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Journal of multidisciplinary academic tourism ISSN: 2645-9078 2019, 4 (2): 109 - 121 OLD ISSN: 2548-0847 www.jomat.org A General Overview on the Far East : of , and ** Sevgi Balıkçıoğlu Dedeoğlu*, Şule Aydın, Gökhan Onat ABSTRACT Keywords: Far east cuisine Thailand The aim of this study is to examine the Thai, Korean and Chinese cuisines of the Far East. Far Eastern Korea cuisine has a rich culinary culture that has hosted many civilizations that serve as a bridge between past China and present. Thai, Korean and Chinese cuisines are the most remarkable ones among the Far Eastern Ethnic cuisines. Therefore, these three cuisines have been the main focus of this study. In this study, cuisines’ history and their development are explained by giving basic information about these three countries. After this step, the general characteristics of the cuisines of these countries are mentioned. Finally, some of the that are prominent in these countries and identified with these countries are explained in Article History: general terms. Submitted: 04.06.2019 Accepted:07.12.2019 Doi: https://doi.org/10.31822/jomat.642619

1. Introduction With the reflection of postmodern consumption East can be highlighted in order to be able to mentality on tourist behavior, national cuisines attract them to these regions. As a matter of fact, have reached another level of importance as tourist the popularity of many cuisines from the Far East attractions. Despite the fact that local food has an regions is gradually increasing and they are important place in the past as a touristic product, becoming an attraction element. For instance, the benefits gained through authentic experiences while various food in Thailand occupy the highest are much more at the forefront nowadays. The spots in the World's most delicious food ratings, increase in the benefit that a tourist can get from Korea (South Korea) is endeavoring to bring its local food reveals that local food is a subject that cuisine to the forefront through the elements that needs to be emphasized more. would create cultural awareness on Korean food. China, on the other hand, forms the basis of Far When the international touristic activities in the East cuisine. Most Far East countries have been world in 2017 are reviewed, it is seen that the shaped by the influence of as a number of people participating in touristic result of the Chinese influence which had been activities is 941 million in total from the continents ongoing for years. Therefore, it can be claimed that of Europe (672), America (211) and the Middle-East these three national cuisines should be paid (58). In addition, it can be indicated in the light of attention to in the context of being marketed as a the analysis based on the whole continent that touristic product. international touristic travels are carried out within the confines of the continents themselves In this study, three important Far East cuisines (NTWTO, 2018). At this juncture, especially for have been examined and analyzed. Within this those individuals who are to participate in the scope, not only the history and cultural international touristic activities from the development of the countries but also their continents of Europe, America and the Middle geographical and climatic characteristics were East, the cuisine of Asia and especially the Middle taken into account, and the processes of formation

* Corresponding Author Review Paper PhD Candidate, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Department of and Culinary Arts Sevgi Balıkçıoğlu Dedeoğlu *: Email: [email protected], Orcid Id: 0000-0002-4881-8560 Prof. Dr., Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management Şule Aydın: Email: [email protected], Orcid Id: 0000-0002-8760-643X Res. Asst., Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Gökhan Onat: Email: [email protected], Orcid Id: 0000-0001-5072-948X

Jomat is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Derivable 4.0 International License.

**A previous version of this paper was presented at 4th. International Gastronomy Tourism Studies Congress

Sevgi Balıkçıoğlu Dedeoğlu, Şule Aydın, Gökhan Onat of the culinary cultures were tried to be explained. 67 million people (Wikipedia, 2019a). While 75% of Lastly, general information was presented focusing the Thailand population is comprised of ethnic on the showcase products of these cuisines. Thais, 14% is comprised of Chinese and the rest is comprised of other ethnic groups (Malaysian, 2. Thailand Indian etc.) (, 2008: 78). Thailand's General Characteristics Thailand, the historical name of which was Siam Thailand is comprised of 6 regions involving and the current official name of which is Thailand Northern, Southern, Western, Central, Eastern Kingdom, resides in the central region of the and Northeastern Thailand. In the south of Indochina Peninsula (Mishra, 2010: XI). Indochina Thailand, there is the Gulf of Thailand, and in the peninsula is a region stretching from the east of west, there is the Andaman Sea. Although there is in Southeast Asia to the south of China. This equatorial climate in a very small region of is why Thailand has borders with four countries Thailand, tropical climate is dominant in general. which are in the north, in the south, In addition, monsoon climate is seen in the Myanmar in the west and in the east southern regions. While the period between the (Wikipedia, 2019a). months of May and October in Thailand goes on with high levels of precipitation with the effect of The archaeological findings suggest that there was the monsoon rains, the months of March and April habitation in the prehistoric periods in the are those times at which the heat and humidity are geographical location that is called Thailand now. at their highest in Thailand. A cool climate is seen It is estimated that agriculture and stockbreeding between the months of November and February in this region began approximately 12 thousand (Wikipedia, 2019b). years ago. Modern scholars state that the Thailand people came from North Vietnam or China and that The History and Development of Thailand Cuisine they settled in the Southeast Asia as of 8th century The national cuisine of Thailand is called Thailand (London, 2008: 24). According to another source, it cuisine (Wikipedia, 2019c). As a result of the Thai is believed that the Thailand people came from the cuisine having been in mutual exchange with the Altai Mountains in North Mongolia (Moore, 1975: cuisines of the neighboring countries, it was 22). The Thailand people living in the plains and influenced by the cultures and hence, cuisines of river valleys of the southeastern Asia continent led those countries. It was influenced by Malaysia in their lives by fishing in the small villages, growing the west, Vietnam and Cambodia in the east, the and gathering food from the jungle. While the region of China and Laos in the north, and families living in Thailand villages were comprised Myanmar in the northwest. Thailand cuisine is of elementary families, the family members worked comprised of four regions involving Northern as rice farmers trying to make their ends meet Thailand, , (London, 2008: 24-25). This situation ensures that and Northeastern Thailand. In addition to these Thailand be among the leading countries with regions, there is Thailand Royal Cuisine, the regard to rice export in our day (Mishra, 2010). history of which dates back to ancient and multicultural kingdoms, yet this cuisine generally Although Thailand is the unadulterated center of reflects the characteristics of Central Thailand civilizations such as Egypt, Mesopotamia and cuisine. Thailand is the only state that escaped the China, it is not as well-known as them. However, colonization of western countries in the Southeast Thailand is among the first centers of civilization Asia region in the Second World War. This in humankind development (Mishra, 2010). This is attribute enabled their cuisine to preserve its why it was home to many different nations. When authenticity (Wikipedia, 2019d). On the other the Thailand Kingdom was first established, it was hand, the cuisine of relatively western countries influenced by Buddhism and Hinduism religions influenced Thailand cuisine as well following the (Mishra, 2010: 1). Therefore, it can be stated that beginning of the diplomatic relations with the west. 90% of people living in Thailand are Buddhists, In 1511, with the visit of Portuguese diplomat to and the rest are Muslims, Christians or followers the , a Portuguese dish called of Sikhism and Hinduism religions. Within the "" was adapted to as "foi remaining part, the majority is comprised of thong". In addition, they encountered Chile Muslims (approximately 6%). Thailand Muslims peppers for the first time brought from the are not Malaysians. They came from Iran, American continent around the 16th and 17th Pakistan, India, China and the Arabic world centuries. The Thailand cuisine, with the influence (London, 2008: 71). According to 2014 data, of the Persian and , adapted the Thailand population is comprised of approximately 110

