 302, 362, 363, 674, 1024, 1101, 1364, 1365, 1527, 1734, 1970, 1978, 2060 brokering 1567 cross/intercultural 8, 9, 30, 60, 85, 88, 106, 121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 152, 205, 206, 232, 254, 257, 277, 287, 309, 322, 331, 355, 357, 358, 359, 360, 362, 363, 365, 392, 398, 414, 424, 431, 435, 468, 499, 509, 510, 532, 533, 547, 548, 551, 559, 611, 627, 628, 635, 636, 662, 676, 695, 748, 749, 789, 798, 801, 814, 825, 826, 827, 828, 842, 864, 874, 879, 881, 884, 885, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 974, 982, 994, 1024, 1028, 1037, 1049, 1050, 1064, 1065, 1115, 1126, 1144, 1145, 1156, 1157, 1237, 1238, 1248, 1249, 1261, 1264, 1271, 1304, 1341, 1364, 1389, 1396, 1465, 1497, 1502, 1528, 1533, 1584, 1602, 1622, 1677, 1680, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1741, 1751, 1771, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1922, 1928, 1947, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1963, 1964, 2030, 2059, 2066, 2075, 2127, 2135, 2139, 2140, 2148, 2163, 2169, 2172, 2181, 2184, 2185, 2201, 2219, 2220, 2224, 2234, 2250, 2252, 2270, 2273, 2306, 2336, 2342, 2343, 2357, 2360, 2365, 2368, 2379 intergenerational 73, 116, 449, 634, 652, 929, 1167, 1285, 1287, 1419, 1527, 1528, 1566, 1567, 1631, 1909, 2084, 2148, 2234, 2336, 2343, 2381 ‘small talk’ 897 sociocentric vs idiocentric 1677 technologies (innovations, use of, barriers to use etc.) 167, 356, 734, 1022, 1101, 1475, 1970, 1978 web sites, ethnic/immigrant (use, value of etc.) 356, 699, 883, 1475 (see also: Bilingualism; Computers; Education, bilingualism and language; English, as second language; English, for speakers of other languages; Internet; Language; Mass media)
Community consultation 735, 2345 development and/or action 82, 88, 413, 414, 466, 467, 616, 1209, 1225, 1226, 1422, 1507, 2234 Pacific models, metaphors, principles etc. 467, 1225, 1226, 1422 ethnic 154, 475, 1214 languages, maintenance and/or use etc. 61, 191, 697, 905, 1095, 1097, 1370, 1673, 1720, 1721, 1884, 1885, 1909, 1987, 1991, 1993, 2083, 2084 (see also: Language, change/shift; Language, loss and/or maintenance; Language, policy) moral 1214 morale 44
387 resilience 2138 work 1225, 1226, 1507
Complementalism 1953
Complementary and/or alternative medicine 1571, 1739, 1915
Computers (access to, knowledge, skills, use of etc.) 356, 372, 374, 1022, 1101, 1200, 1404, 1475 (see also: ‘Digital divide’)
Conflict, intergroup/intercultural 801
Congolese 475, 570
Consequences, of emigration and/or immigration (see: Cultural considerations/ effects; Cultural knowledge/skills (including language) of immigrants or refugees; Demographic considerations/effects; Diversity, cultural/ethnic; Economic considerations/effects; Environmental considerations/effects; Property values; ‘Race’ and/or ethnic relations; Social considerations/ effects)
Consulates and/or embassies, of immigrant nationals 1095
Consumption (and taste) 751
Contact, intergroup/intercultural/with New Zealanders etc. 199, 270, 357, 801, 929, 1132, 1161, 1839, 2160, 2229, 2230, 2232 (see also: Maori, relationships and/or contact with migrants; Social interaction/participation/relationships)
Contraception 1357, 1604, 1605, 1646, 1648, 1767, 2375 (see also: Abortion)
Conventions (agreements), international 280, 502, 530, 553, 703, 704, 823, 930, 931, 988, 1331, 1407, 1598, 1808, 2113, 2326
Convicts 623, 1030, 1033, 2304
Cook Islanders 4, 10, 15, 70, 167, 188, 189, 315, 316, 317, 318, 326, 365, 372, 402, 466, 491, 570, 674, 687, 720, 805, 815, 816, 819, 932, 946, 1015, 1019, 1031, 1062, 1084, 1087, 1187, 1201, 1218, 1240, 1262, 1263, 1288, 1360, 1387, 1389, 1416, 1417, 1451, 1477, 1619, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1719, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1861, 1905, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2043, 2074, 2090, 2103, 2122, 2162, 2165, 2172, 2183, 2206, 2235, 2357, 2385, 2387 acculturation/adjustment 10, 85, 1015 education and/or training 56, 85, 811, 812, 815, 816, 1062, 1087, 1100, 1719, 2011, 2162 employment/unemployment 174, 815, 1087, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2043, 2122 family and kinship 10, 56, 188, 189, 1062, 1087, 1262, 1263, 1619, 2004, 2011, 2043, 2357 gambling 188, 189, 1619 health and welfare 4, 10, 316, 317, 365, 519, 686, 687, 720, 869, 1020, 1031, 1062, 1098, 1187, 1451, 1526, 1577, 1619, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1746, 1811, 1847, 1848, 1852, 2011, 2043, 2103, 2172
388 identity/self concept 15, 674, 815, 1062, 1187, 1841, 1992, 2162, 2357 language 15, 524, 674, 905, 1062, 1187, 1370, 1985, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2083, 2084, 2122, 2206, 2357 quilts and quilting 946, 1201, 2206 religion and/or spirituality 1015, 1062, 1087, 1389, 1861, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2122 second/third generation (New Zealand-born) 10, 674, 815, 1015, 1062, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1905, 1999, 2007, 2043, 2162, 2385, 2387 (see also: MIRAB economies/societies; Pacific peoples)
Co-Plan 59
Cornish Global Migration Project 2180
Corporate social responsibility 1858
‘Cosmonaut’ couples/kids 1551 (see also: ‘Astronaut’ migrants; ‘Parachute’ kids)
Counselling 87, 424, 430, 431, 534, 556, 604, 858, 864, 914, 948, 994, 1048, 1084, 1508, 1509, 1687, 1706, 1715, 1809, 1876, 1953, 2189, 2286, 2293, 2332, 2333, 2340, 2341 (see also: Social work)
Counter-urbanisation 2112
Courting, courtship or dating 689, 707, 1603, 1632, 2343, 2344
Creative art therapy 1376
Craftsworkers (see: Art, artists and craftsworkers)
Creative New Zealand Cultural Diversity Strategy 132
Creative spaces 77, 1120
Crime 47, 76, 115, 268, 309, 455, 463, 655, 792, 822, 951, 1031, 1084, 1127, 1166, 1185, 1239, 1278, 1354, 1418, 1420, 1464, 1565, 1732, 1733, 1750, 1755, 1904, 1941, 1973, 1981, 2011, 2015, 2022, 2034, 2281 bias or hate crime 1825 (see also: Drugs, drug abuse, drug smuggling; Gambling and/or problem gambling; Gangs; Justice system; Kidnapping; Victimisation; Violence)
Critique/review/stocktake, of literature and/or research 111, 493, 585, 643, 858, 879, 881, 885, 982, 1183, 1217, 1518, 1774, 2224, 2259
Croatians or Croats 138, 200, 248, 249, 250, 251, 299a, 313, 570, 575, 592, 630, 819, 940, 1000a,1069, 1071, 1199, 1382, 1578, 1633a, 1634, 1861, 1956, 1997, 1998, 2007, 2207, 2319, 2382 language 250, 905, 2007 orchardists, viticulturalists, winemakers 592, 819, 1199, 1634, 1867, 2207 (see also: Yugoslavs, former)
Cuisine 656, 1916, 2278, 2295
389 Cultural awareness and/or sensitivity 18, 20, 30, 32, 40, 79, 82, 255, 284, 300, 392, 397, 401, 421, 424, 437, 542, 545, 546, 547, 550, 635, 636, 664, 665, 741, 748, 749, 825, 826, 827, 858, 884, 885, 899, 982, 999, 1038, 1048, 1061, 1071, 1146, 1157, 1186, 1224, 1228, 1257, 1261, 1274, 1338, 1377, 1384, 1393, 1394, 1398, 1400, 1434, 1480, 1501, 1506, 1508, 1577, 1584, 1610, 1622, 1644, 1723, 1748, 1809, 1831, 1850, 1876, 1922, 1931, 1932, 1953, 1963, 1964, 2016, 2034, 2063, 2066, 2069, 2076, 2135, 2137, 2139, 2172, 2234, 2245, 2292, 2339, 2340, 2354 bereavement 983 capital 665, 1495, 2247, 2248, 2251, 2252 competency 30, 238, 270, 284, 551, 645, 732, 749, 841, 842, 948, 949, 982, 999, 1409, 1518, 1617, 1622, 1876, 2034, 2135, 2139 considerations, contributions and/or effects, of immigration/emigration in New Zealand 32, 45, 132, 140, 154, 232, 258, 262, 284, 369, 420, 477, 479, 577, 656, 713, 849, 1000, 1106, 1133, 1261, 1325, 1387, 1581, 1698, 1702, 1759, 1778, 1790, 1969, 2049, 2074, 2205, 2207, 2211, 2226, 2251, 2295, 2300, 2304, 2380, 2385, 2397 considerations, contributions and/or effects, of immigration/emigration in source countries 1111 democracy 669, 670 dislocation 2017 distance 127 exposure and attitudes 1132 inclusion/inclusiveness 863, 1055, 1643, 2080, 2228 knowledge/skills (including language) of emigrants, immigrants or refugees 196a, 594 effect/impact 45, 140, 281, 433, 2247, 2248, 2251, 2252 use/value of 107, 281, 433, 536, 763, 1055, 1142, 1224, 1225, 1227, 1384, 1409, 1413, 1543, 1617, 1674, 1809, 1921, 1994, 2035, 2063, 2095, 2169, 2200, 2246, 2247, 2248, 2251, 2252 (see also: Diversity, productive) obligations or costs 402 performance 196a, 1001, 1002, 1477 pluralism 1180 responsiveness 542, 546, 606, 885, 2154 safety 238, 254, 300, 424, 545, 547, 549, 550, 551, 628, 645, 723, 948, 949, 1126, 1377, 1508, 1515, 1577, 1584, 1592, 1622, 1748, 1794, 1876, 1963, 1964, 2034, 2066, 2163 transition 741 (see also: Learning, strategies etc.)
Culture 29, 44, 496, 999, 2145, 2290 appropriation of 44 broker 133 change, clash, loss and/or maintenance 8, 9, 16, 17, 42, 43, 44, 45, 53a, 61, 72, 83, 91, 107, 118, 133, 137, 196a, 232, 305, 322, 355, 423, 460, 475, 483, 492, 496, 497, 542, 544, 546, 570, 594, 595, 622, 629, 638, 652, 680, 699, 708, 713, 723, 728, 748, 785, 786, 790, 794, 816, 885, 893, 909, 941, 944, 958, 997, 1015, 1017, 1019, 1036, 1037, 1062, 1065, 1129, 1133, 1135, 1137, 1138, 1159, 1164, 1191, 1214, 1215, 1216, 1218, 1232, 1254, 1298, 1304, 1314, 1325, 1338, 1371, 1375, 1389, 1452, 1455, 1477, 1516, 1517, 1546, 1554, 1595, 1631, 1632, 1640, 1679, 1684, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1725, 1806, 1817, 1850, 1851, 1872, 1896, 1907, 1944, 1953, 2047, 2048, 2064, 2074, 2081, 2085, 2095, 2105, 2119, 2122, 2128, 2144, 2148, 2157, 2167, 2169, 2181, 2225, 2234, 2245, 2304, 2313, 2336, 2343, 2344, 2358, 2365, 2380 commodification 113
390 conflict 16, 574, 622, 785, 1024, 1081, 1725, 1831, 1910, 1953, 2234, 2250 enclave 395 legal relevance 2064, 2065 role and importance, in settlement 2145 ‘shock’ (including ‘reverse culture shock’) 76, 199, 232, 303, 357, 431, 490, 572, 573, 806, 818, 874, 1010, 1035, 1126, 1142, 1197, 1403, 1453, 1528, 1530, 1596, 1751, 1873, 1955, 2030, 2188, 2237, 2286, 2287 (see also: Acculturation; Adaptation and/or adjustment; Circumcision, female; Language)
Cyber space 1101
Cypriotes 723
Czechs/Czechoslovaks 117, 144, 147, 276, 323, 570, 630, 892, 1074, 1075, 2027, 2155, 2261, 2300
Dalmatians (see: Croatians or Croats; Yugoslavs, former)
Dance and/or dancers 599, 785, 816, 1001, 1002, 1019, 1088, 1120, 1240, 1389, 1477, 1595, 1633a, 1856, 2074, 2206
Danes 570, 630, 1332, 1372, 1450, 1553, 1997, 1998, 2319 (see also: Scandinavians)
Dawnraid Community Trust 1858
Dawnraid Entertainment 1858, 1905, 2386
Dawn raids 29, 44, 320, 564, 641, 1218, 2082
Deafness 1926
Death 723, 1234, 1239, 1860, 1861, 2060, 2315
Debt (see: Arrears or debts)
DELNA (Diagnostic English Language Needs Assessment) 1774
Demographic considerations/effects, of emigration/immigration in New Zealand 95, 134, 141, 175, 180, 222, 238, 282, 283, 302, 306, 319, 326, 328, 380, 405, 536, 563, 705, 719, 751, 882, 891, 909, 1007, 1114, 1115, 1169, 1202, 1215, 1218, 1292, 1395, 1471, 1503, 1529, 1603, 1609, 1629, 1700, 1727, 1728, 1729, 1730, 2164, 2270, 2316, 2397, 2398 in source countries 167, 171, 469, 909, 1251, 2145, 2211, 2235
Denizens and/or denizenship 1665
Dental or oral health 72, 990, 991, 1410, 1415, 1638, 1959, 2102
Department of Internal Affairs 551
Deportation 345, 1844
391 Depression 4, 5, 82, 142, 199, 317, 359, 386, 423, 686, 687, 723, 724, 744, 879, 881, 1126, 1161, 1182, 1586, 1589, 1767, 1841, 1914, 1953, 1954, 2104, 2199, 2231, 2287, 2292, 2307
Dermatological disease 1894
Deviance 786
Diabetes 32, 82, 98, 108, 129, 130, 150, 370, 488, 525, 579, 584, 598, 659, 669, 670, 684, 686, 720, 1016, 1040, 1357, 1381, 1410, 1414, 1415, 1451, 1458, 1694, 1768, 1775, 1812, 1826, 1833, 1870, 1912, 1915, 1918, 1959, 2011, 2046, 2115, 2116, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2366, 2388
Diaries and/or journals 49, 50, 101, 145, 247, 264, 269, 707, 779, 822, 876, 1046, 1520, 1580, 1736, 2256, 2313, 2325
Diarrhoea 778, 1894
Diaspora(s) 44, 113, 167, 198, 248, 354, 469, 483, 568, 661, 699, 752, 753, 758, 805, 960, 969, 1003, 1101, 1118, 1212, 1217, 1225, 1317, 1364, 1365, 1371, 1437, 1447, 1453, 1744, 1777, 1822, 1840, 1957, 1969, 1970, 1978, 2091, 2149, 2176, 2186 of New Zealanders 161, 236, 282, 283, 536, 719, 927, 1840
Diasporic nationalism 758 space 1744
Diet and food 82, 88, 98, 108, 110, 131, 139, 140, 197, 203, 232, 242, 302, 315, 357, 400, 402, 407, 411, 420, 445, 488, 501, 547, 572, 579, 583, 656, 688, 689, 759, 760, 794, 803, 816, 821, 822, 837, 990, 991, 1019, 1035, 1047, 1118, 1139, 1153, 1189, 1308, 1335, 1410, 1414, 1415, 1451, 1516, 1542, 1635, 1638, 1711, 1759, 1767, 1804, 1810, 1837, 1847, 1870, 1915, 1916, 1955, 2040, 2070, 2071, 2085, 2103, 2105, 2122, 2166, 2208, 2213, 2278, 2295, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2348, 2359, 2360 halal meat and slaughter 445, 937, 1896 nutrition education and/or knowledge 400, 1189 (see also: Eating and food consumption; Food security; Recipes)
Di-ethnia, concept of 2319
‘Digital divide’ 734
Dilworth Trust 2024
Diplomats and other government representatives 1863
Disability 421, 647, 648, 686, 723, 864, 1054, 1062, 1113, 1126, 1409, 1411, 1414, 1415, 1546
‘Discounting’ decisions (foregoing or substituting goods and services) 402
Discrimination 28, 29, 73, 97, 105, 107, 113, 146, 198, 199, 220, 250, 251, 284, 285, 309, 310, 359, 395, 413, 414, 432, 449, 452, 453, 475, 540, 564, 568, 594, 628, 634, 643, 660, 671, 672, 699, 733, 769, 786, 787, 788, 791, 794, 806, 809, 813, 841, 854, 859, 860, 865, 930, 932, 933, 936, 945, 959, 960, 961, 963, 964, 966, 967, 969, 970, 971, 973, 982, 1021, 1045, 1122, 1123, 1134, 1161, 1199, 1275, 1338, 1341, 1358, 1360,
392 1361, 1377, 1403, 1407, 1409, 1484, 1486, 1487, 1533, 1546, 1554, 1563, 1585, 1601, 1609, 1633, 1666, 1732, 1733, 1748, 1751, 1755, 1756, 1841, 1850, 1874, 1896, 1897, 1940, 1947, 1953, 1954, 1994, 2044, 2059, 2060, 2079, 2112, 2113, 2119, 2132, 2133, 2134, 2140, 2161, 2181, 2207, 2223, 2224, 2225, 2226, 2227, 2228, 2231, 2287, 2293, 2308, 2328, 2335, 2337, 2372, 2397 (see also: Human Rights; Race Relations Commissioner; Racism)
Diseases (n.o.d.) 32, 1054 communicable or infectious 26, 32, 525, 872, 892, 910, 1054, 1415, 1846, 1913 ‘imported’ 872 respiratory 26 (see also: Hepatitis; HIV/AIDS; Malaria; Pertussis; Pneumonia; Sexually transmitted diseases; Tuberculosis)
Displaced persons 105, 147, 148, 232, 368, 614, 1032, 1820, 1845, 2037, 2039, 2121, 2126, 2300, 2303
Displacement 1744, 2119, 2174
Diversity 1433 cultural/ethnic/linguistic 39, 132, 133, 134, 154, 168, 222, 238, 282, 283, 306, 422, 435, 463, 532, 547, 549, 550, 559, 563, 570, 595, 606, 698, 705, 741, 754, 797, 842, 882, 884, 885, 932, 985, 986, 1000, 1056, 1065, 1078, 1079, 1106, 1120, 1209, 1228, 1259, 1261, 1395, 1570, 1592, 1628, 1640, 1662, 1666, 1712, 1713, 1730, 1755, 1756, 1822, 1855, 1860, 1921, 1931, 1932, 1932, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1969, 1974, 1976, 2029, 2164, 2172, 2200, 2220, 2227, 2233, 2270, 2295, 2364, 2397, 2398 management model 1713 policy implications 238, 1433 productive 81, 433, 1543, 1822, 1921, 2246 (see also: Cultural, knowledge/skills (including language) of immigrants or refugees)
Divorce 689
Doctors 82, 274, 376, 1456, 1457, 1502, 1724, 1739, 1870, 1918, 2127, 2378, 2384 overseas trained 274, 376, 468, 525, 828, 829, 948, 949, 1155, 1283, 1502, 1549, 1552, 1724, 1772, 1874, 2140, 2163, 2273
Domestic Violence Act 2357 (see also: Violence, domestic)
Drag queens 2349
Dramatists or playwrights 113, 369, 398, 587, 651, 893, 1002, 1220, 1240, 1282, 1387, 1967, 1970, 2088, 2269, 2285, 2331
Dreams 802
Drugs, drug abuse, drug smuggling 30, 87, 115, 409, 455, 655, 686, 687, 723, 745, 789, 865, 1054, 1410, 1562, 1589, 1617, 1619, 1767, 1809, 1820, 1838, 1870, 1904, 1914, 1941, 1959, 2011, 2060
Duration of residence 48, 98, 136, 188, 189, 245, 246, 270, 316, 318, 365, 408, 491, 519, 536, 593, 631, 632, 818, 938, 1162, 1215, 1401, 1461, 1500, 1532, 1547, 1548, 1549,
393 1553, 1608, 1649, 1653, 1767, 1840, 1870, 1875, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2043, 2062, 2070, 2095, 2112, 2136, 2153, 2338, 2375
Dutch (migrants, language etc.) 33, 223, 235, 282, 283, 458, 527, 529, 558, 564, 570, 572, 573, 589, 590, 630, 663, 682, 691, 817, 819, 905, 929, 1090, 1095, 1136, 1153, 1279, 1448, 1503, 1507, 1532, 1553, 1673, 1806, 1903, 1997, 1998, 2007, 2012, 2075, 2112, 2173, 2174, 2175, 2178, 2209, 2271, 2323, 2348, 2380, 2383 Friendly Support Network Trust 2075
Ear disease or infections 1647
Eating/food consumption (attitudes, behaviour, disorder, patterns) 98, 108, 131, 357, 387, 388, 400, 407, 420, 583, 656, 686, 687, 688, 759, 760, 794, 797, 837, 1019, 1035, 1047, 1127, 1189, 1335, 1410, 1414, 1415, 1542, 1589, 1638, 1767, 1847, 1870, 2070, 2071, 2103, 2166, 2278, 2295, 2359 (see also: Anorexia nervosa; Bulimia; Diet and food; Food security; Recipes)
Economic considerations and/or effects, of emigration/immigration and return migration in New Zealand 67, 68, 69, 95, 170, 193, 194, 262, 281, 302, 306, 432, 433, 454, 455, 463, 536, 555, 594, 604, 627, 643, 719, 725, 756, 854, 883, 888, 926, 950, 951, 952, 953, 970, 1055, 1056, 1170, 1183, 1211, 1300, 1315, 1392, 1395, 1405, 1406, 1447, 1471, 1489, 1500, 1532, 1543, 1551, 1553, 1574, 1585, 1608, 1609, 1657, 1732, 1733, 1751, 1783, 1793, 1888, 1899, 1937, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1981, 2021, 2160, 2229, 2237, 2279, 2304, 2369 in source countries 27, 167, 169, 171, 201, 469, 693, 752, 753, 926, 1111, 1121, 1251, 1262, 1263, 1344, 1479, 1504, 2145, 2187, 2235 meta analysis 1183 (see also: MIRAB economies/societies; Remittances)
Economic Living Standards Index (ELSI) 998
Economic wellbeing 1087, 1426
Education and/or training 1, 2, 8, 9, 16, 18, 23, 39, 43, 46, 47, 56, 60, 62, 73, 79, 85, 87, 94, 97, 104, 106, 111, 117, 124, 125, 152, 158, 159, 160, 192, 197, 202, 205, 206, 207, 237, 245, 262, 295, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 314, 320, 322, 331, 358, 376, 383, 392, 395, 399, 409, 415, 417, 421, 424, 430, 431, 437, 441, 451, 454, 463, 466, 468, 483, 493, 499, 508, 509, 510, 512, 520, 523, 532, 540, 555, 561, 570, 574, 585, 594, 603, 604, 605, 607, 611, 614, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 645, 664, 665, 667, 668, 671, 680, 681, 696, 706, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 732, 733, 734, 737, 740, 748, 749, 756, 763, 785, 796, 811, 815, 816, 820, 825, 826, 828, 829, 831, 844, 860, 864, 871, 884, 885, 894, 898, 899, 900, 901, 909, 933, 944, 948, 949, 951, 956, 957, 981, 982, 999, 1000, 1003, 1020a, 1024, 1036, 1038, 1055, 1062, 1063, 1064, 1065, 1067, 1083, 1085, 1100, 1116, 1124, 1125, 1131, 1135, 1143, 1146, 1152, 1155, 1160, 1169, 1186, 1209, 1210, 1215, 1222, 1229, 1235, 1237, 1238, 1255, 1256, 1257, 1259, 1271, 1284, 1288, 1291, 1293, 1305, 1324, 1338, 1340, 1341, 1370, 1376, 1394, 1396, 1399, 1400, 1404, 1405, 1406, 1407, 1409, 1414, 1415, 1416, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1434, 1461, 1463, 1474, 1493, 1494, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1498, 1499, 1501, 1516, 1518, 1523, 1533, 1534, 1536, 1546, 1554, 1560, 1562, 1570, 1583, 1598, 1602, 1610, 1611, 1612, 1620, 1623, 1628, 1629, 1637, 1639, 1640, 1642, 1644, 1668, 1669, 1678, 1680, 1691, 1696, 1719, 1740, 1741, 1748, 1756, 1761, 1772, 1774, 1779, 1782, 1785, 1786, 1794, 1813, 1817, 1820, 1827, 1828, 1832, 1834, 1874, 1877, 1890, 1891, 1910, 1917, 1922, 1928, 1931, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1950, 1951, 1952, 2011, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2030, 2052, 2057, 2058, 2080, 2092, 2093, 2095, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2121, 2129, 2132, 2135, 2139, 2145, 2162, 2163, 2184, 2185, 2191, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2202, 2203, 2224, 2228, 2247,
394 2248, 2251, 2252, 2259, 2269, 2270, 2273, 2286, 2288, 2304, 2324, 2327, 2339, 2342, 2351, 2365, 2373, 2379, 2390, 2391, 2393 barriers to 192, 310, 493, 635, 636, 681, 737, 786, 1024, 1087, 1426, 1494, 1498, 1610, 1740, 1832, 1927, 2076, 2390, 2391 bilingualism and/or language 40, 61, 89, 117, 119, 120, 127, 128, 156, 157, 202, 208, 209, 210, 211, 255, 271, 291, 292, 331, 352, 362, 363, 364, 374, 378, 448, 489, 498, 521, 522, 523, 552, 554, 559, 603, 606, 613, 618, 619, 626, 629, 641, 650, 662, 695, 697, 698, 729, 739, 742, 771, 772, 773, 774, 798, 830, 831, 836, 863, 876, 903, 904, 918, 936, 994, 1037, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1063, 1066, 1068, 1072, 1110, 1125, 1140, 1144, 1145, 1174, 1175, 1176, 1177, 1178, 1179, 1190, 1191, 1200, 1264, 1279, 1292, 1304, 1326, 1343, 1367, 1370, 1393, 1398, 1405, 1406, 1527, 1528, 1557, 1668, 1669, 1673, 1674, 1719, 1722, 1723, 1773, 1774, 1803, 1805, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1899, 1927, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1987, 2011, 2089, 2111, 2132, 2142, 2154, 2159, 2167, 2185, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2201, 2202, 2228, 2249, 2272, 2276, 2336, 2342, 2352, 2355, 2390, 2391, 2394, 2396 early childhood 191, 257, 291, 292, 293, 385, 428, 435, 488, 493, 606, 728, 797, 798, 799, 800, 841, 842, 941, 956, 957, 1037, 1284, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1326, 1343, 1370, 1415, 1429, 1435, 1674, 1689, 1695, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1723, 1813, 2011, 2057, 2058, 2138, 2156, 2167, 2258, 2325, 2336, 2353 contributions, effects of immigrants 2251 (see also: Chinese; Cook Islanders; English, for speakers of other languages; International (export) education; Needs, education, training or learning; Pacific peoples, education and/or training; Refugees, education and/or training; Samoans, education and/or training; Schools and/or tertiary institutions; Students; Teachers; Teaching English to speakers of other languages)
Educational achievement/attainment/qualifications/success 192, 202, 327, 334, 499, 540, 574, 603, 607, 609, 652, 681, 697, 811, 812, 871, 886, 949, 1020a, 1024, 1178, 1179, 1237, 1238, 1343, 1367, 1396, 1404, 1412, 1415, 1421, 1434, 1494, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1498, 1623, 1637, 1680, 1695, 1696, 1751, 1772, 1828, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2006, 2043, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2142, 2224, 2286, 2288, 2309, 2338, 2379
Egyptians 165, 795, 1997, 2205
Elderly (abuse of, adaptation, care of, stereotypes of etc) 5, 72, 74, 82, 409, 549, 600, 912, 1042, 1043, 1088, 1167, 1168, 1182, 1184, 1415, 1424, 1452, 1499, 1561, 1568, 1598, 1630, 1684, 1875, 2075, 2140, 2221, 2292, 2338, 2340, 2359
Emigration 164, 236, 245, 311, 328, 350, 366, 379, 520, 719, 851, 855, 857, 907, 921, 922, 923, 954, 979, 1138, 1232, 1244, 1334, 1380, 1481, 1690, 1788, 1873, 1903, 1974, 2216 as ‘safety valve’ (Pacific Islands) 169, 171, 2235 flows/patterns 69, 82, 95, 139, 161, 163, 168, 170, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 319, 326, 425, 426, 469, 715, 716, 717, 718, 777, 888, 927, 928, 961, 1149, 1195, 1395, 1428, 1447, 1471, 1529, 1574, 1609, 1700, 1728, 1729, 1840, 1890, 1891, 1903, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2133, 2240, 2241, 2299, 2316, 2397 intentions 1334, 1457, 2384 (see also: ‘Brain drain’ etc; New Zealanders abroad; Statistics; Trans-Tasman migration)
Emotions 72, 116, 118, 121, 386, 530, 745, 893, 944, 1084, 1131, 1157, 1205, 1335, 1451, 1515, 1516, 1554, 1767, 1875, 1878, 1915, 2045, 2075, 2121, 2189, 2200, 2232, 2333, 2340
395 Empire Settlement Act 1707
Employers 2204, 2246 accredited 1380, 1552 attitudes, practices or policies of 97, 195, 285, 310, 413, 415, 452, 453, 536, 594, 671, 733, 768, 787, 788, 841, 854, 859, 860, 861, 878, 882, 887, 938, 985, 997, 1021, 1023, 1085, 1102, 1142, 1155, 1205, 1206, 1246, 1275, 1325, 1341, 1349, 1350, 1380, 1532, 1549, 1556, 1601, 1602, 2204, 2246, 2308, 2372
Employment or labour force participation 12, 13, 16, 23, 28, 44, 48, 53a, 57, 58, 59, 62, 75, 82, 84, 86, 97, 100, 105, 110, 133, 134, 138, 139, 140, 144, 174, 184, 195, 196a, 200, 213, 223, 226, 232, 233, 235, 245, 250, 251, 262, 273, 285, 303, 310, 311, 318, 320, 334, 379, 381, 383, 390, 391, 394, 396, 399, 410, 413, 415, 417, 419, 425, 442, 445, 449, 452, 453, 465, 470, 472, 473, 474, 476, 480, 489, 490, 504, 507, 512, 528, 536, 537, 540, 541, 557, 568, 570, 572, 573, 576a, 580, 582, 592, 594, 614, 615, 623, 625, 627, 640, 641, 643, 657, 669, 670, 671, 672, 683, 691, 692, 701, 707, 725, 733, 740, 750, 756, 768, 787, 788, 815, 817, 818, 819, 834, 835, 838, 841, 849, 851, 854, 859, 860, 861, 874, 875, 878, 880, 882, 886, 887, 906, 909, 926, 933, 937, 938, 942, 943, 953, 955, 956, 957, 963, 967, 969, 973, 974, 976, 985, 986, 989, 995, 997, 1010, 1018, 1021, 1023, 1033, 1043, 1044, 1057, 1060, 1074, 1083, 1085, 1090, 1102, 1118, 1119, 1120, 1124, 1129, 1134, 1136, 1142, 1149, 1150, 1151, 1155, 1156, 1169, 1181, 1196, 1197, 1199, 1205, 1206, 1207, 1213, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1229, 1234, 1246, 1254, 1259, 1272, 1275, 1276, 1298, 1301, 1302, 1306, 1307, 1308, 1313, 1325, 1327, 1328, 1332, 1334, 1338, 1341, 1349, 1350, 1368, 1371, 1372, 1374, 1380, 1382, 1392, 1395, 1403, 1409, 1414, 1415, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1422, 1426, 1441, 1447, 1454, 1460, 1466, 1474, 1481, 1491, 1495, 1499, 1509, 1516, 1530, 1532, 1533, 1534, 1535, 1543, 1544, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1551, 1552, 1553, 1554, 1556, 1558, 1560, 1562, 1563, 1580, 1582, 1584, 1585, 1586, 1592, 1594, 1598, 1601, 1602, 1606, 1607, 1609, 1636, 1639, 1659, 1660, 1672, 1687, 1690, 1693, 1702, 1707, 1712, 1713, 1714, 1715, 1716, 1717, 1724, 1732, 1733, 1740, 1747, 1751, 1760, 1761, 1764, 1768, 1771, 1777, 1779, 1789, 1820, 1827, 1838, 1865, 1870, 1873, 1874, 1878, 1880, 1896, 1906, 1911, 1922, 1926, 1929, 1948, 1958, 1960, 1962, 1965, 1970, 1971, 1975, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2006, 2011, 2012, 2017, 2024, 2036, 2043, 2044, 2047, 2048, 2060, 2079, 2093, 2108, 2112, 2114, 2121, 2122, 2124, 2126, 2128, 2132, 2133, 2167, 2173, 2175, 2178, 2180, 2181, 2203, 2204, 2207, 2213, 2223, 2234, 2236, 2237, 2244, 2245, 2257, 2261, 2266, 2271, 2287, 2288, 2304, 2311, 2314, 2317, 2318, 2329, 2338, 2348, 2361, 2364, 2367, 2368, 2372, 2373, 2376 barriers to 97, 155, 195, 249, 285, 310, 350, 395, 409, 413, 414, 415, 432, 452, 453, 536, 551, 552, 594, 671, 787, 788, 794, 795, 809, 813, 841, 859, 860, 861, 877, 878, 879, 881, 882, 887, 938, 965, 985, 986, 997, 1021, 1022, 1023, 1052, 1053, 1085, 1087, 1102, 1116, 1134, 1142, 1155, 1162, 1199, 1205, 1206, 1245, 1341, 1349, 1350, 1376, 1409, 1426, 1447, 1516, 1533, 1535, 1541, 1546, 1585, 1602, 1712, 1713, 1714, 1715, 1716, 1717, 1740, 1802, 1970, 1971, 1975, 1981, 1994, 2044, 2079, 2095, 2112, 2113, 2132, 2133, 2163, 2223, 2234, 2246, 2248, 2257, 2273, 2287, 2308, 2334, 2338, 2364, 2372, 2395, 2397 best practice re immigrants 2246 self-employment 12, 28, 144, 213, 507, 528, 560, 576a, 594, 596, 671, 818, 838, 854, 880, 882, 896, 1044, 1087, 1124, 1337, 1345, 1372, 1382, 1420, 1426, 1547, 1548, 1580, 1585, 1606, 1607, 1659, 1745, 1968, 1971, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2006, 2011, 2060, 2112, 2132, 2176, 2203, 2237, 2287, 2329, 2364 voluntary sector/volunteering/volunteers (New Zealand or abroad) 768, 920, 921, 922, 923, 1279, 1297, 1303, 1509, 1512, 1541, 1761, 1996, 1999, 2004 (see also: Architects and architecture; Business/entrepreneur migrants; Chinese, employment; Cook Islanders, employment; Counselling; Doctors, overseas trained; Entrepreneurs; Fishermen/fishing; Indians, employment; Job
