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Science 86 (2010) 95–102

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Meat Science

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Review Meat products and consumption culture in the East

Ki-Chang Nam a, Cheorun Jo b, Mooha Lee c,d,⁎ a Department of Animal Science and Technology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon, 540-742 Republic of b Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, 305-764 Republic of Korea c Division of Animal and Biotechnology, National University, Seoul, 151-921 Republic of Korea d Korea Food Research Institute, Seongnam, 463-746 Republic of Korea article info abstract

Article history: Food consumption is a basic activity necessary for survival of the human race and evolved as an integral part Received 29 January 2010 of mankind's existence. This not only includes food consumption habits and styles but also food preparation Received in revised form 19 March 2010 methods, tool development for raw materials, harvesting and preservation as well as preparation of food Accepted 8 April 2010 dishes which are influenced by geographical localization, climatic conditions and abundance of the fauna and flora. Food preparation, trade and consumption have become leading factors shaping human behavior and Keywords: developing a way of doing things that created tradition which has been passed from generation to generation Meat-based products Food culture making it unique for almost every human niche in the surface of the globe. Therefore, the success in The East understanding the culture of other countries or ethnic groups lies in understanding their rituals in food consumption customs. Meat consumption culture in the East has not been well developed by its characteristic environment, religion, history, and main food staples. However, recently, the amount of meat production and consumption of the Eastern countries has grown rapidly by the globalization of and rapid economic growth of the countries. This manuscript introduces meat-based products and consumption culture in Asian countries. However, because the environments and cultures within are too diverse to cover all food cultures, this manuscript focused mainly on three northeast Asian countries including , Japan, and Korea (Republic of) and some southeast Asian countries including Vietnam and , which have similar environments and cultural interactions historically but retain their own characteristic food culture. © 2010 The American Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 96 2. Food culture ...... 96 2.1. Food culture group based on common food ingredients ...... 96 2.2. Food culture based on common eating methods ...... 97 2.3. Factors determining establishment of food culture...... 97 3. Meat products and consumption culture of the East ...... 97 3.1. China ...... 97 4. Difference between Chinese and western food culture ...... 98 5. Popular meat-based in China ...... 98 5.1. Korea ...... 98 6. Popular meat-based cuisine in Korea ...... 99 6.1. Japan ...... 100 7. Popular meat-based cuisine in Japan ...... 100 7.1. Thailand ...... 101 7.2. Vietnam ...... 101 8. Conclusion...... 102 References ...... 102

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 31 780 9114; fax: +82 31 709 9876. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Lee).

0309-1740/$ – see front matter © 2010 The American Meat Science Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.04.026 96 K.-C. Nam et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 95–102

