Sunchang Gochujang (Korean Red Chili Paste): the Unfolding of Authenticity

J Ethn Foods 3 (2016) 201e208

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Journal of Ethnic Foods

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Original article Sunchang gochujang (Korean red chili paste): The unfolding of authenticity

* Soon-Hee Kim a, Kyung Rhan Chung b, Hye-Jeong Yang a, Dae Young Kwon a, a Division of Nutrition and Metabolism Research, Korea Food Research Institute, Songnam, South Korea b Division of Understanding Korea Project, The Academy of Korea Studies, Songnam, South Korea article info abstract

Article history: Background: Gochujang is one of the most frequently consumed foods by Koreans and can be used as a Received 14 March 2016 seasoning in kuk, banchan, or also used as a condiment itself. In this paper, we discuss the historical, Received in revised form literary, and geographical aspects of Sunchang gochujang, which has been acknowledged as the best 21 July 2016 quality. Accepted 7 August 2016 Methods: The history, origin, and tradition of gochujang and Sunchang gochujang were examined through Available online 13 September 2016 literature review. Sunchang's climate and geographical characteristics were examined in order to determine their effects on the ingredients and its fermentation condition. Keywords: chili Results: Sunchang is located in the southwest region of Korea. Its geography, with characteristic gochujang mountainous basins, provides high temperatures and humidity that is suitable for the fermentation of Korean sauce gochujang. In addition, distinctive seasons and temperature variance between day and night helps with Sunchang gochujang growing high-quality red peppers with moderate levels of spiciness. The first reference to gochujang is found in the Hyangyak-jipsongbang (鄕藥集成方, 1433). Sunchang gochujang was enjoyed in the royal court, as described in the Ojuyeonmun-jangjeonsanko (五洲衍文長箋散稿) and Somunsaseol (謏聞事說). Sunchang gochujang was introduced as a medicinal food in the medicinal newspaper, and its recipes were recorded by royal physicians during the Chosun Dynasty. This demonstrates that Sunchang gochujang gained popularity not only for its flavor but also for its medicinal effects. Conclusion: The outstanding flavor and functional effects of Sunchang gochujang are due to the geographical characteristics that provide a congenial climate for fermentation and a great environment for growing high-quality red peppers. © 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Korea Food Research Institute. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction sashimi, cooked fish, shellfish, and meat. In addition, jang is used as a seasoning to balance the salt concentration (kan) of food [4]. The Korean cuisine is characterized by a complete meal setting of majority of Korean foods are seasoned with jang rather than salt, as rice, kuk, kimchi, banchan, and jang on the table, which is in contrast jang, being made from fermented beans, contains rich amino acids to the courses served in western styles of food [1]. Jang is an and volatile aromatic compounds that enhance the smell and fla- essential component of Korean food and is produced through vors of food [2].Asjang is used in most kuk and banchan, many have fermentation. Although jang (醬) is frequently used as an ingre- stated that jang decides the flavor of a food. The Hurbaekjeongjip dient, it is often served on its own. Doenjang, gochujang, kanjang, (虛白亭集), a book written in the 15th century by Gwidal Hong (洪貴 and jeotgal are examples of jang that take a few months of 達, 1438e1504), stated that “the quality of gochujang decides the fermentation to produce [2,3]. Most types of jang, except for jeotgal, farming success of that year.” This statement demonstrates the are fermented bean products. Jang can be used as a major ingre- importance of jang in Korean food beyond its nutritional value [5]. dient in kuk and chigae and as a condiment with fresh vegetables, Gochujang is a fermented and aged bean product made from soybean powder, red pepper powder, and rice flour [2]. It has been indispensably used in dishes such as bibimbap [6], chicken, pheasant, and fish stews [7]. As with other types of jang, gochujang * Corresponding author. Korea Food Research Institute, 62 Anyangpankyo-ro can be used as a seasoning in kuk, tang, and banchan,orasa 1201-bunkil, Songnam, 463-746, South Korea. E-mail address: [email protected] (D.Y. Kwon). condiment [4]. Chogochujang, a combination of vinegar and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.09.002 2352-6181/© 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Korea Food Research Institute. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 202 J Ethn Foods 2016; 3: 201e208 gochujang, is enjoyed with grilled meat or sashimi. According to the thousands of years. The oldest written reference to gochujang is 2015 National Nutrition Survey conducted by the Korea Health found in the Hyangyak-jipsongbang (鄕藥集成方), published in Industry Development Institute, gochujang was ranked as the 14th 1433 during the 15th year of the reign of King Sejong in the Chosun most frequently consumed food in Korea [8]. The reported average Dynasty [Fig. 2; This book refers to gochujang or gochojang as daily intake of gochujang was 6.11 g and it was the second-most chojang (椒醬) and gochu as gocho or gochu (椒)] [13]. However, the consumed seasoning after kanjang [8]. early references to gochujang are primarily focused on its medicinal Although many regions have traditionally made gochujang, the properties rather than its role as a food additive. For example, most famous region for gochujang is Sunchang. Generally, gochu- gochujang was often used to promote digestive issues caused by jang produced in Sunchang is the highest-selling product. In this weaknesses in the spleen and stomach [7,14]. paper, the historical, literary, and geographical aspects of Sunchang In the Yangrobongchinseo (養老奉親書) chapter of Hyangyak- gochujang will be discussed. In addition, the features of excellence jipsongbang, a Korean medical book that listed medicinal herbs and the possibility of further development of Sunchang gochujang for doctors, a porridge made with carp, rice, tangerine peels, green will be examined. onions, and gochujang was recommended for elderly people who suffered from loss of appetite or dysentery [13]. Chojang (椒醬) and 椒豉 2. The history and tradition of gochujang chosi ( ) are fermented soybean products used to make gochu- jang and were introduced in a Korean medical encyclopedia called 醫方類聚 th References to the cultivation of red peppers (gochu) in Korea can the Euibangyuchi ( , 1445, in the 27 year of King Sejong) be found in the Chronicles of the Three States (三國史記, 1145) and [15]. The book recommended a dish made with gochujang and rice 黃雌鷄肉 Mankiyoram (萬機要覽) written by Busik Kim [9,10] (Fig. 1). In (hwangjagyegogi, ; similar to modern Korean spicy addition, the Nonggawolryeongga (農家月令歌, 1816) introduced chicken stew) for elderly people with weak spleens and stomachs red peppers as an important crop [11]. The Gijaejapgi (寄齋雜記, [15]. These records show that gochujang was used to improve ap- 16th century) mentioned bibimbap, a rice and vegetable dish, that petites, recover strength, and promote digestion. According to the 食療纂要 th was usually consumed with gochujang [12]. Taking these references Siknyo-chanyo ( , 1460; 4 year of King Sejo; Fig. 3) [7] 御醫 全循義 and the long history of jang into consideration, it would be safe to written by the royal physician ( ) Sunui Jun ( ) and Uir- 醫林撮要 楊禮壽 presume that gochujang has been consumed by Koreans for imchwalyo ( ) [16] written by Yesu Yang ( ), spicy carp porridge and hwangjagyetang made with gochujang and chicken were effective in improving cold symptoms, diarrhea, and weakness. The Sauigyeongheombang (四醫經驗方), a medical book written by four doctors, also detailed the efficacy of gochujang and red peppers based on their experiences [17]. Although most of the old references only mentioned the medicinal usage of gochujang,it is believed that gochujang was also enjoyed as a food earlier than