Journal of multidisciplinary academic tourism 2019, 4 (2): 109-121 massaman and yellow to their cuisine the balance of the main ingredients should be (Wikipedia, 2019c). taken into notice rigorously (Chongchitnant, 2016). General Attributes of the Thai Cuisine Another important attribute of the Thai cuisine is Since owned rich agricultural areas that dishes are served with the and throughout their history, Thailand is an seasoning called nam chin. Different kinds of agriculture-based country. Rice, on the other hand, sauce can be offered such as , lemon juice, forms the basis of Thailand people's agriculture. It chopped red hot and , hot pepper is believed that rice cultivation dates back further chopped in rice , spiced chili pepper sauce than 3500 B.C. 60% of Thailand people do farming (Wikipedia, 2019d). today, and most of them cultivate rice (Berno et al., Rice is the indispensable ingredient of the Thai 2019: 18). Although there are nearly 3500 kinds of cuisine. This is why dishes are served with rice. rice in Thailand today, the most well-known is the Rice and the food served next to it are put on the (Berno et al., 2019: 19). table in a way to let anybody help themselves. The While in the Thai culture, rice and fish Thai people only take a small piece of the food symbolically represent power (sexual), the served and respects everyone's right to get food. As abundance and blessings of the country, it also the food on the plate is finished, they can have forms the basis of Thai diet. Therefore, these more small portions and continue eating. While beliefs and culture have been influential in the food is being eaten, a spoon and a fork are used. daily life of the Thai people. Especially the The fork is used to fill the spoon (Chongchitnant, consumption of rice means more than just food, 2016). since it is intertwined with the lifecycle of Thai The Showcase of Thai Cuisine people with regard to religious belief and ritual Thai cuisine is among the most well-known practices. This is why rice is a holy food for Thai cuisines in the world. According to a survey by people (Berno et al., 2019: 19). As well as CNN Travel, a total of seven from Thai being as equally popular, dishes such as cuisine were on the list of "the most delicious 50 soup fried in wok can be presented in a single plate dishes of the world". These are tom yam goong, pad (Wikipedia, 2019d). The second most important Thai, som tam, , , Thai raw ingredient of the Thai cuisine is fish. The main and nu (Wikipedia, 2019c). reason is that Thai people constantly inhabited in paddies and watery lands. Fish is even used in With the "Amazing Thai " festival organized -making. For instance, a roasted fish can be in 2017, it was aimed to promote Thai cuisine and consumed with watermelon (Seubsman et al., 2009: develop tourism. Within this scope, 6 Thai dishes 419). were focused on. These were , goong, green curry, som tam, massaman curry and The most significant attribute of Thai cuisine is . In addition, promotional activities that preparation of balanced dishes is of great were carried out regarding seasonal fruits such as importance (Chongchitnant, 2016). Flat rice or wet , , magosteen and rice are served with the spiced Thailand curry or (Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2017). As is seen, fried dishes in order to balance the the prominent dishes are the same as revealed by (Wikipedia, 2019d). There are 6 fundamental the surveys carried out by both CNN Travel and points to be aware of with regard to the preparation the Thailand Tourism Administration. Therefore, of the dishes of the Thai cuisine. The first is that it can be stated that the abovementioned dishes some of the dishes need to be watery. That means come to the mind when it comes to Thailand it needs to be served with soup or (sauced cuisine. or watery dishes). Especially the curry or more bullioned soup can be preferred. Secondly, Pad Thai is among the most well-known dishes of there needs to be a non-watery piece on the dish the Thai cuisine. The dish took this name after the such as grill or fry. Thirdly, light and fresh country's name being changed from Siam to and should be used. For instance, Thailand. Although pad thai is made using the fresh lemon juice, fresh herbs should be served. noodle which belongs to China as an ingredient, it Four, there needs to be at least one spice. Five, if still manages to being known with the name 'Thai'. there are no noodles, there definitely needs to be The main underlying reason here is the desire of rice. Six, by making a mix of products such as fish, the prime minister of Thailand who is known with meat, , poultry and vegetables, a more his Thailand nationalism, to protect its country well-balanced dish should be prepared. This is why from the influence of China. The word 'pad' refers 111