396 satisfaction; Labour force/manpower; Needs, employment; Nurses and nursing; Pacific peoples, employment; Professionals; Refugees, employment; Samoans, employment; Skilled migrants; Small business ventures; Social work; Teachers; Tongans, employment; Underemployment; Unemployment; Work; Working holidaymakers)
Empowerment 127, 1222, 1257, 2142, 2290
Enclaves (see: Residential or geographic distribution/location)
Enculturation 492
Enemy aliens (see: Aliens, enemy)
English as second language 9, 40, 56, 60, 62, 85, 106, 117, 119, 124, 127, 128, 136, 139, 144, 156, 157, 191, 208, 209, 210, 211, 232, 255, 257, 331, 350, 352, 355, 362, 363, 364, 374, 378, 398, 415, 423, 430, 449, 483, 489, 498, 499, 506, 512, 521, 522, 523, 532, 540, 551, 552, 554, 559, 570, 606, 610, 611, 613, 618, 619, 629, 635, 636, 650, 666, 695, 697, 698, 706, 729, 737, 771, 772, 786, 794, 795, 798, 806, 836, 859, 860, 876, 884, 885, 897, 901, 902, 903, 904, 918, 956, 957, 974, 974, 1029, 1043, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1063, 1064, 1065, 1066, 1068, 1072, 1090, 1093, 1135, 1140, 1141, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1174, 1175, 1176, 1177, 1178, 1179, 1191, 1200, 1254, 1264, 1271, 1279, 1292, 1293, 1324, 1343, 1370, 1465, 1527, 1528, 1549, 1554, 1556, 1557, 1564, 1604, 1605, 1616, 1629, 1639, 1668, 1669, 1673, 1674, 1677, 1680, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1734, 1750, 1764, 1773, 1774, 1803, 1805, 1875, 1878, 1886, 1887, 1917, 1928, 1931, 1933, 1950, 1951, 2007, 2030, 2083, 2089, 2121, 2154, 2170, 2175, 2184, 2197, 2201, 2222, 2233, 2249, 2250, 2267, 2272, 2336, 2352, 2355, 2365, 2367, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2394, 2396 as spoken (pronunciation, vernacular variants etc.) 1984, 1989, 1990 for speakers of other languages (ESOL) 8, 60, 62, 120, 124, 126, 127, 128, 156, 157, 159, 191, 208, 210, 211, 255, 331, 352, 362, 363, 364, 374, 415, 431, 489, 498, 521, 522, 537, 540, 554, 603, 604, 618, 619, 626, 662, 695, 697, 698, 706, 729, 771, 772, 773, 774, 820, 831, 836, 876, 903, 904, 936, 956, 957, 1063, 1066, 1068, 1072, 1140, 1141, 1144, 1145, 1160, 1174, 1175, 1176, 1177, 1178, 1179, 1200, 1259, 1264, 1271, 1279, 1324, 1340, 1341, 1398, 1527, 1528, 1556, 1557, 1570, 1628, 1639, 1668, 1673, 1680, 1773, 1774, 1803, 1805, 1817, 1883, 1886, 1887, 1917, 1931, 2094, 2132, 2154, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2201, 2245, 2248, 2249, 2272, 2276, 2336, 2352, 2355, 2364, 2373, 2393, 2394, 2396 provider census or survey 1398, 2196 (see also: Education, bilingualism and language; Needs, English language) language bond 1551 language levels, national standards for 1774 language origins (of NZ English) 258 language proficiency 5, 37, 40, 41, 81, 82, 97, 98, 113, 119, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 133, 136, 158, 164, 189, 195, 199, 205, 206, 211, 245, 255, 271, 285, 287, 302, 306, 309, 310, 317, 320, 331, 334, 355, 357, 359, 360, 392, 395, 398, 408, 409, 414, 415, 423, 430, 448, 468, 522, 523, 531, 532, 533, 537, 540, 547, 548, 551, 552, 559, 570, 593, 594, 604, 611, 613, 629, 631, 632, 635, 636, 650, 671, 672, 695, 698, 749, 771, 773, 774, 784, 786, 789, 794, 795, 798, 801, 806, 829, 830, 831, 836, 841, 859, 860, 861, 864, 879, 881, 884, 885, 892, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 914, 918, 949, 956, 957, 974, 994, 1024, 1064, 1116, 1126, 1135, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1154, 1161, 1173, 1178, 1179, 1187, 1197, 1200, 1237, 1238, 1259, 1279, 1304, 1305, 1341, 1343, 1367, 1376, 1394, 1398, 1412, 1415, 1454, 1465, 1546, 1549, 1556, 1557, 1598, 1609, 1616, 1629, 1633, 1639, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1654,
397 1655, 1668, 1669, 1677, 1680, 1734, 1750, 1751, 1773, 1774, 1832, 1852, 1883, 1886, 1887, 1917, 1927, 1953, 1955, 1981, 1985, 2029, 2030, 2044, 2045, 2057, 2058, 2062, 2083, 2092, 2095, 2112, 2113, 2121, 2122, 2132, 2133, 2140, 2201, 2204, 2224, 2228, 2231, 2233, 2248, 2249, 2250, 2252, 2257, 2267, 2272, 2276, 2286, 2338, 2342, 2355, 2356, 2357, 2358, 2360, 2364, 2365, 2372, 2374, 2381, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2395, 2396 language, tertiary entry requirements 1774, 1832 migrants 48, 49, 50, 55, 75, 258, 259, 269, 272, 361, 382, 399, 403, 427, 439, 440, 441, 447, 461, 477, 504, 557, 570, 578, 587, 588, 591, 592, 601, 623, 689, 692, 707, 721, 736, 740, 743, 757, 779, 803, 819, 848, 849, 870, 896, 919, 924, 925, 975, 977, 1012, 1071, 1163, 1204, 1273, 1295, 1318, 1332, 1337, 1353, 1372, 1379, 1405, 1439, 1459, 1469, 1488, 1580, 1587, 1603, 1656, 1660, 1698, 1700, 1703, 1704, 1754, 1759, 1777, 1871, 1908, 1911, 1916, 1958, 1997, 1998, 2013, 2023, 2099, 2100, 2106, 2151, 2168, 2180, 2236, 2256, 2313, 2317, 2321, 2347 (see also: British) ‘taboo’ English (swearing), teaching of 903, 904 vocabulary knowledge 1178, 1179 (see also: IELTS; Language)
Entertainers 110, 244, 683
Entrepreneurs (businessmen, financiers, etc.) and/or entrepreneurship 12, 28, 63, 65, 225, 262, 267, 338, 378, 477, 526, 528, 576a, 596, 838, 882, 940, 942, 943, 1052, 1300, 1301, 1342, 1345, 1439, 1446, 1543, 1545, 1550, 1585, 1717, 1745, 1766, 1827, 1858, 1879, 1898, 1901, 1905, 2016, 2024, 2036, 2060, 2100, 2180, 2217, 2237, 2282, 2362, 2367 (see also: Business and/or entrepreneur migrants)
Environmental considerations/effects, of emigration/immigration in New Zealand 262, 447, 964, 1759, 2018, 2313 in source countries 167
Epiglottitis 2312
Equal employment opportunities (EEO) 1421, 1533, 1874, 1994
Equity 1831
Eritreans 416, 1887, 2113
ESOL Home Tutors 86, 1512, 1533 (see also: National Association of ESOL Home Tutor Schemes)
Essentialism 185
Estonians 630, 2303
Ethics 1498, 2350
Ethiopians 31, 165, 413, 416, 519, 534, 570, 613, 620, 808, 994, 1120, 1279, 1371, 1545, 1546, 1861, 1887, 1895, 1913, 2078, 2113, 2205, 2234
Ethnic Councils 1013, 1338, 2245 (see also: New Zealand Federation of Ethnic Councils)
398 Ethnic groups (see: Asians; British; Europeans; Identity and/or self-concept; Indochinese; Pacific Islanders; and specific groups such as Chinese, Croatians, Dutch, Germans, Indians, Samoans, Somali, Tongans etc.)
Ethnicity 24, 25, 39, 41, 74, 141, 202, 214, 217, 218, 219, 220, 234, 325, 327, 370, 377, 393, 439, 471, 476, 494, 584, 598, 612, 659, 701, 710, 723, 733, 744, 749, 754, 795, 805, 809, 813, 845, 853, 873, 898, 900, 901, 939, 985, 986, 996, 998, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1008, 1020, 1023, 1082, 1116, 1134, 1135, 1220, 1270, 1322, 1323, 1327, 1395, 1407, 1411, 1424, 1546, 1598, 1606, 1621, 1662, 1664, 1673, 1692, 1694, 1738, 1740, 1745, 1769, 1770, 1806, 1818, 1825, 1829, 1830, 1831, 1833, 1836, 1842, 1889, 1892, 1893, 1896, 1897, 1914, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2014, 2015, 2019, 2059, 2087, 2090, 2118, 2147, 2295, 2296, 2308, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2358, 2397 measurement or classification of, data collection and coding etc. 238, 325, 327, 563, 754, 845, 1756, 1769, 1770, 2008, 2046, 2127 postmodern 2319
Ethnicization 701, 702
Ethnic labelling 143
Ethnic relations (see: Race and/or ethnic relations)
Ethnification 1662, 1663, 1667
Ethnoburb 705
Ethnocentrism 393, 543, 545, 547, 1664
Ethno-psychology 424, 1963
Ethnoscape 2042
Eulogies 895, 2389
Europeans 81, 175, 176, 182, 199, 245, 246, 326, 519, 771, 1005, 1205, 1500, 1509, 1531, 1571, 2006, 2171, 2200, 2364 continental (n.o.d.) 2302
European Union (EU) migrants 2112
Evaluation, monitoring or review – of policy/programme/service 119, 131, 424, 431, 466, 489, 509, 554, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 629, 631, 633, 652, 711, 742, 763, 828, 885, 921, 923, 949, 1152, 1200, 1209, 1302, 1341, 1380, 1396, 1401, 1418, 1420, 1429, 1480, 1501, 1532, 1543, 1544, 1551, 1577, 1602, 1643, 1668, 1673, 1675, 1676, 1724, 1774, 1809, 1812, 1813, 1826, 1912, 1922, 1994, 2073, 2094, 2111, 2127, 2139, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2203, 2204, 2288, 2364
ExcelL (Excellence in Experiential Learning and Leadership Intercultural Skills Program) 509, 510, 885
Exercise (see: Physical activity and exercise)
Exhibitions 110, 249, 250, 735, 1032, 1094, 1124, 1242, 1600, 1627, 1704, 2037, 2038, 2039, 2183, 2345, 2383, 2399
399 Exile 602, 2363
Expatriates and/or expatriation 919, 921, 922, 972, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1874, 1875, 1878, 2100, 2361 (see also: Maori; New Zealanders abroad)
Expectations, hopes etc. 87, 104, 118, 119, 144, 192, 199, 207, 290, 303, 305, 309, 320, 357, 385, 395, 490, 553, 689, 841, 885, 893, 902, 944, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1154, 1167, 1205, 1229, 1321, 1394, 1546, 1617, 1637, 1695, 1706, 1719, 1723, 1767, 1773, 1828, 1987, 2157, 2194, 2202, 2224, 2231, 2234, 2267, 2287, 2332, 2358
Exploitation 1246
Fa’afafini 1853, 1854, 1855, 2349
Fale Pasifika programme 2324
Family 10, 16, 18, 44, 52, 53a, 74, 75, 85, 107, 131, 202, 274, 279, 322, 359, 379, 409, 412, 432, 460, 488, 490, 491, 492, 530, 540, 547, 579, 606, 614, 627, 635, 636, 647, 648, 652, 658, 680, 740, 741, 752, 753, 757, 800, 802, 838, 858, 879, 881, 909, 918, 929, 954, 955, 960, 997, 1010, 1022, 1031, 1087, 1088, 1107, 1113, 1118, 1121, 1157, 1159, 1164, 1169, 1193, 1195, 1199, 1208, 1216, 1218, 1225, 1227, 1229, 1243, 1248, 1254, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1377, 1401, 1404, 1412, 1415, 1419, 1422, 1423, 1455, 1461, 1463, 1499, 1515, 1516, 1527, 1546, 1577, 1602, 1611, 1622, 1641, 1651, 1652, 1682, 1687, 1689, 1748, 1776, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1800, 1801, 1851, 1875, 1878, 1907, 1923, 2007, 2012, 2016, 2032, 2033, 2034, 2069, 2083, 2086, 2090, 2095, 2099, 2105, 2112, 2114, 2134, 2135, 2138, 2139, 2144, 2145, 2167, 2188, 2221, 2234, 2255, 2261, 2297, 2325, 2337, 2353, 2357, 2381 category migrants 168, 171, 416, 539, 878, 880, 1195, 1243, 1447, 1545, 1546, 1547, 1550, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1609, 1764, 1875, 1879 decision-making 412 group conferences (young offender management) 2034 history 23, 28, 35, 52, 80, 100, 101, 105, 145, 196, 200, 204, 223, 272, 298, 323, 351, 367, 368, 417, 459, 474, 478, 482, 495, 504, 558, 567, 576, 576a, 580, 601, 640, 663, 678, 682, 692, 694, 708, 714, 722, 803, 804, 815, 838, 851, 868, 875, 906, 975, 977, 980, 1004, 1030, 1033, 1057, 1062, 1074, 1075, 1090, 1131, 1158, 1192, 1204, 1232, 1233, 1235, 1273, 1295, 1329, 1337, 1345, 1351, 1362, 1372, 1374, 1446, 1463, 1466, 1473, 1476, 1520, 1579, 1580, 1587, 1591, 1599, 1627, 1660, 1754, 1820, 1827, 1866, 1906, 1919, 1934, 1958, 2024, 2025, 2027, 2028, 2036, 2072, 2106, 2125, 2144, 2175, 2192, 2255, 2261, 2284, 2335, 2347 planning 1646, 1648 relationships (sibling, spousal, intergenerational and conflict) 4, 10, 16, 23, 29, 53a, 70, 73, 83, 87, 133, 192, 196, 198, 254, 301, 303, 350, 386, 394, 395, 409, 423, 430, 449, 475, 483, 492, 496, 497, 530, 568, 615, 634, 638, 652, 677, 689, 702, 707, 723, 724, 743, 757, 785, 786, 800, 802, 858, 866, 919, 942, 1017, 1021, 1045, 1048, 1084, 1086, 1089, 1113, 1126, 1131, 1161, 1164, 1167, 1168, 1169, 1193, 1235, 1262, 1263, 1277, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1304, 1313, 1375, 1376, 1419, 1423, 1453, 1455, 1463, 1479, 1515, 1527, 1528, 1566, 1567, 1568, 1603, 1619, 1631, 1641, 1682, 1687, 1763, 1764, 1765, 1767, 1795, 1796, 1820, 1838, 1875, 1878, 1906, 1911, 2064, 2104, 2119, 2121, 2134, 2188, 2193, 2227, 2234, 2258, 2286, 2297, 2332, 2333, 2341, 2343, 2344, 2351, 2358 reunification 31, 86, 168, 394, 564, 730, 878, 882, 889, 963, 1371, 1376, 1400, 1484, 1499, 1546, 1554, 1639, 1764, 2234, 2338, 2368 size or parity (see: Fertility)
400 structure and/or households 29, 85, 198, 326, 402, 412, 449, 551, 563, 579, 625, 640, 642, 652, 669, 670, 680, 686, 794, 800, 877, 912, 944, 1011, 1087, 1134, 1195, 1235, 1243, 1262, 1263, 1318, 1401, 1412, 1415, 1416, 1426, 1495, 1546, 1551, 1566, 1567, 1569, 1638, 1650, 1852, 1870, 1903, 1991, 2004, 2011, 2043, 2105, 2113, 2188, 2193, 2343, 2381 therapy 2193 (see also: Chain migration; Chinese; Cook Islanders; Filial piety; Homestay/host family; Kinship; Networks, social; Niueans; Pacific peoples; Samoans; Tongans)
Family Life Education Pasefika 1415
Fashion and/or fashion designers 1133, 1935
Featherstone Camp (alien interment and/or POWs) 239, 299a, 978, 1572, 1902
Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand 1078
Female migrants and/or ethnic group members 7, 16, 24, 26, 28, 37, 70, 72, 74, 75, 82, 83, 90, 92, 98, 115, 116, 118, 121, 122, 138, 196a, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 231, 232, 233, 235, 244, 245, 246, 248, 268, 272, 277, 278, 279, 290, 311, 320, 326, 327, 329, 366, 382, 387, 388, 389, 390, 408, 409, 410, 411, 422, 435, 436, 466, 470, 528, 530, 542, 543, 544, 546, 547, 548, 562, 568, 569, 570, 581, 583, 594, 596, 598, 599, 600, 613, 614, 622, 634, 689, 690, 692, 700, 701, 702, 710, 714, 720, 738, 745, 750, 757, 768, 795, 821, 822, 849, 859, 884, 887, 913, 919, 921, 923, 932, 960, 974, 989, 995, 1017, 1018, 1020, 1021, 1022, 1023, 1027, 1029, 1046, 1047, 1048, 1074, 1097, 1109, 1118, 1120, 1126, 1169, 1182, 1192, 1207, 1248, 1277, 1279, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1306, 1310, 1311, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1316, 1317, 1318, 1319, 1320, 1323, 1329, 1336, 1368, 1372, 1373, 1375, 1376, 1385, 1391, 1410, 1434, 1460, 1468, 1473, 1484, 1488, 1499, 1515, 1516, 1517, 1519, 1520, 1530, 1545, 1549, 1550, 1557, 1581, 1585, 1598, 1603, 1625, 1636, 1692, 1694, 1699, 1707, 1712, 1713, 1714, 1715, 1716, 1717, 1726, 1745, 1752, 1759, 1761, 1764, 1765, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1803, 1806, 1814, 1820, 1823, 1824, 1849, 1850, 1865, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1875, 1878, 1911, 1919, 1939, 1946, 2013, 2031, 2042, 2048, 2070, 2071, 2099, 2115, 2116, 2126, 2134, 2140, 2151, 2155, 2177, 2193, 2218, 2221, 2225, 2237, 2287, 2292, 2296, 2313, 2335, 2340, 2343, 2344, 2359, 2375, 2381 autobiography or biography 22, 35, 43, 47, 52, 53a, 55, 100, 138, 145, 196, 223, 240, 241, 244, 250, 251, 261, 269, 276, 312, 313, 324, 367, 396, 399, 403, 458, 464, 465, 474, 512, 515, 541, 558, 566, 571, 572, 573, 575, 578, 580, 582, 615, 642, 666, 671, 672, 691, 702, 743, 757, 779, 803, 804, 851, 875, 997, 1027, 1029, 1090, 1204, 1250, 1277, 1295, 1306, 1311, 1351, 1372, 1379, 1521, 1578, 1579, 1580, 1585, 1587, 1588, 1627, 1693, 1709, 1761, 1776, 1925, 1926, 1929, 1945, 1956, 1958, 2025, 2027, 2038, 2061, 2099, 2100, 2107, 2170, 2173, 2175, 2178, 2192, 2222, 2236, 2238, 2244, 2257, 2261, 2266, 2271, 2281, 2284, 2287, 2289, 2314, 2317, 2323, 2335, 2348, 2374, 2383, 2399 Muslims 20, 775, 776, 785, 786, 791, 933, 937, 997, 1017, 1018, 1896, 2181 Pacific mothers, women or young females 4, 10, 17, 83, 188, 189, 288, 315, 316, 318, 320, 373, 470, 491, 494, 496, 497, 512, 525, 528, 562, 579, 598, 600, 612, 625, 638, 640, 641, 642, 652, 679, 685, 686, 699, 710, 720, 727, 764, 851, 893, 909, 913, 916, 917, 939, 944, 946, 1019, 1020, 1059, 1060, 1076, 1084, 1086, 1087, 1092, 1117, 1159, 1172, 1186, 1187, 1201, 1229, 1250, 1251, 1288, 1373, 1410, 1415, 1416, 1426, 1434, 1451, 1464, 1602, 1607, 1619, 1631, 1638, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1681, 1684, 1685, 1687, 1692, 1694, 1711, 1719, 1726, 1745, 1806, 1823, 1830, 1833, 1834, 1836, 1842, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1868, 1869, 1892, 1907, 1909, 1915, 1986, 1994, 2017, 2026, 2068, 2085, 2087, 2090, 2091,
401 2105, 2115, 2116, 2148, 2165, 2167, 2190, 2262, 2290, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2327, 2357, 2366 refugees and/or asylum seekers 31, 144, 145, 276, 280, 294, 423, 475, 534, 593, 599, 620, 694, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 790, 791, 792, 793, 795, 803, 884, 941, 960, 982, 987, 997, 1074, 1093, 1134, 1154, 1192, 1279, 1357, 1371, 1376, 1499, 1546, 1588, 1627, 1639, 1693, 1764, 1827, 1896, 1945, 1947, 2038, 2095, 2107, 2121, 2192, 2234, 2236, 2338, 2351, 2368 skilled or professional 48, 55, 57, 58, 100, 119, 221, 274, 275, 285, 366, 380, 399, 446, 458, 490, 515, 571, 596, 671, 672, 691, 729, 768, 859, 887, 919, 921, 923, 1017, 1018, 1023, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1053, 1102, 1142, 1169, 1244, 1246, 1247, 1248, 1303, 1383, 1385, 1490, 1592, 1594, 1712, 1713, 1714, 1715, 1716, 1717, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1864, 1874, 1965, 1994, 2017, 2044, 2095, 2114, 2237, 2238, 2254, 2257, 2266, 2268, 2287, 2319, 2320, 2323, 2383 students 103, 119, 270, 357, 411, 613, 641, 652, 729, 745, 771, 914, 932, 1335, 1399, 1434, 1761, 1803, 1909, 2017, 2042, 2286, 2354
Feminising technology 1855
Feminism and feminists 496, 581, 699, 854, 1021, 1118, 1262, 1371, 1376, 1709
Fertility (including family size or parity) 4, 82, 98, 141, 689, 720, 909, 1395, 1414, 1415, 1646, 1648, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1833, 1852, 1959, 2043 (see also: Abortion; Contraception; Pregnancy)
Festivals 113, 196a, 232, 411, 422, 439, 441, 816, 1002, 1019, 1318, 1416, 1477, 1613, 1684, 1702, 1756, 2208, 2245
Fijians (n.o.d.) 90, 93, 171, 246, 274, 275, 285, 365, 369, 391, 519, 539, 570, 764, 805, 811, 812, 869, 905, 1005, 1084, 1085, 1087, 1119, 1218, 1240, 1288, 1340, 1370, 1380, 1399, 1405, 1412, 1417, 1504, 1545, 1547, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1557, 1577, 1684, 1811, 1861, 1903, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2043, 2235, 2262, 2281, 2357 ethnic Fijians 107, 905, 1684 Indo-Fijians 391, 764, 937, 1034, 1119, 1229, 1298, 1503, 1882, 1883, 1896, 1920, 1998, 2235, 2262, 2281 Indo-Fijian language 1882, 1883 part-European 1915 (see also: Indians; Pacific peoples)
Filial piety 303, 386, 724, 1161, 1184, 1568 (see also: Chinese, family; Family, relationships)
Filipinos 326, 435, 519, 570, 596, 671, 672, 905, 949, 1005, 1182, 1246, 1340, 1380, 1399, 1549, 1550, 1557, 1592, 1594, 1861, 1903, 1929, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2208
Financial decision making and priorities 1426
Finns 2212 (see also: Scandinavians)
Fishermen/fishing 1000a, 2126, 2207
Food security 1415 (see also: Diet and food; Eating and food consumption)
Foster care 1923
402 Freedom to Choose (FREE II C) 1419
French (migrants, language etc.) 65, 69, 368, 434, 451, 479, 570, 587, 592, 630, 905, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1380, 1405, 1483, 1553, 1709, 1931, 1932, 1939, 1997, 1998, 2112, 2130 Polynesians 2214
Funerals 439, 441, 1860, 1861, 2060, 2122
Gambling and/or problem gambling 82, 188, 189, 443, 444, 556, 744, 802, 883, 1048, 1054, 1061, 1103, 1147, 1196, 1197, 1270, 1382, 1562, 1619, 1687, 1870, 1904, 2060, 2137, 2141, 2146, 2275, 2334
Gamelan 1003
Gangs 47, 87, 455, 1239, 1981, 2144
Gardens and/or gardening 88, 110, 1759, 1810, 2313 botanical 2041
Gastroenteritis 82, 778, 1526, 2103
Gatekeepers 159
Gays, homosexuals and lesbians 33, 866, 867, 2059
Gender 7, 26, 48, 133, 215, 216, 232, 233, 245, 246, 248, 280, 326, 327, 395, 398, 422, 443, 470, 483, 496, 497, 512, 581, 593, 689, 699, 723, 786, 794, 816, 821, 904, 916, 921, 939, 941, 1021, 1053, 1118, 1202, 1219, 1330, 1335, 1357, 1371, 1376, 1419, 1453, 1455, 1490, 1549, 1557, 1568, 1603, 1631, 1632, 1672, 1687, 1694, 1703, 1709, 1740, 1745, 1767, 1838, 1850, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1868, 1869, 1953, 1984, 2015, 2052, 2059, 2067, 2068, 2075, 2082, 2114, 2120, 2140, 2257, 2286, 2343, 2349, 2368 relations 1134, 2343, 2368 roles 74, 248, 579, 785, 786, 1087, 1426, 1434, 1631, 1745, 1806, 1834, 2085, 2193, 2234, 2257 (see also: Female migrants and ethnic group members)
Genealogy 35, 101, 107, 272, 298, 299, 323, 351, 367, 474, 478, 482, 495, 567, 576, 576a, 601, 663, 678, 682, 692, 714, 722, 755, 868, 906, 1025, 1057, 1158, 1163, 1273, 1295, 1362, 1473, 1519, 1754, 1819, 1873, 1919, 2027, 2125, 2305
Geographic distribution (see: Residential or geographic distribution/ location)
Germans 12, 69, 96, 144, 226, 232, 233, 246, 256, 290, 299a, 376, 382, 465, 474, 477, 581, 592, 630, 768, 780, 781, 803, 806, 814, 906, 1004, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1192, 1281, 1362, 1380, 1405, 1465, 1524, 1530, 1532, 1545, 1550, 1553, 1557, 1608, 1700, 1735, 1820, 1824, 1903, 1966, 1997, 1998, 2036, 2098, 2100, 2112, 2236, 2238 language 232, 771, 806, 905, 1049, 1050, 1051 students 1, 771, 1340, 1399, 1405, 1406, 1465
Ghanaians 413
Gibraltans 2302
Gifted and/or giftedness 1389, 2259
403 Gifts and/or gifting 188, 189, 491, 893, 1019, 1087, 1159, 1262, 2122
Glen Innes 2138
Globalisation 94, 95, 167, 168, 172, 306, 326, 432, 454, 472, 490, 536, 752, 753, 857, 859, 874, 1000, 1080, 1143, 1166, 1225, 1393, 1470, 1471, 1744, 1822, 1855, 1924, 1953, 1969, 1970, 1974, 1977, 2017, 2091, 2295, 2385, 2395
Global Kitchen, The 1120
Goans 542, 543, 544, 546, 932
Gout 1870, 2087
Governance, central/local government/other organisations 41, 238, 306, 381, 402, 603, 641, 951, 1154, 1258, 1259, 1340, 1341, 1395, 1396, 1418, 1420, 1421, 1433, 1486, 1509, 1598, 1665, 1971, 1994, 2245 guidelines, initiatives, strategies etc 81, 82, 88, 90, 102, 123, 131, 238, 246, 296, 304, 307, 366, 401, 454, 487, 488, 498, 537, 538, 539, 540, 561, 599, 641, 652, 714, 719, 828, 853, 869, 894, 935, 936, 949, 951, 981, 1024, 1054, 1055, 1063, 1143, 1173, 1208, 1209, 1211, 1243, 1258, 1259, 1288, 1338, 1370, 1396, 1405, 1408, 1409, 1411, 1413, 1416, 1417, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1422, 1423, 1486, 1498, 1509, 1517, 1532, 1544, 1556, 1570, 1585, 1598, 1602, 1620, 1635, 1636, 1643, 1650, 1661, 1675, 1676, 1714, 1716, 1755, 1756, 1768, 1779, 1811, 1813, 1886, 1887, 1895, 1899, 1921, 1952, 1960, 1971, 1994, 2093, 2111, 2133, 2142, 2145, 2180, 2245, 2251 (for examples, see: Code of Practice for the Pastoral Care of International Students; New Zealand Settlement Strategy)
Greeks 105, 213, 570, 723, 1029, 1521, 1998, 2007, 2047, 2100 language 2007
Grief and grieving 303, 723, 1860, 1861 (see also: Funerals; Mourning)
Guidebooks, manuals and/or seminars for emigrants, immigrants, international students, refugees 856, 1403, 1478, 1522, 1560, 1561, 1562, 1596, 1624, 1873, 1983 for New Zealanders (with immigrant/overseas clients) 1128
Guilt 1056
Gypsies 2300
Habitus (Bourdieu) 108, 665, 1495, 1631
Haining Street Oral History Project 1904
Hair-cutting ceremony 1019
Happiness (see: Emotions)
Harassment (verbal abuse etc.) 395, 632
404 Health and welfare/wellbeing 4, 6, 29, 32, 51, 72, 76, 82, 88, 90, 94, 98, 108, 137, 254, 277, 308, 373, 389, 401, 402, 427, 500, 525, 530, 542, 544, 545, 546, 547, 549, 556, 579, 594, 610, 615, 620, 625, 634, 647, 648, 688, 689, 692, 711, 720, 764, 765, 766, 784, 786, 790, 791, 802, 807, 813, 821, 822, 837, 843, 844, 853, 854, 871, 872, 883, 884, 910, 912, 916, 935, 941, 994, 1010, 1047, 1054, 1061, 1076, 1084, 1088, 1098, 1103, 1114, 1115, 1147, 1159, 1185, 1229, 1231, 1245, 1249, 1254, 1259, 1330, 1333, 1339, 1376, 1401, 1403, 1407, 1409, 1411, 1414, 1415, 1417, 1418, 1420, 1424, 1463, 1472, 1499, 1515, 1516, 1533, 1534, 1539, 1542, 1546, 1554, 1556, 1560, 1561, 1583, 1586, 1598, 1604, 1605, 1617, 1620, 1622, 1639, 1651, 1652, 1687, 1692, 1746, 1749, 1767, 1768, 1769, 1770, 1779, 1785, 1786, 1810, 1814, 1820, 1836, 1846, 1847, 1848, 1873, 1960, 2011, 2026, 2031, 2043, 2060, 2070, 2096, 2097, 2105, 2114, 2120, 2136, 2137, 2141, 2146, 2177, 2200, 2234, 2260, 2261, 2298, 2307, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2338, 2340, 2350, 2354, 2359 beliefs (re health, illness) 137, 579, 723, 1586, 2105, 2134, 2368 ethnic perspectives, models 628, 1748, 2105 mental health/illness 4, 5, 18, 32, 82, 87, 142, 199, 309, 372, 386, 418, 419, 449, 525, 530, 550, 628, 644, 645, 646, 686, 687, 710, 723, 724, 741, 744, 789, 793, 794, 813, 824, 858, 879, 881, 884, 892, 913, 956, 957, 982, 983, 1048, 1089, 1096, 1126, 1181, 1182, 1193, 1196, 1197, 1245, 1259, 1357, 1376, 1377, 1378, 1403, 1409, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1508, 1516, 1518, 1525, 1546, 1556, 1577, 1589, 1601, 1639, 1748, 1760, 1767, 1809, 1820, 1838, 1841, 1848, 1870, 1876, 1914, 1953, 1954, 1959, 1962, 2061, 2066, 2069, 2104, 2105, 2119, 2134, 2135, 2139, 2170, 2199, 2225, 2231, 2234, 2265, 2274, 2275, 2292, 2293, 2307, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2339, 2368, 2370, 2392 (see also: Alcohol and/or alcoholism; Anaemia; Anorexia nervosa; Asthma; Blindness; Blood pressure; Bulimia; Cancer; Cardiovascular and/or coronary disease; Circumcision; Depression; Diabetes; Diarrhoea; Diet and food; Diseases; Gastroenteritis; Gout; Hearing loss; Hepatitis; HIV/AIDS; Homesickness; Hospitalisation; Influenza; Injury; Measles; Meningococcal disease; Obesity; Obstetrics; Pertussis; Post-natal depression/distress; Post- traumatic stress disorder; Pneumonia; Sexually transmitted diseases; SF-36 scores; Smoking; Stress; Stroke; Sudden infant death syndrome; Tuberculosis; Vitamin deficiency; and specific groups such as Asians, Chinese, Pacific peoples, Refugees; Samoans etc.)