1. Introduction Table 1 Changes of per capita income, number of major species of animals in Korea, China, and Asia.a Globalization refers in general to the worldwide integration of humanity and is a phenomenon by which the experience of everyday Year Increase rate fl fl (1956–2006) life, as in uenced by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, re ects a 1956 1985 2006 standardization of cultural expressions around the world. Therefore, Korea in order to live in a globalised world it is necessary to understand the Per capita income (US$) 66 2,309 17,500 265.1 language, culture and life style of other country-partners. Food and its number (MH) 0.87 2.94 2.48 2.8 consumption culture is one of the most important factors associated Pig number (MH) 1.26 2.85 9.38 7.4 with the unique culture of various ethnic groups or nations. Food Chicken number (MH) 8.92 51.08 119.18 13.3 Formula feed (M/T) 0.16 6.45 15.473 96.7 consumption is a basic activity contributing to survival of human Consumption of animal 6.10 42.20 105.33 17.2 beings. Therefore, the understanding of the food culture creates a products (kg/person/year)b better understanding and more intimate relationship among China countries and people (Koo, Kwon, Lee & Ly, 2008). Humans, especially Per capita income (US$) 59 292 2,034c 34.5c at the beginning of their existence were strongly dependant on the Cattle number (MH) 49.51 62.71 117.66 2.3 fi Pig number (MH) 85.62 313.86 510.62 6.0 environment. Hunting, shing and crop collections were the primary Chicken number (MH) 540.85 1,266.89 4,356.97 8.1 activities occupying most of the time of the primitive societies. With Formula feed (M/T) 21.83 170.49 103.004 4.7 the development of agricultural methods such as the domestication of Consumption of animal 8.40 28.50 92.94 11.1 various food and animals food supply become more secure. products (kg/person/year) Asiad This improvement in agriculture in general, allowed some funda- Per capita income (US$) 513 3,228 3,425c 6.7c mental changes in the human way of life. Harvested crops or animal Cattle number (MH) 319.0 373.85 460.75 1.5 products materials were preserved, processed, or cooked. To consume Pig number (MH) 118.47 380.91 618.88 5.2 these comfortably and safely, people have used their own Chicken number (MH) 1,088.21 3,117.77 8,980.42 8.3 characteristic utensils such as plates, tables, and others. In Formula feed (M/T) 68.18 297.45 480.235 7.0 Consumption of animal 28.70 48.0 77.205 2.7 addition, to enjoy the foods, they created etiquettes within their products (kg/person/year) culture to systemize food consumption activities. a Adapted from Han, Ha and Lee (2009). Asia is one of the largest continents in the world. It includes China b Data including , , chicken meat, and . (The People's Republic of China), (Republic of China), Japan, c Data adjusted from on-line information (www.nationmaster.com). (Republic of Korea), (People's Republic of d Data including Oceania and Pacific. Korea), the Mongolian People's Republic, and countries of Southeast Asia, stretching from its cool northern borders with Europe to the tropical islands of the Pacific(Kittler & Sucher, 2001). by the climate conditions. The second stage is called the “ and Historically variety of and meat products has been mutual aid” stage when people had started farming however the developed in Europe and America where a large amount of meat increase of population still caused food shortage which was unequally products have been consumed. In Asian countries, in contrast, distributed between subjugated and the ruling classes. The subjugat- and significantly contribute to the consumer's diets and a ed class struggled with food quantity and quality whereas the ruling relativelysmallamountofmeatormeatproductshavebeen class had an abundance of good quality foods. The third stage is called consumed. Therefore, the meat and meat processing industry have the “stable stage” which was characterized by the abundance of foods not been well developed in the Asian region. This historical trend in regardless of the hierarchical position of an individual. The fourth food consumption has been changed in the recent years. During the stage is called the “enjoy stage” when the consumption of such foods last 50 years, per capita income of Asia (including Oceania and Pacific) as meat, fish, and increased dramatically. It was accompanied by increased 6.7 times from 1956 (513 US$) to 2006 (3425 US$) a rapid growth of instant foods and the restaurant industry. Finally, (Table 1). Along with the increase of income, the consumption of the fifth stage called the “health-aimed stage” has been characterized animal products (including milk and eggs) also increased 2.7 times by the increased consciousness about the effect of food on human from 1956 (28.7 kg/person/year) to 2006 (77.205 kg/person/year). health with the fast growing popularity of the functional foods (Park Due to a rapid economic growth in Asian countries and a strong et al., 2007). expansion of western culture, the relative portion of meat and meat In spite of the fact that various countries and ethnic groups products in the consumption pattern will be continuously grown. developed their own characteristic food cultures there are many similarities among some of them (Wahlqvist & Lee, 2007). Therefore, 2. Food culture based on these similarities, in general, food culture groups can be distinguished, one based on the similarity in using food ingredients Food culture can be defined as a system for processing and and another characterized by common eating methods (Koo et al., foods combined with food consumption activity (Kim, Kim, Ahn, Lee & 2008). Han, 1999). Therefore, the components of the food culture include such activities as the methods of obtaining, processing and prepara- tion of the raw materials, cooking techniques, setting dishes and 2.1. Food culture group based on common food ingredients tables, and eating habits. Since the food culture is an integral part of the history of the particular country the knowledge about the food A long time ago, human ancestors were forced to move from one culture allows a better understanding of the people, culture and place to another in order to find foods. With the development of tradition. agricultural methods such as the domestication of various food plants Food consumption culture has been closely associated with and animals, human food supply became more secured. For example economic growth and can be divided into five characteristic stages having meat from domesticated animals would require considerably (Park et al., 2007). The first stage is called the “primitive balanced” less skills and work than getting that meat from wild animals. stage when people worked primarily for food collection. This stage Therefore, from the nomadic type of culture, most of the human can be characterized by the custom of sharing the available foods groups started to settle down in a place usually abundant in water and together and the quality and quantity of foods were strongly affected good quality soil. The cultivation of barley took place approximately in BC 7000, Social factors determining food culture include religion, tradition, in BC 6000, and in BC 5000 (Koo et al., 2008). generation, family style, age, job, civilization or globalization, Domestication of animals not only allowed humans to rear their information flow and others. Among them, religion is the strongest own animals at their homes to provide basic products such as milk factor in establishment of food consumption culture of countries or and meat, but also these animals become a source of other products ethnic groups. To understand the food consumption culture of a such as skins, feathers etc, that were utilized by humans to improve certain group, it is necessary to understand their religion or tradition. their life style. farming started in 9000 BC with sheep and People's sense of value can be different at different ages. Elderly goats, which were easily manageable, and pigs in BC 8000 BC and people are more interested in foods for health benefits or disease cows in approximately 6000 BC. prevention. On the other hand, younger persons prefer and Gradually due to the settling and domestication of crops and convenience in serving and preparation of foods (Park et al., 2007). animals, humans' stabilized their eating habits using various basic Economical factors including salary, life style or employment ingredients as the main source of energy. It has been estimated that in status are also factors in establishing food consumption culture. The the entire world population, approximately 1/3 utilizes rice as a main families with higher income tend to seek better quality foods or new ingredients of their , 1/3 uses wheat, and another 1/3 consumes food products. In addition, the population of working mothers has barley, rye, corn, potato, and (Kim, Cho, Kim & Pyo, been gradually increasing in the world, which promotes the 1998). development of the processed foods industry and catering businesses Based on the main food ingredients, food culture groups can be and restaurants. divided into regions: 1) north India, Pakistan, middle east Asia, north Food production, processing, preservation, and distribution tech- China, north Africa, Europe, north America which use mostly wheat as nologies belong to technical factors. The development of technologies the main ingredients for foods. People living in these areas use wheat increase the amount and types of agricultural products, and further to make and . These areas are often characterized by a increases the kinds of food products by the development of dry climate. Thus they developed livestock farming which allow contemporary methods for processing, preservation, and packaging consumption of relatively higher amount of animal origin foods in technology. The development of information technology renders the these areas. 2) Northeast and Southeast Asia region uses rice as a main consumer convenience, safety, and quality. Presently, there is not ingredient. 3) Southern part of the U.S., Mexico, Peru, Chile, and Africa much difference among different regions in the development of region uses corn as a main ingredients and 4) Islands in southeast Asia distribution technology. and Pacific area uses potato, sweet potato, or as the main food ingredients (Koo & Kim, 2005). 3. Meat products and consumption culture of the East