Sevgi Balıkçıoğlu Dedeoğlu, Şule Aydın, Gökhan Onat to frying and mixing with little oil in wok pepper, lemon weed, shrimp spread, garlic and (Chongchitnant, 2016: 277). Pad thai is the rice onion. Massaman curry is dedicated to Muslims. noodle dish which is cooked on the pan by adding This is why different ingredients such as chicken, different ingredients (Merriam-Webster, 2019). cattle, sheep and are used in the , fish sauce, , garlic, red pepper preparation of original Massaman curry are among the ingredients that can be used while (Wikipedia, 2019i). pad thai (Wikipedia, 2019e). The Green curry takes its name from the fact that Tom yum goong is a kind of soup named nam sai it is prepared with green peppers (Chongchitnant, (Chongchitnant, 2016: 207). While soup in the 2016: 163). Since it is made of and preparation of which lemon weed is used is called fresh green peppers, its color is light. In Thai Tom yum, goong refers to shrimp. Therefore, we cuisine, this color is called "the sweet green". can call this dish shrimp soup. While the term Tom Therefore, green curry is also called sweet green in the "Tom yum" refers to the process of boiling, curry. It has sharper taste in comparison to the red yam expresses the spiced/chili and sour in the curries. In addition to its main ingredients such as Thai cuisine. This soup is prepared using lemon fish, fish or other meat products, the weed, plump lemon leaves, fish sauce and red Green curry is made using coconut milk, green pepper flakes. There are a lot of different kinds of curry spread and fish sauce. This curry is prepared tom yum. While tom yum kathi is made focusing on by frying in coconut cream oil (Wikipedia, 2019j). the coconut milk, tom yum pla is the that Around the end of 19th century, Tom kha kai was is consumed with rice. Tom yum pla was the most a chicken or duck main served with plenty prevalent kind of tom yum before the increase in of galangale and little coconut milk rather than tourism activities. Tom yum kai is the kind which soup. Yet today, Tom kha kai is fundamentally a is prepared with chicken (Wikipedia, 2019f). kind of soup that is prepared using a combination Som tum, the green salad, is prepared with of coconut milk and . In addition to coconut raw . Spices are used for the preparation of milk, Tom kha kai can be made using galangale, these . As in other Southeastern Asia lemon weed, , paddy straw, chicken, fish cuisine, the origin of this dish is not exactly known. sauce, lemon essence and kaffif lemon leaf. While “som” expresses sourness, “tum” refers to Occasionally it can be enriched adding fried smashing ingredients in the press. Accordingly, it peppers (Wikipedia, 2019k). can be said that some of the ingredients of som tum 3. Korea are prepared by smashing in the press. Since in the salad-making of the West (Europe and America), Korea's General Characteristics the ingredients are gently sprinkled, the smashing Although the name Korea in our day and time in this case may be conceived strange. However, recalls two countries as North and South Korea, this helps the grinding of garlic and peppers Korea was being run as a single country until the (Chongchitnant, 2016: 247). There are a lot of end of the Second World War. Although the history different ingredients used for making of som tum. of Korea dates back to 8000 B.C, this date is These are: chili pepper, , garlic, fish believed to have begun with the people living in the sauce, , shrimp spread, jaggery and tahiti Manchurian and Korean peninsula. Agriculture . Som tum is generally served with rice mash started with the people that migrated to the and grilled chicken. Som tum can be used in order Manchurian and Korean peninsula between the to lighten the main course, taking into years 2000-1000 B.C. Rice cultivation, on the other consideration the balance factor in Thai cuisine hand, started first around the year 700 B.C. in the (Wikipedia, 2019h). Korean peninsula (Kim, 2005: XV- XVI). Massaman curry is not watery and spicy as other Korea had to suffer from the influence of different curries in Thai cuisine. Massaman curry today is countries such as China, Mongolia, , Russia prepared with regular potatoes. However, before and the USA. This situation had an impact on the the Thai cuisine was introduced to regular potato, development and shaping of the Korean culture. yellow was the main ingredient of this The geographical and political boundaries of Korea curry (Chongchitnant, 2016: 175). Massaman curry in our day and time were formed after the Second is a light one as well as a rich one. This curry is World War. While the Korean Democratic Republic prepared using a combination of local riches such was established in the north of the Korean as gillyflower, anisee, , bayleaf, cordamon, peninsula with the support of the Soviet Union, the spices like and corriander seed, dried Korean Republic was established in the south of 112

Journal of multidisciplinary academic tourism 2019, 4 (2): 109-121 the peninsula with the support of the USA surrounded by sea on three sides and by the (Wikipedia, 2019). Besides the fact that North intersection of cold and hot currents and it has very Korea's surface area is 122.760 km2, it is located large rivers, it is located in a region ripe which is neighboring Russia and China in the north, the very rich in seafood. Besides, as a result of intense Japanese Sea in the east, the Yellow Sea and seasonal changes and developments in their skills Korean Republic (South Korea) in the south. The of processing fermented food such as (salted basis of the state management in the country seafood) since the earlier times, they experienced which was established in 1948 goes back to significant improvements in terms of the socialism and the population is comprised of diversification of seafood. Furthermore, thanks to approximately 25 million people. In addition, there their high capabilities in hunting, Koreans formed is a governing mentality that is quite sheltered the tradition of preparing meat-based dishes, from the outside world in relation to other which is rarely seen in agricultural societies governments dominated by socialism (Republic of (Robert, 2010: 111). Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019a; When these are taken into account, it is seen that Wikipedia, 2019m). The Korean Republic regular and daily rice, soup and common side established in the south has 99.700 km2 of land dishes have been developed. The table setting was and its population is around 51 million 635 clearly different for the main and sub-courses. In thousand (Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign rituals and festivals, it became a tradition that a Affairs, 2019b). In the east of the South Korea, table is set up involving every kind of appetizer- there is the Japanese Sea and Japan, in the west dinner service, flavored with , there is China and the Yellow Sea, in the north cold noodles, rice , pastries and drinks. there is North Korea (Wikipedia, 2019n). While With the influence of the four seasons, food those who live in the North Korea are all comprised produced in each region and garnitures consumed of Koreans, those who live in the South Korea are daily varied from region to region and passed comprised, to a very large extent, of Koreans. through a developmental phase. Ganjang (Soy Therefore, it is not possible to mention about a sauce), (pickle), jeotgal (seafood salad) and multicultural society influence. In the South preservable processed food such as horse radish Korean climate, winter is relatively cold and dry, pickle, began to be consumed in earlier and summer is humid. While the temperature goes times (Robert, 2010: 111). down as low as on average -5 in the regions away from the coastline in winter months, the average Significant effects of the Three Kingdoms Period temperature in summer months is approximately are observed in the . Throughout the 25 degrees. In addition, the annual precipitation Three Kingdoms Period, rice was the most rate may reach up to 1500 mm (Britannica, 2019). elemental food in the Korean diet. All kingdoms (Goguryeo, Baekje and ) supported the soil The History and Development of the Korean Cuisine reform, expanded irrigation systems and actively Since the past periods, food occupies an important supported the use of metal tools and equipment in position in Korea. In Korea, food represents peace agriculture (Robert, 2010: 115). Especially in the and happiness. As well as rebelling less, well-fed Three Kingdoms Period, the consumption of cattle, people are more grasping towards rules. For this pig, chicken, sheep, goat, duck and eggs increased reason, governments before modern Korea always (Robert, 2010: 117). placed importance on agricultural production. In this context, food has always been important for With Koreans learning how to build a boat in the Korea (Pettid, 2008: 24). 3rd and 4th centuries, the variety of the fish and seafood in Korean cuisine increased. With the Agriculture in Korea dates back further than B.C. development of cooking techniques, Koreans era. Korea started to cultivate grains around mid- gained experience of preserving and storing Neolithic Age and rice beginning from 2000 B.C. products such as wine, pickle (kimchi), seafood Since the beginning of the Korean history, beans brine (jeotgal) and sauce. In addition, around the and rice alongside various grains have been same centuries, Koreans began diversifying their cultivated. In other words, rice, beans and other culinary culture with the use of honey, and grains formed the basis of Korean food. Among liquid oil. The table setting for a typical Korean other grains, there is Italian corn, Chinese corn cuisine developed throughout this period. While and kaoliang (African corn). Yet, after rice farming the grain, vegetables and meat are offered as main begun, began to be cultivated around the 1st course in this table setup, fish are served as or 2nd centuries. Since the Korean Peninsula is garniture (Robert, 2010: 117-118). 113