Fig. 1. Written records supporting red pepper cultivation. The Chronicles of the Three States (三國史記, 1145), a book written by Busik Kim, mentioned “Chodo (椒島, in the red box)” in the 37th book, Chapter 4 to describe the cultivation of red peppers during Fig. 2. The first written reference to gochujang. Hyangak-jipsungbang (鄕藥集成方, the time of Goguryeo. Chodo (椒島) is an island located in Punghae, Songhwa, 1443), a medical book published in the 15th year of the reign of King Sejong, suggested Hwanghae-do. The Gunjeongpyeon 4 (軍政編四), included in the Mangiyoram (萬機要 gochujang carp stew to improve spleen and stomach functions to those suffering from 覽, 1808), stated that Chodo is named according to the cultivation of cho (以産椒故名). loss of appetite or digestion dysfunction. S.-H. Kim et al / Sunchang gochujang (Korean red chili paste) 203

Secretariat during the Chosun Dynasty. It mentioned that gochujang was served to Yeongjo and that he enjoyed it and some officials recommended gochujang to the king [20]. The Naegakilryeok (內閣 日曆; a diary recorded on September 19, 1781) included in the Gyujanggakilgi (奎章閣日記; records of the king's commands and affairs of the royal palace, written on a daily basis by Gyujanggak) stated that “vegetables, fruits, and gochujang were prepared (蔬果椒 醬俱焉),” which shows that gochujang was a central banchan for Koreans at this time [21]. As with the royal family, gochujang was also a popular food product with ordinary citizens. A war diary titled Yanghou- seonbongilgi (兩湖右先鋒日記, 1894) from the Donghak Peasant Revolution (東學農民革命, the revolution began in 1894 and was initiated by citizens in response to corrupt officials and social turmoil) listed gochujang and kimchi as military supplies (“二十三日 晴 木川公兄草鞋三百竹古草醬十東海懇醬十東海沈菜三十東海使之等 待于駐陣所” I brought 200 pairs of straw shoes, 100 crocks of gochujang, 10 crocks of kanjang, and 30 crocks of kimchi) [22]. The inclusion of gochujang on this list demonstrates its role and importance in being valued as highly as kimchi in the diets of citizens. Gochujang was also cited as the most missed food by Koreans living abroad. In the Byeolgeongon (1928), Yugyeong (兪卿) stated that he missed kimchi and gochujang the most while in a foreign country. [23]. The Shade of a Willow Tree (An Essay on August) by Gwanbin Ok (玉觀彬) published in Dongkwang (東光, 1931), a monthly magazine from the time of Japanese occupation, also mentioned that “one spoon of gochujang brings the fragrance of the clear water in my hometown” [24]. These records imply that gochujang became an indispensable and representative item in Korean cuisine.

3. Why is Sunchang gochujang the best?

Fig. 3. A written record of gochujang used for therapeutic purposes. Siknyo-chanyo (食 Gochujang is the most popular type of jang, and the gochujang 療纂要) said that gochujang helps to relive the symptoms of nausea, lack of digestion, from Sunchang is considered to be the best of all. According to the etc. Ojuyeonmun-jangjeonsanko (五洲衍文長箋散稿) and Somunsaseol (謏聞事說), Sunchang gochujang and Cheonan gochujang were renowned for their high quality [25,26]. As previously mentioned, the first relevant record appeared because food records were Sunchang gochujang likely became more popular after King Taejo 太祖 姓成桂 generally made when a food had therapeutic effects or when it Sunggye Lee ( ) asked for it to be sent as an offering to caused illness, which contrasts with the current tendency of having the royal palace. interest in the food itself or a recipe. Siksanjip (息山集), published by Manbu Lee (李萬敷, 1664e1731) and written 200 years after the Sauigyeongheombang, stated, “We made fragrant alcohol and gochujang to pour over the hearse like a stream during the funeral (坏冶芳醑兮椒醬 撫歸櫬兮泉瀉)” [18]. Bukheonjip (北軒集), written by Chuntaek Kim (金春澤, 1670e1717), recorded that “he encouraged me to have a drink during the meal with gochujang, ginger, and kimchi (以椒醬薑菹 勸 余飯爲擧數匙)” [19]. These are the first records of gochujang as a food and demonstrate the consumption of gochujang in daily diets and on special occasions. Gochujang was also widely enjoyed by the royal family. Ac- cording to oral traditions, King Taejo Sunggye Lee tasted gochujang at the Manil temple (萬日寺) in Sunchang with a Buddhist monk name Mukak before he founded Chosun. Not being able to forget the taste of gochujang, he asked for it to be sent as an offering to the royal palace. If this tradition is true, it may have been the reason why gochujang, especially Sunchang gochujang, was enjoyed by the Chosun royal family. The Seungjungwon-ilki (承政院日記; 25th year of King Yeongjo July 24, 27th year May 18, & 33rd year May 7) is a Fig. 4. The location of Sunchang region in South Korea. Sunchang's geography with record of King Yeongjo's commands and his interactions with of- characteristic mountainous basins provides high temperatures and humidity that are ficials, written on a daily basis by Seungjeongwon, the Royal suitable for the fermentation of gochujang. 204 J Ethn Foods 2016; 3: 201e208