Health care access and/or utilisation 5, 10, 26, 72, 82, 87, 98, 137, 142, 150, 220, 246, 278, 279, 287, 288, 289, 316, 318, 409, 525, 535, 545, 547, 548, 550, 551, 556, 600, 628, 669, 670, 677, 686, 687, 710, 720, 723, 761, 766, 784, 824, 846, 853, 858, 869, 879, 881, 884, 916, 956, 957, 982, 990, 991, 994, 1048, 1054, 1092, 1114, 1115, 1172, 1182, 1186, 1187, 1196, 1197, 1221, 1223, 1231, 1333, 1338, 1366, 1373, 1377, 1410, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1458, 1472, 1546, 1569, 1571, 1583, 1584, 1586, 1604, 1605, 1618, 1622, 1647, 1649, 1650, 1654, 1746, 1748, 1760, 1767, 1768, 1779, 1811, 1812, 1823, 1852, 1870, 1912, 1914, 1915, 1959, 1960, 2019, 2031, 2087, 2096, 2103, 2105, 2117, 2120, 2136, 2140, 2141, 2147, 2172, 2189, 2203, 2265, 2274, 2293, 2334, 2338, 2339, 2350, 2351, 2366, 2368, 2375, 2378
Health care promotion and provision 53a, 82, 88, 108, 130, 131, 216, 220, 246, 254, 278, 279, 365, 506, 519, 525, 535, 545, 556, 628, 677, 711, 745, 793, 873, 884, 892, 916, 935, 956, 957, 994, 1014, 1042, 1043, 1114, 1115, 1186, 1196, 1197, 1229, 1245, 1249, 1333, 1357, 1366, 1391, 1472, 1592, 1692, 1709, 1760, 1779, 1810, 1811, 1915, 2015, 2019, 2097, 2147, 2190, 2262, 2266, 2312, 2342, 2350, 2351, 2388 Asians 98, 130, 150, 216, 277, 278, 279, 389, 409, 500, 549, 550, 551, 556, 600, 824, 858, 879, 881, 1048, 1096, 1103, 1126, 1182, 1196, 1197, 1248, 1249, 1338, 1391, 1403, 1518, 1584, 1604, 1605, 1622, 1739, 1760, 1768, 1779, 1812, 1823, 1826,
405 2019, 2031, 2096, 2134, 2135, 2137, 2139, 2140, 2141, 2177, 2274, 2292, 2293, 2339, 2354, 2370, 2392 emergency services 600, 1472, 1571, 2015, 2097, 2378 mental health 18, 300, 418, 423, 550, 628, 644, 645, 646, 710, 723, 789, 824, 879, 881, 884, 956, 957, 982, 983, 1048, 1054, 1096, 1126, 1181, 1182, 1196, 1197, 1245, 1259, 1377, 1378, 1412, 1518, 1577, 1748, 1760, 1914, 2066, 2134, 2135, 2139, 2274, 2292, 2293, 2339, 2368, 2370, 2392 Pacific peoples 10, 18, 30, 72, 88, 90, 108, 130, 131, 137, 150, 216, 220, 277, 278, 279, 288, 300, 318, 500, 506, 550, 556, 579, 600, 641, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 667, 668, 669, 670, 677, 710, 853, 858, 869, 916, 990, 1014, 1054, 1061, 1062, 1186, 1223, 1229, 1286, 1333, 1377, 1378, 1391, 1409, 1410, 1412, 1413, 1415, 1526, 1569, 1577, 1583, 1584, 1617, 1618, 1620, 1647, 1739, 1746, 1748, 1760, 1809, 1810, 1812, 1823, 1912, 1914, 1915, 1959, 2015, 2019, 2066, 2067, 2069, 2076, 2097, 2103, 2105, 2120, 2127, 2190, 2274, 2312, 2366, 2388 perceived needs 53a, 131, 488, 549, 550, 551, 628, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 667, 668, 669, 670, 723, 784, 789, 824, 884, 916, 956, 982, 1048, 1096, 1114, 1115, 1181, 1248, 1249, 1333, 1499, 1518, 1526, 1539, 1546, 1577, 1584, 1647, 1760, 1810, 1914, 2031, 2069, 2096, 2120, 2127, 2135, 2203, 2351, 2368, 2378 perception of 72, 644, 645, 646, 669, 670, 723, 784, 789, 824, 916, 1114, 1181, 1569, 1915, 2069, 2127, 2140, 2368, 2388 primary services 72, 90, 287, 288, 289, 389, 500, 525, 535, 600, 645, 667, 668, 784, 845, 846, 858, 1054, 1071, 1114, 1115, 1259, 1261, 1413, 1546, 1569, 1584, 1618, 1709, 1739, 1746, 1809, 1812, 1823, 1918, 1959, 2019, 2031, 2096, 2127, 2140, 2141, 2262, 2354 provider planning, strategy 488 traditional medicine/practices 10, 18, 30, 72, 82, 137, 318, 389, 579, 628, 669, 670, 723, 789, 807, 858, 879, 881, 884, 983, 1061, 1378, 1415, 1569, 1571, 1618, 1739, 1746, 1809, 1814, 1915, 2069, 2105, 2134, 2140, 2172, 2177, 2354 (see also: Doctors, overseas trained; Hospitalisation; Nurses and nursing; Midwives and midwifery)
Health care self-management 1915
Healthline 2019
Health Pacifica Doctors 90
Health Promoting Schools 131
Healthstar Pacific/Health Star Pacific Trust 90, 1415
Healthy immigrant effect 1768, 2136
Hearing failure and/or loss 32, 1415, 1959
Heart disease (see: Cardiovascular and/or coronary disease)
Hepatitis 32, 82, 216, 869, 892, 1357, 1811, 1959, 2260
Heterochronies 751
Heterotopias (Foucault) 751
Historiography 110, 185, 204, 333, 390, 597, 643, 701, 712, 713, 847, 857, 1104, 1312, 1364, 1436, 1468, 1485, 1656, 1658, 1698, 1709, 1777, 2013
406 HIV and/or AIDS 32, 93, 365, 562, 789, 892, 1357, 1391, 1408, 2350, 2351 National HIV/AIDS Refugee Health Education Programme 1408, 2351
Holidays 439
Homelands of the mind 248
Homesickness 139, 223, 232, 233, 357, 359, 360, 396, 558, 632, 740, 1010, 1090, 1093, 1311, 1335, 1403, 1512, 1601, 1679, 1725, 1744, 1859, 1929, 2042, 2174, 2271, 2286, 2313, 2314, 2360
Homestay/host family 119, 302, 357, 604, 605, 608, 883, 951, 1035, 1125, 1335, 1396, 1401, 1668, 1669, 1751, 2194, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2224, 2226, 2228, 2229, 2267, 2279, 2354, 2360
Hong Kong Chinese 1, 87, 119, 246, 301, 305, 365, 384, 404, 449, 503, 519, 551, 566, 877, 878, 880, 882, 887, 963, 968, 993, 1396, 1399, 1545, 1547, 1550, 1601, 1608, 1997, 2059, 2329, 2336, 2340
Honour 723
Hospitalisation 82, 98, 129, 234, 246, 370, 406, 506, 669, 670, 761, 762, 778, 852, 853, 911, 1231, 1269, 1366, 1410, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1526, 1760, 1836, 1959, 1960, 2015, 2026, 2274, 2312, 2378
Hospitality, unconditional (concept of) 2350
Housing or accommodation 4, 29, 52, 69, 76, 82, 88, 95, 97, 98, 102, 144, 199, 223, 232, 302, 310, 317, 372, 402, 485, 528, 533, 540, 564, 572, 573, 588, 593, 594, 605, 608, 613, 620, 669, 670, 692, 761, 786, 813, 875, 883, 912, 913, 914, 951, 956, 957, 973, 984, 1010, 1011, 1039, 1090, 1125, 1131, 1154, 1214, 1237, 1238, 1254, 1259, 1308, 1313, 1335, 1338, 1371, 1396, 1401, 1407, 1414, 1415, 1417, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1424, 1426, 1447, 1459, 1474, 1499, 1508, 1531, 1532, 1534, 1540, 1544, 1546, 1554, 1560, 1569, 1582, 1586, 1598, 1636, 1639, 1659, 1668, 1669, 1676, 1732, 1733, 1740, 1748, 1756, 1779, 1804, 1810, 1870, 1873, 1875, 1911, 1955, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2021, 2043, 2105, 2121, 2175, 2178, 2203, 2228, 2245, 2257, 2271, 2279, 2286, 2313, 2360 housing career 1011, 1154 overcrowding 29, 102, 372, 402, 761, 912, 913, 1154, 1371, 1415, 1417, 1569, 1655, 1755, 1756, 1870, 2011, 2021 (see also: Homestay/host family; Property values)
Human capital 236, 275, 719, 1543
Humanitarian category migrants 168, 539, 1545, 1546, 1547, 1550, 1555, 1558, 1559
Human resource management 1798
Human rights (Act, in law, in education etc.) 553, 809, 930, 931, 933, 934, 1078, 1079, 1407, 1598, 1755, 1756, 1968
Humour (including satire) 121, 1671, 1672, 1815, 1961
Hungarians 54, 145, 147, 148, 294, 570, 630, 834, 835, 895, 1091, 2112, 2124, 2191, 2192
407 ICANZ (Inter-country Adoption New Zealand) 757, 1851, 2297
Identity and/or self concept (n.o.d., social) 61, 134, 186, 305, 423, 475, 517, 674, 689, 690, 989, 1057, 1077, 1101, 1130, 1132, 1135, 1153, 1164, 1165, 1185, 1193, 1215, 1240, 1404, 1496, 1666, 1725, 1785, 1786, 1838, 1850, 1979, 2148, 2174, 2193, 2259, 2287, 2381 achieved 2149 boundary maintenance 768a conflict 1855, 1953, 2227 construction of 2313, 2358 cultural/ethnic 15, 16, 37, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 70, 76, 83, 94, 107, 108, 113, 118, 133, 134, 138, 139, 140, 143, 196, 196a, 197, 232, 250, 251, 264, 295, 301, 322, 325, 327, 333, 353, 356, 387, 388, 431, 445, 457, 483, 493, 512, 517, 537, 570, 574, 581, 624, 649, 651, 653, 658, 674, 698, 699, 701, 705, 708, 713, 721, 723, 742, 758, 790, 798, 805, 806, 850, 854, 858, 867, 893, 937, 958, 963, 968, 969, 971, 974, 993, 1001, 1002, 1007, 1017, 1021, 1028, 1046, 1060, 1065, 1089, 1119, 1121, 1122, 1123, 1130, 1131, 1135, 1137, 1161, 1180, 1185, 1187, 1193, 1212, 1213, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1232, 1240, 1242, 1254, 1292, 1298, 1309, 1311, 1313, 1314, 1317, 1330, 1334, 1364, 1371, 1375, 1382, 1404, 1411, 1416, 1419, 1427, 1432, 1433, 1436, 1452, 1453, 1455, 1477, 1484, 1495, 1505, 1515, 1516, 1520, 1525, 1569, 1579, 1580, 1597, 1598, 1613, 1629, 1633, 1648, 1649, 1655, 1679, 1698, 1702, 1713, 1716, 1722, 1725, 1744, 1755, 1759, 1770, 1785, 1786, 1791, 1806, 1821, 1827, 1831, 1841, 1850, 1851, 1872, 1884, 1885, 1889, 1907, 1909, 1953, 1969, 1970, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1986, 1992, 2034, 2046, 2048, 2052, 2059, 2064, 2075, 2082, 2088, 2091, 2119, 2148, 2169, 2181, 2186, 2207, 2234, 2243, 2257, 2270, 2287, 2290, 2295, 2301, 2313, 2327, 2335, 2357, 2358, 2365, 2371, 2381, 2393, 2397 embodiment of 1853 factors affecting 196a, 768a, 1992 gender 1853, 1854, 1855, 2349 hybrid, hybridisation, hybridity 185, 250, 251, 422, 624, 699, 1028, 1118, 2291, 2295 national 81, 109, 113, 132, 186, 249, 262, 332, 353, 422, 719, 725, 751, 758, 768a, 854, 857, 932, 954, 970, 1180, 1334, 1428, 1436, 1440, 1467, 1484, 1663, 1664, 1666, 1698, 1709, 1755, 1821, 1839, 1889, 1924, 1969, 1974, 2091, 2186, 2227, 2350, 2397 oppositional 652 Pakeha 1974 pan ethnic 1633 self-concept 15, 16, 33, 42, 43, 45, 70, 73, 74, 83, 84, 105, 133, 138, 139, 144, 198, 232, 248, 250, 251, 290, 294, 301, 320, 457, 459, 483, 493, 512, 514, 542, 546, 560, 569, 570, 572, 573, 581, 649, 651, 653, 674, 689, 690, 699, 708, 713, 721, 742, 750, 751, 805, 806, 815, 851, 907, 971, 985, 986, 993, 1017, 1018, 1021, 1028, 1046, 1060, 1062, 1089, 1122, 1123, 1131, 1161, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1232, 1240, 1254, 1309, 1313, 1314, 1317, 1320, 1375, 1419, 1427, 1432, 1453, 1495, 1511, 1516, 1520, 1528, 1597, 1611, 1629, 1679, 1701, 1713, 1725, 1791, 1831, 1838, 1856, 1907, 1909, 1953, 1974, 1992, 2048, 2066, 2069, 2082, 2104, 2149, 2162, 2178, 2200, 2222, 2227, 2243, 2267, 2290, 2313, 2327, 2335, 2358, 2365, 2371 sexual 866, 867, 1853, 1854, 1855, 2349 (see also: Fa’afafini)
IELTS (International English Language Testing System) 117, 255, 271, 448, 532, 613, 774, 836, 841, 859, 898, 949, 1144, 1145, 1179, 1206, 1305, 1545, 1550, 1555, 1557, 1558, 1559, 1773, 1774, 1832, 1927, 1930, 2029
408 Illegal immigrants, immigration, migration 485 (see also: Overstayers)
Immigrant Nation (TV documentary series) 1821
Immigration 328, 366, 1690, 1924 Acts/Bills 33, 81, 146, 345, 539, 564, 630, 643, 660, 703, 704, 930, 934, 963, 973, 1052, 1484, 1486, 1487, 1700, 1755, 1756, 1844, 2060, 2328, 2329, 2337 agents, consultants, industry 139, 285, 382, 487, 594, 841, 1010, 1551, 1756, 1983, 2373 flows/patterns 28, 41, 45, 69, 81, 82, 95, 96, 107, 112, 139, 148, 149, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 197, 290, 301, 306, 319, 326, 333, 347, 353, 354, 395, 397, 414, 415, 425, 426, 449, 463, 477, 480, 536, 539, 545, 564, 568, 581, 597, 627, 641, 657, 660, 700, 701, 702, 705, 715, 716, 717, 718, 752, 753, 777, 802, 817, 847, 848, 849, 850, 854, 878, 880, 882, 884, 888, 909, 927, 951, 958, 960, 963, 965, 967, 968, 969, 982, 1007, 1046, 1119, 1125, 1138, 1148, 1149, 1169, 1173, 1195, 1202, 1213, 1214, 1218, 1233, 1237, 1238, 1298, 1309, 1317, 1338, 1362, 1375, 1380, 1395, 1405, 1406, 1407, 1416, 1428, 1447, 1471, 1504, 1514, 1529, 1543, 1549, 1551, 1552, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1574, 1579, 1603, 1609, 1656, 1698, 1699, 1700, 1702, 1703, 1728, 1729, 1756, 1783, 1793, 1844, 1845, 1860, 1890, 1891, 1897, 1899, 1903, 1923, 1971, 1972, 1977, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2047, 2048, 2050, 2075, 2082, 2112, 2126, 2133, 2180, 2181, 2205, 2206, 2212, 2213, 2218, 2227, 2241, 2299, 2301, 2304, 2316, 2336, 2368, 2376, 2380, 2397 educational 306 official statements 1173 points system, points awarded 1545, 1549, 1550 policy 1, 16, 28, 33, 41, 69, 76, 81, 86, 105, 110, 112, 113, 115, 133, 135, 139, 141, 144, 146, 147, 155, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 170, 175, 178, 179, 190, 194, 227, 228, 232, 246, 268, 273, 285, 290, 301, 306, 338, 340, 345, 347, 349, 365, 382, 393, 408, 416, 431, 432, 450, 452, 455, 475, 481, 484, 485, 486, 487, 502, 536, 539, 545, 549, 550, 564, 568, 593, 616, 627, 630, 643, 657, 660, 661, 671, 672, 689, 701, 756, 758, 768, 777, 817, 841, 854, 856, 859, 860, 861, 865, 878, 880, 882, 888, 889, 890, 891, 902, 926, 934, 936, 941, 953, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 966, 967, 969, 971, 973, 988, 993, 1021, 1023, 1044, 1052, 1053, 1099, 1108, 1118, 1119, 1127, 1128, 1162, 1166, 1169, 1170, 1173, 1195, 1198, 1209, 1211, 1218, 1236, 1237, 1238, 1243, 1253, 1277, 1309, 1311, 1315, 1320, 1336, 1338, 1339, 1344, 1348, 1360, 1362, 1368, 1371, 1375, 1380, 1390, 1392, 1396, 1401, 1403, 1405, 1416, 1428, 1447, 1448, 1460, 1474, 1478, 1484, 1486, 1487, 1491, 1499, 1509, 1522, 1532, 1534, 1537, 1543, 1545, 1546, 1549, 1550, 1551, 1552, 1553, 1555, 1556, 1557, 1558, 1559, 1563, 1601, 1606, 1609, 1624, 1629, 1636, 1639, 1656, 1665, 1666, 1698, 1700, 1707, 1742, 1751, 1755, 1756, 1779, 1780, 1793, 1807, 1808, 1841, 1844, 1860, 1874, 1879, 1903, 1923, 1924, 1960, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1983, 2006, 2048, 2060, 2077, 2092, 2112, 2113, 2129, 2133, 2145, 2176, 2180, 2223, 2227, 2234, 2235, 2237, 2249, 2251, 2291, 2328, 2329, 2335, 2368, 2372, 2376, 2380, 2397 (see also: Chain migration; Migrants, characteristics of; Migration; Motivation(s); Return migration; Step migration; Temporary migration; Trans-Tasman migration)
Immunisation 506, 1054, 1223, 1229, 1415, 1646, 1649, 1650, 1692, 2312
Income (including pocket money) 4, 29, 44, 97, 98, 197, 202, 245, 274, 275, 309, 317, 372, 373, 402, 470, 491, 594, 625, 669, 670, 686, 687, 701, 720, 802, 817, 841, 886, 912, 914, 947, 950, 989, 1035, 1044, 1085, 1087, 1120, 1137, 1218, 1307, 1344, 1380, 1412,
409 1414, 1415, 1417, 1420, 1421, 1424, 1426, 1447, 1495, 1532, 1543, 1546, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1553, 1554, 1607, 1609, 1638, 1639, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1687, 1732, 1733, 1755, 1795, 1852, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1959, 1962, 1971, 1975, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2014, 2043, 2093, 2095, 2105, 2113, 2203, 2204 support (see: Social welfare benefits)
Indians 81, 98, 110, 113, 146, 170, 198, 246, 254, 365, 410, 452, 453, 539, 542, 543, 544, 546, 547, 549, 570, 596, 599, 621, 623, 671, 672, 705, 725, 735, 746, 819, 932, 937, 949, 998, 1010, 1011, 1034, 1097, 1118, 1298, 1322, 1323, 1359, 1376, 1380, 1424, 1515, 1516, 1517, 1545, 1547, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1557, 1592, 1692, 1712, 1713, 1714, 1715, 1716, 1717, 1767, 1768, 1814, 1829, 1861, 1874, 1896, 1903, 1920, 1954, 1957, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2048, 2061, 2140, 2161, 2193, 2225, 2287, 2295, 2308, 2314, 2343, 2344, 2345 education 1, 56, 104, 1405, 1516, 2132 employment/unemployment 198, 285, 410, 452, 453, 596, 671, 672, 768, 949, 1010, 1118, 1298, 1380, 1516, 1517, 1552, 1585, 1592, 1712, 1713, 1714, 1715, 1716, 1717, 1874, 1920, 1957, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2048, 2132, 2133, 2287, 2308, 2314 health and welfare 93, 98, 246, 254, 365, 519, 549, 584, 879, 881, 1010, 1020, 1322, 1323, 1376, 1515, 1516, 1526, 1586, 1692, 1767, 1768, 1775, 1811, 1812, 1814, 1829, 1954, 1957, 2061, 2140, 2177, 2193, 2287 identity and/or self-concept 113, 198, 542, 705, 1034, 1298, 1515, 1516, 1713, 1716, 1806, 2048, 2193, 2287, 2295 language 905, 1097, 1673, 1806, 1887, 1987, 2007, 2132 residential patterns and/or geographic distribution 1005, 1996, 1997, 1998 students 1, 56, 104, 1298, 1340, 1399, 1405, 1514, 1954 (see also: Asians; Fijians, Indo-Fijians; Goans; Sikhs)
Indigenisation 1663, 1667
Indochinese 147 (see also: Cambodians; Khmer; Laos; Vietnamese)
Indo-Fijians (see: Fijians, Indo-Fijians)
Indonesians 65, 68, 106, 365, 519, 570, 589, 590, 905, 1003, 1340, 1396, 1399, 1405, 1557, 1903, 1955, 1997, 1998, 2209, 2380 (see also: Javanese)
Infants (see: Children and/or infants)
Influenza 506, 1913
Information technologies 412, 1022 (see also: Communication, technologies; Computers; Internet)
Injury 24, 26, 82, 98, 214, 220, 525, 647, 648, 669, 670, 911, 913, 1084, 1414, 1415, 1552, 1586, 1619, 1755, 1767, 1852, 2015, 2140, 2307, 2309, 2310, 2311
Inland Revenue Department 551, 1325
Inquiry, re document handling 2123
Institutional structure of immigration 81, 859, 2133
Integrated migration management 719
410 Integration (civic, economic or social) 4, 81, 110, 133, 134, 139, 198, 232, 233, 257, 285, 358, 393, 408, 414, 423, 432, 449, 475, 483, 485, 594, 616, 633, 719, 768, 776, 794, 859, 866, 874, 882, 883, 885, 909, 941, 1055, 1056, 1077, 1079, 1081, 1132, 1134, 1135, 1153, 1205, 1206, 1338, 1396, 1398, 1424, 1425, 1510, 1579, 1598, 1609, 1639, 1659, 1661, 1679, 1713, 1716, 1841, 1971, 1973, 1976, 1980, 2044, 2075, 2113, 2163, 2225, 2226, 2227, 2257, 2287, 2338, 2372, 2397
Intentions 48, 133, 134, 395, 557, 594, 752, 753, 907, 914, 1010, 1011, 1112, 1237, 1238, 1457, 1801, 1875, 2112
Intercultural care provision 1042, 1043
Interculturalisation and interculturalism 1000
Intergroup threat, concept/measurement of 2230
Internal migration 23, 196, 215, 558, 692, 882, 942, 963, 1011, 1062, 1162, 1371, 1441, 1529, 1659, 2108, 2178, 2271, 2348
International Adult Literacy Survey 1023
International (export) education 1, 2, 3, 111, 112, 119, 228, 296, 304, 306, 307, 309, 357, 454, 463, 555, 585, 604, 608, 756, 796, 883, 885, 894, 902, 950, 951, 952, 981, 1000, 1035, 1055, 1125, 1143, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1198, 1237, 1238, 1305, 1340, 1392, 1396, 1398, 1399, 1401, 1403, 1405, 1406, 1447, 1609, 1623, 1675, 1676, 1751, 1774, 1783, 1793, 1822, 1832, 1899, 1950, 1951, 1952, 2077, 2129, 2226, 2229, 2395 Advisory Authority 309 Appeal Authority 604 management of student numbers 1936, 1937
International linkages 81, 281, 433, 705, 857, 1447, 1543, 1822, 1970, 2160 (see also: Networks)
International relations 81, 513, 564, 1360, 1368, 1732, 1733, 1844, 2077, 2112
International relocation or transfer (by company) 1690
International students (see: Students)
Internationalisation/internationalism 167, 306, 309, 508, 555, 885, 894, 1000, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1340, 1394, 1396, 1795, 1800, 1832, 1950, 1951, 1952, 2030, 2129, 2226, 2252
Internet 113, 1171, 1220, 1978, 1979 access to, effect or impact of, use of, value of 48, 301, 352, 356, 358, 533, 557, 568, 594, 624, 699, 705, 734, 867, 883, 1022, 1101, 1171, 1338, 1475, 1668, 1669, 1744, 1970, 1998, 2004, 2011, 2112, 2186, 2204, 2250, 2356 (see also: Kamehameha Roundtable; Kava Bowl)
Interpreting and/or translation 60, 82, 232, 287, 537, 548, 884, 1154, 1157, 1338, 1509, 1546, 1554, 1584, 1755, 1756, 2135, 2139, 2306, 2338, 2368, 2378
Intussusception 406
Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I) 99
411 Inverse care law 669, 670
Iraqi 21, 37, 38, 416, 514, 519, 539, 768, 795, 892, 1017, 1018, 1071, 1376, 1512, 1545, 1546, 1550, 1718, 1861, 1887, 1944, 1945, 1997, 1998, 2182, 2234, 2338 (see also: Assyrians)
Iranians 115, 416, 570, 599, 795, 892, 905, 1120, 1376, 1511, 1545, 1546, 1861, 1997, 1998, 2182
Irish 27, 33, 78, 80, 181, 224, 231, 245, 265, 272, 282, 283, 295, 382, 383, 399, 438, 439, 440, 441, 447, 451, 471, 576, 582, 592, 689, 700, 701, 702, 712, 713, 721, 725, 738, 755, 847, 848, 1030, 1033, 1104, 1105, 1163, 1207, 1283, 1289, 1291, 1307, 1308, 1310, 1312, 1313, 1317, 1345, 1358, 1364, 1365, 1372, 1375, 1380, 1436, 1437, 1438, 1439, 1460, 1473, 1482, 1500, 1532, 1550, 1553, 1579, 1590, 1597, 1603, 1613, 1614, 1635, 1656, 1657, 1698, 1700, 1702, 1703, 1759, 1785, 1786, 1819, 1934, 1997, 1998, 2013, 2024, 2025, 2051, 2052, 2053, 2100, 2125, 2168 (see also: Ulster and Ulstermen)
Irish-Scottish studies (in New Zealand) 1482, 1656
Islamophobia 1079
Isolation (residential, social etc.) 359, 360, 423, 475, 547, 596, 647, 648, 689, 920, 941, 1007, 1048, 1118, 1126, 1182, 1371, 1750, 1953, 1954, 2286, 2357
Israelis 33, 457, 570, 621, 797, 1789, 1948, 1997, 1998
Italians 480, 483, 570, 580, 592, 630, 689, 692, 875, 905, 1000a, 1279, 1427, 1997, 1998, 2007, 2051, 2100, 2126, 2168, 2278
Japanese 58, 64, 166, 239, 240, 246, 268, 326, 476, 481, 570, 615, 974, 978, 1005, 1027, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1356, 1368, 1369, 1392, 1396, 1405, 1492, 1527, 1545, 1550, 1552, 1553, 1557, 1572, 1592, 1608, 1616, 1734, 1841, 1861, 1902, 1903, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2062, 2072, 2073, 2197, 2201, 2267 language 117, 136, 209, 362, 363, 364, 771, 772, 773, 905, 974, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1492, 1527, 1616, 1734, 1987, 2062, 2073, 2201, 2267 students 1, 106, 117, 166, 209, 362, 363, 364, 481, 771, 772, 773, 883, 1340, 1392, 1396, 1399, 1405, 1406, 1527, 1734, 2197, 2201, 2267
Javanese 2210
Jewellery and/or adornments 1683
Jews 12, 54, 105, 144, 147, 187, 197, 203, 232, 261, 276, 368, 376, 457, 477, 621, 694, 803, 834, 835, 895, 1004, 1057, 1058, 1073, 1074, 1075, 1091, 1094, 1138, 1139, 1192, 1330, 1424, 1469, 1530, 1587, 1679, 1755, 1789, 1849, 1861, 1998, 2124, 2155, 2192, 2236, 2261, 2284, 2300 graves, desecration of 1825 (see also: Places of worship, synagogues; Refugees, Jewish)
Job satisfaction 97, 594, 985, 986, 1085, 1205, 1206, 1922, 1994, 2112, 2203, 2361
Josephites 738
Journalism and/or journalists 1345, 1353
412 Justice system (access, courts, law, offender management etc) 20, 551, 634, 703, 704, 775, 776, 933, 1084, 1086, 1330, 1484, 1756, 2011, 2034, 2064, 2357 (see also: Police)
Kamehameha Roundtable 699
Kampucheans 1996, 1998, 2007, 2172 (see also: Cambodians; Indochinese; Khmer)
K’aute Pasifika 90
Kava Bowl 699, 1475
Kawasaki disease 852
Kenyans 165, 1298, 1997
Khmer 905, 1005, 1996, 1998, 2007 (see also: Cambodians; Indochinese; Kampucheans)
Kidnapping 1278
Kids in Action Pasefika Challenge 1415
Kindergarten and/or play centres 257, 291, 385, 435 (see also: Schools, ethnic)
Kinship 16, 85, 167, 1214, 1225, 1316, 1453, 1579, 1580, 1991, 2034, 2048 (see also: Family; Networks, social)
Kiribatians 2214
Kiwi Expatriate Association (KEA) 311, 380, 719
Kiwi Ora Programme 419
Knowledge economy/society 719, 1392, 1551 sources of 108
Koreans 81, 124, 126, 166, 246, 268, 282, 283, 326, 365, 395, 421, 455, 462, 476, 499, 519, 547, 570, 613, 624, 633, 671, 672, 729, 832, 879, 881, 932, 993, 1005, 1044, 1045, 1046, 1047, 1048, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1089, 1126, 1380, 1392, 1396, 1405, 1527, 1543, 1545, 1547, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1553, 1557, 1633, 1673, 1765, 1861, 1870, 1903, 1946, 1973, 1981, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2042, 2140, 2197, 2267, 2367, 2374, 2376 language (English, maintenance etc.) 124, 126, 209, 362, 363, 364, 613, 624, 729, 771, 773, 876, 905, 1046, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1126, 1527, 1633, 1673, 1931, 1932, 1987, 2007, 2045, 2267, 2374 students 1, 124, 126, 127, 166, 209, 246, 302, 306, 362, 363, 364, 421, 499, 608, 613, 633, 729, 771, 773, 832, 876, 883, 1340, 1392, 1396, 1399, 1401, 1405, 1406, 1527, 2045, 2197
Kosovars 484, 552, 553, 936, 941, 1093, 1981
413 Kurds 21, 941, 994, 1071, 1546, 1887
Kuwaiti 795, 892, 1997
Labour force/manpower 59, 155, 171, 174, 194, 285, 425, 476, 520, 536, 645, 756, 926, 938, 953, 1023, 1085, 1112, 1211, 1392, 1409, 1418, 1420, 1447, 1470, 1471, 1552, 1553, 1606, 1620, 1732, 1733, 1971, 1975, 2108, 2187, 2203, 2204 development and barriers to development 1409, 1413, 2076, 2135, 2139 market segmentation 155 (see also: Employment; Professionals; Skilled migrants; Unemployment)
Land ownership 49, 50, 65, 66, 67, 68, 168, 204, 262, 263, 874, 1352, 1362, 1390, 1635, 1636, 1657, 2024, 2036, 2330
Langimalie (Tongan Health Society) 90
Languaculture 127, 2184
Language 40, 113, 123, 238, 428, 493, 568, 641, 686, 742, 772, 886, 905, 1311, 1407, 1546, 1567, 1673, 1734, 1987, 1988, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2200, 2208, 2249, 2267, 2273 change/shift 37, 38, 116, 121, 122, 250, 527, 898, 929, 1095, 1097, 1427, 1492, 1566, 1567, 1806, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1909, 1985, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2045, 2057, 2058, 2062, 2083, 2084, 2381 code switching 116, 1566, 2045, 2062, 2381 diary 1046 domains of use 37, 38, 116, 121, 122, 422, 435, 652, 929, 1046, 1097, 1404, 1427, 1719, 1767, 1883, 1887, 1909, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1991, 1993, 2045, 2084, 2091, 2250, 2381 Exchange Programme (LEX) 559 Line 537, 2138 loss and/or maintenance 15, 37, 38, 40, 42, 45, 53a, 56, 61, 89, 107, 116, 118, 121, 122, 123, 133, 139, 144, 191, 232, 250, 262, 320, 394, 422, 435, 483, 524, 527, 531, 540, 568, 570, 622, 629, 638, 652, 658, 666, 669, 670, 674, 686, 695, 708, 728, 742, 749, 841, 893, 905, 929, 958, 968, 1037, 1046, 1062, 1065, 1095, 1097, 1110, 1119, 1121, 1131, 1150, 1164, 1190, 1191, 1215, 1218, 1232, 1292, 1294, 1304, 1338, 1343, 1370, 1412, 1415, 1419, 1420, 1427, 1455, 1505, 1528, 1674, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1755, 1756, 1806, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1906, 1907, 1909, 1931, 1933, 1978, 1981, 1985, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2007, 2027, 2045, 2057, 2058, 2081, 2082, 2083, 2084, 2089, 2091, 2122, 2128, 2142, 2167, 2200, 2206, 2211, 2212, 2215, 2250, 2304, 2325, 2327, 2358, 2381 nests (see: Schools, ethnic) planning 1987 policy 122, 123, 124, 697, 1063, 1292, 1294, 1673, 1674, 1755, 1756, 1884, 1885, 1931, 1987, 2200 public signage 462 racist 783 sanctuary domains 1046, 1095, 1427 Second Language Learning Project 1673 service provider attitudes/perspectives 2249, 2276 speech acts 2201 tests 146, 898, 1773, 1774, 1832, 1882, 2077
414 use, attitudes towards 1987 (see also: Bilingualism; Communication; Education and training; English; and specific groups such as Chinese, Dutch, Japanese, Koreans, Pacific peoples, Samoans, Tongans, etc.)