Asia is a large continent with a bro5(l)nclu]TJ(status)-332.2(are)-328(8(8(clud7.308e)-4115.6(-296vatis)-416(ha0e)-653.s)-66(d)2.elopmen)6.6(t)-d9(ty579.5(i)-6.8.2(tio3 Tc)-65culta)13.9(8 TD[([(tse)-6 TDth)- 531ethothe)-4(eserence)-5((ha56.5(l)-)-357(J-1D.03so))-59TD[yawith70285 Tc.4(closel93tep(clo]TJ13659.i)-7(3hnicarod-277-3920 -11.44.6(ing)--4045ty1(new)]TJ9 (st1.50 (scarod-277-eroduca56.563&n4a1bmt62.3(6)-.4(0)6.73tep(roduT*357(necith)st1.50 9nd)]TJ2-483.6(ther26u -500.7(p-214.4pdifferenent)-516.2(a00.7(p-214.4pdifferenent)-516.2(a00.7(p-J0 16(h,)-3hd)2.0 16al)-3-513(difflu..50 (scarod-277-e0254 Tc6)-.4lopmg1.31595.1829 -1.315l763&n4a1bm30 16l763&n4a1bm3Ing)-2Ilife)30 16l723(6)-.)5.1(ll)-7.6(y)-653.8(tus)0 TD[3.2(62*357(necith)st1.5-328(8o1.315oo2(d)-ent)-516.lopmgM,8Je)-6533.315oo TD8)0(n)-516.l)-7.6(y)-656/4563&n49 -1.3c310.95.l)-7.t5oo2(d)-i6em,)-Peo2(harvested)-405.7(fofofod)-40ed 2.2. Food culture based on common eating methods

Due to different food resources different eating methods have been developed. They can be divided into 1) using hands for consuming foods, 2) using spoon and chopsticks, and 3) using knife, fork, and spoon. The Southeast Asia, west Asia, Africa, and native Oceania people are “hand-use-eaters” and the majority of people are Moslem or Hindu believers. People in Korea, Japan, China, Taiwan, and Vietnam use spoons and chopsticks whereas other nations use knives, forks, and spoons (Koo & Kim, 2005). Although common eating tools are used in the same regions however, their application may vary from country to country. For example, in Korea, spoons and chopsticks appear on the table together and spoons are usually used for eating and . In China, however, spoons are only used for eating soup and chopsticks are used for eating cooked rice and other side dishes. Japanese usually use chopsticks for all foods and drink soup directly from the bowl without using a spoon.