Sunchang is a town located in the mountainous region of special type of Sunchang gochujang enjoyed by kings, since ordi- Jeonlabuk-do in Southwestern Korea (Fig. 4). Due to Sunchang's nary citizens could not afford some of these rarer and more costly geography, which is characterized by mountainous basins, tem- ingredients [26]. A historical encyclopedia written by Gyugyeong peratures are 1C higher and humidity is 5% higher than in other Lee (李圭景) and titled the Ojuyeonmun-jangjeonsanko (五洲衍文 regions. The average temperature is 26e29C and humidity is 長箋散稿) stated that Sunchang gochujang and Cheonan gochujang 70e80% when gochujang is produced and soybean blocks (meju)are were famous throughout the nation [25]. It added that the high fermented [27]. These characteristics provide a suitable environ- reputation of Sunchang gochujang is comparable to the reputations ment for the fermentation of gochujang and led to yeast plants of “southern Korean men”, “northern Korean women”, “carp from being sown in Sunchang during the Japanese occupation of Korea. the Jecheon Uirimji Reservoir”, “sulfur from Gyeongju”, “pickled In addition, Sunchang, along with Imsil, are famous for high-quality watermelon from Yongin”, and “large shrimp from Hongju” (Fig. 6) red peppers with moderate levels of spiciness, suitable for making [25]. The Seungjungwon-ilki from the Chosun Dynasty specifically gochujang. This quality is due to their distinctive seasons and mentioned the names of people who could produce high-quality temperature variances between day and night. It is believed that Sunchang gochujang [20]. The text included that King Yeongjo red peppers and soybeans grown within a 2-km radius of Sunchang complemented Jongbu Jo (趙宗溥), the son of Eonsin Jo (趙彦臣), for are supposedly the best for making gochujang [27]. Sunchang his kind and pleasant personality (during the 37th year of the reign gochujang is still the highest selling gochujang product with large of Yeongjo, August 2). This further supports the belief that Sun- manufacturers producing gochujang in Sunchang and marketing chang gochujang was enjoyed by the royal family. their gochujang as “Sunchang gochujang”. While the quality of the In the Uiyakwolbo (醫藥月報) published by Jihun Jung in 1924, red peppers and the climate play a key role in deciding the quality Hansan sogukju, Uiju buntang, Yeonan baekcheon-injeolmi and of gochujang, water and air quality used in the fermentation process sikhae, Yuksanggung (Seoul) naengsu-chimchae, Gwangju huinssal- are also important factors. Gochujang made in Seoul using soy- gangjeong, and Sunchang gochujang were listed as medicinal foods beans, rice, and red peppers sourced from Sunchang would not [29]. Sunchang gochujang was selected for this list among other have the same unique taste as Sunchang gochujang, because the regional gochujang, and this means that Sunchang gochujang was quality of Seoul's air and water is different from Sunchang's [28].It famous not only for its taste but also for its therapeutic effects. The is important that empirical research be conducted to verify this Haedongjukji (海東竹枝, 1925) also stated that gochujang produced claim with scientific evidence. in Sunchang was the highest quality throughout Chosun (Fig. 7) Historical accounts record the past popularity of Sunchang [28]. In conclusion, the outstanding taste of Sunchang gochujang is gochujang. The Sikchibangpyeon (食治方編), a chapter included in due to the geographical characteristics of the region, which pro- the Somunsaseol [謏聞事說, a book about daily life written by Sipil vides a suitable climate for fermentation and a great environment Lee (李時弼; 1657e1724), a royal physician during the Chosun Dy- in which to grow high-quality red peppers in. Multiple efforts, such nasty], introduced Sunchang gochojangjobeop (淳昌苦艸醬造法), a as training specialists, supporting industry, and studying microor- method of preparing Sunchang gochujang that was recorded by a ganisms in order to improve preservation, have contributed to the royal physician (Fig. 5) [26]. The mention of Sunchang in this success of Sunchang gochujang and led to improved traditions document demonstrates the national reputation their gochujang associated with its production. had. Along with the typical ingredients used in gochujang, in- gredients listed in this book also included abalone, large shrimp, 4. Gochujang production methods and mussels. It is presumed that the production methods describe a One of the major ingredients of gochujang is gochujang meju. Meju is made from cooked soybeans and nonglutinous rice with a ratio of 6:4. This mixture is then woven with straw and then dried for 2e3 months. Gochujang is made from meju powder mixed with malt, salt, rice flour, and red pepper powder [2]. The typical recipe for gochujang is 25% red pepper powder, 22.2% glutinous rice, 5.5% meju powder, 12.8% salt, 5% malt, and 29% water. Once these in- gredients are mixed and placed in a crock, it takes approximately 6 months to 1 year for fermentation to occur [2]. During the process, the microorganisms present in the mixture are simplified over time. The microorganisms in the gochujang receive protein from the soybeans and carbohydrates from the rice [30]. During fermenta- tion, the microorganisms break down these proteins and starches. It has been reported that Firmicutes are most abundant in gochu- jang at bacteria phylum level, and as a family Bacillaceae make up the majority of the population (Fig. 8) [31,32]. Candida and Zygo- saccharomyces are rich in gochujang among yeasts [33,34]. These are different from the dominant fungi and yeast found in meju in which Aspergillus spp. and Rhizopus spp. are most abundant. These findings demonstrate the change in microbial composition during fermentation. According to historical references, the methods used to produce gochujang have not changed much over time. The first written description of how to produce gochujang is “Sunchang gocho- jangjobeop”, found in the Somunsaseol published by Sipil Lee [26]. It described a dried powdered mixture of boiled soybeans, baek- Fig. 5. Somunsaseol (謏聞事說), introduced Sunchang gochojangjobeop (淳昌苦艸醬造 seolgi (steamed white rice cake), red pepper powder, malt, and 法), a method of preparing Sunchang gochujang that was recorded by a royal physician. glutinous rice as the main ingredients of gochujang. This recipe is S.-H. Kim et al / Sunchang gochujang (Korean red chili paste) 205