Laos/Laotians 416, 423, 519, 982, 1151, 1962, 1997, 1998 (see also: Indochinese)
Lascars 110, 623
Latin Americans 176, 281, 1509, 1861, 1998, 2301 (see also: Argentineans; Brazilians; Chileans; Mexicans; Peruvians; Venezuelans)
Latvians 614, 630, 1926, 2303
Law, issue of culture/legal pluralism 2064, 2065
Leadership 19, 197, 466, 488, 633, 701, 851, 871, 958, 1052, 1325, 1338, 1389, 1393, 1409, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1426, 1725, 1745, 1907, 2053, 2085, 2093, 2105, 2122, 2165
Learning 104, 106, 207, 208, 374, 428, 448, 618, 732, 1157, 1200, 1210, 1256, 1400, 1680, 1741, 1834, 2286, 2336 barriers to 79, 106, 899, 900, 2163 strategies, styles and cultural differences 9, 104, 106, 124, 152, 158, 208, 209, 322, 364, 392, 428, 498, 499, 611, 626, 629, 652, 695, 706, 729, 771, 772, 773, 774, 812, 885, 901, 1141, 1146, 1256, 1284, 1305, 1404, 1640, 1668, 1669, 1680, 1741, 1834, 1910, 1928, 1930, 1950, 1951, 2016, 2092, 2276, 2336, 2365, 2390, 2391
Lebanese 28, 657, 658, 819, 1329, 1372, 1446, 1866, 1867, 1998, 2056, 2182
Legitimate peripheral participation, concept of 1714
Leisure activity, facilities and/or time 12, 133, 226, 232, 439, 440, 441, 568, 583, 592, 751, 770, 802, 946, 951, 1127, 1147, 1184, 1313, 1329, 1382, 1461, 1462, 1499, 1562, 1580, 1587, 1595, 1611, 1638, 1731, 1740, 1759, 1767, 1875, 1906, 1959, 2042, 2217, 2250, 2313, 2317 (see also: Sport)
Lesa case (Lesa vs Attorney General 1982) 1360, 1844
Letters 63, 264, 276, 474, 707, 1025, 1307, 1308, 1310, 1311, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1375, 1459, 1625, 1754, 2060, 2313 (see also: Brides, letter/mail-order)
Levave vs Immigration Department (1979) 1844
Libraries and/or library services 533, 883, 1668, 1669, 2073, 2220, 2245, 2356
Life expectancy and/or insurance 26, 98, 220, 327, 669, 670, 853, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1836, 2011, 2115, 2118
Life skills training programme 431
Lifestyle 751, 837, 1054, 1159, 1838 issues, risky behaviours 744, 745, 837, 1159
415 Liminality and/or liminal space 517, 2174
Linguistic distance 127 longing 121
LisNZ (Longitudinal Immigration Survey: New Zealand) 594, 795, 1173, 1551, 2112
Literacy 37, 39, 40, 160, 291, 292, 392, 413, 428, 493, 521, 523, 548, 561, 603, 629, 650, 652, 662, 681, 695, 696, 697, 739, 748, 811, 1023, 1063, 1100, 1157, 1160, 1222, 1279, 1293, 1304, 1343, 1364, 1400, 1404, 1546, 1610, 1637, 1695, 1696, 1704, 1719, 1755, 1813, 1886, 1887, 2057, 2058, 2156, 2258, 2306, 2324, 2325, 2338
Literary depictions or representations of immigrants or ethnic groups 332, 471, 1388
Lithuanians 630, 1820, 2303
Lochore, R. A. 105
Loneliness 359, 360, 542, 546, 547, 689, 1048, 1182, 1946, 2286, 2340, 2392
Long Term Skill Shortage List 170
Lum, Joe vs Attorney General 1484
Lung volumes 1386
Magic 723
Malaria 1357
Malaysians 1, 53a, 106, 115, 199, 301, 305, 365, 404, 449, 503, 507, 519, 570, 739, 818, 901, 905, 1135, 1340, 1385, 1396, 1399, 1405, 1503, 1545, 1549, 1550, 1553, 1557, 1761, 1762, 1903, 1997, 1998, 2059, 2077, 2092, 2114, 2210
Maltese 630, 2302
Mangere Refugee Reception/Resettlement Centre 340, 365, 552, 728, 936, 941, 1108, 1249, 1357, 1400, 1507, 1546, 1554, 1639, 1689, 1879, 1913, 2113, 2123
Maori attitudes/perceptions/views re immigrants, immigration and/or policy 109, 178, 232, 250, 285, 393, 854, 890, 963, 964, 1122, 1123, 1132, 2227 attitudes of ethnic groups/migrants toward Maori 985, 986 effect of immigration on 1708 in Australia 173, 196a, 326, 768a in Europe and/or elsewhere 857, 1347, 2130 portrayal of in ethnic/immigrant media 1171 relationships and/or contact with migrants 47, 49, 50, 110, 185, 204, 250, 251, 297, 321, 329, 381, 393, 434, 451, 623, 741, 780, 814, 854, 862, 875, 963, 964, 969, 1005, 1008, 1009, 1033, 1038, 1071, 1122, 1123, 1171, 1261, 1291, 1368, 1483, 1633, 1636, 1684, 1704, 1709, 1820, 1939, 1978, 2060, 2072, 2126, 2130, 2180, 2184, 2313 (see also: New Zealanders abroad; Trans-Tasman migration)
416 Marginality and/or marginalisation 393, 616, 708, 1185, 1850, 2290 Marriage, partnerships and/or intermarriage 4, 12, 23, 28, 49, 50, 139, 185, 197, 198, 204, 232, 238, 248, 250, 251, 297, 325, 326, 327, 329, 399, 422, 439, 441, 460, 465, 474, 512, 542, 546, 570, 576a, 588, 615, 627, 649, 689, 690, 699, 700, 701, 702, 707, 723, 725, 785, 786, 818, 834, 854, 906, 909, 929, 942, 960, 964, 992, 1004, 1019, 1028, 1029, 1057, 1074, 1075, 1090, 1118, 1121, 1122, 1123, 1163, 1215, 1216, 1218, 1277, 1298, 1312, 1314, 1329, 1345, 1368, 1369, 1374, 1439, 1474, 1520, 1521, 1530, 1546, 1580, 1603, 1707, 1737, 1806, 1820, 1827, 1838, 1872, 1906, 1929, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2043, 2062, 2072, 2130, 2173, 2178, 2193, 2208, 2236, 2271, 2284, 2304, 2335, 2343, 2344
Masculinity 1632, 2349
Mass media (newspapers, radio, television) 108, 231, 279, 408, 764, 883, 1166, 1185, 1220, 1477, 1562, 1565, 1575, 1671, 1672, 1751, 1756, 1781, 1898, 2088, 2283, 2296 and identity 2186 ethnic/immigrant 36, 38, 113, 355, 408, 512, 533, 624, 641, 945, 963, 965, 968, 1046, 1095, 1121, 1171, 1185, 1218, 1220, 1358, 1364, 1365, 1375, 1416, 1420, 1436, 1437, 1438, 1439, 1477, 1629, 1633, 1751, 1755, 1756, 1979, 1981, 2053, 2091, 2186, 2219, 2280, 2296, 2362 policy (New Zealand government, TVNZ Charter etc) 968, 1781 portrayal of ethnic groups, migrants, refugees, international students 76, 143, 193, 355, 431, 463, 565, 854, 883, 970, 1077, 1099, 1170, 1185, 1220, 1253, 1361, 1364, 1419, 1556, 1565, 1629, 1633, 1671, 1672, 1743, 1751, 1756, 1770, 1781, 1821, 1825, 1896, 1973, 1981, 2044, 2181, 2219, 2296 role in migration (encouragement, recruitment etc.) 924, 925 (see also: Print culture, ethnic)
Maturation, of migrant communities 1970
Measles 1692, 1959
Melanesians 171
Meningitis and/or meningococcal disease 102, 492, 669, 670, 764, 1185, 1265, 1266, 1267, 1268, 1269, 1414, 1415, 1959, 2262, 2312
Menstruation 1638
Mental health (see: Health and welfare, mental health/illness; Health care promotion/provision, mental)
Mentoring 415, 466, 748, 1142, 1152, 1421, 2286, 2288
Metaphors 1225
Meta-societies 167, 178, 752, 753
Mexicans 570, 1405
Micronutrient deficiencies 761, 762
Middle Easterners (n.o.d.) 176, 182, 310, 725, 1020, 1022, 1205, 1503, 1509, 1584, 1779, 2006, 2182, 2200
417 Midwives and midwifery 57, 260, 542, 543, 545, 546, 548, 1085, 2238
Migrants (i.e. immigrants, emigrants), ethnic group members, students and refugees – characteristics of 5, 27, 33, 38, 44, 48, 82, 97, 98, 113, 122, 139, 165, 168, 170, 178, 197, 224, 232, 245, 246, 273, 274, 285, 290, 302, 326, 328, 338, 377, 390, 399, 411, 413, 425, 426, 429, 469, 470, 473, 475, 480, 496, 508, 525, 531, 536, 551, 552, 557, 568, 581, 593, 594, 597, 613, 627, 660, 689, 690, 700, 701, 702, 712, 713, 733, 768a, 777, 786, 787, 788, 795, 802, 806, 817, 818, 847, 848, 849, 855, 859, 860, 866, 874, 878, 880, 882, 884, 886, 887, 892, 907, 909, 926, 928, 954, 955, 959, 960, 962, 963, 964, 965, 967, 968, 969, 971, 989, 1011, 1021, 1023, 1044, 1085, 1125, 1134, 1148, 1149, 1169, 1173, 1213, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1237, 1238, 1272, 1277, 1301, 1313, 1316, 1318, 1319, 1334, 1335, 1357, 1380, 1395, 1399, 1401, 1441, 1459, 1460, 1479, 1489, 1500, 1516, 1519, 1529, 1531, 1532, 1543, 1545, 1546, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1553, 1554, 1555, 1557, 1558, 1559, 1563, 1603, 1613, 1631, 1636, 1648, 1659, 1679, 1698, 1699, 1702, 1703, 1707, 1730, 1751, 1779, 1791, 1792, 1840, 1870, 1896, 1897, 1903, 1970, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2043, 2044, 2048, 2050, 2060, 2062, 2095, 2112, 2132, 2145, 2180, 2197, 2203, 2204, 2208, 2213, 2216, 2228, 2256, 2257, 2304, 2316, 2336, 2338, 2341, 2364, 2380, 2381, 2395 (see also: Doctors, overseas trained; Motivation(s) or reason(s), for migration/return migration; Professionals; Seasonal workers; Skilled migrants; Temporary migrants)
Migration circulation 167, 719, 1978 decision making 133, 232, 233, 290, 320, 743, 874, 907, 919, 1010, 1011, 1162, 1219, 1479, 2112 determinants of (communication, information, resources etc.) 3, 16, 48, 139, 165, 167, 171, 177, 180, 181, 195, 232, 250, 263, 290, 298, 320, 353, 379, 395, 411, 456, 480, 536, 557, 568, 597, 689, 719, 752, 753, 777, 805, 849, 866, 874, 877, 878, 924, 925, 965, 1010, 1025, 1026, 1112, 1118, 1148, 1162, 1218, 1219, 1236, 1237, 1238, 1251, 1306, 1308, 1309, 1310, 1311, 1313, 1316, 1319, 1359, 1406, 1447, 1457, 1504, 1546, 1563, 1599, 1609, 1679, 1698, 1702, 1707, 1725, 1771, 1791, 1792, 1793, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1970, 2017, 2024, 2049, 2108, 2112, 2180, 2203, 2211, 2213, 2215, 2228, 2241, 2242, 2287, 2304 models and systems 155, 161, 167, 168, 175, 356, 568, 719, 927, 1219, 1447, 1840 selectivity (see: Migrants, characteristics of) (see also: Motivation(s) or reason(s), for migration/return migration)
Mind Your Language Pilot Programme 1420
Ministry of Pacific Island Affairs 135, 641, 851, 1407, 1416, 1418, 1420
Ministry of Social Development, Pacific Strategy 1422
MIRAB economies/societies 167, 201, 275, 693, 1262, 1263, 2235 model, critiques of 201, 693 (see also: Remittances)
Miscegenation 964, 1122, 1123
Missionaries 256, 451, 479, 513, 576a, 862, 973, 1026, 1069, 1104, 1105, 1291, 1375, 1440, 1467, 1468, 1483, 1635, 1704, 1709, 1916, 1939, 2051, 2060, 2168, 2180, 2304, 2313 (see also: Religion, religious observance and/or spiritualism/spirituality)
418 Mobility academic 508 culture of 472, 752, 753
Model minority (see: Chinese, model minority)
Mortality 24, 25, 26, 82, 98, 141, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 234, 254, 327, 370, 401, 436, 461, 598, 612, 615, 637, 667, 668, 669, 670, 685, 764, 853, 911, 939, 996, 1016, 1040, 1194, 1234, 1235, 1265, 1266, 1267, 1268, 1269, 1333, 1395, 1414, 1415, 1694, 1756, 1842, 1892, 1893, 1959, 2011, 2015, 2115, 2116, 2117, 2118, 2144, 2153, 2260, 2262
Motherhood 422, 542, 543, 544, 546, 547, 548, 1017, 1229
Motivation(s) or reason(s) for achievement or success 70, 954, 1434, 1496, 1955, 2288 for career and/or employment 887, 1085, 1717, 2237 for choice of NZ as destination 48, 285, 306, 395, 552, 557, 568, 594, 671, 841, 1055, 1162, 1237, 1238, 1311, 1345, 1531, 1532, 1751, 2112, 2203, 2237, 2395 for cultural compliance/non-compliance and/or identification 674, 1081, 2148 for education/learning/study 192, 1085, 1404, 1496, 1527, 1528, 1611, 1668, 1669, 1741, 1773, 1877, 1928, 2112, 2288, 2325 for first language learning/maintenance, change/shift etc. 1884, 1885, 2062 for formation/membership of voluntary association 2054, 2055 for gambling 1687 for information and communication technology use 1022 for intercultural/intergroup contact 801 for management of international student numbers 1936, 1937 for manga (comic) reading 2042 for migration, return migration, OE etc. 16, 33, 48, 69, 75, 107, 139, 186, 196, 223, 230, 232, 233, 248, 250, 263, 274, 275, 285, 290, 298, 301, 306, 311, 324, 350, 366, 379, 380, 391, 395, 396, 432, 456, 457, 465, 472, 473, 490, 531, 542, 546, 557, 558, 568, 570, 572, 573, 594, 624, 627, 671, 672, 689, 719, 740, 741, 750, 752, 753, 768a, 781, 806, 817, 818, 841, 860, 874, 878, 896, 907, 909, 919, 954, 955, 965, 967, 974, 979, 989, 1011, 1021, 1027, 1029, 1055, 1083, 1089, 1090, 1104, 1112, 1118, 1129, 1142, 1148, 1149, 1153, 1162, 1169, 1199, 1207, 1214, 1218, 1219, 1236, 1237, 1238, 1251, 1272, 1277, 1298, 1306, 1309, 1310, 1311, 1313, 1316, 1319, 1328, 1334, 1345, 1359, 1457, 1459, 1463, 1479, 1481, 1489, 1490, 1512, 1531, 1543, 1582, 1586, 1626, 1679, 1698, 1717, 1718, 1725, 1771, 1792, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1855, 1859, 1878, 1907, 1946, 1948, 1953, 1956, 1966, 1970, 2024, 2048, 2064, 2082, 2095, 2112, 2126, 2143, 2170, 2173, 2174, 2175, 2176, 2178, 2203, 2213, 2214, 2218, 2228, 2237, 2241, 2257, 2271, 2281, 2287, 2314, 2318, 2336, 2348, 2373, 2374, 2384, 2395 for small business activity 596, 838, 1585, 1717, 2237 for sport participation 196a, 2090 for volunteer service abroad/volunteering 921, 922, 923, 1303
Mourning 1861
Multiculturalism 20, 41, 113, 135, 170, 178, 205, 206, 249, 251, 405, 432, 437, 445, 475, 545, 547, 550, 595, 674, 732, 737, 749, 877, 885, 971, 1000, 1002, 1048, 1078, 1079, 1080, 1081, 1096, 1106, 1132, 1134, 1180, 1236, 1292, 1294, 1330, 1338, 1362, 1393, 1431, 1440, 1445, 1480, 1512, 1523, 1701, 1715, 1744, 1781, 1817, 1831, 1921, 1953, 1972, 1974, 1976, 2044, 2064, 2073, 2227, 2229, 2230, 2319, 2365, 2397
419 Multilingualism 1988, 2200, 2319
Museums 154, 249, 250, 857, 1756 Te Papa 154, 249, 735, 2345
Music and/or musicians and singers 36, 53, 132, 232, 244, 460, 560, 641, 738, 740, 785, 819, 850, 896, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1120, 1164, 1220, 1235, 1299, 1346, 1418, 1419, 1430, 1431, 1444, 1477, 1633a, 1857, 1858, 1901, 1905, 1942, 1970, 1979, 2091, 2100, 2150, 2157, 2206, 2209, 2264, 2304, 2313, 2382, 2385, 2386, 2387
Muslims 8, 9, 20, 37, 38, 69, 254, 286, 310, 445, 565, 621, 705, 730, 775, 776, 785, 786, 791, 794, 933, 937, 997, 1017, 1077, 1078, 1079, 1080, 1081, 1082, 1099, 1114, 1361, 1376, 1755, 1756, 1782, 1861, 1896, 1897, 1938, 2113, 2161, 2181 hate mail to 1825
Mysteries 1057, 1898, 2028
Myths 1212
Name change 689, 1368, 1777 selection and/or naming patterns for places/spaces 262 personal and/or familial 262, 1613, 1850, 1851
Namibians 396
National Association of ESOL Home Tutor Schemes 1279, 1512, 1887
National Diploma in Teaching Early Childhood Education (Pasifika) 1038
National Front 1432
Nationalism (New Zealand) 660, 854, 1166, 1353, 1428, 1701 (see also: Identity and/or self-concept, national)
Nationality 135, 139, 1360, 1665, 1968, 1995 (see also: Aliens; Citizenship: Naturalisation)
Naturalisation 135, 144, 576a, 580, 660, 769, 960, 1360, 1368, 1484, 1486, 1487, 1968, 1995, 2112, 2380 (see also: Aliens; Citizenship)
Needs 97, 309, 366, 409, 419, 550, 604, 605, 608, 616, 633, 745, 851, 886, 1000, 1084, 1086, 1087, 1096, 1142, 1154, 1181, 1209, 1245, 1251, 1259, 1370, 1422, 1426, 1464, 1499, 1508, 1516, 1537, 1538, 1540, 1546, 1551, 1554, 1668, 1706, 1750, 1884, 1885, 1954, 1981, 2148, 2245, 2338 analysis or assessment 82, 254, 489, 864, 1064, 1400, 1409, 1415, 1959 cultural 547, 606, 1760, 1884, 1885 education, training and/or learning 39, 79, 82, 97, 131, 309, 365, 392, 413, 415, 421, 431, 489, 594, 603, 604, 644, 645, 646, 667, 668, 697, 728, 790, 798, 802, 829, 871, 936, 941, 1024, 1055, 1056, 1064, 1085, 1222, 1259, 1304, 1400, 1409, 1499, 1502, 1533, 1536, 1546, 1554, 1584, 1612, 1628, 1741, 1817, 1884, 1885, 1932, 2016, 2076, 2093, 2111, 2135, 2154, 2220, 2228, 2259, 2324, 2338, 2351, 2378
420 employment 41, 97, 419, 551, 593, 594, 841, 1181, 1209, 1245, 1259, 1341, 1409, 1499, 1535, 1546, 1554, 1556, 1878, 2234, 2250, 2338, 2364 English language 41, 82, 97, 126, 392, 413, 489, 551, 559, 593, 594, 603, 606, 697, 789, 798, 832, 836, 936, 1024, 1056, 1063, 1064, 1126, 1160, 1209, 1259, 1304, 1338, 1533, 1546, 1554, 1668, 1750, 2140, 2154, 2228, 2246, 2276, 2286, 2306, 2336, 2338, 2342, 2356, 2364 health and welfare 549, 550, 579, 608, 647, 648, 744, 892, 1096, 1114, 1126, 1245, 1249, 1499, 1518, 1526, 1539, 1546, 1622, 1760, 1809, 1810, 1826, 1959, 2031, 2096, 2105, 2135 information 48, 97, 131, 192, 195, 287, 308, 365, 409, 419, 468, 533, 537, 547, 548, 551, 593, 608, 632, 667, 668, 790, 802, 841, 886, 914, 924, 925, 1048, 1084, 1086, 1126, 1128, 1154, 1155, 1208, 1209, 1259, 1338, 1400, 1409, 1464, 1516, 1554, 1556, 1584, 1641, 1654, 1655, 1687, 1750, 1826, 1874, 1878, 2127, 2135, 2140, 2163, 2172, 2186, 2203, 2220, 2228, 2234, 2286, 2338, 2351, 2356, 2364, 2378 legal 594, 1533, 2123 services 5, 41, 73, 97, 131, 192, 289, 300, 308, 309, 386, 392, 395, 409, 415, 421, 431, 537, 549, 550, 551, 594, 608, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 667, 668, 723, 745, 789, 802, 858, 886, 914, 936, 1000, 1024, 1048, 1056, 1084, 1086, 1114, 1115, 1126, 1155, 1259, 1338, 1376, 1410, 1422, 1424, 1464, 1472, 1508, 1509, 1516, 1518, 1533, 1544, 1546, 1554, 1556, 1584, 1612, 1641, 1687, 1750, 1760, 1809, 1810, 1876, 1895, 1914, 1918, 2031, 2069, 2096, 2105, 2120, 2135, 2136, 2140, 2172, 2203, 2220, 2228, 2234, 2245, 2246, 2250, 2286, 2306, 2324, 2339, 2356
Nepalese 1737
Networking and/or networks 1418, 1421, 1978, 2135, 2176 business, organisational or professional 110, 285, 390, 526, 528, 646, 707, 740, 828, 829, 835, 857, 1085, 1364, 1365, 1418, 1421, 1439, 1585, 1994, 2095, 2339 family, kin 167, 390, 432, 528, 594, 768a, 802, 960, 1121, 1216, 1262, 1263, 1310, 1312, 1316, 1452, 1475, 1795, 1796, 1801, 1970, 2034, 2112 Kiwi expatriate 719 social 12, 47, 74, 97, 110, 139, 232, 236, 264, 270, 285, 303, 305, 359, 360, 390, 410, 423, 449, 459, 472, 475, 526, 537, 542, 544, 546, 547, 568, 594, 597, 627, 671, 700, 701, 705, 707, 748, 768, 802, 803, 805, 815, 834, 874, 877, 898, 899, 919, 929, 955, 969, 1010, 1022, 1045, 1048, 1074, 1116, 1118, 1121, 1135, 1137, 1152, 1154, 1162, 1209, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1235, 1251, 1262, 1263, 1307, 1309, 1310, 1311, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1316, 1326, 1334, 1371, 1424, 1435, 1452, 1453, 1475, 1481, 1490, 1516, 1525, 1530, 1546, 1554, 1569, 1581, 1679, 1744, 1820, 1841, 1907, 1953, 1955, 1970, 2034, 2064, 2079, 2095, 2112, 2119, 2121, 2124, 2135, 2138, 2145, 2165, 2229, 2231, 2234, 2250, 2286, 2287, 2313, 2314, 2333, 2340, 2351, 2358, 2395 transnational/global 110, 236, 305, 390, 432, 472, 568, 699, 705, 719, 768a, 857, 877, 893, 919, 960, 1010, 1121, 1216, 1251, 1310, 1311, 1312, 1340, 1452, 1475, 1569, 1631, 1667, 1744, 1795, 1796, 1801, 1970, 1978, 2112, 2180
New migrant follow-up survey 1558
New Settlers Programme (Massey University) 310, 859, 860, 861, 1010, 1011, 1506, 1507, 1508, 1509, 1510, 1584, 1585, 1586, 1973, 2132, 2133, 2245, 2246, 2247, 2248, 2249, 2250, 2251, 2252, 2276
Newspapers (see: Chinese, mass media; Mass media; New Zealand Tablet)
421 New Zealand Company 256, 849, 924, 925, 980, 1290, 1291, 1318, 1319, 1362, 1599, 1603, 1635, 1700, 1871, 2126, 2180, 2304 settlements 1026, 1318, 1635 (see also: Wakefield, Edward G.)