2.3. Factors determining establishment of food culture

There are several factors influencing the establishment of characteristic food culture and include environment, social interac- tions, economical status, and industrialization (technical develop- ment). These different factors are closely related and interact with each other shaping food culture of a particular region or country (Park et al., 2007). Environmental factors include quality of water or soil, weather conditions, and geographical formation. According to the environ- ment, the agricultural products harvested for food production may differ. Where the quality of water and soil is good, then it promotes a development of crops and vegetables. When it is the opposite, then other production types develop (for example plantation of or coffee). Climate directly affects the physiological requirement of humans, therefore, it is natural to consume different foods in different climates. 98 K.-C. Nam et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 95–102 be increased dramatically. In 2010, the urban population will reach achieves the goal by following the recipe step by step. Therefore, the 800 million which also affects the food consumption culture of China Chinese cooking technique is delivered usually by teacher-to-student (Guo, Huang & Xue, 2005). experience (Sun et al., 2004). The climate of China is monsoonal, with most of China's rainfall The method used to eat food is also different. Family is important in occurring in the spring and summer months (Kittler & Sucher, 2001). traditional Chinese culture. Therefore, when consuming foods, Chinese The northern plain through which the Huang River flowsisagricultur- use a big bowl and eat together. This can create hygiene problem. ally very fertile. The area is cold and sometimes the severe winter results However, western people require their children to be independent. in a growing season of only 4 to 6 months. In the south, the Chang Jiang Therefore, western food is delivered on a plate to be consumed by one River stars in Tibet, traverse the southern provinces, and eventually person. This represents the realistic thoughts of western food culture. empties into the China Sea near the city of Shanghai. South of the mouth of the Yangtze delta is a rugged and mountainous coastline, of which are 5. Popular meat-based cuisine in China located the islands of Hong Kong and Taiwan. The southern provinces are warmer, wetter, and have a growing season that is longer (6– Regional cultural differences vary greatly within China, giving rise 9 months) than in the north (Kittler & Sucher, 2001). to the different styles of food across the nation. Over 100 kinds of has been gradually developed to the highest level traditional meat products are available in China and a few of them are over the centuries. Chinese cuisine began to be separated as Southern now manufactured in meat processing plants using the latest meat and Northern in 7th century B.C. In general, the southern dishes processing technology (Ho, 2004). The classification of meat products emphasize freshness and tenderness, whereas Northern dishes have is based on animal species, the product formulation, processing more fat and due to its colder climate. During the period of the methods, and product characteristics. The majority of meat products Tang (618–907 A.D.) and the Song (960–1279 A.D.) dynasties, people processed in China are prepared from pork, followed by beef, sheep, were more interested in the medical value of different and chicken, duck, fish, , and meat (Xiong, Yang & Lou, 1999). for prevention and cure of diseases (Ethnic Foods Co., 2009). Traditionally there are four main regional cuisines or Eight Great Chopsticks and “” are characteristic eating and cooking Traditions: east (Anhui, Zhejiang, ), west (, Hunan), utensils in Chinese cuisine, respectively. Chopsticks have been used south (, ), and north (), which have their since the Zhou dynasty. Stir- is one of the most wildly used own unique features, flavors, materials, and cooking methods (Yang, cooking methods to save fuel in Chinese cuisine and the “wok” is a 2006). The Cantonese diet uses little fat and subtle (Hui, special shaped pan developed for stir-frying in the Tang dynasty. 1992). Stir-frying, stewing, and using oil are commonly Historically, meats are not much used in cooking due to the impact of used cooking methods in most regions, but double is more and , and meat and meat products were used just as wildly used in Cantonese and Fujia cuisines. In , flavorings or . food is put in a covered ceramic jar with water and the jar is then steamed to minimize the loss of moisture, which is ideal to prepare 4. Difference between Chinese and western food culture delicate foods such as bird nests and shark's fins (Weng et al., 2007). Although pork is the main meat source in Chinese cooking, Food in China is not only for living but also for psychological all parts of the animal are utilized including organs, blood, and skin, satisfaction. Food is thought to be the expression of “live fully” and is and eggs from ducks, hens, and pigeons are widely used (Hui, 1992; equivalent to art as in painting or music (Kittler & Sucher, 2001). Kim et al., 2005). Chinese-style pork-based cuisine is usually Western foods are scientific and realistic but Chinese foods are artistic prepared by frying pork and is put on top or mixed in. and sensitive (Sun, Gao & Wang, 2004). Therefore, it is important to remove the pork flavor by the frying When foods are scarce, the first objective of food consumption was process use , green or extract (Sun et al., 2004; satiety. Later when food were plenty, the food culture diverged into 2 Guo et al., 2005). trends: Western countries considered but Chinese considered In modern times, cuisine and on occasion taste. This means that the west developed food culture as a practical way are also cited along with the classical eight regional styles as the Ten but the Chinese developed it as an art. For example, a single Chinese food Great Traditions. Chinese and Muslim sub-cuisines can be changed by region, season, and consumers. The color and taste of also feature within the greater Chinese cuisine, with an emphasis on the same food or cuisine can be different depending on season. Some vegetarian and halal-based diets respectively. The popular Chinese regions add more sugar than others but some add more hot pepper meat-based cuisines are listed in Table 2. powder than others. When Chinese food loses its changeability, then the attractiveness of Chinese food will be also lost (Sunetal.,2004). On the 5.1. Korea other hand, Western food consumption culture is very realistic. The difference between foods is small, for example, there is not much Korea is a country neighboring China and Japan, geographically difference in foods between New York and Los Angeles. However, this located in a peninsula with approximately 70% of the surface covered same taste is important for food consistency as consumers know what to by the mountains. The limited arable land and fluctuated climate of expect from the specific large commercialization food chains such as Korea from cold and snowy winters to hot and humid summers make or (Sun et al., 2004). it hard to develop agriculture (Kittler & Sucher, 2001). Majority constituents of Chinese dinners are vegetables and has distinctive flavors and colors when compared almost 600 kinds of vegetables are available, which are 6 times to Chinese and Japanese. Sweet, sour, bitter, hot, and salty are more than in the west. The foods of animal origin are served at special combined in all , and foods are often seasoned before and after traditional day or higher income houses. However, major food cooking. Korean cooking is based on grains, especially rice, flavored ingredient of west is meat because of their traditional nomadic or with spicy and meat, or fish side dishes (Kittler & sailing character. Therefore, vegetables are subsidiary. Sucher, 2001). Foods in western countries are thought to be the origin of nutrition Consumption of three meals a day is typical in Korea. is and energy, thus they have higher calories such as a big lump of meat, a something light and soup is almost always served along with cooked whole chicken and duck . Food in China thought to be the feeling of rice. , a famous Korean fermented vegetable, and dipping taste thus Chinese can use tongue or feet of chicken and duck which the are always offered (Lee, Sobel & Frongillo, 1999). likes western cook cannot handle. Chinese cooks have a very delicate noodles with broth with meat or vegetables at time. Supper has technique to make food but western cook is very systemized and easily become the main of the day. Rice is considered the main dish of K.-C. Nam et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 95–102 99