Fig. 6. The Ojuyeonmun-jangjeonsanko (五洲衍文長箋散稿), a historical encyclopedia written by Gyugyeong Lee (李圭景, 1788e), stated that Sunchang gochujang and Cheonan gochujang were famous throughout the nation. not much different from the modern recipe, except for the addition You (柳重臨), explained not only the typical production methods of abalone, large shrimp, and mussels to gochujang. It is believed but also the characteristics of the ingredients and useful tips [35].In these were added because it was an offering to the king. The this book, Jungrim You didn't refer to gocho as cho (椒) or gocho (苦 Jeungbosanrimgyeongje (增補山林經濟, 1766), written by Jungrim 椒), but as mancho (蠻椒), a term used in China when describing red

Fig. 7. The record of Sunchang gochujang as a most famous gochujang throughout the nation in Haedongjukji (海東竹枝, 1925). It said “Gochujang is a local product of Sunchang. It has a light red color and a pleasant fragrance. It tastes mild and sweet. The qi of gochujang is clear and cold, making it a great banchan. Gochujang made in Seoul by people from Sunchang would not have the same, unique taste of Sunchang gochujang produced in Sunchang. Producing jang with chokcho is a unique custom of Chosun, and Sunchang produces the highest quality gochujang nationwide (苦椒醬 爲淳昌郡名産基色軟紅基味甘香基氣淸冽爲饌需之絶品淳昌人來到京城手造此醬味色俱不及本土之産蜀椒爲醬世界無獨稱朝 鮮一種味最是淳昌一種産朝鮮全土復有未).” 206 J Ethn Foods 2016; 3: 201e208

Fig. 8. The distribution of microorganisms in traditional gochujang. The effects of the microorganisms found in gochujang produced in Jeonbuk areas were observed through pyrosequencing of the 16s rRNA gene [31].Asgochujang produced by traditional methods uses natural microorganism present in ingredients and external environmental conditions, bacterial distribution of gochujang can vary. peppers from Taiwan and Indonesia. When making gochujang meju, of food treatment (食治). Inevitably, biotechnology-based sciences salt can be used as a seasoning, but high-quality cheongjang (淸醬) will be necessary to provide evidence for these functions and to can also be used, because it improves the flavor of the gochujang; evaluate written literatures. pan-fried sesame seeds can be added but can taste stale; too much glutinous rice flour can cause sourness; red pepper powder should 5.2. Biological functions of gochujang be added carefully; strained tofu that is made from 1 mal (Korean unit of measurement) of soybeans can be added with other in- In recent times, there have been many studies on the biological gredients; dried kelp or fish, especially herring, can enhance the functions of gochujang based on the old literature, in terms of an- flavors of gochujang. imal tests and human intervention tests. Here we describe the nutritional facts of gochujang, its antiobesity effects, and the 5. The nutrition and functional effects of gochujang improvement of the lipid and carbohydrate metabolism dysfunc- tion by gochujang. 5.1. Medicinal effects of gochujang written in literature Gochujang consists of 44.6% water, 43.8% carbohydrates, 4.9% protein, and 1.1% fat. In every 100 g of gochujang, there are 178 kcal, As mentioned above, records about gochujang written in 822 mg of potassium, and 408 mg of vitamin A (Korea Ministry of Hyangyak-jipsongbang (鄕藥集成方, 1443) [13], Euibangyuchi (醫方 Food and Drug Safety Nutritional Database). 