New Zealand Diversity Action Plan/Programme 1755, 1756
New Zealand Employment Service 285
New Zealanders abroad 186, 236, 311, 536, 719, 922, 989, 1340, 1442, 1513, 1626, 2204, 2240, 2289 Asia 34, 221, 237, 241, 252, 282, 283, 330, 375, 490, 508, 513, 572, 573, 615, 689, 920, 921, 923, 954, 955, 979, 989, 1124, 1156, 1252, 1303, 1336, 1346, 1347, 1368, 1440, 1468, 1575, 1982, 2060, 2100, 2121, 2283, 2389 Australia 173, 196a, 273, 282, 283, 326, 379, 399, 490, 508, 751, 768a, 857, 888, 907, 927, 928, 954, 955, 961, 972, 979, 989, 1041, 1124, 1244, 1247, 1481, 1525, 1593, 1738, 1757, 1822, 1824, 1840, 1880, 1881, 2150, 2216, 2346, 2369 Europe (excluding UK) 14, 114, 242, 243, 282, 283, 326, 490, 505, 508, 689, 757, 810, 855, 979, 989, 1124, 1306, 1334, 1355, 1822, 1865, 1943, 2261, 2268 Pacific 260, 375, 399, 490, 572, 573, 920, 921, 923, 954, 979, 1303, 1468, 1481, 2269 United Kingdom 186, 282, 283, 311, 314, 326, 472, 473, 490, 508, 689, 709, 751, 807, 840, 855, 857, 907, 954, 955, 972, 979, 989, 1124, 1272, 1306, 1334, 1444, 1449, 1481, 1614, 1615, 1645, 1822, 1824, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1873, 1961, 2100, 2216, 2261, 2282, 2320 other locations 14, 244, 282, 283, 311, 326, 366, 399, 446, 490, 505, 508, 515, 516, 689, 839, 857, 907, 920, 921, 923, 954, 979, 989, 1109, 1306, 1351, 1449, 1467, 1573, 1575, 1752, 1753, 1822, 1824, 1965, 2040, 2150, 2216, 2254, 2261, 2263, 2283, 2297, 2305, 2315 (see also: Diaspora, New Zealanders; Maori; Return migration; Trans-Tasman migration)
New Zealand Federation of Ethnic Councils 1013, 1503, 1534, 1535, 1536, 1537, 1538, 1539, 1540, 1598
New Zealand First (political party) 109, 162, 181, 306, 347, 431, 450, 891, 962, 1166, 1362, 1390, 1432, 1924, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1981, 2133 (see also: Peters, Winston)
New Zealand foreign/international aid 693
New Zealand Immigration Service/Immigration New Zealand 97, 163, 179, 340, 347, 703, 704, 1507, 2123, 2203, 2204
New Zealand/National Settlement Strategy 81, 285, 537, 539, 540, 550, 593, 1154, 1209, 1259, 1447, 1517, 1554, 1556, 1661, 1716, 1755, 1756, 1980, 2133, 2364 New Zealand Tablet 1358, 1364, 1365, 1436, 1438
New Zealand Talent Flow Programme 954
New Zealand Wellbeing, Intentions, Debt and Experiences Survey (WIDE) 675
Nigerians 413
422 Nine/eleven (9/11, Twin Towers), effect of etc. 568, 703, 704, 791, 1077, 1079, 1080, 1082, 1099, 1897
Niueans 4, 10, 56, 72, 83, 90, 167, 315, 316, 317, 318, 372, 398, 466, 570, 654, 720, 816, 1019, 1060, 1061, 1084, 1085, 1087, 1187, 1218, 1240, 1251, 1360, 1387, 1412, 1416, 1417, 1420, 1477, 1619, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1684, 1688, 1719, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1861, 1905, 1986, 1993, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2043, 2065, 2165, 2183, 2211, 2235, 2357, 2385, 2387 education and/or training 56, 811, 812, 816, 1085, 1087, 1719, 2011 employment/unemployment 1060, 1085, 1087, 1688, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2043 family and kinship 10, 56, 83, 1087, 1619, 2004, 2011, 2043 health and welfare 4, 7, 10, 72, 90, 316, 317, 519, 720, 869, 1061, 1098, 1187, 1412, 1577, 1619, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1746, 1811, 1847, 1848, 1852, 2011, 2043 language 905, 1187, 1370, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2083, 2084, 2211, 2357 (see also: Pacific peoples)
Non-arrival, of approved applicants for residence 1903
Norfolk Islanders 2100
Norwegians 52, 272, 630, 976, 1332, 1372, 1399, 1405, 2244 (see also: Scandinavians)
Nostalgia 1679, 1744, 2042, 2174, 2313
Numeracy 603, 811, 1400, 2379
Nurses and nursing 55, 58, 82, 88, 221, 254, 274, 275, 287, 389, 399, 446, 534, 542, 545, 546, 628, 723, 810, 1043, 1085, 1181, 1244, 1246, 1247, 1248, 1249, 1254, 1303, 1409, 1410, 1472, 1549, 1552, 1592, 1593, 1594, 1645, 1794, 1870, 1876, 1915, 1959, 1963, 1964, 1965, 2017, 2127, 2238, 2254, 2306, 2342, 2378
Nutrition (see: Diet and food; Eating/food consumption; Food security)
Obesity 32, 82, 98, 99, 131, 370, 488, 579, 583, 584, 586, 598, 612, 659, 669, 670, 688, 747, 759, 760, 837, 1016, 1047, 1323, 1357, 1381, 1410, 1414, 1415, 1451, 1458, 1638, 1711, 1749, 1767, 1812, 1829, 1830, 1847, 1870, 1912, 1959, 2070, 2071, 2085, 2152, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2359, 2366 (see also: Diabetes; Diet and food; Eating/food consumption)
Obligations 1167, 1475, 1568, 1745
Obstetrics 1833
Occupational class 2310 therapy 1515, 1516
Office of Ethnic Affairs (previously Ethnic Affairs Service) 135, 1407, 1433, 1503, 1533, 1598, 1921, 2133
423 One-point-five (1.5) generation 37, 105, 132, 133, 134, 232, 504, 566, 686, 739, 740, 942, 943, 993, 1046, 1190, 1191, 1452, 1453, 1463, 1901, 1944, 1967, 1979, 2144
On TRACC (Transcultural Care Centre and Intersectoral Service for Children and Young People from Refugee Backgrounds and Their Families) 1245, 1895
Operation Friendship 883
Opinion polls/surveys 393, 725, 1127, 1751, 2160, 2161
Orientalism 661, 1077
Orientation courses 1544
Orphans 84, 1469, 1600, 1627, 1923, 2037, 2038, 2268, 2399
Osteoporosis 82, 1870
Otara and/or Mangere 88, 402, 1100, 1393, 1431, 1695, 1810, 1813, 1905, 2057, 2058, 2109, 2110, 2111 flea market 466, 528
Overseas experience (OE) 134, 186, 236, 366, 380, 472, 473, 490, 855, 907, 922, 954, 955, 989, 1148, 1272, 1306, 1334, 1442, 1457, 1489, 1490, 1532, 1615, 1873, 2282, 2384 as rite of passage/pilgrimage 989, 1272 value of, use of, benefit from 186, 311, 490, 921, 923, 955, 1334, 1490, 1795, 2204 (see also: New Zealanders abroad; Return migration, to New Zealand)
Overstayers 29, 44, 45, 76, 164, 178, 179, 194, 246, 564, 641, 758, 890, 926, 1214, 1218, 1278, 1392, 1418, 1474, 1672, 1844, 1960, 1968, 1978, 2082, 2145 (see also: Illegal immigrants, immigration, migration) Pacific Access category 1550, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1879 Business Trust 2011 Capacity Building Strategy 1418, 1420, 1422 ‘efflorescence’ 2088 Health and Disability Action Plan 90, 1409 Health Hutt Valley 90 Health Service Wellington 1415 mental health outcome measure 1577 Music Preservation Project 1418 Obesity Prevention in Communities (OPIC) Project 131 Peoples Inter-Agency Network (PPIAN) 1418 Prosperity Strategy 1420 Provider Development Framework/Fund 1413, 1422 Trust Canterbury 90, 1415 Workforce Development Strategy 1409 (see also: Pacific Island(s); Pacific peoples; Pasifika)
PACIFICA 1288, 1416
Pacific Island(s) Advisory Board (Waitakere Inc.) 377 Dreamfonotaga (case study) 2288 Educational Resource Centre (PIERC) 1416
424 Families: First Two Years of Life Study 4, 188, 189, 315, 316, 317, 318, 372, 373, 491, 720, 1186, 1187, 1647, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1651, 1652, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1852 Heartbeat Programme 131, 1415 School Community Parent Liaison Project 748
Pacific peoples 10, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 29, 30, 43, 44, 47, 48, 70, 72, 76, 79, 83, 88, 94, 99, 141, 143, 146, 162, 167, 168, 171, 188, 189, 194, 201, 202, 214, 215, 238, 245, 246, 274, 275, 277, 315, 316, 317, 318, 325, 326, 327, 329, 365, 369, 372, 373, 377, 398, 402, 428, 452, 453, 466, 467, 469, 470, 488, 491, 493, 494, 500, 501, 506, 512, 523, 525, 528, 557, 561, 563, 564, 574, 577, 579, 594, 612, 622, 625, 627, 628, 629, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 651, 652, 653, 654, 664, 665, 667, 668, 669, 670, 674, 677, 679, 680, 681, 684, 687, 693, 699, 705, 708, 710, 720, 725, 734, 742, 744, 746, 748, 749, 752, 753, 754, 757, 758, 759, 760, 763, 769, 802, 805, 813, 815, 816, 820, 825, 826, 827, 837, 843, 846, 851, 858, 864, 871, 873, 890, 891, 893, 909, 912, 916, 917, 926, 932, 938, 939, 944, 946, 958, 961, 985, 986, 990, 991, 998, 999, 1014, 1015, 1019, 1024, 1028, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1042, 1043, 1054, 1059, 1060, 1061, 1062, 1065, 1076, 1083, 1084, 1085, 1086, 1087, 1088, 1098, 1110, 1111, 1117, 1119, 1121, 1127, 1129, 1130, 1131, 1133, 1137, 1159, 1164, 1181, 1185, 1186, 1187, 1193, 1194, 1211, 1213, 1214, 1215, 1216, 1217, 1218, 1219, 1220, 1222, 1223, 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227, 1228, 1229, 1230, 1232, 1235, 1240, 1241, 1242, 1251, 1255, 1256, 1257, 1259, 1260, 1262, 1263, 1274, 1275, 1282, 1284, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1288, 1302, 1304, 1321, 1322, 1323, 1325, 1326, 1333, 1343, 1344, 1348, 1360, 1362, 1370, 1377, 1378, 1384, 1386, 1387, 1389, 1393, 1395, 1402, 1404, 1409, 1412, 1413, 1414, 1415, 1416, 1417, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1422, 1424, 1426, 1451, 1461, 1474, 1475, 1477, 1479, 1480, 1494, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1498, 1500, 1501, 1504, 1505, 1509, 1523, 1542, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1550, 1556, 1560, 1569, 1571, 1577, 1583, 1602, 1611, 1612, 1617, 1618, 1619, 1620, 1621, 1631, 1632, 1637, 1638, 1642, 1643, 1644, 1646, 1647, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1651, 1652, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1670, 1671, 1672, 1678, 1681, 1682, 1683, 1684, 1685, 1686, 1687, 1688, 1691, 1692, 1700, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1725, 1726, 1740, 1745, 1746, 1748, 1749, 1755, 1756, 1758, 1760, 1763, 1771, 1778, 1787, 1809, 1818, 1829, 1830, 1831, 1834, 1837, 1838, 1844, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, 1860, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1872, 1876, 1882, 1901, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1909, 1910, 1912, 1914, 1915, 1922, 1940, 1942, 1953, 1959, 1960, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2011, 2016, 2017, 2032, 2033, 2034, 2035, 2043, 2046, 2057, 2058, 2063, 2064, 2065, 2066, 2067, 2068, 2069, 2074, 2076, 2079, 2080, 2081, 2082, 2083, 2084, 2085, 2088, 2089, 2090, 2091, 2093, 2097, 2103, 2104, 2105, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2119, 2120, 2122, 2143, 2144, 2148, 2149, 2156, 2157, 2161, 2162, 2165, 2166, 2167, 2169, 2183, 2184, 2185, 2187, 2190, 2211, 2214, 2215, 2225, 2229, 2235, 2259, 2269, 2270, 2285, 2288, 2290, 2294, 2307, 2319, 2324, 2325, 2327, 2331, 2349, 2357, 2379, 2385, 2387, 2398 acculturation 10, 17, 189, 316, 317, 318, 372, 435, 491, 625, 708, 749, 1015, 1024, 1215, 1415, 1631, 1648, 1649, 1655, 1748, 2119, 2148 alcohol and alcoholism 30, 76, 188, 189, 625, 669, 670, 686, 687, 720, 744, 917, 1054, 1127, 1159, 1414, 1451, 1617, 1619, 1809, 1838, 1848, 1915, 1959, 2076, 2309, 2310, 2311 art, artists, craftsworkers 466, 577, 641, 679, 946, 1130, 1133, 1185, 1220, 1240, 1241, 1242, 1480, 1683, 1684, 1685, 1686, 2183, 2215 crime and/or violence 47, 76, 83, 944, 1084, 1086, 1092, 1159, 1185, 1418, 1420, 1423, 1464, 1682, 1755, 1756, 2011, 2034, 2064, 2065, 2067, 2357 culture change, conflict, loss, maintenance, practice etc 42, 43, 44, 72, 107, 137, 322, 491, 574, 577, 622, 629, 638, 652, 665, 680, 681, 708, 748, 816, 944, 958, 1015, 1019, 1024, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1062, 1111, 1129, 1133, 1137, 1159, 1164, 1214, 1216, 1225, 1232, 1304, 1325, 1389, 1477, 1631, 1632, 1682, 1684, 1719,
425 1720, 1721, 1725, 1872, 1907, 1910, 2064, 2074, 2081, 2085, 2105, 2122, 2144, 2157, 2167, 2290 diet, eating, food 315, 402, 579, 686, 687, 759, 760, 816, 837, 990, 991, 1019, 1127, 1414, 1415, 1451, 1542, 1638, 1711, 1847, 1915, 2085, 2103, 2105, 2122, 2166, 2309, 2310, 2311 education and/or training 39, 43, 46, 47, 56, 79, 85, 89, 111, 192, 202, 245, 291, 292, 293, 306, 322, 428, 435, 466, 493, 512, 523, 561, 574, 603, 607, 609, 629, 635, 636, 640, 641, 645, 646, 652, 664, 665, 676, 680, 681, 697, 733, 734, 742, 748, 749, 763, 811, 812, 815, 816, 820, 825, 826, 827, 844, 864, 871, 885, 909, 944, 999, 1020a, 1024, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1062, 1083, 1085, 1087, 1100, 1110, 1131, 1186, 1215, 1222, 1229, 1235, 1255, 1256, 1257, 1284, 1288, 1293, 1304, 1324, 1326, 1340, 1343, 1367, 1370, 1393, 1402, 1404, 1405, 1407, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1416, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1426, 1429, 1434, 1435, 1461, 1474, 1494, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1498, 1523, 1560, 1602, 1610, 1611, 1612, 1620, 1637, 1642, 1643, 1644, 1678, 1691, 1695, 1696, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1748, 1756, 1794, 1813, 1817, 1828, 1834, 1909, 1910, 1922, 1931, 1932, 1953, 1994, 2011, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2057, 2058, 2076, 2077, 2080, 2089, 2093, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2142, 2156, 2162, 2167, 2184, 2185, 2259, 2269, 2270, 2288, 2309, 2324, 2325, 2327, 2379 employment/unemployment 44, 174, 194, 245, 273, 274, 318, 452, 453, 470, 512, 557, 625, 628, 640, 641, 669, 670, 733, 795, 815, 851, 909, 926, 938, 944, 985, 986, 1042, 1043, 1060, 1083, 1085, 1087, 1119, 1129, 1181, 1211, 1213, 1214, 1218, 1229, 1275, 1302, 1325, 1327, 1348, 1395, 1409, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1416, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1422, 1426, 1456, 1474, 1495, 1547, 1548, 1560, 1602, 1606, 1607, 1672, 1681, 1687, 1688, 1745, 1755, 1756, 1760, 1771, 1838, 1858, 1901, 1906, 1920, 1922, 1960, 1970, 1971, 1975, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2017, 2043, 2076, 2079, 2093, 2122, 2167, 2288, 2310, 2311 family, households, kinship 10, 29, 44, 56, 70, 83, 85, 167, 189, 274, 279, 322, 402, 491, 579, 625, 627, 635, 636, 638, 639, 640, 642, 647, 648, 652, 669, 670, 677, 680, 686, 708, 752, 753, 802, 851, 858, 909, 912, 944, 1062, 1084, 1086, 1087, 1088, 1121, 1131, 1159, 1164, 1193, 1214, 1216, 1222, 1225, 1227, 1229, 1232, 1235, 1255, 1262, 1263, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1304, 1377, 1404, 1412, 1415, 1416, 1417, 1419, 1422, 1423, 1426, 1479, 1495, 1569, 1577, 1602, 1611, 1619, 1631, 1637, 1638, 1650, 1651, 1652, 1653, 1655, 1682, 1687, 1748, 1763, 1834, 1838, 1852, 1906, 1907, 1979, 1991, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2016, 2032, 2033, 2034, 2043, 2064, 2069, 2080, 2083, 2090, 2104, 2105, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2119, 2142, 2144, 2156, 2167, 2325, 2357 gambling 188, 189, 443, 444, 556, 744, 802, 1054, 1061, 1270, 1619, 1687, 2146, 2275 health and welfare 7, 10, 24, 26, 29, 30, 72, 76, 88, 90, 93, 99, 102, 103, 130, 137, 142, 150, 188, 189, 214, 215, 216, 217, 234, 246, 277, 278, 279, 287, 288, 289, 300, 315, 316, 317, 318, 365, 370, 371, 372, 373, 402, 406, 488, 494, 500, 501, 506, 511, 518, 519, 525, 535, 550, 556, 562, 579, 584, 598, 600, 610, 612, 625, 628, 637, 641, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 659, 667, 668, 669, 670, 677, 684, 685, 686, 687, 710, 720, 727, 744, 747, 759, 760, 761, 762, 764, 765, 766, 767, 778, 802, 813, 837, 843, 844, 845, 846, 852, 853, 858, 869, 871, 872, 909, 910, 912, 913, 915, 916, 917, 939, 990, 991, 996, 1014, 1016, 1020, 1040, 1054, 1059, 1061, 1062, 1071, 1076, 1084, 1088, 1092, 1098, 1117, 1159, 1172, 1181, 1185, 1186, 1187, 1193, 1194, 1221, 1223, 1229, 1231, 1265, 1266, 1267, 1268, 1269, 1270, 1286, 1321, 1322, 1323, 1333, 1366, 1373, 1377, 1378, 1386, 1391, 1408, 1409, 1410, 1412, 1413, 1414, 1415, 1417, 1418, 1420, 1424, 1451, 1458, 1526, 1542, 1560, 1569, 1571, 1577, 1583, 1584, 1589, 1617, 1618, 1619, 1620, 1638, 1646, 1647, 1649, 1650, 1651, 1652, 1653, 1654, 1687, 1692, 1694, 1711, 1726, 1739, 1746, 1748, 1749, 1755, 1756, 1760, 1775, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1812, 1823, 1826, 1829, 1830, 1833, 1836, 1838, 1842, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1870, 1876, 1892, 1893, 1912, 1914, 1915, 1918, 1959, 1960, 2011, 2015, 2019, 2026, 2043, 2046, 2066, 2067, 2069, 2076, 2085, 2087, 2097, 2102, 2103, 2104, 2105, 2115, 2116, 2117,
426 2118, 2119, 2120, 2127, 2146, 2147, 2152, 2153, 2158, 2166, 2172, 2190, 2199, 2260, 2262, 2265, 2274, 2275, 2307, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2312, 2366, 2377, 2388 housing or accommodation 29, 76, 317, 372, 402, 669, 670, 912, 913, 1131, 1214, 1414, 1415, 1417, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1424, 1426, 1474, 1560, 1569, 1655, 1748, 1756, 1810, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2043, 2105 identity/self-concept 15, 42, 43, 44, 47, 70, 76, 83, 107, 322, 493, 512, 574, 639, 649, 651, 653, 674, 699, 708, 742, 758, 805, 815, 851, 858, 893, 958, 1028, 1060, 1062, 1119, 1121, 1130, 1131, 1137, 1164, 1185, 1187, 1193, 1213, 1214, 1215, 1216, 1218, 1232, 1240, 1242, 1404, 1416, 1419, 1477, 1495, 1496, 1505, 1569, 1611, 1648, 1649, 1655, 1722, 1725, 1831, 1838, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1872, 1907, 1909, 1970, 1974, 1986, 1992, 2034, 2046, 2064, 2066, 2069, 2082, 2088, 2091, 2104, 2119, 2148, 2149, 2162, 2169, 2259, 2270, 2290, 2327, 2349, 2357 income and/or social welfare benefits 29, 44, 245, 274, 275, 317, 372, 373, 402, 470, 491, 525, 539, 625, 669, 670, 686, 687, 720, 802, 912, 947, 1087, 1137, 1218, 1251, 1344, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1417, 1420, 1421, 1424, 1426, 1495, 1547, 1548, 1607, 1609, 1638, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1687, 1755, 1756, 1852, 1959, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2014, 2043, 2093, 2105, 2307 language (loss, maintenance, use, and English proficiency etc.) 15, 42, 56, 89, 107, 123, 189, 292, 398, 428, 435, 493, 512, 523, 524, 540, 622, 629, 635, 636, 638, 641, 652, 669, 670, 674, 686, 697, 708, 742, 749, 864, 893, 905, 958, 1024, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1062, 1110, 1119, 1121, 1131, 1164, 1187, 1215, 1232, 1293, 1294, 1304, 1326, 1343, 1367, 1370, 1393, 1404, 1412, 1415, 1419, 1420, 1495, 1505, 1523, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1654, 1655, 1673, 1674, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1755, 1852, 1882, 1906, 1907, 1909, 1931, 1932, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2057, 2058, 2066, 2081, 2082, 2083, 2084, 2089, 2091, 2111, 2122, 2142, 2156, 2167, 2184, 2185, 2211, 2215, 2325, 2327, 2357 leadership 19, 466, 851, 958, 1325, 1389, 1393, 1409, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1426, 1725, 1907, 2085, 2093, 2105, 2122, 2165 mass media 36, 76, 143, 512, 641, 1218, 1220, 1416, 1420, 1477, 1671, 1672, 2088, 2091, 2296 migration patterns, types (external, internal) 44, 48, 162, 167, 168, 169, 171, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 194, 201, 246, 273, 274, 275, 326, 469, 470, 627, 752, 753, 758, 805, 815, 890, 891, 893, 926, 1111, 1214, 1217, 1218, 1219, 1232, 1251, 1344, 1416, 1474, 1504, 1700, 1756, 1771, 1844, 1975, 1979, 2211, 2235 mortality 24, 25, 26, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 234, 370, 494, 598, 637, 667, 668, 669, 670, 685, 764, 939, 996, 1016, 1040, 1194, 1235, 1333, 1414, 1415, 1654, 1655, 1694, 1842, 1860, 1892, 1893, 1959, 2011, 2015, 2115, 2116, 2117, 2118, 2144, 2153, 2260, 2262 music, musicians and/or singers 36, 244, 641, 1164, 1220, 1235, 1418, 1419, 1430, 1431, 1477, 1857, 1901, 1905, 1942, 1970, 1979, 2091, 2157, 2264, 2385, 2386, 2387 needs 287, 289, 300, 579, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 667, 668, 669, 670, 744, 802, 851, 858, 864, 871, 916, 1024, 1084, 1085, 1086, 1087, 1181, 1222, 1251, 1304, 1333, 1409, 1415, 1422, 1426, 1577, 1612, 1654, 1655, 1809, 1817, 1914, 1959, 2016, 2069, 2076, 2105, 2111, 2120, 2127, 2148, 2259, 2324, 2325 politics 47, 641, 758, 893, 926, 1111, 1119, 1121, 1218, 1416, 1844, 1974 religion and/or spirituality 42, 43, 44, 70, 72, 107, 300, 466, 491, 512, 579, 622, 628, 635, 636, 639, 640, 641, 649, 665, 680, 708, 749, 802, 815, 816, 858, 909, 944, 958, 1015, 1019, 1062, 1087, 1111, 1119, 1129, 1137, 1159, 1164, 1214, 1215, 1326, 1389, 1412, 1415, 1416, 1419, 1426, 1505, 1577, 1611, 1648, 1682, 1687, 1725, 1771, 1838, 1907, 1912, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2064, 2069, 2082, 2085, 2091, 2104, 2105, 2119, 2122, 2144, 2148, 2157, 2211, 2215, 2325, 2357
427 remittances 29, 167, 169, 201, 275, 469, 470, 491, 627, 641, 693, 752, 753, 926, 1087, 1111, 1121, 1216, 1262, 1263, 1426, 1475, 1479, 1970, 1979, 2011, 2017, 2082, 2187, 2235 residential patterns and/or geographic distribution/location 29, 44, 47, 76, 466, 909, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1008, 1009, 1131, 1213, 1214, 1265, 1266, 1267, 1268, 1269, 1395, 1412, 1415, 1418, 1421, 1495, 1547, 1548, 1569, 1730, 1738, 1760, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2082, 2215, 2275 second/third generation New Zealand-born 10, 15, 17, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 70, 79, 89, 90, 107, 174, 175, 188, 189, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292, 316, 317, 372, 373, 428, 491, 511, 523, 622, 638, 640, 641, 651, 652, 653, 654, 674, 686, 687, 699, 708, 759, 760, 815, 837, 851, 909, 938, 990, 991, 1015, 1019, 1024, 1028, 1036, 1062, 1121, 1130, 1131, 1133, 1159, 1187, 1214, 1215, 1216, 1218, 1223, 1232, 1235, 1240, 1255, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1325, 1404, 1412, 1415, 1419, 1479, 1495, 1496, 1569, 1611, 1631, 1632, 1638, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1651, 1652, 1654, 1655, 1683, 1685, 1688, 1691, 1749, 1758, 1760, 1763, 1838, 1848, 1852, 1856, 1857, 1872, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1910, 1942, 1984, 1986, 1990, 1999, 2007, 2034, 2035, 2043, 2081, 2082, 2090, 2091, 2093, 2104, 2148, 2149, 2156, 2183, 2190, 2264, 2288, 2325, 2327, 2385, 2386, 2387 social work, community development, community work, counselling 22, 556, 639, 858, 864, 871, 944, 1084, 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227, 1228, 1274, 1384, 1422, 1480, 1501, 1509, 1644, 1687, 1725, 1858, 1876, 2035, 2063 suicide 151, 214, 669, 670, 686, 687, 858, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1838, 1914, 1959, 2015, 2104 voluntary associations 43, 47, 90, 466, 512, 577, 579, 641, 748, 815, 946, 1085, 1119, 1131, 1159, 1288, 1416, 1684, 1688, 1858, 2085, 2162, 2215 (for disaggregation into specific groups, see: Cook Islanders; Fijians; Kiribatians; Niueans; Samoans; Tokelauans; Tongans; Tuvaluans) (see also: MIRAB economies/societies; Research, re Pacific peoples; Return migration, to Pacific Islands; Students, Pacific peoples)
Pacifists 330
Pahiatua Camp (displaced persons, refugees) 105, 1254, 1627, 1820, 1827, 2037, 2121
Pain 686, 1231, 2087, 2140
Painters (see: Art, artists and craftsworkers)
Pakistanis 519, 570, 795, 1340, 1997, 1998, 2277
Palestinians 37, 38, 570, 1744
Papua New Guineans 1491, 1997, 2214, 2235
‘Parachute’ kids 432, 960, 1401
Parkhurst boys 1636
Parenting and childrearing 4, 8, 10, 16, 17, 23, 53a, 56, 73, 79, 108, 116, 202, 288, 289, 315, 318, 322, 412, 435, 449, 459, 483, 492, 493, 512, 530, 542, 544, 546, 547, 620, 625, 629, 637, 638, 651, 652, 665, 681, 692, 707, 724, 739, 748, 749, 786, 794, 798, 799, 800, 815, 816, 818, 851, 918, 944, 1017, 1062, 1129, 1157, 1159, 1164, 1186, 1190, 1191, 1229, 1232, 1235, 1248, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1370, 1401, 1404, 1419, 1429, 1496, 1505, 1546, 1637, 1641, 1646, 1654, 1655, 1682, 1692, 1719, 1722, 1723, 1725,
428 1767, 1817, 1834, 1850, 1869, 1906, 1907, 1953, 2064, 2065, 2119, 2121, 2144, 2156, 2167, 2188, 2193, 2234, 2258, 2288, 2313, 2325, 2332, 2336, 2338, 2341, 2343, 2381
Partnership in Action (re refugees) 484
Pasifika Education and Employment Training Organisation (PEETO) 1209 Education plan/proposal 1257, 1370 Fale Pasifika programme 1612 Healthcare 90 Medical Association 90
Passenger lists 848, 1599
Pauper migration 2180
Pensions 1195, 1251
Peer group influence, pressure 1022, 1159 support and/or peer tutoring 124, 125, 157, 631, 632, 680, 1135, 1271, 1604, 1605, 1950, 1951
Perceptions, inter-ethnic and/or in-group etc. 10, 16, 19, 70, 74, 83, 104, 107, 116, 117, 119, 122, 123, 129, 133, 134, 150, 152, 159, 196, 199, 205, 206, 270, 285, 287, 288, 301, 303, 359, 360, 377, 385, 392, 393, 398, 409, 435, 442, 492, 509, 552, 574, 608, 632, 644, 652, 653, 658, 665, 681, 689, 690, 708, 737, 749, 763, 784, 789, 791, 801, 814, 830, 841, 851, 879, 881, 883, 893, 898, 900, 901, 902, 916, 921, 933, 954, 970, 974, 989, 1021, 1022, 1035, 1042, 1055, 1077, 1088, 1113, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1155, 1159, 1161, 1171, 1181, 1185, 1193, 1205, 1206, 1209, 1210, 1229, 1232, 1237, 1238, 1251, 1264, 1286, 1309, 1325, 1335, 1389, 1404, 1429, 1472, 1493, 1494, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1541, 1569, 1577, 1585, 1604, 1605, 1619, 1628, 1637, 1641, 1644, 1691, 1706, 1713, 1715, 1740, 1748, 1767, 1773, 1808, 1851, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, 1886, 1902, 1909, 1915, 1932, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1982, 2041, 2105, 2139, 2140, 2157, 2163, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2203, 2204, 2224, 2225, 2228, 2229, 2231, 2232, 2233, 2237, 2250, 2251, 2252, 2257, 2267, 2272, 2276, 2287, 2290, 2296, 2338, 2343, 2344, 2353, 2361, 2363, 2365, 2388, 2390, 2391 (see also: Attitudes, beliefs, views; Prejudice)