Table 2 Popular meat-based cuisine in China.a

Category Name of dish Description

Deep- or stir-fried Dongpo rou A fried stewed in a and a wine Gulaorou A deep-fried bite-sized pork which is subsequently stir-fried in a sauce with spices and fruits –Sweet and sour pork –Sauteed pork belly and vegetables in Huotui A fermented pork-based dish with transparent and yellowish-brown color of the surface Kung pao A marinated diced chicken is stir-fried with vegetables, mushrooms, and nuts –Sauteed diced chicken with nuts –Chicken in lemon or garlic sauce –Sauteed diced chicken and peanuts with hot red pepper Grilled A roasted duck with crispy skin, famous in Beijing A barbecued roasted pork Steamed or braised Pai gwhut A steamed spare with fermented black and Dezhou ba ji Braising deep- with mushrooms, soy sauce, , and so on Stewed Hui Guo Rou pork belly in hot water with ginger and , then frying in hot oil in a wok Shuizhuoupian Water-boiled meat slices with chili pepper and vegetable oil Smoked Lap A dried and hard made from pork and a high content of fat, normally smoked, sweetened, and seasoned Zhangcha ya Smoked marinated duck over tea leaves and twigs of camphor Ok A hardboiled egg cooked in soy sauce A hardboiled egg stewed in tea Pidan An egg seasoned with salt, soda, red tea, and clay, and then fermented in a jar for a month