類聚, 1445) [15], Siknyo-chanyo (食療纂要, 1460) [7], Uirimchwalyo The major bioactive compounds in chili pepper are carotenoids, (醫林撮要) [16], and Sauigyeongheombang (四醫經驗方) [17] capsaicinoids, and flavonoids. In addition, vitamin C is abundant in explained the use of gochujang as a medicinal food because at chili (1.2 mg/g) and all of these compounds have an antioxidant that time food records were generally made when a food had an property [40]. As for the quantity, carotenoids are more abundant extraordinary functional effect (i.e., medicinal effects) and oriental than capsaicinoids, such as capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin (carot- medicine considered eating a healthy food as a kind of therapy. enoids, 1.1 mg/g; capsaicinoids, 550 mg/g of chili) [40,41]. However, These records strongly suggest that gochujang has the apparent capsaicin has been the most intensively studied functional efficacy to improve health. In specific, they said that gochujang component in chili, perhaps because it is responsible for the pun- helps to promote digestive issues caused by weaknesses in the gency, the uniqueness of chili. The representative biological func- spleen and stomach. They mainly focused on the physical move- tion of capsaicin is related to metabolic syndrome, except for pain ment of digestive organs because it might be that they did not relief and anticancer activities. Capsaicin stimulates hormone- know of detailed molecular biology at that time. The recorded ef- sensitive lipase and consequent lipolysis through TRPV1, a mem- fects of gochujang are agreed nowadays and the hot spiciness of ber of the transient potential family of receptors [42,43]. Capsaicin gochujang is responsible for these effects. As well as appetite- and also increases diet-induced thermogenesis by upregulating digestion-promoting effects, gochujang was used to relieve the uncoupling protein 2 expression [43,44]. In addition, capsaicin in- symptoms of vomiting and diarrhea [36]. Also, it is written that the creases the expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 a, which tang-boiled gochujang with carp porridge or chicken is effective in is the rate-limiting enzyme for b-oxidation, and results in facilita- restoring strength from the overall sense of energy deprivation tion of fatty acid oxidation [43]. Through these functions, capsaicin [20]. It was even reported that gochujang was pasted on boil areas increases energy expenditure. However, capsaicin or chili con- after acupuncture treatment [37,38]. Furthermore, in the book of sumption increases insulin sensitivity by decreasing blood glucose Sujinkyungheomsinbang (袖珍經驗神方,1913)[39], it is recorded and insulin level in both fed and fasted states [45,46]. Several that back pain was relieved by taking gochujang tea. For thousands studies reported that capsaicin activates AMP-activated protein of years Korean people have eaten good-tasting food to maintain kinase, which is a master regulator in the facilitation of glucose the body by improving the dynamic behavior of the gut and in- uptake and fatty acid oxidation [47,48]. Indeed, capsaicin stimulates testine, with the development of fermentation technology in terms the glucose uptake through AMP-activated protein kinase S.-H. Kim et al / Sunchang gochujang (Korean red chili paste) 207