Perfectionism 387, 388
Performativity 33
Performing arts 132, 244
Personality and/or personality traits 199, 387, 388, 921, 1052, 1132, 1616, 1621, 2075, 2231, 2292
Pertussis (whooping cough) 1692, 1959
Peruvians 1997
Peters, Winston 109, 113, 133, 162, 181, 347, 408, 422, 431, 450, 565, 889, 890, 891, 964, 1166, 1362, 1390, 1432, 1751, 1924, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1981, 2133 (see also: New Zealand First)
429 Pharmacy and pharmacists 1410
Philanthropy 1587
Photography and photographers 187, 458, 515, 517, 589, 691, 736, 972, 1012, 1058, 1710, 2174, 2322, 2323, 2383
Physical activity and exercise 82, 98, 108, 131, 488, 500, 583, 669, 670, 676, 744, 747, 759, 786, 791, 1047, 1054, 1059, 1088, 1189, 1381, 1410, 1415, 1451, 1461, 1462, 1638, 1767, 1870, 1912, 1915, 2070, 2071, 2166, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2338
Places of worship, ethnic/immigrant church(es) 16, 42, 45, 53, 107, 108, 118, 131, 266, 333, 395, 439, 466, 492, 579, 621, 622, 627, 628, 641, 708, 712, 713, 815, 816, 858, 944, 958, 964, 973, 984, 1015, 1019, 1062, 1069, 1087, 1095, 1137, 1159, 1164, 1214, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1318, 1326, 1416, 1419, 1463, 1687, 1725, 1778, 1907, 1912, 2011, 2047, 2064, 2082, 2085, 2091, 2119, 2145, 2148, 2157, 2211, 2212, 2213, 2303, 2304, 2325, 2329, 2358 mosque(s) 445, 565, 621, 705, 1077, 1896, 1897 synagogue(s) 197, 477, 621 temple(s) 113, 411, 568, 621, 705, 974, 1150, 1452, 1454, 1455, 2048, 2128 (see also: Religion, religious observance and/or spiritualism/spirituality)
Planning 41, 1674, 1987
Plausible deniability 1166
Playgroups (see: Education and Training, early childhood; Kindergarten and/or play centres)
Plymouth Company 2180
Pneumonia 761, 2377
Poets and poetry (see: Writers and/or poets)
Poisoning 82, 1814, 2177
Poles 147, 334, 368, 477, 478, 570, 614, 630, 655, 694, 987, 1032, 1057, 1254, 1469, 1600, 1627, 1827, 1845, 1849, 1997, 1998, 2036, 2037, 2038, 2039, 2112, 2121, 2399
Police 455, 551, 634, 883, 985, 986, 1084, 1086, 1116, 1278, 1464, 1602, 1740, 1755, 1756, 1825, 1904, 1994, 2357
Policy-making, citizen/ethnic/immigrant participation in 1503, 1509
Polifusion 1242
Political economy, of labour migration 1219, 1971, 1975
Politicisation, of immigration 162, 164, 1362, 1973, 1981, 2133
Politics (including politicians) cultural 1970, 1974
430 ethnic/immigrant and/or in source countries 224, 232, 265, 438, 445, 484, 568, 893, 926, 963, 968, 971, 1071, 1111, 1119, 1121, 1313, 1314, 1364, 1365, 1375, 1437, 1438, 1452, 1453, 1580, 1581, 1702, 1744, 1896, 1949, 1979, 2050, 2052, 2053, 2054, 2055, 2128, 2207, 2243, 2253, 2301, 2328 ethnic/immigrant participation in 41, 224, 262, 393, 413, 414, 587, 641, 893, 962, 969, 1416, 1564, 1580, 1629, 1633, 1791, 1824, 1896 in New Zealand 41, 47, 68, 69, 109, 162, 164, 168, 181, 224, 225, 238, 262, 263, 268, 304, 306, 347, 393, 447, 450, 487, 526, 564, 587, 660, 707, 758, 888, 889, 890, 891, 962, 963, 964, 965, 969, 1106, 1166, 1170, 1204, 1218, 1338, 1352, 1362, 1375, 1390, 1432, 1484, 1487, 1564, 1580, 1581, 1629, 1633, 1657, 1665, 1673, 1751, 1785, 1786, 1791, 1824, 1844, 1897, 1924, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1981, 2024, 2100, 2123, 2133, 2242, 2243, 2328, 2330 (see also: New Zealand First; Peters, Winston)
Politeness 2201
Poll tax and apology 393, 966, 1487, 1751, 2328, 2329, 2337
Polynesian Panthers 43, 44, 47
‘Pommies’ 849
Population forecasting/projections 82, 141, 180, 222, 319, 401, 563, 1338, 1413, 1760, 1892, 1995, 2002, 2003, 2011, 2316 school age migrants 715, 716, 717, 718, 1890, 1891
Portuguese 1439, 2302
Post-natal depression/distress 4, 188, 189
Post-Primary Teachers Association 306
Post-traumatic stress disorder 686, 687, 789, 793, 982, 983, 1357, 2368
Poverty and/or deprivation 24, 26, 29, 82, 88, 98, 215, 217, 218, 266, 402, 413, 488, 494, 525, 610, 612, 641, 710, 794, 846, 871, 913, 915, 941, 998, 1185, 1205, 1206, 1404, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1417, 1526, 1638, 1732, 1733, 1748, 1755, 1836, 1837, 1869, 1870, 2014, 2019, 2275
Pregnancy 4, 7, 246, 318, 525, 542, 543, 548, 562, 612, 720, 746, 1020, 1076, 1117, 1186, 1187, 1357, 1415, 1542, 1619, 1648, 1823, 1833, 2366
Prejudice 28, 29, 47, 105, 146, 190, 196a, 198, 248, 249, 250, 310, 338, 376, 414, 431, 452, 471, 477, 489, 547, 564, 643, 657, 660, 661, 689, 690, 699, 701, 713, 769, 783, 786, 823, 854, 859, 860, 862, 865, 879, 881, 890, 959, 960, 961, 964, 967, 969, 970, 973, 1021, 1052, 1079, 1122, 1123, 1138, 1199, 1275, 1310, 1353, 1361, 1362, 1364, 1484, 1487, 1563, 1585, 1601, 1633, 1777, 1825, 1850, 1883, 1896, 1897, 1947, 1953, 1954, 1963, 1964, 2044, 2059, 2060, 2079, 2140, 2181, 2193, 2207, 2223, 2224, 2226, 2227, 2291, 2308, 2335, 2337, 2343, 2372, 2397 (see also: Attitudes, beliefs, views; Racism)
Print culture 471, 1358, 2042, 2073 ethnic/immigrant 110, 291, 355, 408, 617, 945, 968, 1171, 1370, 1387, 1436, 1437, 1438, 1439, 1751, 2073, 2186, 2362
431 Printers and/or printing 1704
Prisoners of war (POWs) 64, 239, 481, 978, 1356, 1572, 1902
Private speech, of children 126, 435
Private training establishments (see: Schools and/or tertiary institutions)
Professional associations, ethnic 2145 development, practice guides, issues, etc in counselling, family therapy and/or social work 87, 91, 397, 424, 534, 858, 944, 994, 1048, 1157, 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227, 1228, 1274, 1376, 1384, 1480, 1501, 1506, 1507, 1508, 1509, 1510, 1628, 1641, 1644, 1706, 1876, 1895, 1953, 2035, 2063, 2189, 2193, 2234, 2332, 2333, 2340, 2341 in education and training (including all language teaching etc.) 8, 9, 39, 40, 46, 56, 104, 106, 111, 120, 124, 126, 127, 128, 152, 156, 157, 158, 160, 192, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 255, 257, 271, 291, 292, 322, 331, 352, 358, 374, 385, 392, 430, 435, 437, 493, 498, 499, 509, 510, 521, 522, 532, 540, 559, 561, 574, 585, 603, 604, 611, 618, 619, 626, 629, 635, 636, 650, 652, 662, 676, 680, 681, 695, 696, 697, 698, 706, 728, 729, 732, 737, 748, 749, 763, 771, 785, 796, 797, 798, 799, 806, 816, 820, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 836, 841, 842, 863, 864, 885, 894, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 918, 999, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1056, 1063, 1064, 1066, 1067, 1068, 1072, 1110, 1141, 1142, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1157, 1174, 1175, 1176, 1177, 1190, 1222, 1237, 1238, 1255, 1256, 1264, 1271, 1284, 1290, 1291, 1304, 1305, 1324, 1343, 1367, 1389, 1393, 1394, 1396, 1398, 1400, 1434, 1496, 1497, 1498, 1523, 1527, 1570, 1583, 1610, 1628, 1644, 1675, 1678, 1680, 1689, 1691, 1695, 1696, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1734, 1741, 1773, 1794, 1798, 1803, 1805, 1817, 1828, 1831, 1877, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1910, 1917, 1928, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1950, 1951, 1953, 2016, 2029, 2030, 2080, 2083, 2084, 2089, 2094, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2154, 2156, 2159, 2201, 2202, 2224, 2226, 2233, 2248, 2259, 2270, 2272, 2286, 2324, 2336, 2352, 2353, 2355, 2365, 2379, 2390, 2391, 2396 in health care provision (including alcohol and drug treatment, medicine, mental health, midwifery, nursing, occupational therapy, problem gambling etc.) 18, 30, 32, 57, 82, 88, 90, 108, 254, 287, 300, 365, 386, 389, 400, 401, 409, 519, 534, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 551, 579, 644, 645, 646, 723, 741, 784, 789, 793, 824, 828, 829, 884, 916, 982, 983, 1054, 1061, 1071, 1048, 1085, 1114, 1115, 1126, 1181, 1186, 1194, 1196, 1229, 1249, 1261, 1377, 1472, 1502, 1515, 1517, 1518, 1569, 1577, 1583, 1584, 1604, 1617, 1622, 1739, 1809, 1876, 1915, 1918, 1963, 1964, 2031, 2066, 2068, 2076, 2097, 2134, 2135, 2137, 2139, 2140, 2172, 2177, 2199, 2292, 2293, 2306, 2339, 2342, 2354, 2368, 2378 in other particular professions and/or services (such as industrial psychology, research activity etc.) 284, 407, 437, 551, 644, 664, 841, 843, 1070, 1113, 1142, 1201, 1421, 1502, 1503, 1678, 1794, 2140 resocialisation 2273
Professionals (emigrants, immigrants) 13, 14, 33, 57, 58, 113, 139, 161, 165, 187, 192, 198, 221, 226, 232, 245, 253, 255, 260, 262, 274, 275, 311, 314, 330, 334, 335, 335, 375, 376, 379, 380, 399, 405, 415, 417, 446, 452, 453, 456, 468, 472, 473, 490, 505, 520, 525, 529, 557, 568, 570, 587, 614, 644, 645, 646, 650, 667, 668, 671, 672, 741, 768, 807, 810, 818, 824, 828, 829, 839, 840, 851, 859, 860, 861, 874, 880, 907, 937, 948, 949, 954, 962, 979, 982, 999, 1036, 1038, 1043, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1052, 1053, 1060, 1071, 1083, 1085, 1102, 1112, 1142, 1155, 1156, 1181, 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227,
432 1228, 1232, 1246, 1247, 1280, 1283, 1284, 1303, 1341, 1380, 1409, 1413, 1415, 1421, 1435, 1443, 1456, 1466, 1481, 1502, 1508, 1513, 1520, 1527, 1532, 1545, 1546, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1577, 1582, 1584, 1593, 1606, 1617, 1645, 1688, 1690, 1695, 1696, 1724, 1760, 1772, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1808, 1809, 1827, 1862, 1864, 1871, 1874, 1896, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1959, 1965, 1981, 1994, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2017, 2023, 2076, 2100, 2105, 2128, 2135, 2140, 2145, 2163, 2176, 2191, 2193, 2203, 2204, 2208, 2238, 2248, 2251, 2252, 2254, 2257, 2266, 2269, 2273, 2354, 2361, 2384
Promotion, of New Zealand as destination 1448 effects upon New Zealanders 1448
Prostitution 411, 455, 1603, 1904
Prostrate disease 765, 766, 767
Protocol to Treaty of Friendship 1962 (New Zealand and Western Samoa) 1844
Psychiatrists and/or psychiatry 300, 741, 1112, 1876, 2199
Psychodrama 1376
Psychological distance 806 resilience 2119
Psychology 70, 284, 644, 653, 658, 864, 1076, 1182, 1196, 1205, 1621, 1841, 1915, 2355, 2388
Psychometric tests 864
Puberty 1638
Public events/celebrations 438, 439
Public relations 1858
Public Service, employment and/or leadership in 1421, 1994
Publisher 870
Qualifications, recognition of 97, 285, 310, 376, 489, 594, 671, 672, 860, 949, 1085, 1169, 1341, 1349, 1350, 1556, 1582, 1592, 1714, 1716, 1874, 2112, 2113, 2248, 2364, 2372
Quality assurance 296
Quilts 946, 1201, 2206
‘Race’ and/or ethnic relations 49, 50, 76, 190, 196a, 398, 451, 649, 768a, 801, 930, 964, 966, 973, 1077, 1122, 1123, 1127, 1134, 1445, 1499, 1509, 1633, 1665, 1755, 1756, 1825, 1953, 2060, 2090, 2144, 2296, 2371
Race Relations Conciliator/Commissioner and/or Race Relations Office 551, 1407, 1445
Racial harassment 1755, 1756
433 Racialisation 463, 1052, 1053, 1663, 1971, 1975
Racism 47, 76, 109, 113, 133, 146, 185, 251, 301, 306, 310, 322, 398, 450, 542, 545, 546, 635, 636, 660, 661, 669, 670, 699, 758, 783, 794, 813, 854, 932, 936, 964, 970, 973, 985, 986, 1021, 1042, 1052, 1053, 1116, 1122, 1123, 1134, 1166, 1185, 1199, 1248, 1338, 1354, 1360, 1361, 1432, 1445, 1486, 1487, 1493, 1495, 1546, 1585, 1664, 1665, 1708, 1740, 1751, 1755, 1756, 1768, 1777, 1806, 1817, 1953, 1954, 1963, 1964, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1981, 2044, 2048, 2059, 2068, 2181, 2193, 2286, 2291, 2308, 2328, 2335, 2337, 2343, 2368
Radicalism 1079
Reading (ability, comprehension, experience etc.) 40, 291, 523, 680, 681, 1100, 1157, 1367, 1404, 1610, 1611, 1637, 1828, 2325
Recipes 54, 203, 261, 276, 368, 570, 1004, 1074, 1075, 1139, 1192, 1530, 1849, 2155, 2192, 2236, 2284
Recreation (see: Leisure activity/time; Sport)
Recruitment (of emigrants, immigrants, international students) 155, 311, 382, 487, 580, 597, 604, 712, 713, 815, 861, 894, 924, 925, 1025, 1056, 1116, 1246, 1310, 1312, 1320, 1332, 1340, 1341, 1380, 1396, 1401, 1459, 1514, 1549, 1594, 1698, 1783, 1922, 2079, 2129, 2203, 2204, 2245, 2248, 2266 agencies, HR personnel etc. (attitudes, practices etc.) 195, 452, 453, 861, 1155, 1205, 1206, 1601, 1690, 1922, 2079, 2223, 2237, 2308, 2372
Refugee and Migrant Service 334, 414 Family Reunification Trust 86 Medical Screening Programme 711 Resettlement Support (RSS) Christchurch 1209 Voices Research Project 593, 795, 1173, 1551, 1554
Refugees 31, 32, 74, 77, 86, 105, 144, 168, 172, 178, 310, 334, 340, 347, 397, 400, 413, 414, 415, 416, 484, 485, 537, 538, 539, 540, 545, 551, 552, 553, 570, 589, 590, 593, 599, 616, 617, 620, 630, 688, 694, 703, 704, 711, 726, 728, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 803, 808, 823, 834, 835, 858, 879, 881, 882, 889, 891, 930, 936, 941, 982, 983, 987, 988, 994, 997, 1004, 1073, 1074, 1094, 1099, 1108, 1114, 1115, 1120, 1134, 1150, 1151, 1154, 1166, 1170, 1173, 1192, 1196, 1197, 1200, 1205, 1206, 1208, 1209, 1236, 1243, 1245, 1254, 1260, 1279, 1297, 1357, 1371, 1376, 1390, 1400, 1407, 1425, 1447, 1452, 1453, 1454, 1455, 1472, 1499, 1506, 1507, 1508, 1509, 1510, 1533, 1544, 1545, 1546, 1550, 1551, 1554, 1555, 1556, 1558, 1559, 1570, 1582, 1598, 1600, 1601, 1639, 1689, 1700, 1742, 1756, 1764, 1779, 1808, 1879, 1886, 1887, 1895, 1896, 1903, 1944, 1973, 1981, 2113, 2123, 2161, 2164, 2234, 2303, 2338, 2364, 2378 adaptation and/or adjustment 11, 31, 165, 350, 423, 475, 545, 564, 688, 785, 794, 884, 956, 957, 997, 1074, 1093, 1134, 1744, 1764, 1841, 1896, 2368 African (Algerians, Congolese, Ethiopians, Somalis, etc.) 8, 9, 31, 165, 172, 183, 227, 229, 365, 397, 413, 414, 416, 475, 534, 562, 613, 620, 662, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 808, 908, 936, 937, 994, 997, 1099, 1114, 1120, 1154, 1243, 1279, 1330, 1357, 1361, 1371, 1408, 1545, 1546, 1764, 1779, 1780, 1807, 1887, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1913, 1931, 1932, 1947, 1981, 2078, 2107, 2113, 2164, 2172, 2205, 2234, 2326, 2338, 2350, 2351, 2364, 2368
434 Asian 82, 147, 172, 365, 416, 423, 858, 879, 881, 882, 960, 963, 964, 969, 973, 982, 1120, 1150, 1151, 1166, 1170, 1196, 1197, 1205, 1249, 1452, 1453, 1454, 1455, 1545, 1546, 1588, 1622, 1693, 1779, 1784, 1895, 1949, 2050, 2095, 2096, 2128, 2135, 2172, 2234, 2239, 2338, 2364 central Europeans 74, 144, 187, 203, 376, 1094, 1582, 2300 Chilean 560, 2301 Eastern European (including Russians and Ukrainians) 54, 144, 145, 147, 148, 276, 294, 334, 350, 630, 694, 834, 835, 895, 987, 1074, 1254, 1469, 1600, 1627, 1827, 1845, 2037, 2038, 2121, 2124, 2155, 2191, 2192, 2300, 2303 education and/or training 8, 9, 60, 62, 334, 376, 415, 552, 697, 728, 785, 786, 936, 941, 956, 957, 994, 1200, 1259, 1271, 1297, 1376, 1400, 1499, 1554, 1639, 1689, 1886, 1887, 2351 employment/unemployment 12, 86, 334, 350, 376, 413, 414, 415, 423, 552, 787, 788, 794, 795, 834, 835, 956, 957, 982, 997, 1074, 1094, 1114, 1134, 1205, 1206, 1245, 1254, 1259, 1297, 1371, 1376, 1499, 1546, 1554, 1556, 1639, 1693, 1764, 2113, 2124, 2234, 2338, 2364, 2368 European colonials 589, 590 German 12, 96, 144, 232, 376, 803, 1004, 1192, 1530, 2236 ‘handicapped’ 147 health and welfare 32, 51, 82, 88, 131, 365, 397, 400, 413, 423, 534, 562, 620, 688, 711, 784, 786, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 879, 884, 935, 941, 956, 957, 982, 983, 994, 1114, 1115, 1196, 1197, 1245, 1249, 1254, 1357, 1376, 1400, 1408, 1472, 1499, 1546, 1554, 1622, 1639, 1779, 1810, 1841, 1913, 2096, 2135, 2172, 2234, 2338, 2350, 2351, 2368, 2378 Jewish 12, 54, 144, 147, 187, 203, 232, 276, 368, 376, 694, 803, 834, 835, 895, 1004, 1073, 1074, 1094, 1139, 1192, 1469, 1530, 1582, 2124, 2155, 2192, 2236, 2300 law/legal standing 280, 703, 823, 988 Middle Eastern (Afghans, Iranians, Iraqi, Kurds, Palestinians etc.) 11, 21, 115, 172, 310, 416, 484, 514, 599, 730, 795, 941, 994, 1108, 1120, 1205, 1376, 1511, 1545, 1546, 1718, 1744, 1779, 1887, 1895, 1944, 2234, 2338, 2378 National Resettlement Forum 484 Southern Europeans (Bulgarians, Bosnians, Greeks, Kosovars etc.) 51, 484, 552, 553, 630, 723, 936, 937, 941, 1093, 1981, 2300 status determination 183, 280, 345, 349, 484, 930, 931, 988, 1099, 1546, 1780, 1808, 2113, 2123, 2326 ‘Tampa’ 11, 164, 484, 553, 730, 1108, 2350 (see also: Resettlement)
Refugees as Survivors (service in Auckland, Wellington etc.) 86, 397, 1512
Religion, religious observance and/or spiritualism/spirituality 9, 16, 18, 20, 28, 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 53, 54, 70, 72, 78, 108, 113, 118, 121, 133, 197, 238, 254, 262, 264, 266, 286, 295, 300, 301, 305, 320, 333, 350, 395, 400, 411, 423, 439, 440, 441, 444, 445, 451, 457, 477, 480, 483, 491, 492, 512, 529, 565, 568, 570, 592, 597, 621, 622, 628, 635, 636, 640, 649, 657, 658, 665, 700, 701, 702, 708, 712, 713, 723, 738, 749, 775, 776, 789, 791, 802, 815, 816, 821, 822, 847, 849, 850, 858, 862, 866, 886, 909, 933, 937, 942, 944, 958, 963, 973, 980, 995, 997, 1015, 1017, 1019, 1021, 1062, 1069, 1077, 1078, 1079, 1081, 1082, 1087, 1104, 1105, 1107, 1111, 1119, 1126, 1129, 1138, 1150, 1151, 1159, 1163, 1164, 1184, 1214, 1215, 1218, 1250, 1254, 1261, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1298, 1307, 1308, 1310, 1313, 1314, 1318, 1326, 1330, 1358, 1364, 1365, 1375, 1382, 1389, 1412, 1415, 1416, 1419, 1454, 1459, 1463, 1483, 1505, 1511, 1546, 1576, 1577, 1579, 1580, 1581, 1598, 1611, 1613, 1622, 1648, 1682, 1687, 1698, 1699, 1702, 1703, 1704, 1709, 1725, 1755, 1756, 1767, 1771, 1776, 1782, 1784, 1785, 1786, 1792, 1806, 1825, 1838, 1845, 1861, 1896, 1897, 1902, 1907, 1912, 1939, 1944, 1953, 1996,
435 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2013, 2018, 2047, 2048, 2050, 2051, 2052, 2053, 2054, 2055, 2064, 2069, 2082, 2085, 2091, 2104, 2105, 2121, 2122, 2128, 2144, 2145, 2148, 2168, 2176, 2181, 2182, 2193, 2208, 2209, 2211, 2213, 2215, 2242, 2253, 2255, 2304, 2313, 2325, 2329, 2338, 2343, 2357, 2358, 2368 (see also: Jews; Missionaries; Muslims; Places of worship; Tithing)
‘Re-migration’ (see: Step migration)
Remittances 29, 167, 169, 201, 275, 320, 469, 470, 491, 627, 641, 693, 719, 752, 753, 914, 1087, 1111, 1121, 1195, 1216, 1262, 1263, 1426, 1452, 1475, 1479, 1532, 1546, 1554, 1929, 1970, 1978, 2011, 2017, 2060, 2082, 2145, 2187, 2235 reverse flows 1262, 1263 (see also: MIRAB economies/societies)
Repatriation 299a, 780, 960 (see also: Return migration)
‘Replacement migration’ 161, 170
Representation, politics of 893
Reproduction (cultural, social, etc.) 1631
Reputation and/or honour 1017
Research funding, issues, techniques, sources 24, 25, 26, 73, 94, 97, 98, 139, 174, 198, 199, 215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 232, 246, 254, 264, 281, 282, 283, 299, 319, 320, 327, 329, 390, 393, 394, 416, 437, 483, 490, 492, 494, 543, 555, 586, 594, 597, 634, 650, 671, 672, 675, 681, 686, 689, 699, 707, 714, 723, 745, 755, 768, 790, 792, 801, 802, 845, 847, 848, 877, 882, 921, 951, 979, 1005, 1006, 1008, 1009, 1014, 1025, 1054, 1067, 1070, 1083, 1084, 1085, 1087, 1132, 1148, 1161, 1173, 1201, 1230, 1233, 1262, 1301, 1302, 1311, 1313, 1316, 1344, 1367, 1370, 1375, 1411, 1439, 1441, 1454, 1459, 1464, 1482, 1485, 1487, 1497, 1500, 1504, 1519, 1526, 1529, 1532, 1554, 1557, 1579, 1580, 1613, 1651, 1652, 1653, 1738, 1769, 1770, 1819, 1830, 1837, 1842, 1871, 1888, 1903, 1904, 1987, 2008, 2046, 2066, 2115, 2116, 2118, 2138, 2143, 2199, 2230, 2256, 2257, 2265, 2305, 2308, 2313, 2325 re Pacific peoples (guidelines, approaches etc.) 94, 664, 843, 1230, 1402, 1651, 1652, 1653, 1678, 1723, 1794, 2032, 2033, 2069, 2143, 2169, 2290, 2294 strategies 844
Resettlement 105, 1108, 1424, 1534 policy, programmes or strategy 413, 414, 416, 485, 537, 538, 539, 540, 553, 593, 936, 941, 1154, 1173, 1236, 1258, 1371, 1509, 1538, 1544, 1554, 1556, 1980, 2350, 2368 refugees 8, 60, 144, 334, 365, 413, 414, 416, 475, 485, 537, 538, 540, 551, 552, 553, 593, 616, 794, 936, 941, 956, 957, 982, 1108, 1114, 1120, 1134, 1150, 1151, 1154, 1173, 1209, 1236, 1243, 1258, 1371, 1376, 1400, 1452, 1509, 1510, 1533, 1544, 1546, 1554, 1556, 1639, 1779, 1887, 1895, 1980, 2096, 2113, 2234, 2338, 2350, 2368
Residential patterns or geographic distribution/location 8, 24, 44, 45, 48, 76, 82, 139, 197, 215, 216, 238, 245, 306, 416, 432, 466, 477, 480, 481, 518, 557, 568, 572, 573, 597, 657, 675, 689, 690, 701, 702, 705, 802, 849, 850, 882, 883, 884, 905, 909, 963, 969, 973, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1008, 1009, 1044, 1131, 1135, 1151, 1162, 1173, 1213, 1214, 1265, 1266, 1267, 1268, 1269, 1301, 1313, 1318, 1335, 1338, 1354, 1370, 1371,
436 1380, 1395, 1396, 1399, 1401, 1405, 1412, 1415, 1417, 1418, 1421, 1441, 1447, 1455, 1495, 1529, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1552, 1563, 1569, 1613, 1661, 1698, 1699, 1702, 1707, 1728, 1729, 1730, 1732, 1733, 1738, 1760, 1779, 1896, 1897, 1904, 1952, 1980, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2082, 2108, 2112, 2138, 2164, 2182, 2203, 2204, 2206, 2213, 2215, 2275, 2304, 2371, 2376 (see also: Settlements or enclaves, ethnic)
Resilience 2333
Respiratory difficulties, disease, infections 82, 214, 220, 525, 610, 1415, 1870, 2158, 2307, 2377 (see also: Asthma; Pneumonia)
Responsibilities, re language learning opportunities/provision 2249
Restaurants and/or restaurateurs, cafes etc. 213, 420, 656, 818, 1585, 1762, 2219, 2278, 2295
Retirement 2075 migration 751, 1251
Return migration 176, 914, 1380, 1457, 1532, 1553, 2017 New Zealand government policy 2240 to Asia 81, 133, 134, 301, 303, 305, 624, 643, 859, 877, 878, 882, 961, 966, 1089, 1237, 1238, 1441, 1452, 1453, 1875, 2132, 2210, 2367, 2395 to Australia 961 to United Kingdom 578, 961, 1307, 1310, 1311, 1313, 1795, 1796, 1801, 1923 to Europe (excluding UK) 139, 232, 251, 290, 552, 572, 573, 817, 1307, 1310, 1313, 1345, 1582, 1679, 2075, 2121, 2173, 2175 to New Zealand 67, 161, 165, 168, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 182, 186, 236, 311, 326, 366, 379, 380, 426, 456, 473, 490, 536, 719, 743, 781, 857, 907, 927, 954, 955, 979, 1148, 1149, 1156, 1195, 1328, 1334, 1345, 1347, 1368, 1481, 1489, 1490, 1609, 1626, 1814, 1840, 1873, 1894, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2021, 2216, 2240, 2241, 2284 to Pacific Islands 169, 274, 275, 459, 469, 627, 752, 753, 851, 893, 926, 1232, 1251, 1979, 2017
Rheumatic disease 2087
Rickets 1020
Riots 64
Rite of passage 186, 989
Rituals 542, 543, 544, 546
Role(s) 74, 579, 749, 816, 1017, 1076, 1087, 1426, 1434, 1745, 1834, 2085, 2105, 2167, 2193, 2234, 2297 conflict 1181 models 192 plays 2371
Romanians 105, 285, 294, 530, 630, 757, 1549, 1550, 1641, 1850, 1851, 2300
437 Rotavirus 406, 778, 1526
Rotumans 1683
Royal New Zealand Fencibles 714
‘Russian Jacks’ 2303
Russians 147, 195, 261, 285, 326, 350, 530, 570, 630, 757, 771, 905, 1277, 1279, 1383, 1405, 1557, 1641, 1679, 1850, 1851, 1903, 1931, 1932, 1997, 1998, 2297, 2303
Sailors or seamen 184, 436, 822, 1871, 2100, 2126
Samoans 4, 10, 15, 17, 22, 36, 43, 44, 45, 47, 70, 83, 84, 90, 91, 92, 99, 108, 167, 178, 188, 189, 244, 273, 274, 275, 300, 315, 316, 317, 318, 320, 326, 365, 369, 398, 428, 435, 466, 491, 492, 496, 497, 512, 528, 539, 570, 579, 622, 628, 629, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 649, 651, 652, 653, 664, 665, 677, 679, 681, 687, 699, 708, 720, 731, 742, 752, 753, 758, 769, 805, 816, 819, 832, 851, 932, 944, 958, 1019, 1028, 1036, 1061, 1076, 1084, 1085, 1087, 1129, 1130, 1137, 1159, 1164, 1187, 1193, 1214, 1216, 1217, 1218, 1219, 1228, 1232, 1235, 1240, 1241, 1274, 1276, 1282, 1288, 1322, 1323, 1325, 1326, 1343, 1360, 1384, 1387, 1393, 1412, 1416, 1417, 1477, 1479, 1480, 1505, 1545, 1547, 1550, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1569, 1576, 1619, 1631, 1632, 1637, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1671, 1681, 1682, 1683, 1684, 1685, 1686, 1687, 1688, 1691, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1723, 1749, 1755, 1756, 1758, 1763, 1806, 1809, 1817, 1831, 1834, 1838, 1844, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1861, 1872, 1879, 1901, 1903, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1909, 1910, 1912, 1940, 1967, 1978, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2034, 2035, 2043, 2063, 2065, 2066, 2067, 2068, 2069, 2073, 2074, 2085, 2088, 2090, 2091, 2104, 2105, 2119, 2143, 2144, 2148, 2156, 2157, 2165, 2167, 2183, 2184, 2185, 2225, 2235, 2264, 2269, 2285, 2290, 2319, 2327, 2331, 2349, 2357, 2358, 2385, 2386, 2387 culture change, conflict, loss and/or maintenance 10, 17, 42, 43, 45, 91, 107, 322, 435, 492, 496, 497, 622, 629, 638, 652, 665, 681, 708, 944, 1062, 1129, 1137, 1159, 1164, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1232, 1304, 1325, 1631, 1632, 1687, 1720, 1721, 1806, 1872, 1907, 1910, 2074, 2085, 2105, 2119, 2144, 2148, 2157, 2167, 2290, 2358 diet, food, nutrition 108, 579, 1019, 1847, 2085, 2103, 2105 education and/or training 23, 40, 43, 56, 89, 108, 291, 292, 320, 322, 428, 435, 512, 629, 640, 652, 664, 665, 681, 742, 811, 812, 816, 832, 944, 1036, 1085, 1087, 1100, 1304, 1326, 1343, 1393, 1405, 1637, 1691, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1723, 1817, 1834, 1910, 2011, 2057, 2058, 2089, 2109, 2110, 2142, 2156, 2167, 2184, 2185, 2269, 2327 employment/unemployment 22, 23, 84, 174, 273, 274, 320, 512, 628, 640, 851, 944, 1085, 1087, 1129, 1214, 1216, 1276, 1325, 1681, 1687, 1688, 1838, 1901, 1906, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2043, 2167 fa’alavelave (concept/practice of) 1137, 1687 family and kinship 10, 23, 56, 83, 108, 188, 322, 492, 496, 497, 579, 638, 639, 640, 642, 652, 677, 708, 851, 858, 944, 1087, 1159, 1164, 1193, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1232, 1235, 1304, 1479, 1619, 1631, 1682, 1687, 1763, 1834, 1838, 1906, 1907, 2004, 2011, 2034, 2043, 2069, 2104, 2105, 2109, 2110, 2119, 2144, 2156, 2167 gambling 188, 189, 1061, 1619, 1687 health and welfare 4, 10, 90, 93, 99, 108, 287, 288, 300, 316, 317, 365, 519, 579, 628, 677, 686, 687, 720, 858, 869, 872, 1014, 1020, 1061, 1076, 1098, 1159, 1187, 1193, 1322, 1323, 1412, 1480, 1526, 1569, 1577, 1619, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1687, 1746, 1749, 1809, 1811, 1838, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1912, 2011, 2043, 2066, 2067, 2069, 2085, 2103, 2104, 2105, 2119, 2172