Sevgi Balıkçıoğlu Dedeoğlu, Şule Aydın, Gökhan Onat Horse radish, turnip, lotus roots, leek, lettuce, In addition, because Korea is located in a green onion, water shields, garlic, pearl onion, peninsula, the surrounding sea and especially the cucumber and were cultivated in the ocean offer plenty of fruitful and varied food. period. In addition, mountain greens and Especially the fermentation and irrigation wild mushrooms were also cultivated and methods developed in line with the differences consumed in this period (Robert, 2010: 118-119). varying from region to region have enabled that a Especially the culture reached the highest peak wide variety of seafood are consumed as in the in the Goryeo Dynasy period. High quality tea was Korean cuisine (Pettid, 2008: 25). Moreover, many imported from China and a tea village was built in mountains on the peninsula host wild plants and the Korean region. paved the way for grasses. These plants and herbs are prepared and pastry (cake and mince pie) culture to develop. stored as they are important ingredients. Pastries are prepared to a large extent as Vegetables can thus be served all year round. As a yumilgwa (fried honey cookie), yugwa (fried cookie matter of fact, this method has been sustained made of sticky rice), (small consumed since the earliest periods of Korean history (Pettid, with green tea), jeonggwa (-glazed fruit) and 2008: 25). gwapyeon (fruit with jelly). Among these varieties, Taking into consideration the above-mentioned the most popular one during the Goryeo Dynasty remarks, it can be claimed that Korean cuisine is was yumilgwa (Robert, 2010: 119). predominantly based on grains (mostly rice) In the Dynasty period, Korean cuisine was flavored with spiced vegetables, meat, poultry or both under the influence of Confucius and was fish dishes. The Korean cuisine is notable for five introduced to foreign cuisine. With the maturation kinds of taste (salty, sweet, sour, chili and hot) and of Confucius culture beginning from the 16th color (red, green, yellow, white and black) (Britting, century, yangban culture expanded and this 2011: 164). The ingredients and food in the Korean situation had a significant effect on the Korean cuisine developed on regional basis as mentioned culinary culture (Robert, 2010: 121). In this period, before. For this reason, the dishes that were Yangban houses also prepared cooking documents previously regional were created with differences and developed cooking methods. During the Joseon as they spread throughout the country. Another dynasty period, Korean cuisine encountered important attribute of the Korean cuisine is that it foreign food for the first time such as peppers, embraces the close relationship between health , potatoes, sweet potatoes and tomatoes. and food (Pettid, 2008: 26). In this period, the fishing techniques were Although Korean cuisine maintains its continuity developed further and efficiency in the seas was in certain aspects, it has undergone great changes enhanced. Thus, the influence of fish on the in the last century. Especially, trade agreements Korean cuisine was felt much more deeply (Robert, with France, Britain and other Western countries 2010: 123). allowed new cultural experiences. In addition, a lot General Attributes of the Korean Cuisine of people joined the royal family as a counselor, Korean cuisine is a cuisine that has evolved in the doctor or missionary. Thus, the educational and Korean Peninsula and south region scientific knowledge gained has paved the way for under natural environmental and cultural the discovery of western food. However, many influences as well as the influence of their schools built by western missionaries introduced agricultural and nomadic traditions. As is seen western culture, including western food. Although both in Korean history and the historical rice is a very important and essential food for development process of the Korean cuisine, it can Korean cuisine, its consumption has decreased be indicated that they improved themselves in considerably in recent years. Meat consumption agricultural products due to the fact that they were increased from 5.2 kg per person in 1970 to 40 kg engaged in agricultural activities starting from in 1997. In addition, Koreans consume an average very early times. Furthermore, the nomadic and of 49.5 kg of fish per person per year. Meat dishes, hunter characteristics of Koreans which they had once stored for special occasions and guests, are in the earlier periods enabled them to advance in now consumed on a daily basis (Pettid, 2008: 166). cooking and consumption of meat products.

Although it is not specifically stated that rice cultivation began in Korea, it is expressed that it In Korean cuisine, meats are often greased before has been grown in the Korean peninsula for a long cooking. Marinated is grilled on a barbecue or time. on a stove. In terms of , typically, ,