Fig 9. Improvement of visceral fat and blood lipid levels by gochujang intake. Sixty overweight men and women were provided with 32 g/d of gochujang for 12 weeks. Visceral fat area was measured by computed tomography scans. TG , triglyceride, p<0.05. activation in the muscle cell line [49]. Taken together, it is specu- Korean cuisine, gochujang is used as a seasoning in kuk and banchan lated that capsaicin or chili intake ameliorates metabolic syndrome, and as a condiment for vegetables, fish, shellfish, and meat. increasing energy expenditure as thermogenesis and fatty acid Gochujang is an essential part of the Korean diet and has become oxidation and regulating blood glucose and lipid levels. one of the most frequently consumed foods. Gochujang is also As red pepper powder makes up 25% of gochujang, the health known for its therapeutic effects such as promoting appetite and benefits of gochujang can be associated with capsaicin, the main the health of digestive organs. In addition, gochujang has been component of red pepper powder. It has been reported that 100 g of shown to reduce abdominal fat and blood lipid levels in animals gochujang contains 5 mg of capsaicin [50]. Indeed, the results of and humans. Sunchang gochujang has been the most popular studies that provided human patients or animals to ingest the gochujang product since the Chosun Dynasty, as mentioned in gochujang are as follows. In a study of pancreatectomized diabetic multiple historical sources. Sunchang gochujang is still widely rats, the rats given a high-fat diet including 5% freeze-dried enjoyed for its high quality flavor, fragrance, and color. gochujang for 8 weeks resulted in a 20% weight loss, decreased serum leptin levels, and reduced adipose fat tissue [51]. The rats Conflicts of interest given a high-fat diet including 10% freeze-dried gochujang for 5 weeks saw the same reduction as the previous group with a The authors have no conflicts of interest. decrease in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol [52]. Sixty overweight men and women with a body mass index 23 kg/m2 Acknowledgments and a waistehip ratio 0.90 for men and 0.85 for women were provided with 32 g/d of gochujang for 12 weeks. This resulted in a This work was supported by grants from the Korea Food 6% reduction of visceral fat as measured by computed tomography Research Institute (E0141501-03, E0150302-02). scans, a 16% reduction of serum triglyceride, and a 20% reduction of ApoB (p < 0.05; Fig. 9), although the patients' weight and waistehip References ratio remained unchanged [53]. When 30 hyperlipidemic in- dividuals (110e190 mg/dL LDL cholesterol or 200e260 mg/dL total [1] Kim SH, Kim MS, Lee MS, Park YS, Lee HJ, Kang SA, Lee HS, Lee KE, Yang HJ, Kim MJ, Lee YE and Kwon DY. Korean diet: Characteristics and historical cholesterol) were given 34.5 g/d of gochujang for 12 weeks, their background. J Ethn Food 2016;3:26e31. total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol were reduced by 10% and 15%, [2] Shin