438 housing or accommodation 317, 372, 402, 1214, 1417, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2043, 2105 identity or self-concept 15, 42, 43, 45, 47, 107, 108, 320, 322, 512, 639, 649, 651, 653, 699, 708, 742, 758, 851, 958, 1028, 1130, 1137, 1164, 1187, 1193, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1232, 1505, 1722, 1806, 1831, 1838, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1872, 1907, 1992, 2034, 2066, 2069, 2091, 2104, 2119, 2148, 2290, 2327, 2349, 2357, 2358 language (loss, maintenance, use, New Zealand English etc.) 15, 40, 42, 45, 89, 292, 320, 428, 435, 512, 622, 629, 638, 652, 708, 742, 905, 958, 1062, 1164, 1187, 1218, 1232, 1304, 1326, 1343, 1370, 1393, 1505, 1673, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1723, 1806, 1906, 1907, 1909, 1931, 1932, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2057, 2058, 2066, 2083, 2084, 2089, 2091, 2142, 2156, 2167, 2184, 2185, 2327, 2357, 2358 religion and/or spirituality 42, 43, 45, 107, 108, 320, 492, 512, 579, 622, 628, 639, 640, 649, 665, 708, 858, 944, 958, 1019, 1087, 1129, 1137, 1159, 1164, 1214, 1218, 1326, 1416, 1505, 1682, 1687, 1838, 1861, 1907, 1912, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2069, 2085, 2091, 2105, 2119, 2144, 2148, 2157, 2357, 2358 residential patterns and/or geographic distribution 1005, 1214, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011 second/third generation New Zealand-born 10, 17, 23, 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 84, 89, 107, 287, 288, 291, 292, 428, 492, 622, 629, 638, 640, 651, 652, 653, 708, 851, 1028, 1036, 1130, 1159, 1214, 1216, 1218, 1232, 1235, 1276, 1325, 1479, 1505, 1631, 1632, 1685, 1691, 1749, 1758, 1763, 1838, 1848, 1852, 1856, 1857, 1872, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1910, 1999, 2007, 2034, 2035, 2043, 2090, 2091, 2148, 2183, 2264, 2327, 2358, 2385, 2386, 2387 tautua (service or to serve), concept of 2157 voluntary associations 43, 47, 108, 512, 579, 1159, 2085
Sandringham (Auckland) 705
Satisfaction and/or dissatisfaction 97, 530, 1035, 1085, 1210, 1335, 1577, 1870, 2031, 2095, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2204 with migration and/or settlement 97, 1010, 1011, 2095, 2112, 2203 (see also: Job satisfaction)
Scandinavians 1332, 1700, 2212 (see also: Danes; Finns; Norwegians; Swedes)
Schools and/or tertiary institutions communication/relationship/partnership with family/parents/community 8, 56, 60, 61, 191, 322, 430, 499, 574, 603, 606, 607, 608, 609, 748, 749, 798, 799, 816, 842, 1036, 1038, 1157, 1222, 1255, 1393, 1401, 1637, 1689, 1813, 1909, 1910, 2080, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2142, 2336 Dilworth School 2024 Epsom Normal Primary School 113, 306, 431, 968, 1628, 1629 ethnic 79, 197, 262, 291, 292, 293, 295, 477, 565, 650, 701, 941, 1138, 1284, 1326, 1370, 1429, 1702, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1723, 1782, 1884, 1885, 1896, 2011, 2057, 2058, 2075, 2122, 2167, 2304, 2325 Finlayson Park School 89, 1304, 2142 mainstream (early childhood, primary, secondary, tertiary) 1, 8, 39, 40, 47, 73, 89, 97, 108, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131, 152, 159, 191, 202, 255, 291, 295, 302, 306, 322, 351, 428, 429, 430, 454, 488, 493, 498, 499, 520, 521, 522, 561, 574, 592, 603, 604, 605, 607, 608, 609, 629, 631, 632, 633, 635, 636, 665, 681, 697, 698, 729, 739, 742, 748, 749, 786, 796, 799, 812, 816, 825, 826, 827, 830, 831, 832, 833, 863, 871, 902, 933, 936, 941, 981, 999, 1001, 1019, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1049, 1050, 1055, 1056, 1067, 1100, 1110, 1125, 1135, 1157, 1160, 1198, 1222, 1237, 1238,
439 1255, 1256, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1304, 1367, 1393, 1396, 1398, 1399, 1400, 1401, 1404, 1405, 1406, 1461, 1463, 1477, 1494, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1523, 1570, 1610, 1623, 1628, 1637, 1642, 1673, 1674, 1675, 1676, 1680, 1695, 1696, 1719, 1813, 1817, 1817, 1818, 1828, 1897, 1909, 1910, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 2016, 2029, 2057, 2058, 2080, 2109, 2110, 2111, 2121, 2142, 2156, 2184, 2185, 2202, 2220, 2226, 2232, 2233, 2251, 2252, 2259, 2270, 2286, 2288, 2353, 2355, 2365, 2390, 2391, 2393 Macleans College 1001 Mt. Roskill Grammar 1036, 1038 non-mainstream (religious etc.) 665, 738 private language schools and/or training establishments 1, 79, 255, 302, 378, 902, 981, 1125, 1144, 1145, 1198, 1264, 1305, 1340, 1396, 1398, 1399, 1401, 1405, 1406, 1773, 1927, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2233, 2394 Richmond Road School 1393 Rosebank School 56 Silverdale School 191 Taylors College (Auckland) 1305 tertiary institutions, access to and/or participation in etc. 46, 1142, 1210, 1642, 1691, 1794, 1832, 1927, 1936, 1937, 2093, 2251, 2252, 2286, 2355, 2356, 2365 zoning 2020 (see also: International (export) education; Kindergarten and/or play centres; Social interaction etc. in the classroom etc.; Students)
Scots 13, 14, 27, 48, 53, 69, 100, 200, 247, 262, 263, 264, 267, 272, 298, 333, 351, 382, 399, 438, 439, 440, 441, 447, 460, 482, 557, 567, 570, 621, 678, 689, 722, 740, 770, 804, 848, 868, 932, 942, 943, 980, 1104, 1163, 1207, 1212, 1296, 1300, 1309, 1311, 1316, 1317, 1318, 1319, 1332, 1352, 1443, 1463, 1466, 1482, 1519, 1520, 1591, 1595, 1599, 1603, 1625, 1636, 1656, 1698, 1700, 1703, 1747, 1759, 1790, 1792, 1871, 1919, 1934, 1997, 1998, 2013, 2018, 2100, 2256, 2304 (see also: Shetland Islanders)
Seasonal workers 194, 926, 1491
Second and/or third generation New Zealand-born 14, 15, 16, 23, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 55, 70, 78, 79, 84, 90, 98, 107, 138, 139, 174, 175, 188, 189, 197, 198, 203, 204, 232, 250, 251, 268, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292, 295, 316, 323, 334, 372, 373, 381, 399, 410, 417, 422, 428, 459, 477, 483, 491, 492, 511, 523, 575, 576a, 592, 614, 620, 622, 629, 638, 640, 641, 651, 653, 654, 658, 674, 686, 687, 692, 699, 702, 708, 739, 757, 759, 803, 804, 815, 819, 837, 851, 875, 882, 893, 909, 915, 929, 938, 940, 960, 989, 990, 991, 1000a, 1015, 1019, 1024, 1028, 1052, 1053, 1058, 1062, 1073, 1074, 1075, 1121, 1124, 1130, 1131, 1133, 1159, 1163, 1187, 1192, 1214, 1215, 1216, 1218, 1223, 1232, 1235, 1248, 1254, 1255, 1278, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1298, 1329, 1364, 1368, 1369, 1372, 1375, 1404, 1412, 1415, 1419, 1427, 1432, 1446, 1450, 1479, 1484, 1495, 1496, 1505, 1530, 1569, 1578, 1580, 1587, 1590, 1597, 1611, 1614, 1631, 1632, 1633, 1633a, 1634, 1638, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1651, 1652, 1654, 1655, 1683, 1685, 1688, 1691, 1740, 1749, 1758, 1763, 1767, 1785, 1786, 1824, 1838, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1856, 1857, 1870, 1872, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1910, 1919, 1920, 1934, 1942, 1978, 1984, 1986, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2007, 2034, 2035, 2043, 2072, 2081, 2082, 2090, 2091, 2093, 2098, 2100, 2104, 2148, 2149, 2155, 2162, 2183, 2190, 2193, 2227, 2236, 2258, 2261, 2264, 2288, 2313, 2319, 2325, 2327, 2329, 2335, 2336, 2337, 2358, 2371, 2382, 2385, 2386, 2387 (for disaggregation into specific groups etc, see: Cook Islanders, Pacific peoples, Samoans; see also: Attitudes etc., of second and/or third generation New Zealand-born)
440 Sectarianism and/or sectarian conflict (presence and/or absence of) 712, 1580, 1581, 1896, 2054, 2055
Secularism 20
Security, national (fears and/or risk) 183, 227, 229, 336, 337, 339, 341, 342, 343, 344, 346, 349, 703, 704, 891, 931, 1077, 1080, 1082, 1099, 1203, 1253, 1743, 1780, 1807, 1897, 2179, 2326
Self -concept, re identity (see: Identity and/or self-concept) -confidence 70, 763, 1985 -efficacy 70, 152, 270, 289, 732 -esteem 320, 431, 553, 628, 681, 742, 763, 921, 1126, 1497, 1525, 1713, 1714, 1716, 1874, 1953, 1954, 2079, 2225
Serbians 570, 741, 1071, 1861
Services access to 97, 551, 1173, 1209, 1259, 2140, 2172, 2338, 2375 central government 60, 179, 285, 340, 414, 431, 466, 467, 537, 538, 540, 551, 616, 886, 935, 936, 1154, 1173, 1208, 1209, 1245, 1249, 1258, 1259, 1260, 1302, 1341, 1370, 1371, 1400, 1417, 1422, 1429, 1503, 1507, 1533, 1546, 1554, 1556, 1570, 1598, 1602, 1639, 1640, 1689, 1755, 1756, 1879, 1886, 1923, 1976, 2034, 2113, 2133, 2138, 2203, 2204, 2249, 2306, 2364, 2370 local government 41, 62, 538, 540, 551, 883, 886, 935, 951, 956, 957, 1154, 1208, 1209, 1258, 1259, 1260, 1338, 1417, 1503, 1544, 1546, 1556, 2073, 2245, 2364 other agencies, institutions etc. 18, 30, 53a, 59, 61, 72, 82, 86, 88, 90, 98, 103, 131, 216, 279, 301, 303, 308, 316, 318, 355, 392, 397, 414, 421, 431, 488, 503, 519, 525, 530, 537, 538, 540, 544, 547, 548, 550, 551, 556, 559, 579, 599, 600, 616, 620, 628, 631, 639, 644, 645, 647, 648, 667, 668, 684, 686, 689, 697, 710, 711, 726, 748, 764, 768, 796, 824, 858, 883, 884, 886, 914, 916, 935, 936, 941, 951, 956, 957, 973, 982, 990, 994, 1024, 1048, 1054, 1056, 1061, 1084, 1103, 1108, 1113, 1115, 1117, 1120, 1134, 1141, 1152, 1157, 1173, 1181, 1186, 1187, 1209, 1210, 1221, 1223, 1229, 1245, 1248, 1249, 1279, 1297, 1333, 1338, 1341, 1357, 1362, 1366, 1377, 1378, 1400, 1403, 1408, 1410, 1413, 1414, 1415, 1417, 1422, 1424, 1425, 1464, 1472, 1506, 1507, 1508, 1509, 1510, 1533, 1541, 1544, 1546, 1554, 1554, 1556, 1571, 1584, 1612, 1620, 1639, 1647, 1687, 1706, 1726, 1748, 1760, 1768, 1775, 1802, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1826, 1858, 1870, 1876, 1879, 1886, 1887, 1895, 1955, 1959, 1962, 2019, 2029, 2031, 2063, 2075, 2103, 2105, 2113, 2133, 2135, 2140, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2220, 2224, 2226, 2228, 2234, 2249, 2262, 2286, 2297, 2306, 2324, 2338, 2339, 2350, 2351, 2356, 2360, 2364, 2368, 2370, 2375, 2378, 2392 (see also: Needs, services; Settlement, services)
Serum antigen levels 765, 767
Settlement challenges, concepts, indicators, needs, process, factors affecting etc. 168, 178, 179, 195, 268, 355, 366, 395, 408, 419, 489, 551, 594, 768, 884, 956, 957, 1010, 1011, 1045, 1120, 1135, 1173, 1236, 1259, 1307, 1312, 1338, 1376, 1416, 1517, 1533, 1541, 1543, 1551, 1586, 1598, 1661, 1777, 1874, 1878, 1975, 1976, 1980, 2088, 2112, 2133, 2138, 2200, 2203, 2204, 2223, 2228, 2250, 2286, 2287, 2336
441 policy or strategy 81, 163, 166, 168, 178, 179, 366, 408, 537, 538, 539, 540, 550, 877, 1173, 1195, 1209, 1236, 1258, 1259, 1260, 1338, 1517, 1544, 1609, 1661, 1714, 1771, 1802, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1980, 2133, 2204, 2250, 2251 services 768, 1195, 1362, 1544, 1551, 1554, 1556, 1598, 1802 (see also: Institutional structure of immigration)
Settlements or enclaves (townships, hamlets, localities) ethnic 47, 52, 71, 78, 96, 140, 148, 256, 298, 323, 353, 410, 479, 480, 597, 630, 701, 712, 713, 963, 973, 980, 984, 1199, 1310, 1318, 1332, 1354, 1362, 1375, 1459, 1563, 1613, 1614, 1635, 1658, 1698, 1702, 1738, 1792, 1804, 1845, 1904, 2027, 2138, 2212, 2304 soldiers 714, 1613
Sexism 2068
Sexual abuse 723 wellbeing (knowledge, etc.) 2375
Sexuality 33, 53a, 93, 103, 204, 250, 398, 579, 589, 590, 634, 723, 816, 821, 822, 823, 854, 866, 867, 1346, 1408, 1604, 1605, 1631, 1632, 1672, 1767, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1940, 2059, 2067, 2349 trans-sexualism 1855
Sexually transmitted diseases 93, 103, 669, 670, 1031, 1117, 1172, 1357, 1391, 1414, 1415, 1604, 1605, 1823, 1959, 2354, 2375 (see also: HIV/AIDS)
SF-36 scores 98, 913, 1410, 2309, 2310, 2311
Shakti 1103
Shetland Islanders 570, 2304
Shipping 247, 269, 382, 487, 689, 713, 714, 779, 822, 1025, 1300, 1306, 1450, 1488, 1635, 1702, 1736, 1846, 1871, 2036, 2060, 2256, 2298 deserters 1369 fires, wrecks 153, 259, 436, 1488, 1846 (see also: Voyages)
Sikhs 621, 1861, 1920, 2048
Similarity attraction theory 452, 453
Singaporeans 106, 301, 305, 404, 449, 992, 1135, 1340, 1399, 1405, 1608, 1903, 1997, 2114, 2210
Sinophilia and/or sinophobia 661, 854
Skilled migrants 81, 97, 100, 113, 139, 155, 162, 165, 168, 170, 171, 178, 179, 195, 211, 226, 232, 274, 275, 285, 310, 326, 356, 366, 379, 380, 396, 415, 425, 426, 431, 432, 452, 453, 489, 490, 529, 536, 539, 557, 564, 570, 571, 596, 671, 672, 768, 818, 828, 829, 859, 860, 861, 874, 878, 880, 882, 937, 948, 949, 954, 962, 965, 966, 969, 979, 1010, 1011, 1017, 1018, 1023, 1153, 1155, 1169, 1170, 1196, 1205, 1206, 1209, 1341, 1380, 1383, 1447, 1510, 1527, 1545, 1547, 1549, 1550, 1551, 1552, 1555, 1557, 1558,
442 1559, 1582, 1586, 1609, 1690, 1712, 1713, 1714, 1716, 1717, 1761, 1772, 1802, 1805, 1871, 1874, 1879, 1903, 1947, 1971, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2095, 2112, 2126, 2129, 2132, 2133, 2145, 2163, 2176, 2187, 2203, 2204, 2208, 2257, 2273, 2287, 2303, 2318, 2361, 2372, 2373, 2376 (see also: Professionals)
Slovaks 2300
Slovens 2300
Small business enterprises/ventures 576a, 1745, 1858, 2329, 2385, 2386 (see also: Entrepreneurs; Restaurants and/or restaurateurs, cafes etc.)
Smoking 32, 82, 98, 129, 188, 189, 217, 316, 318, 370, 373, 598, 610, 612, 625, 659, 669, 670, 720, 744, 745, 813, 873, 912, 913, 939, 1014, 1054, 1270, 1321, 1357, 1381, 1410, 1414, 1415, 1562, 1619, 1620, 1650, 1653, 1655, 1694, 1726, 1755, 1767, 1812, 1833, 1836, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1918, 1959, 2011, 2070, 2309, 2310, 2311, 2359, 2366
‘SmoothStream’ (people system model) 1196, 1197
Social capital 236, 1661 class and/or status 29, 44, 74, 202, 215, 218, 232, 262, 429, 494, 525, 526, 652, 770, 802, 821, 822, 830, 874, 990, 991, 1021, 1089, 1134, 1137, 1159, 1161, 1300, 1301, 1318, 1342, 1526, 1579, 1580, 1587, 1603, 1633, 1637, 1740, 1759, 1767, 1837, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1907, 1959, 1960, 2013, 2118, 2120, 2175, 2185, 2313, 2327 cohesion 133, 854, 956, 957, 968, 1214, 1338, 1447, 1661, 1732, 1733, 1921, 1976, 1980, 2224, 2226 (or cultural) distance 133, 806, 1220, 1795, 1953, 1954, 2201 dominance theory 452, 453, 1132 exclusion or rejection 199, 310, 413, 414, 797, 964, 966, 1185, 1484, 1629, 1661, 1662, 1954, 1980 inclusion or acceptance 199, 257, 414, 599, 632, 797, 863, 885, 1185, 1338, 1422, 1425, 1598, 1953, 1954, 1980, 2225, 2232, 2233 justice 1498 mobility 526, 794, 1215, 1298, 1301, 1342 renewal 74 security 2052, 2113 solidarity 1214
Social considerations/effects, of emigration/immigration in New Zealand 67, 68, 76, 170, 194, 232, 238, 262, 284, 302, 355, 420, 429, 455, 462, 463, 477, 555, 725, 756, 854, 883, 890, 926, 1000, 1055, 1056, 1079, 1096, 1106, 1163, 1170, 1202, 1215, 1315, 1392, 1395, 1489, 1532, 1580, 1603, 1657, 1818, 1921, 1924, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1974, 1977, 1981, 2021, 2164, 2181, 2226, 2229, 2237, 2251, 2295 in source countries 27, 171, 752, 753, 926, 2187, 2235 (see also: Cultural considerations/effects; Economic considerations/ effects; MIRAB economies/societies)
Social interaction/participation/relationships 12, 16, 30, 37, 49, 50, 84, 107, 110, 121, 130, 133, 134, 139, 144, 196, 196a, 198, 199, 232, 270, 285, 290, 301, 302, 305, 308, 309, 359, 360, 410, 414, 423, 431, 475, 480, 483, 489, 490, 530, 532, 537, 542, 546, 558, 559, 568, 572, 573, 592, 594, 599, 604, 641, 700, 701, 702, 740, 748, 770, 794,
443 798, 801, 815, 818, 821, 822, 854, 859, 874, 883, 885, 897, 898, 899, 902, 941, 964, 965, 966, 974, 1010, 1021, 1045, 1048, 1077, 1090, 1095, 1135, 1137, 1146, 1147, 1152, 1153, 1162, 1171, 1184, 1201, 1210, 1214, 1237, 1238, 1259, 1271, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1312, 1326, 1335, 1338, 1394, 1435, 1516, 1525, 1532, 1541, 1546, 1554, 1598, 1603, 1619, 1659, 1661, 1668, 1669, 1679, 1684, 1713, 1714, 1716, 1750, 1755, 1759, 1767, 1777, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1801, 1820, 1839, 1871, 1872, 1878, 1906, 1907, 1911, 1946, 1980, 2045, 2059, 2060, 2061, 2075, 2090, 2112, 2138, 2173, 2175, 2178, 2201, 2224, 2225, 2226, 2228, 2229, 2231, 2250, 2257, 2267, 2271, 2276, 2286, 2287, 2313, 2333, 2334, 2336, 2338, 2343, 2344, 2348, 2360, 2371 barriers to 357, 395, 859, 866, 883, 1035, 1126, 1135, 2232, 2267, 2286, 2338 in the classroom/kindergarten/school etc. 124, 125, 126, 127, 205, 206, 209, 257, 292, 309, 352, 358, 362, 363, 392, 430, 431, 435, 509, 510, 532, 574, 632, 729, 737, 825, 826, 827, 830, 885, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 999, 1001, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1055, 1056, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1271, 1394, 1435, 1497, 1689, 1750, 1773, 1953, 2159, 2184, 2185, 2201, 2202, 2224, 2226, 2228, 2232, 2233, 2251, 2252, 2286, 2336, 2365, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2396 (see also: Isolation; Loneliness)
Socialisation 408, 412, 885, 887, 1060, 1232, 1285, 1287, 1850, 2090, 2167, 2313, 2325 (see also: Parenting and childrearing)
Social welfare benefits (income support) 82, 83, 98, 372, 525, 539, 552, 594, 853, 889, 1087, 1134, 1302, 1392, 1412, 1417, 1546, 1561, 1609, 1639, 1870, 1874, 1959, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2105, 2113, 2307, 2338, 2368
Social work 22, 91, 397, 534, 639, 726, 757, 865, 871, 944, 994, 1031, 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227, 1228, 1274, 1376, 1384, 1480, 1501, 1506, 1507, 1508, 1509, 1510, 1544, 1641, 1644, 1858, 1895, 2035, 2063, 2222, 2268 (see also: Counselling) Socioscape 705
Sojourners (see: Temporary emigrants, immigrants, visitors)
Soldiers 714, 1032, 1296, 1416, 1473, 1613, 1698, 1702, 2037, 2039, 2399
Solomon Islanders 459, 1399, 2214, 2235
Somalis 8, 9, 165, 365, 397, 413, 416, 445, 519, 534, 539, 570, 662, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 892, 908, 936, 994, 997, 1114, 1154, 1279, 1545, 1546, 1550, 1764, 1861, 1887, 1896, 1897, 1931, 1932, 1981, 1997, 1998, 2107, 2113, 2164, 2172, 2205, 2225, 2234, 2338, 2350, 2368
South Africans 48, 81, 116, 118, 121, 122, 165, 166, 170, 197, 246, 259, 285, 310, 312, 326, 396, 413, 452, 453, 457, 519, 531, 539, 557, 570, 596, 671, 672, 692, 725, 932, 1010, 1011, 1065, 1162, 1340, 1361, 1380, 1405, 1545, 1547, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1557, 1585, 1586, 1592, 1673, 1859, 1903, 1973, 1981, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2020, 2161, 2176, 2213, 2225, 2237 language (Afrikaans) 116, 118, 121, 122, 531, 905, 1673, 1981
South Asians (n.o.d.) 1870
South East Asians (n.o.d.) 1870
Southseas Healthcare 90
444 South Waikato Pacific Island Health 1415
Spaniards 297, 570, 905, 1998, 2100, 2302
Speech acts 1465 inner (private) 126, 435
Spirituality (see: Religion, religious observance and/or spiritualism/ spirituality)
Sponsorship 552, 616, 1195, 1371, 1546, 1551
Sport(s) 45, 113, 114, 118, 196a, 243, 312, 313, 427, 459, 512, 526, 541, 568, 614, 641, 651, 692, 709, 721, 731, 747, 758, 770, 794, 815, 816, 819, 849, 1056, 1119, 1156, 1185, 1389, 1416, 1513, 1562, 1587, 1638, 1753, 1763, 1765, 1787, 1788, 1815, 1818, 1835, 1872, 1873, 1970, 1979, 2048, 2088, 2090, 2144, 2151, 2162, 2166, 2210, 2211, 2213, 2215, 2250, 2263, 2301, 2304, 2380 migration 114, 312, 758, 1156, 1513, 1753, 1788, 1818, 1979
Sri Lankans 61, 268, 365, 519, 568, 570, 671, 892, 905, 949, 995, 1005, 1120, 1261, 1340, 1376, 1405, 1546, 1549, 1550, 1557, 1861, 1903, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2050, 2095 (see also: Tamils)
State Services Commission 1994, 2123
Statistics 24, 26, 215, 1607, 1756, 1995, 2002, 2003 approvals for absence from New Zealand residence 1545, 1550, 1903 Census of ESOL providers 255 Census of population and households 24, 26, 139, 215, 217, 245, 319, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 563, 754, 795, 880, 1044, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1607, 1770, 1988, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2084, 2112 data protocols 1411 embassy or consulate data 139 external migration 175, 181, 182, 326, 715, 716, 717, 718, 1840, 1890, 1891, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010 immigration/residence applications/approvals 162, 164, 166, 168, 171, 172, 175, 181, 306, 416, 539, 860, 878, 880, 965, 1044, 1173, 1380, 1392, 1406, 1447, 1543, 1545, 1547, 1549, 1550, 1551, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1903, 1995, 2112, 2133 school aged children and/or international students 1399, 1545, 1550, 1890, 1891 temporary visitor (permits, visas) approvals 246, 1532, 1545, 1550, 1553, 1555, 1558, 1559
Step (onward) migration 110, 177, 180, 273, 350, 536, 572, 573, 624, 888, 927, 928, 961, 1041, 1162, 1474, 1665, 1764, 2132
Stereotypes and stereotyping 76, 196a, 206, 268, 369, 398, 452, 463, 471, 475, 492, 543, 545, 634, 643, 699, 713, 741, 783, 801, 854, 874, 883, 885, 932, 1052, 1053, 1168, 1171, 1419, 1609, 1672, 1740, 1755, 1764, 1821, 1839, 1953, 1960, 2059, 2088, 2090, 2181, 2201, 2226, 2229, 2232, 2296, 2308, 2341, 2365
Stigma and/or stigmatisation 865, 1245, 1569, 2189, 2350, 2351
Stress 4, 5, 82, 199, 220, 290, 309, 357, 359, 360, 365, 402, 431, 579, 723, 740, 831, 920, 941, 982, 1045, 1047, 1089, 1114, 1147, 1153, 1196, 1197, 1400, 1554, 1586, 1601, 1638, 1875, 1878, 2119, 2135, 2188, 2189, 2203, 2231, 2286, 2297, 2307, 2333
445 Stroke 26, 82, 98, 214, 234, 370, 371, 598, 659, 669, 670, 1366, 1415, 1870