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Journal of multidisciplinary academic tourism 2019, 4 (2): 109-121 and dinner are available. Breakfast may that it is sweeter than ordinary kimchi (K-Food, include soup, rice oat soup and kimchi, while lunch 2015: 112). includes noodles or and rice as a side dish. Japchae is a combination of two words. “Jap” For dinner, fish or meat along with rice, kimchi, means mixing or collecting various things, while soup and two or three types of vegetables could be “chae” refers to vegetables. Japchae is one of offered. Bowls are provided for each of the main Korea's leading party dishes and is always featured course. Barley juice or tea can be served after the at festive tables. Made from a combination of stir- meal (Brittin, 2011: 164). fried glass noodles and vegetables, japchae is The Showcase of Korean Cuisine prepared with dangmyeon, a type of cellophane Although there are various dishes in Korean noodle, usually made from sweet potato starch, and cuisine, the eight best known tastes are kimchi, noodles are filled with various vegetables, meat , bulgogi, bossam, japchae, haemul- and mushrooms and poured with soy sauce and pajeon, makgeolli, and samgye-tang (K-Food, 2015: oil and poured spices (K-Food, 2015: 115). 95-130). Pajeon is a kind of crepe the main ingredient of Kimchi is undoubtedly the most delicious dish of which is green onions. For preparation of Haemul- Korean cuisine. There is almost no fat included in Pajeon, on the other hand, meat, fish or vegetables this dish, but it is enriched in flavor and (other than green onions) are used. This dish is nutrition thanks to the abundance of spices and cooked by shallow fry on the grill. It is prepared by seafood added to the meal. In addition, the spicy cutting the ingredients into bite-sized pieces before taste and glittering pie texture complete almost all frying, or by mixing the ingredients with and Korean dishes and it is permanent in addition to water and giving them the shape of crepes. () in Korean cuisine (K-Food, 2015: Haemul-pajeon can also be served with sour sauce 95). In essence, a meal in Korea is not complete made with vinegar (K-Food, 2015: 117). without the presence of kimchi on the table. Makgeolli is among the most popular alcoholic Currently, there are officially 187 kimchi varieties beverages of Korean cuisine. This beverage has the in Korea. Koreans consume an average of 40 soft texture of cream, the fizziness of a carbonated kilograms of kimchi per year. Kimchi is prepared beverage, and a suitable alcohol content ranging with pickled and seasoned vegetables to be left to from six to seven percent. It is made by fermenting ferment. This fermentation process creates a sweet rice. Makgeolli is the oldest alcoholic significant complex flavor that combines spices, beverage in Korean cuisine. This drink was the thong, sweetness and brittleness. The most well- most consumed alcoholic beverage in North Korea known kind is made from Korean or napa between the 1960s and 1970s, but lost its cabbage. Although this food is generally preferred popularity with the import of alcoholic beverages in raw, it can also be served in combination with soup, the 1970s. In the 21st century, this beverage has and frying (Joo, 2016: 26). become popular again among young people Bibimbap is a food prepared by mixing food and (Wikipedia, 2019; K-Food, 2015: 120). pepper paste with boiled rice (Robert, 2010: 28). In Samgye-tang is hot chicken soup with ginseng. It fact, bibimbap is a simple rice dish. It is mixed with contains a small but whole chicken. Also garlic, spicy vegetables and red hot pepper sauce. This rice, jujube and ginseng are included as additional food can be considered unique as it combines ingredients. In addition, the is also a very ordinary ingredients to create a wonderful and popular flavor. In Korean cuisine, Banchan is the delicious meal. One can adapt this food in a way to overall name for all small side dishes served with fit to his own taste. The traditional Bibimbap plate cooked rice. The Banchan is served in the middle of includes steamed rice with a range of high-quality the entire table with small portions. Kimchi is one ingredients such as various nougats (spicy of the most well-known . vegetables) and yukhoe (beef tartar) (K-Food, 2015: 105). 4. China Bossam, is a dish. This meal is prepared by China’s General Characteristics wrapping into kimchi. The Bossam requires a Despite the fact that civilizations such as special preparation technique and contains extra Sumerian and Egypt are among the most ancient ingredients such as kimchi, oysters, raw chestnuts, civilizations in the world, China is the most ancient jujube, pine nuts and a little more sugar than the living civilization in the world (Wright, 2011: 11). standard kimchi flavor. Therefore, it can be stated In ancient China, traces of the Neolithic period are abundantly observed. Much evidence, such as 115

Sevgi Balıkçıoğlu Dedeoğlu, Şule Aydın, Gökhan Onat agriculture, the presence of villages, the presence As mentioned earlier, China has often experienced of ceramics and stone tools, supports the fact that wars of sovereignty within its own boundaries. For China is a deeply-rooted ancient civilization. More this reason, it cannot be argued that it was under particularly, the structural features shaped in line the sovereignty of foreign states, or foreign states with environmental conditions by habitants living had much influence on . Therefore, in East Asia come to the forefront more. For there is more variety in ethnic groups constituting example, while people settling along Yangzi river the Chinese population; however, it is not much in valley usually grew rice, those residing in the Wei overall proportion. China's population is and Yellow river valleys cultivated different approximately 1 billion 390 million. The number of varieties of corn and cereals. On the other hand, is around 1 billion 150 million. The people living on the beach used to consume mostly rest includes people from other nations such as seafood besides fruit and vegetables (Major and Manchu, Uighur, Hui, Miao, Yi, Tujia, Mongol Cook, 2017: 2). (Wikipedia, 2019). Despite not being fully clear, the first dynasty China is the second largest country in the world founded in China (Xia dynasty) was reported to with an area of approximately 9 million 600 have existed around 2100 B.C. It is emphasized thousand km2. China has borders with 14 that the first dynasty (Shang Dynasty), about countries including Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burma, which there is evidence regarding its foundation India, Kazakhstan, North Korea, Kyrgyzstan, and scientists have reached a consensus over, dates Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, back to 1700-1600 B.C. The Shang Dynasty was Tajikistan and Vietnam. It also neighbors with later conquered by the Zhou Dynasty (Wright, South Korea, Japan, Vietnam and the Philippines 2011: 13; Zhang, 2015: 24). The Zhou Dynasty was through its sea borders. In addition, it has 690 also weakened and divided by different rebellions. thousand km2 of arable agricultural land (CIA, Following this division, small states in China 2019). fought for years to establish their superiority. The Climate in China generally reflects the Chinese Dynasty was established as a result of Qin characteristics of humid monsoons and dry conquest over other states; however, this dynasty seasons. Due to its vast geographical area, China collapsed and left the governance to different experiences different climatic conditions. dynasties. Until the foundation of the Republic of Particularly humid monsoons and dry seasons lead China in 1912, the empire period continued in to very distinct temperatures between summer and China. It can be said that the foreign states had winter. With the influence of the Yellow Sea and scarcely any influence on China until this period. the East China Sea in the east of China, both the China was conquered only by the Mongols in 1271. population density and the number of alluvial Furthermore, China had problems with Britain, plains are high. Yellow River and Yangtze River France and Japan in the late 1800s. After being are located in the east of China. These rivers feed defeated as a result of the wars with Britain and large deltas. However, the biggest threat to France, these countries were granted with great agriculture in China is the annually increasing privileges over China. China, which lost its number of deserted land (Wikipedia, 2019) influence on the Korean peninsula after the war with Japan, turned over the governance of Taiwan The History and Development of Chinese Cuisine to Japan. Although the Republic of China was It is estimated that the roots of Chinese cuisine established in 1912, the People's Republic of China dates back to the Yangshao culture between 5000 was founded in 1949 and seized the power of and 3200 BC. In ancient times, the people of governing. There is currently a dispute between Chinese civilization formed their own cooking and the Republic of China and the People's Republic of eating styles. As mentioned earlier, the fact that China. Hainan and the surrounding islands, China has been a living civilization since ancient particularly Taiwan, are under the control of the times and maintained its geographical location Republic of China, while all other geographical over years led Chinese people to attach great areas are governed by the People's Republic of importance to their cuisine. In the early years of China. The People's Republic of China claims that Chinese cuisine, rice and corn cultivation comes to the regions under the control of the Republic of the forefront. With the arrival of wheat in West China are also under its governance because of the Asia in 2000 BC, Chinese cuisine was introduced to Single China Policy it advocates (Wikipedia, 2019). wheat (Chang, 1979: 25). Especially during the dynasty, Chinese cuisine entered a period of extensive development. Throughout the history of 116