a Adapted and modified from Koo et al. (2008). each meal and always has accompaniments called (Kittler & part of the cuisine, as are soy or fish sauce, magoli (), and Sucher, 2001). (very hot fermented chili ) (Milon and Milon, 1991). Beef and beef variety cuts are especially popular in Korea; 6. Popular meat-based cuisine in Korea however, it has only been in the late 20th century that beef has become a regular diet. Cubes, thin slices, or small ribs of marinated Originally Korea developed a meat consumption culture because of beef are barbecued or grilled at the table over a small charcoal brazier the effect of the nomadic ancient culture. Meat in Korea was likely or gas grill. , grilled strips of beef flavored with garlic, , obtained through hunting and fishing. The livestock rearing began on soy sauce, and oil, is best known (Kittler & Sucher, 2001). Beef a small scale. In 529 AD, Buddhism was transferred from India to can also be dried as , and these are called yukpo and eopo, Korea and killing of animals was prohibited by the law, but various respectively (Kwon, 2005). cooking methods (, steaming, and stewing) using meat have Pork has been another important animal based protein for Korea. been well developed since the invasion of Mongolians into Korea (the Records indicate that pigs have been a part of the Korean diet back to 13th century) (Kim et al., 2005). ancient times, similar to cattle rearing. All parts of the pig are used in Among Korean meat cuisine, beef, pork, chicken meat are major Korean cuisine in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, food ingredients. Meat is consumed roasted or in soup or and stewing, boiling, and . Chicken and poultry were not especially meat-based dishes are often used with alcoholic beverages as popular in Korea but, recently, the consumption of chicken and duck has appetizers especially spicy squid or hot pepper stuffed beef. Most increased rapidly because of its health-related aspects (Kim et al., 2009). meats and other foods are preferred if they are flavored with , Chicken is often served roasted or braised with vegetables or in . a paste that has been fermented with koji as its microbial All parts of the chicken are used in Korean cuisine, including the starter. Dried anchovies and other preserved foods are an important gizzards, liver, and feet. Samgyetang is a dish eaten in summer, to reduce

Table 3 Popular meat-based cuisine in Korea.a

Category Name of dish Description

Grilled Bulgogi A barbecued beef, where beef is sliced and marinated in soy sauce and spices and then cooked on a grill A barbecued pork or beef ribs, which is marinated with hot pepper paste, soy sauce and more Grilled pork belly which is unseasoned Makchang (Gobchang) gui Grilled pork large or small intestines prepared like Samgyeopsal or Galbi Steamed or braised Galbijjim Korean steamed dish made with beef marinated in soy sauce, green onion, sesame seeds, and Dakjjim A braised chicken with vegetables Jangjorim A braised beef in ginger soy sauce, where beef is usually skirt flank Raw Thinly sliced raw beef, which is served with Soups and stews Haejangguk A meaty pork spine soup with and ox blood, which is known to be effective to cure hangover Galbitang A hearty soup made from short rib Yukgaejang A spicy beef soup, where beef is usually flank steak or Samgyetang A ginseng , where chicken is stuffed with sticky rice, ginseng, dates, jujubes, garlic, and chestnuts, traditionally eaten in summer Seolleongtang A beef bone which is extracted for long Gamjatang A spicy soup made with pork spine, potatoes, vegetables, and hot peppers A generally served on a burner, containing , , mushrooms and so on Sinseollo A royal consisting meat balls, mushrooms, vegetables and more, cooked in a rich broth jeongol Beef entrails and vegetable Sausage-typed A , steamed pig intestines stuffed with various contents such as , pork blood, and more