D and Jeong D. Korean traditional fermented soybean products: Jang. respectively (p < 0.01; Fig. 9) [54]. As reported above, the main ef- J Ethn Food 2015;2:2e7. [3] Koo OK, Lee SJ, Chung KR, Jang DJ, Yang HJ and Kwon DY. Korean traditional fects of gochujang are weight loss and lowered blood lipid levels. fermented fish products: jeotgal. J Ethn Food 2016;3:107e16. These results are similar to the reported effects of capsaicin, which [4] Jang DJ, Lee AJ, Kang SA, Lee SM and Kwon DY. Does siwonhan-mat represent include the promotion of lipid metabolism and glucose regulation. delicious in Korean foods? J Ethn Food 2016;3:159e62. 虛白亭集 It is presumed that the therapeutic effects of gochujang are due to [5] Hur BJ. Hurbakjungjip ( ). Korea; 15th century. [6] Chung KR, Yang HJ, Jang DJ and Kwon DY. Historical and biological aspects of capsaicin. These findings are significant because the functional bibimbap, a Korean ethnic food. J Ethn Food 2015;2:74e83. outcomes of the experiments were found in rats and especially [7] Chun SE, (全循義). Siknyo-chanyo (食療瓚要). Korea; 1460. humans, not just in vitro results. [8] KHIDI. 2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Korea Health Industry Development Institute, Korea; 2015. In addition, meju powder, which makes up 5% of gochujang,is [9] Kim BS. The Chronicles of Three States (三國史記). Korea; 1145. rich in isoflavonoids such as daidzin and genistin from soybeans. [10] Seo YB. Mankiyoram (萬機要覽). Korea; 1808. During the fermentation process, microorganisms transform daid- [11] Chung HY. Nonggawolryeongga (農家月令歌), Korea, 1816. [12] Park DR. Kijae-jabki (寄齋雜記). Korea; 1595. zin and genistin into daidzein and genistein by eliminating gluco- [13] Kwon C, Yu HT, Roh J and Park Y. Hyangyak-jipsongbang (鄕藥集成方). Korea; side. This transformation increases the bioavailability of isoflavone 1433. and as a result, the in vivo efficacy [52]. [14] Cham E. Sikui-simgam (食醫心鑒, Book for Alimentotherapist). China; 850. [15] Han KH, Yim WJ and Kwon C. Euibangyuchi (醫方類聚). Korea; 1445. [16] Yang YS. Uirimchwalyo (醫林撮要). Korea; 16th Century. [17] Lee SH, Chae DK, Park R and Hur Y. The Sauigyeongheombang (四醫經驗方). 6. Conclusion Korea; 17th Century. [18] Lee MB. Siksanjip (息山集). Korea; 18th Century. [19] Kim CT. Bukheonjip (北軒集). Korea; 18th Century. Although direct references to gochujang have been found since [20] Anonymous. Seungjungwon-ilki (Diary of King Chosun Royal Secretariat). the Chosun Dynasty (1400s), it is assumed that the history of Korea. 1799. gochujang is longer than the written record, considering that a [21] Anonymous. Naegakilryeok (內閣日曆). Korea; 1781. [22] Anonymous. Yanghouseonbongilgi (兩湖右先鋒日記). Korea; 1894. length of time is required for changes in food culture and that [23] You K. Byeolgeongon (別乾坤) 1928;12:148e9. Koreans have used jang and red peppers since a long time ago. In [24] Ok KB. The shade of a willow tree. Dongkwang (東光); 1931;24. 208 J Ethn Foods 2016; 3: 201e208

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