Journal of multidisciplinary academic tourism 2019, 4 (2): 109-121 China, aristocrats and mandarins were influential sprouts and cheese prepared by heating and in the development of Chinese cuisine, as they had precipitating curd cheese made from are always been economically and politically privileged some examples of derivatives. Chinese to lead the development of gastronomy (Hong, cuisine also has unique vegetables such as Chinese 2014: 16). cabbage, Chinese , and Chinese water chestnuts (Guripek, 2016: 262). In the Han Dynasty, methods were developed for cooking, frying and drying of cereals, as well as for Common meat varieties used in Chinese cuisine preserving and storing food. During the Song include chicken and pork (Güripeki 2016: 262). Dynasty, the importance of rice and rice soup Pork meat consumption corresponds to 3/4 of increased relatively. During the Yuan and Qing overall meat consumption within the country; Dynasties, casserole dishes, which are significant therefore, it is the most consumed variety of meat. flavors of Mongolian and , came to Moreover, insects, snakes, , cat meat and the forefront. Towards the end of the imperial meat of various wild animals are also consumed in period, raw ingredients such as Mexican peppers, Chinese cuisine (Tez, 2018: 19). potatoes and corn were introduced to China via the Appearance is also quite important in Chinese traders from and (Wikipedia, cuisine. The harmony of colors, flavors and spices 2019p). in dishes have a critical role in reflecting Chinese General Attributes of Chinese Cuisine cuisine (Hong, 2014). In Chinese culinary arts, Chinese cuisine embodies wide variety of food due color (aesthetics and beauty), flavor and taste are to not only the existence of different agricultural the fundamental elements. The fact that one of lands provided by the geographical size and the these fundamental elements is missing could lead climatic diversity of the country but also hosting to unsatisfactory dish. In order for dishes to look different nationalities within its boundaries. It is appealing to the eye, two or three additional reported that there are approximately 10 thousand ingredients in different colors must be included kinds of food in Chinese cuisine. Due to its large along with a single main ingredient (Junru, 2005: surface area, each region may have its own food 2). Blue, green, red, yellow, white, black and brown culture. Therefore, Chinese cuisine consists of sauce colors need to be mixed in the right different (Polat, 2017: 88). Among combination. Furthermore, aesthetic in dishes can these different cuisines, the most effective ones are be ensured with the help of appropriate cooking Cantonese, Shandong, Jiangsu and Sisuan techniques. Especially in Chinese cuisine, there is cuisines. While prefers cooking a close relationship between colors and health. This food at low heat, cuisine prefers different situation comes to the forefront more when fruits baking techniques for food preparation (Wikipedia, and vegetables are involved as an ingredient into 2019p). Especially in the northern regions, the food mix (Hong, 2014: 20). The flavor is ensured naturalness in meals is in the forefront. Therefore, by the use of right spices such as green onions, soy sauce, garlic, green onions, and spice , garlic, wine, anisee, cassia, , varieties are the most commonly-used ingredients sesame oil and mushrooms. While the dish for . In the southern regions, the use of wok is being prepared, techniques such as frying, frying is more prominent. Another important on pan, poaching, quick-frying and boiling can be characteristic of the Southern cuisine is the sweet- used in order to preserve the dishes' natural taste sour sauces prepared on the basis of the unity of and juice. In addition, if the right amount of soy contrast. Different techniques of frying dominate sauce, sugar, vinegar and various spices are used, the cuisines in eastern China. Especially rice, the saltiness, sourness, sweetness and spiciness of salads and pastries are consumed along with the dishes can be highlighted more (Junru, 2005: meals. In the Western region, bitter dishes 3). abundant in spices are consumed. In addition, In Chinese table setting, special eating sticks are these dishes may be served accompanied by used instead of forks and knives. This is why the content of which are very rich in ingredients are chopped into big pieces first vinegar and spices (Tez, 2019: 21). (around the size of an average bite) before getting It can be indicated that rice is the main foodstuff in scorched in order to ease the cooking process. traditional Chinese cuisine. Despite the fact that Duration of cooking is short in Chinese cuisine. In many different ingredients are used in Chinese this way, they avoid losing much of the nutritional cuisine, soybean and soybean derivatives occupy a values of the dishes. Indeed, one of the most very important position. Soy sauce, soy milk, bean important matters to be paid attention to is a 117