Students (international, non-English speaking background etc.) 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 56, 59, 60, 61, 81, 85, 87, 104, 106, 111, 112, 124, 141, 152, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 170, 191, 199, 205, 206, 207, 228, 238, 246, 255, 270, 271, 296, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 331, 340, 352, 357, 358, 359, 362, 363, 365, 374, 378, 454, 508, 521, 522, 532, 550, 554, 555, 559, 585, 604, 605, 608, 611, 613, 618, 619, 626, 629, 631, 632, 633, 635, 636, 641, 650, 673, 675, 676, 680, 695, 696, 697, 698, 706, 729, 737, 742, 745, 756, 772, 773, 774, 796, 801, 818, 820, 830, 831, 832, 833, 836, 863, 864, 876, 883, 885, 894, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 914, 932, 936, 937, 950, 951, 952, 956, 957, 981, 992, 999, 1000, 1001, 1020a, 1024, 1035, 1037, 1038, 1055, 1056, 1063, 1064, 1065, 1066, 1068, 1070, 1072, 1085, 1100, 1103, 1125, 1135, 1140, 1143, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1147, 1152, 1170, 1174, 1176, 1177, 1178, 1179, 1190, 1191, 1198, 1210, 1222, 1237, 1238, 1239, 1255, 1271, 1292, 1293, 1298, 1305, 1324, 1335, 1340, 1343, 1367, 1370, 1392, 1393, 1394, 1396, 1397, 1398, 1399, 1401, 1403, 1404, 1405, 1406, 1434, 1435, 1447, 1465, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1498, 1514, 1527, 1528, 1545, 1550, 1570, 1583, 1604, 1605, 1609, 1610, 1611, 1612, 1623, 1628, 1637, 1640, 1668, 1669, 1673, 1675, 1676, 1677, 1680, 1691, 1696, 1706, 1734, 1737, 1741, 1750, 1751, 1755, 1761, 1773, 1774, 1783, 1793, 1803, 1817, 1828, 1831, 1832, 1839, 1841, 1843, 1847, 1848, 1868, 1869, 1877, 1882, 1883, 1896, 1899, 1900, 1909, 1910, 1917, 1927, 1928, 1930, 1933, 1936, 1937, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1989, 1990, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2022, 2029, 2030, 2042, 2045, 2050, 2057, 2058, 2076, 2077, 2080, 2089, 2092, 2112, 2129, 2142, 2154, 2159, 2160, 2189, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2201, 2205, 2208, 2210, 2214, 2215, 2217, 2220, 2224, 2226, 2228, 2229, 2231, 2232, 2233, 2251, 2252, 2259, 2267, 2270, 2279, 2286, 2288, 2324, 2336, 2341, 2342, 2352, 2353, 2354, 2355, 2356, 2360, 2365, 2367, 2379, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2394, 2395, 2396 Asians 1, 3, 59, 61, 81, 87, 104, 106, 111, 117, 119, 123, 124, 125, 127, 149, 152, 162, 166, 192, 193, 199, 207, 208, 209, 246, 270, 301, 302, 303, 305, 306, 308, 309, 357, 358, 359, 362, 363, 364, 374, 378, 392, 409, 411, 429, 430, 431, 455, 462, 463, 489, 499, 509, 510, 533, 535, 550, 554, 559, 585, 604, 608, 613, 618, 619, 626, 631, 632, 633, 650, 673, 675, 697, 729, 737, 745, 771, 772, 773, 774, 798, 801, 818, 832, 836, 841, 864, 876, 883, 885, 898, 899, 900, 901, 992, 1000, 1001, 1020a, 1103, 1125, 1135, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1147, 1152, 1170, 1174, 1176, 1177, 1178, 1179, 1190, 1191, 1198, 1210, 1237, 1238, 1239, 1298, 1335, 1340, 1370, 1394, 1396, 1399, 1401, 1404, 1405, 1406, 1434, 1435, 1514, 1527, 1528, 1545, 1550, 1604, 1605, 1628, 1668, 1669, 1673, 1677, 1706, 1726, 1734, 1737, 1741, 1750, 1751, 1755, 1761, 1773, 1783, 1803, 1828, 1832, 1841, 1843, 1868, 1869, 1877, 1899, 1927, 1928, 1930, 1936, 1937, 1953, 1955, 1981, 2020, 2022, 2077, 2092, 2160, 2189, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2201, 2208, 2210, 2217, 2220, 2228, 2229, 2231, 2267, 2279, 2336, 2341, 2342, 2352, 2353, 2354, 2355, 2356, 2360, 2365, 2367, 2390, 2391, 2393, 2395, 2396 debt and/or loans 380, 719, 907, 1456, 1457 international exchange programmes 508, 1340, 1900, 2112, 2129 Overseas Students Admissions Committee 2077 Pacific peoples 3, 56, 85, 111, 123, 171, 192, 246, 306, 322, 523, 524, 535, 561, 574, 585, 603, 607, 609, 629, 633, 635, 636, 641, 675, 676, 680, 681, 697, 742, 748, 811, 812, 820, 825, 826, 827, 832, 864, 885, 999, 1020a, 1024, 1037, 1038, 1085, 1100, 1222, 1255, 1293, 1340, 1343, 1367, 1370, 1393, 1396, 1399, 1401, 1404, 1405, 1434, 1435, 1494, 1495, 1496, 1497, 1498, 1610, 1611, 1612, 1637, 1642, 1644, 1691, 1726, 1817, 1828, 1831, 1847, 1848, 1868, 1869, 1882, 1883, 1909, 1910, 1989, 1990, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2057, 2058, 2076, 2077, 2080, 2089, 2142, 2214, 2215, 2229, 2259, 2270, 2288, 2324, 2379 pastoral care (support, welfare etc.) of 199, 301, 308, 309, 604, 608, 631, 632, 633, 894, 1035, 1143, 1152, 1237, 1238, 1396, 1397, 1401, 1676, 1706, 1899, 2228 visas, permits and/or government policy 1, 166, 179, 301, 304, 841, 1392, 1550, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1995, 2077
446 (see also: Code of Practice for the Pastoral Care of International Students; Learning strategies, styles and cultural differences; and for specific groups see: Chinese, students; Germans, students; Japanese, students; Koreans, students)
Substance (alcohol or drugs) use, abuse and disorder 142, 2274, 2307 (see also: Alcohol and alcoholism; Drugs, drug abuse, drug smuggling)
Sudanese 416, 570, 2113, 2234
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) 637, 667, 668, 669, 670, 1415, 1646, 1654, 1655
Suicide, suicidal ideation and correlates/factors affecting 24, 26, 98, 151, 214, 220, 669, 670, 686, 687, 723, 858, 1126, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1601, 1767, 1838, 1914, 1953, 1954, 1959, 2015, 2104
Sumatrans 2210
Sundanese 2210
Supervision (academic, professional, etc.) 392, 468, 948, 949, 1228
Surveyors 13, 49, 50, 321
Sustainable development Pacific Islands 169 New Zealand 1395
Swedes 541, 630, 1332, 1340, 1399, 1405, 1553, 1998, 2266
Swiss 1, 65, 139, 140, 362, 363, 570, 592, 771, 1405, 1997, 1998, 2100, 2197, 2322
Syrians 2338
Taeaomanino Family Services Trust 639
Taiwanese 1, 87, 117, 124, 125, 127, 132, 168, 270, 362, 365, 404, 408, 412, 449, 476, 503, 519, 551, 559, 570, 771, 795, 798, 878, 880, 882, 901, 918, 962, 963, 964, 965, 968, 993, 1135, 1161, 1278, 1340, 1396, 1399, 1405, 1543, 1545, 1547, 1550, 1557, 1608, 1903, 1997, 1998, 2031, 2042, 2197, 2221, 2354, 2367, 2373
TalanoaMalie, concept of 1257
Talent flow 366, 954, 979 visa 97, 170, 179, 1383, 1552
Tamils 905, 1546, 2050
TaPasefika Primary Health Organisation 131, 1415
Tattoos and/or tattooing 1216, 1241, 1810
Taxation 719
447 Teachers, tutors and lecturers 8, 9, 40, 43, 48, 56, 61, 62, 106, 111, 124, 127, 152, 156, 157, 158, 160, 187, 191, 192, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 255, 271, 291, 292, 322, 352, 358, 435, 451, 493, 498, 499, 520, 521, 522, 540, 557, 559, 561, 574, 574, 585, 587, 591, 604, 609, 613, 618, 619, 635, 636, 650, 652, 662, 665, 666, 671, 676, 680, 681, 697, 698, 706, 729, 732, 739, 748, 749, 750, 763, 797, 798, 806, 820, 830, 831, 832, 833, 841, 842, 863, 871, 894, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 918, 995, 999, 1036, 1038, 1049, 1050, 1051, 1056, 1060, 1062, 1064, 1066, 1067, 1068, 1083, 1110, 1131, 1135, 1140, 1142, 1144, 1145, 1146, 1153, 1160, 1174, 1175, 1176, 1177, 1190, 1191, 1232, 1255, 1256, 1271, 1279, 1284, 1288, 1289, 1290, 1291, 1297, 1304, 1305, 1324, 1343, 1367, 1370, 1389, 1393, 1398, 1400, 1404, 1434, 1435, 1443, 1466, 1497, 1520, 1523, 1549, 1552, 1570, 1610, 1628, 1640, 1642, 1673, 1680, 1689, 1691, 1695, 1696, 1720, 1721, 1722, 1734, 1741, 1767, 1773, 1785, 1786, 1794, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1805, 1817, 1820, 1831, 1872, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1910, 1917, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1933, 1950, 1951, 1953, 2029, 2030, 2080, 2083, 2089, 2094, 2100, 2109, 2110, 2154, 2156, 2170, 2184, 2185, 2191, 2194, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2202, 2224, 2225, 2232, 2247, 2248, 2251, 2252, 2259, 2269, 2270, 2272, 2288, 2336, 2352, 2353, 2355, 2373, 2390, 2391, 2396 attitudes, perceptions, intentions etc 39, 40, 48, 104, 119, 120, 124, 159, 331, 435, 509, 532, 557, 626, 629, 695, 728, 771, 799, 825, 826, 827, 831, 833, 836, 841, 885, 902, 903, 904, 1036, 1049, 1050, 1063, 1067, 1085, 1142, 1191, 1255, 1264, 1305, 1419, 1435, 1495, 1496, 1498, 1719, 1773, 1774, 1828, 1872, 1910, 1931, 1932, 1950, 1951, 1953, 2111, 2197, 2198, 2233, 2250, 2272, 2365, 2379 performance model of 2233
Teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) 119, 120, 128, 156, 157, 208, 211, 255, 331, 352, 374, 498, 521, 522, 554, 618, 619, 626, 662, 698, 729, 771, 903, 904, 1063, 1066, 1067, 1072, 1140, 1144, 1145, 1174, 1175, 1176, 1177, 1200, 1264, 1396, 1398, 1570, 1773, 1803, 1886, 2089, 2094, 2154, 2159, 2194, 2195, 2196, 2197, 2198, 2272, 2352, 2396
Temporary emigrants, immigrants, visitors 76, 81, 110, 119, 161, 163, 170, 171, 176, 179, 180, 181, 186, 194, 221, 232, 246, 290, 306, 319, 404, 411, 446, 472, 473, 476, 508, 513, 564, 594, 721, 738, 782, 810, 814, 855, 921, 922, 923, 926, 928, 945, 954, 955, 966, 971, 989, 1211, 1247, 1272, 1303, 1334, 1368, 1395, 1447, 1471, 1491, 1531, 1532, 1543, 1545, 1550, 1551, 1552, 1553, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1563, 1604, 1605, 1608, 1609, 1777, 1840, 1894, 1900, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2062, 2082, 2129, 2145, 2171, 2187, 2210 (see also: Seasonal workers)
Tenancy Service 551
Te Rau Hinengaro: The New Zealand Mental Health Survey 142, 151, 686, 687, 2265
Terrorism 1743
Tertiary Education Commission’s Pacific Peoples Strategy 2093
Thais 1, 106, 246, 305, 326, 365, 411, 519, 570, 883, 905, 1340, 1392, 1396, 1399, 1401, 1405, 1545, 1550, 1552, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2059
‘ThuisZorg’ 1507
Tibetans 2253
Tithing 491, 1087, 1426, 2157
448 Tokelauans 70, 167, 365, 466, 519, 570, 641, 795, 869, 893, 912, 1005, 1019, 1020, 1084, 1085, 1087, 1131, 1218, 1288, 1360, 1416, 1417, 1477, 1719, 1811, 1861, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2105, 2215, 2235, 2385 language 893, 1131, 1370, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2215
Tongan Health Society 1415
Tongans 4, 10, 15, 16, 17, 29, 83, 90, 137, 167, 188, 189, 273, 274, 275, 315, 316, 317, 318, 365, 466, 491, 539, 570, 577, 627, 641, 684, 687, 699, 720, 802, 805, 816, 858, 909, 932, 999, 1019, 1031, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1083, 1084, 1085, 1087, 1088, 1110, 1111, 1121, 1187, 1218, 1223, 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227, 1228, 1235, 1240, 1250, 1255, 1256, 1257, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1288, 1322, 1323, 1343, 1344, 1399, 1412, 1417, 1474, 1475, 1477, 1547, 1611, 1619, 1648, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1688, 1719, 1725, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1861, 1905, 1909, 1912, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2035, 2043, 2064, 2082, 2145, 2146, 2156, 2183, 2235, 2290, 2325, 2327, 2357, 2387 diet, food 1847, 2103 education and training 16, 56, 811, 812, 816, 909, 999, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1083, 1085, 1087, 1100, 1110, 1235, 1255, 1256, 1257, 1340, 1343, 1405, 1474, 1611, 1719, 2011, 2057, 2058, 2145, 2156, 2325, 2327 employment/unemployment 16, 174, 273, 274, 627, 909, 1083, 1085, 1087, 1474, 1688, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2043 family and kinship 10, 16, 29, 56, 83, 188, 189, 627, 802, 858, 909, 1087, 1088, 1121, 1225, 1227, 1235, 1255, 1285, 1286, 1287, 1611, 1619, 2004, 2011, 2043, 2064, 2145, 2156, 2325 gambling 188, 189, 802, 1619, 2146 health and welfare 4, 10, 29, 90, 129, 137, 287, 288, 316, 317, 365, 684, 686, 687, 720, 802, 858, 869, 909, 1014, 1031, 1088, 1098, 1187, 1223, 1286, 1322, 1323, 1412, 1526, 1577, 1619, 1649, 1650, 1653, 1654, 1655, 1746, 1811, 1847, 1848, 1852, 1912, 2011, 2043, 2103, 2146 housing or accommodation 29, 372, 1417, 1474, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2043 identity 15, 16, 699, 1121, 1187, 1611, 1725, 1992, 2064, 2082, 2290, 2327, 2357 language (change, loss, maintenance, New Zealand English etc.) 15, 905, 1036, 1038, 1110, 1121, 1187, 1343, 1370, 1909, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2057, 2058, 2082, 2083, 2084, 2156, 2325, 2327, 2357 residential patterns and/or geographic distribution 1005, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2011, 2082 social work 1224, 1225, 1226, 1227, 1228, 2035
Tourism 149, 281, 377, 404, 476, 805, 857, 1272, 1334, 1448, 1531, 1532, 1608, 1822, 1839, 1995, 2160, 2171, 2229
Trade and/or trade relations, international 110, 149, 281, 304, 433, 454, 513, 540, 576a, 1543, 1585, 1732, 1733, 1822, 2060, 2160 Trade unions and/or unionists 190, 320, 1579, 1580, 1581, 1994
Translation (see: Interpreting and/or translation)
Translocalities 705
Transmigrants 1475
Transnational communities and/or transnationalism 110, 133, 161, 167, 173, 196a, 305, 306, 390, 408, 432, 462, 472, 627, 705, 719, 751, 752, 753, 758, 768a, 805, 857, 858, 874, 877, 878, 960, 963, 966, 968, 969, 971, 993, 1101, 1121, 1159, 1195, 1213, 1216,
449 1225, 1251, 1262, 1263, 1452, 1475, 1477, 1569, 1629, 1665, 1667, 1690, 1744, 1777, 1840, 1969, 1970, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1979, 2042, 2174, 2186, 2257, 2358, 2367
Trans-Tasman migration 28, 69, 162, 164, 168, 170, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 267, 273, 326, 379, 382, 384, 399, 425, 426, 536, 576a, 582, 623, 683, 700, 738, 751, 768a, 888, 889, 927, 928, 961, 1030, 1033, 1041, 1149, 1195, 1235, 1244, 1247, 1317, 1374, 1395, 1471, 1525, 1593, 1609, 1665, 1666, 1690, 1693, 1777, 1840, 1849, 1880, 1881, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2024, 2025, 2036, 2128, 2213, 2216, 2237, 2241, 2261, 2271, 2299, 2346, 2369 Travel Arrangement 164, 273, 888, 1665 (see also: Maori; New Zealanders abroad; Return migration)
Transvestites 1855
Trauma 397, 413, 647, 648, 879, 881, 941, 982, 1271, 1376 (see also: Injury; Post-traumatic stress disorder)
Treasured Older Adults (Pacific) 1415
Treaty of Waitangi 86, 135, 164, 178, 249, 285, 393, 959, 964, 1104, 1338, 1360, 1407, 1554, 1664, 1665, 1921, 1972, 1978
Tuberculosis 32, 82, 365, 455, 518, 519, 669, 670, 892, 915, 1194, 1357, 1415, 1569, 1959, 2153, 2172, 2190
Turks 2182
Tuvaluans 795, 1019, 1370, 1577, 1861, 1997, 1998, 2004, 2190, 2214, 2235
Ugandans 1405 Asian 147
Ukrainians 630, 666, 1557, 2303
Ulimasao: Pasifika Bilingual Education Association 2142
Ulster and/or Ulstermen/Ulsterwomen 71, 225, 266, 272, 353, 354, 383, 526, 592, 597, 712, 713, 847, 1301, 1310, 1314, 1342, 1375, 1579, 1580, 1581, 1614, 1657, 1658, 1697, 1698, 1699, 1791, 2024, 2054, 2055, 2100, 2242, 2243
Underemployment 195, 366, 395, 671, 672, 719, 859, 860, 878, 879, 881, 1021, 1114, 1205, 1447, 1712, 1714, 1716, 1874, 2257, 2287
Unemployment 82, 97, 98, 129, 168, 245, 273, 285, 318, 350, 366, 395, 409, 413, 414, 415, 423, 425, 432, 470, 492, 528, 536, 539, 570, 625, 628, 641, 669, 670, 672, 719, 750, 794, 795, 859, 860, 861, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 886, 926, 944, 982, 1010, 1044, 1085, 1089, 1114, 1134, 1196, 1197, 1205, 1218, 1245, 1275, 1298, 1302, 1327, 1341, 1412, 1414, 1415, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1447, 1546, 1547, 1548, 1549, 1554, 1586, 1598, 1602, 1606, 1607, 1609, 1672, 1751, 1755, 1756, 1764, 1837, 1841, 1870, 1874, 1878, 1888, 1960, 1971, 1975, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2006, 2011, 2043, 2093, 2095, 2112, 2122, 2132, 2234, 2237, 2311, 2334, 2338, 2364, 2367, 2368 Urban space effects, in New Zealand 462, 463, 705
Vakaola 1415
450 Values and/or beliefs 16, 29, 30, 43, 83, 108, 109, 133, 137, 290, 394, 431, 439, 440, 441, 464, 467, 483, 492, 496, 574, 579, 594, 615, 628, 638, 665, 673, 723, 752, 753, 785, 849, 851, 866, 885, 921, 923, 944, 1060, 1061, 1080, 1082, 1087, 1131, 1132, 1133, 1159, 1161, 1189, 1193, 1214, 1224, 1225, 1232, 1254, 1315, 1318, 1325, 1421, 1434, 1463, 1515, 1617, 1622, 1631, 1633, 1661, 1682, 1708, 1791, 1843, 1902, 1906, 1907, 1953, 1980, 1987, 2013, 2016, 2018, 2041, 2064, 2066, 2081, 2085, 2093, 2104, 2105, 2122, 2135, 2144, 2145, 2157, 2193, 2202, 2234, 2258, 2325, 2332, 2370
Vanuatuans 2235
Venezuelans 782
Victimisation 1464, 1755, 1953
Vietnamese 1, 106, 365, 416, 519, 621, 879, 881, 905, 982, 1005, 1135, 1166, 1210, 1340, 1396, 1399, 1405, 1452, 1453, 1454, 1455, 1550, 1693, 1887, 1997, 1998, 2007, 2128, 2267
Violence 47, 76, 917, 973, 1084, 1086, 1312, 1603, 1619, 1767, 1953, 2011 child discipline 83, 492, 944, 1682, 2064, 2065, 2234 domestic 83, 496, 497, 579, 723, 1084, 1086, 1092, 1159, 1371, 1423, 1464, 1544, 2067, 2357, 2378
Visa-waiver and/or visa-free visitors 165, 168, 178, 179, 246
Visit(s), to home country 16, 43, 47, 139, 196a, 223, 232, 244, 459, 483, 542, 546, 566, 570, 572, 573, 576a, 614, 768a, 805, 874, 1004, 1010, 1062, 1090, 1131, 1162, 1216, 1232, 1235, 1251, 1254, 1298, 1345, 1351, 1369, 1427, 1452, 1453, 1475, 1477, 1627, 1679, 1795, 1801, 1827, 1872, 1958, 1966, 2024, 2112, 2121, 2151, 2162, 2173, 2178, 2261, 2313, 2317, 2327, 2335
Vitamin deficiency 400, 1020
Viticulture, vineyards and winemakers 28, 1199, 1345, 1634, 1866, 1867, 1943, 2182, 2207
Voluntary associations ethnic/immigrant/refugee 29, 43, 47, 61, 82, 90, 108, 113, 139, 140, 148, 196a, 197, 213, 232, 262, 264, 265, 290, 391, 460, 466, 468, 475, 480, 512, 568, 572, 573, 577, 579, 599, 614, 616, 621, 641, 657, 689, 690, 705, 712, 722, 748, 815, 850, 883, 905, 937, 945, 946, 962, 963, 965, 967, 968, 969, 973, 1077, 1078, 1085, 1095, 1118, 1119, 1120, 1131, 1134, 1151, 1159, 1162, 1184, 1246, 1288, 1298, 1312, 1329, 1382, 1416, 1424, 1452, 1455, 1507, 1580, 1595, 1633, 1684, 1688, 1698, 1702, 1731, 1744, 1756, 1764, 1816, 1845, 1874, 1896, 1897, 1904, 2048, 2050, 2052, 2054, 2055, 2060, 2075, 2085, 2092, 2107, 2128, 2142, 2145, 2162, 2163, 2176, 2205, 2206, 2208, 2210, 2213, 2215, 2234, 2278, 2328, 2329, 2335, 2367, 2392 host society/mainstream 53a, 130, 133, 308, 410, 770, 883, 1001, 1134, 1199, 1312, 1487, 1541, 1580, 1900 New Zealanders abroad 196a, 709, 719
Volunteer Service Abroad 221, 446, 920, 921, 922, 923, 1303
Volunteering Waikato 883
Volunteer Wellington 768
451 Volunteer workers (see: Employment)
Voyages 153, 186, 247, 269, 298, 436, 461, 487, 580, 587, 689, 690, 743, 779, 821, 822, 980, 1025, 1290, 1291, 1310, 1311, 1313, 1358, 1450, 1488, 1519, 1615, 1625, 1635, 1702, 1710, 1736, 1754, 1820, 1846, 1871, 1916, 2060, 2099, 2101, 2121, 2256, 2298 (see also: Shipping)
Waikato Chinese Students and Scholars Association 883 Immigration Scheme 712, 713, 1698 Thrive Project 1341
Wakefield, Edward Gibbon 1635
War correspondent 1575, 2283 service 75, 184, 330, 399, 689, 692, 942, 1329, 1416, 1481, 1820, 2305
Water safety, knowledge and skills etc. 1461, 1462
Weaving 1684
Weddings 689, 690, 793
Well-being, subjective 1167
Wellington Language in the Workplace Project 897 Multicultural Centre 1209 Regional Action Plan for Refugee Health 1779
Welsh migrants 101, 382, 570, 689, 848, 850, 1656, 1700, 1703, 1815, 1816, 1997, 1998, 2100
West Indians 2100
Whalers 297, 434, 2130, 2244
White flight 1953
White New Zealand League 2048
Wills, last testaments, probate documents etc. 272, 2024
Women’s suffrage 1204 (see also: Female migrants)
Work 1320 cultural differences 1761 non-standard 671, 672 visas/permits 166, 179, 246, 306, 756, 841, 1119, 1219, 1380, 1471, 1545, 1550, 1552, 1555, 1558, 1559, 1995, 2112
Work and Income New Zealand (WINZ) 551, 1602, 2132, 2133
452 Working holiday makers 756, 989, 1532, 1553
Writers and/or poets 23, 92, 113, 138, 262, 398, 575, 587, 602, 617, 808, 1120, 1220, 1240, 1252, 1375, 1387, 1438, 1443, 1578, 1582, 1710, 1718, 1790, 1849, 1982, 2078, 2100, 2269, 2289, 2319, 2363
Xenophobia 422, 1315
Youth 18, 47, 73, 98, 197, 634, 638, 653, 710, 824, 884, 932, 956, 957, 1015, 1054, 1415, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1461, 1462, 1499, 1562, 1577, 1767, 1826, 1838, 1843, 1858, 2034, 2063, 2250, 2341 (see also: Adolescence/adolescents; Students)
Youthtown 883
Yugoslavs/former Yugoslavs 196, 299a, 741, 905, 1000a, 1633a, 1820, 1861, 1997, 1998 (see also: Bosnians; Croatians/Croats; Kosovars; Serbians; Slovenians)
Zambians 1997
Zaoui, Ahmed (case of) 147, 183, 227, 229, 336, 337, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 348, 349, 930, 931, 1099, 1203, 1253, 1361, 1743, 1780, 1807, 2179, 2326
Zimbabweans 165, 246, 254, 285, 324, 519, 570, 932, 1021, 1405, 1549, 1550, 1552, 1903, 1947, 1997, 2020, 2205
Zionism 1138
Zoroastrians 1861
453 CONTRIBUTORS
Richard Bedford QSO, FRSNZ is Pro Vice-Chancellor Research at Auckland University of Technology and Professor of Population Geography in the Population Studies Centre at the University of Waikato. He is a specialist in migration research and since the mid-1960s he has been researching processes of population movement in the Asia-Pacific region. He is a member of the Marsden Fund Council, where he convenes the Social Sciences Panel, the Advisory Committee on Official Statistics (ACOS), and an adviser to the Department of Labour on the Recognised Seasonal Employment (RSE) work policy and the Longitudinal Survey of Immigration: New Zealand (LisNZ).
Charlotte Bedford is employed as a research assistant in the Migration Research Group which forms part of the Population Studies Centre at the University of Waikato. Charlotte has been involved in a series of research projects that have examined the mental health issues for Asians in New Zealand, the settlement assistance needs of recent migrants, and diversity issues in the workplace. She is currently enrolled in a PhD programme at the University of Adelaide. Her PhD focuses on New Zealand's Recognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) policy and the recently announced Australian Pacific Seasonal Worker Pilot Scheme (PSWPS) that seek to address seasonal labour shortages in the horticulture and viticulture industries while also providing development assistance to participating Pacific Island countries.
Robert Didham is a senior demographer with the Population Statistics Unit of Statistics New Zealand and a senior research associate with the Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University. Robert continues to research demographic and social aspects of the population, including ethnicity, fertility and population mobility. Recent publications include work in these fields with ongoing work on the New Zealand diaspora and contributions to the FRST ‘missing men’ project.
Paul Callister is Deputy Director of the Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington. Paul has had a long interest in changes in education and labour market outcomes for an increasingly diverse population. Paul is currently leading the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology funded project ‘Education capital formation, employment, migration, gender, work- life balance and missing men’.
454 Alan Gamlen is a Doctoral Candidate in Geography at the Oxford University Centre for the Environment, working on migration, diasporas and transnationalism. His thesis looks at the diaspora engagement policies of emigration states, focusing on two main case studies: New Zealand and Ireland. Alan is a Junior Member of St. Antony’s College, and is associated with the Centre on Migration, Policy and Society and the Global Migration Governance Project. He has been awarded an ESRC Postdoctoral Fellowship at the International Migration Institute. He was awarded a New Zealand Top Achiever Doctoral Scholarship in 2005. Prior to this, from 2003 to 2005, he was a Monbukagakusho Scholar based in Tokyo and an Editor at the Japan Centre for Area Studies within Japan’s National Museum of Ethnology. Alan has been an invited presenter at the UNECE’s Conference of European Statisticians and UNESCO’s Diaspora Knowledge Networks Programme, and he has acted as a consultant and advisor to governments and NGOs in several migrant-sending countries.
Philip Gendall is Professor of Marketing at Massey University, Palmerston North. Professor Gendall has represented New Zealand in the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) since 1992 and has also been involved in surveys on immigration, culture and values as well as a 16-country study of the stigmatisation of mental health. He is a principal investigator on a Health Research Council project examining the implications for tobacco control of cigarette branding and plain packaging.
Elsie Ho Associate Professor is Director of Population Mental Health in the School of Population Health at the University of Auckland. She has previously held teaching and research appointments at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and the University of Waikato. She is a leading expert in migration and mental health studies in New Zealand, and has published widely on the topics of Asian transnational communities, migrant and refugee settlement and integration, mental health and diversity issues. In 2007, her research was recognized formally through the New Zealand Honours system with an award of Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit for services to migrant communities.
Paul Spoonley is Professor of Sociology at Massey University, Albay. He is the Regional Director (Auckland) and Research Director in the College of Humanities and Social Sciences. He is also the Director of the Integration of Immigrants Programme (Foundation for Research, Science and Technology, 2007-2012) which is researching the settlement strategies and outcomes of five immigrant groups. Recent books include Mata Toa. The Life and Times of Ranginui Walker (Penguin, 2009) and Welcome to Our World. Immigration and the Remaking of New Zealand (with Richard Bedford, Auckland University Press, 2011).
455 Andrew Trlin was the Programme Leader for the New Settlers Programme (1997-2006) and is currently an Honorary Research Fellow in the School of Health and Social Services, Massey University, Palmerston North. His main research interests are in the areas of social demography and social policy in contemporary New Zealand but he is best known for research on immigration policy and immigration settlement. Andrew’s publications on various aspects of international migration include: (as author) Now Respected, Once Despised: Yugoslavs in New Zealand (Dunmore Press, 1979); (as co-editor) the series New Zealand and International Migration: A Digest and Bibliography (Massey University, 1986, 1992, 1997 and 2005); and (as co-author) 50 monographs, articles and book chapters produced as part of the New Settlers Programme - see: http://www.newsettlers.massey.ac.nz A Life Member of the Population Association of New Zealand, Andrew has also served since November 2004 as a panel member on the Human Rights Tribunal for the Ministry of Justice, Tribunals Unit.
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