Sevgi Balıkçıoğlu Dedeoğlu, Şule Aydın, Gökhan Onat healthy diet. Therefore, the preparation of having been rendered ready to be slaughtered, is balanced dishes can be considered as an important cleaned with water after the slaughtering and it is detail in the context of Chinese cuisine. In this dipped in boiling water for a short while before the regard, dishes are cooked in hollow pans called drying process. Later the duck is hung and glazed "wok" at high temperatures. As a result of high with malt syrup. Following this stage, the duck is temperature, the in ingredients get cleaned with water again and the second glazing caramelized and become more delicious. In stage begins. In the second glazing stage, it is left addition, when the vegetables are being blasted, to dry in a dry and cool environment for 24 hours the inner part of it is left raw while the outer part after it is glazed with soy sauce, various spices and is fried. Another cooking method is . more malt syrup. Lastly, it should be cooked in a Steaming is generally used for fish, vegetable and closed or open oven until it turns brown cooking (Tez, 2019: 21). (Wikipedia, 2019v). In Chinese cuisine, first the salty foods are served. The pork dish derives its taste from While dry dishes are consumed before juicy and a combination of sweet sauce and sour sauce. saucy dishes, heavy dishes are eaten before lighter Although sweet and sour sauce is prevalently used dishes (Tez, 2019: 22). Among the most important in China, it has been used in England since the features of Chinese cuisine, traditional sticks are medieval age as well. However, it is claimed that used instead of forks and knives in the the sweet and sour sauce of China comes from the consumption of the dishes. The English name of state. Although the most well-known dish which is "", the names of these with sweet and sour sauce is made of pork, it can sticks vary locally as waribashi, be consumed with other meat varieties and fish. kuaizi and hashi. The reason underlying the use of Sweet and sour sauce is prepared with rice vinegar, the chopsticks is that the most elemental foodstuff salt, Chinese , , is rice (Albala, 2012: 113). Worcestershire sauce and dense soy sauce (Wikipedia, 2019r). In Chinese cuisine, they sit at the dining tables according to Chinese customs and traditions. While is also known as Gong Bao or eating, the person must be sitting. If individuals Kung . For the preparation of this dish, chicken, from all ages and genders are to sit at the same peanut, vegetables and spices with hot pepper are table, elders should be the ones to sit first. Talking used. While only plain leek included as a is not welcome during dining. Although these vegetable, the food needs to be cooked by frying on proprieties have lasted to our day and time, it is the pan. Kung Pao chicken is offered as a classic seen that there is a slow wave of changes emerging dish of the . It is estimated that the (Junru, 2005: 5). dish emerged after the , the governor of the Sichuan state (Wikipedia, 2019s). The showcase of Chinese cuisine Chinese cuisine can produce many different dishes is a dish served with minced meat made because of its cultural heritage. The most well- of pork or beef and fermented fava bean, paprika known dishes are Peking duck, sweet and sour paste and inside a spiced sauce which has a black pork, Kung Pao chicken, Mapo Tofu, bean base and generally a thin, oily and shiny red (patties), chow mein (noodle dish) and spring rolls colour. While serving this dish, other ingredients (Chinahighlights, 2019). such as caltrop, onion and black knot mushroom can be used. In order for this flavor to be Peking duck has been prepared since the imperial impeccably presented, the hot fava bean paste period and it occupies the position of the national brought from Sichuan, fermented black bean, dish of China. The dish, which used to be cooked for pepper oil, Sichuan black pepper, garlic, green the emperor in the period of Yuan Dynasty was onion and should be used (Wikipedia, later developed in the . In the Qing 2019ş). Tofu is made of the sediment of the soy milk Dynasty period, the fame of the dish reached all the made of soy beans. This sediment is made into a way to the aristocracy. This dish has two important milk curd by mixing it with an ingredient called aspects. The first is the raising of the duck and the nagari. It can be used in all meals because it second is the cooking of the dish. The ducks used embodies the taste of every food it comes together for this dish are slaughtered after at least 65 days with. of breeding. Whereas they are allowed feeding freely during the first 45 days, they are forced to be can be defined as a patty or mince pie fed 4 times a day in the last 20 days. The duck, according to its preparation and cooking method.

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Journal of multidisciplinary academic tourism 2019, 4 (2): 109-121 For the filling used making wonton, generally Thai dishes in oversea countries are prepared by ground pork meat or shrimp is used. In addition, it people who do not have Thai origin. This situation is seasoned with salt, spices and thinly chopped can cause the Thai dishes to be misconstrued and garlic or green onion. This dish is generally served may lead to wrong image formations in the minds by boiling in a soup or frying. Wonton exhibits of individuals (Sunanta, 2005: 13). significant variations according to regions. For The fact that five kinds of taste (salty, sweet, sour, instance, the one in the Canton cuisine in which chili and hot) are dominant in Korean cuisine is one shrimp filling in shredded pork meat is used is the of the most important features distinguishing the most preferred variation. In , on Korean cuisine from others. For Korean culture is the other hand, wonton which is prepared using increasing its popularity in the world day by day, minced meat filling is prepared along with chicken dishes of Korean cuisine such as kimchi and soup (Wikipedia, 2019t). bibimbap have been rising to the forefront. With Chow mein is a noodle dish fried on the pan. There this popularity increasing, the number of studies are different kinds of chow mein, with chicken, conducted on Korean cuisine has also increased. tofu, vegetables or soy sauce. In addition, the For instance, Hwang et al. (2018) put forward in a Chinese who went abroad with different reasons study conducted on American consumers that three adapted their cuisine cultures according to the basic factors are effective in the Korean cuisine regions they settled in. For this reason, chow mein preferences of individuals. These are (1) health, (2) dish may be served differently depending on the novelty and variety and (3) socio-cultural factors. region. For instance, in the U.S.A's culture of Hwang et al. also ascertained that dishes belonging consuming Chinese cuisine, this dish is generally to the Korean cuisine are more predominantly served with meat, onions and celeries. preferred by individuals at or under the age of 20, women, Asians and high-school students. It is is the famous Chinese minced pie. This especially possible with the effect of hallyu (South dish which is generally served on an ordeuvre plate Korean Wave) that the Korean cuisine comes or is can be considered similar to the Turkish deep fried brought to the forefront more. Seo et al. (2017) in a rolls with cheese filling. Although this minced pie study conducted on Korea revealed that the has different kinds depending on the region, what cognitive perceptions (health, quality, appeal) needs to be known generally is that it is cooked regarding dishes are more effective for eastern with the method of frying. As the Chinese spring people to consume local dishes. roll can be prepared sweet or salty, it can be prepared with vegetables as well. It is generally The fact that contrasting flavors are used on dining served with pork, carrots, beans and tables considering the principle of the unity of Worcestershire sauce in the regions of Hong Kong contrast in the Chinese cuisine is an important and Makao (Wikipedia, 2019ü). distinctive attribute of this cuisine. At the top of the dishes that come to mind when Chinese cuisine 5. Conclusion and Suggestions is mentioned is Peking duck. Besides, Mapo tofu In this study, general reviewing has been carried and spring roll rank among the Chinese dishes out on the Thai, Korean and Chinese cuisines known with their different varieties. However, the which are among the Far East cuisine, with the common attributes of the cuisines should not be aim of attracting international tourists to visit ignored, either. Rice serves as the basic ingredient these regions. In the light of the review, it can be in these three national cuisines. There are scarcely stated that all three national cuisines have any dishes without rice on the dining tables. Rice idiosyncratic features. In Thai cuisine, it is quite is consumed generally instead of . In important to prepare balanced dishes. Especially addition, tea is indispensable for the above- Pad Thai and tom yum goong are among the most mentioned cuisines, especially for China and well-known dishes. Furthermore, Thai cuisine Korea. It can be consumed at every meal. comes to the forefront with massaman and green curries which it has developed by the influences of At this point, it can be stated that these three different cultures. This recognition/familiarity can national cuisines should market their unique be quite important in terms of destination visits. attributes well. Indeed, whereas Thailand has been Indeed, Lertputtarak (2012) in a study ascertained receiving benefits since it has been focusing on this that tourists' image perceptions concerning Thai since the 1970s, Korean and Chinese cuisine need cuisine positively affected their revisiting to show higher tendency towards the matter in intentions. However, another important aspect question. Although Chinese cuisine is relatively that Thai cuisine should be careful about is that well-known, it can be expected to be in a better 119

Sevgi Balıkçıoğlu Dedeoğlu, Şule Aydın, Gökhan Onat position with 10 thousand kinds of dishes as well Lertputtarak, S. (2012). The relationship between as having a very rooted and rich cuisine culture. In destination image, food image, and revisiting addition, it is considered that Korea will be able to Pattaya, Thailand. International Journal of present its cuisine to more people in the coming Business and Management, 7(5), 111-121. years with the influence of hallyu. London, E. (2008). Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture. Marshall Cavendish 6. References International Asia Pte Ltd. Albala, K. (2012). Three World cuisines: Italian, Mexican, Chinese. Altamira Press: Plymouth, Major, J.S. & Cook, C.A. (2017). Ancient China: A UK. History. Routledge: New York, USA. Berno, T., Dentice, G., & Wisansing, J. J. (2019). Kin kao Merriam-Webster (2019). Pad Thai. laew reu young (‘Have You Eaten Rice Yet’)?: A https://www.merriam- New Perspective on Food and Tourism in webster.com/dictionary/pad%20thai son erişim Thailand. In Food Tourism in Asia (pp. 17-30). tarihi: 07.04.2019 Springer, Singapore. Mishra, P. P. (2010). The . ABC- Britannica (2019). South Korea. CLIO. https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Korea Moore, R.F. (1975). Thailand Malaysia Singapore: Brittin, H.C. (2011). The food and culture around the People, places, history. Thai-American World handbook. Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle Publishers: New York. River, New Jersey, USA. Pettid, M. J. (2008). Korean cuisine: An illustrated Chang, K.C. (1979). Food in Chinese culture: history. Reaktion Books: China. Anthropological and historical perspectives. Yale Polat, S. (2017). Uzakdoğu ve Avustralya Mutfağı. University Press, London, UK. Uluslararası Gastronomi içinde editörler Sarıışık, Chinahighlights (2019). 8 Tasty Chinese Dishes: the Mehmet ve Özbay, Gülçin (s.83-110). Detay Most Popular Chinese Foods. Yayıncılık: Ankara. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chi Robert, K. (2010). Traditional Food: A taste of Korean nese-food/eight-chinese-dishes.htm son erişim Life. The Korea Foundation: Seoul, Korea. tarihi: 07.04.2019 Seo, S., Yun, N., & Kim, O. Y. (2017). Destination food Chongchitnant, P. (2016). Hot Thai . Appetite, image and intention to eat destination foods: a Canada. view from Korea. Current Issues in Tourism, CIA (2019). The World Factbook, China. 20(2), 135-156. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- Seubsman, S. A., Suttinan, P., Dixon, J., & Banwell, C. world-factbook/geos/ch.html (2009). Thai meals. In Meals in science and Güripek, E. (2016). Uzak Doğu ve Avustralya Mutfağı. practice (pp. 413-451). Woodhead Publishing. Gastronomi ve Turizm içinde editörler Kurgun Sunanta, S. (2005, October). The globalization of Thai Hülya ve Bağıran Özşeker, Demet (s. 259-282). cuisine. In Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Detay Yayıncılık: Ankara Studies Conference, York University, Toronto (p. Hong, T.P. (2014). At home with Chinese cuisine. 3). AuthorHouse, Bloomington, IN, USA. Tez, Z. (2018). Lezzetin tarihi: Geçmişten bugüne Hwang, J., Kim, S., Choe, J. Y., & Chung, C. H. (2018). yiyecek, içecek ve keyif vericiler. Hayykitap: Exploration of the successful glocalization of İstanbul. ethnic food: a case of Korean food. International Tourism Authority of Thailand (2017). Journal of Contemporary Hospitality https://www.tatnews.org/2017/05/amazing-thai- Management, 30(12), 3656-3676. taste-festival-2017-showcase-authentic-cuisine- Joo, J. (2016). Korean Food made simple. Houghton thailand/ son erişim tarihi: 07.04.2019 Mifflin Harcourt, New York, USA. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Dış İşleri Bakanlığı (2019a). Junru, L. (2005). Chinese foods. China International Kuzey Kore: Ülke Künyesi. Press, China. http://www.mfa.gov.tr/guney-kore-kunyesi.tr.mfa K-Food (2015). Korean Culture no.9: K-Food Combining Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Dış İşleri Bakanlığı (2019b). Flavor, Health, and Nature. Korean Culture and Güney Kore: Ülke Künyesi. Information Service, Korean. http://www.mfa.gov.tr/kuzey-kore-kunyesi.tr.mfa Kim, D. K. (2005). The history of Korea. Greenwood UNWTO (2019). UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2018 Publishing Group, London, UK. Edition. Madrid: UNWTO.

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