a Adapted and modified from Kim (2009). 100 K.-C. Nam et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 95–102 heat, where young chickens are braised in a soup with various oriental boxed meal, called . A pleasing assortment of at least 10 items is medicinal plants eaten during the summer times to overcome heat packaged attractively for consumption at school, , or even called samgyetang. The feet of the chickens, called dakbal, are often between acts at the theater (Kittler & Sucher, 2001). The Japanese, like roasted and covered with hot and spicy sauce and served as side dish to the Chinese, eat with chopsticks called ‘hashi’ which are usually made accompany alcoholic beverages (Kim, 2009). of wood; they are shorter than those of the Chinese and are usually The meat-based Korean cuisines are listed in Table 3. Meat-based decorated beautifully. The rice bowl is not held as closely to mouth, soups can be split into four categories. The first category, clear soups however soups are consumed directly from the bowl. or called malgeunguk, are flavored with ganjang. Small amounts of long boiled meat may be added to the soup, or seafood, both fresh and dried may be added, or vegetables may be the main component for the 7. Popular meat-based cuisine in Japan clear soup. The second category, known as tojangguk, is seasoned with doenjang. Common ingredients for tojangguk include seafood such as Japan has the shortest history among the Asian nations when the , dried anchovies, and . For a spicier soup, gochujang is meat consumption is concerned. Thus, there is no meat-based food added. The third category of soups is gomguk or called gomtang, and products provided in a traditional festival. Japanese eat more fish than they are made from boiling beef bones or cartilage. All parts of the cow meat and the meat products have not been developed historically due are used including tail bones, leg-bones and rib-bones with or without to Buddhism and political idealism (Kim et al., 2005). The aspect of meat attached. These are boiled in water to extract fat, marrow, and Japanese food culture that is most different to China or Korea is that potassium to create a rich soup. Some versions of this soup may also Japan has not developed cuisines using beef, pork or chicken. use the cow's head and intestines. The only generally used During the Kofun period, Chinese culture was introduced into in the soup is salt (Kim, 2009). Japan from the Korean Peninsula. As such, Buddhism became a large influence on Japanese culture. After the 6th century, centralized Japan 6.1. Japan pursued the imitation of Chinese culture under the Tang dynasty resulting in the taboos on the consumption of meat in Japan (Kim et The multi-island nation of Japan is a prosperous country of al., 2005). In 675 A.D., Emperor Temmu decreed a prohibition on the 125 million people. Japan's greatest natural resource is the sea, which consumption of cattle, horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens during the provides one of the richest fishing grounds in the world (Kittler & 4th–9th months of the year; to break the law would mean a death Sucher, 2001). Although Japanese ingredients, as well as cooking and sentence. Chickens were often domesticated as pets, while cattle and eating utensils, are influenced by China, Japanese food preparation horses were rare and treated as such. A cow or horse would be ritually and presentation are unique. The Japanese emphasize the appearance sacrificed on the first day of rice paddy cultivation, a ritual introduced of the meal so that the visual appeal reflects balance among the foods from China. Emperor Temmu's decree, however, did not ban the and the environment. Japan's mountainous terrain and limited arable consumption of deer or , which were important to the land have contributed historically to a less than abundant food supply. Japanese diet at that time. Even today much of Japan's food supply is imported (Chern, Ishibashi, After the 9th century the Japanese meat-based dishes gradually Taniguchi & Tokoyama, 2003). developed including grilled fish and meat (yakimono), simmered food Traditionally the Japanese eat three meals a day, plus a snack called (nimono), steamed foods (mushimono), soups made from chopped oyatsu. Breakfast usually starts with a salty sour plum (umeboshi), vegetables, fish or meat (atsumono), jellied fish (nikogori) simmered followed by rice garnished with nori, soup, and pickled vegetables with seasonings, sliced raw fish served in a sauce (namasu), (Kittler & Sucher, 2001). Lunch is simple and often consists only of rice vegetables, seaweed or fish in a strong dressing (aemono), and pickled topped with leftovers from the previous night. Dinner typically vegetables (tsukemono) that were cured in salt to cause lactic includes rice, soup, or sukmono, and three dishes; a raw or vinegared fermentation (Yang, 2006). fish, a simmered dish, and a grilled or fried dish. Pink pickle ginger and Meat and poultry consumption is becoming more important in the the very pungent green horseradishi-like called washabi Japanese diet. Japanese diets have become increasingly westernized. many meals, and soy sauce is also usually available (Koh, The present popular Japanese meat-based cuisines are listed in 2003). Table 4. Statistics demonstrate that the Japanese meat and poultry The Japanese tend to serve meals at the same time in individual consumption increased with a rapid increase of meat imports (Chern portions, each food in its own bowl or plate. The Japanese often eat a et al., 2003).

Table 4 Popular meat-based cuisine in Japan.a

Category Name of dish Description

Deep-fried A deep-fried bite-sized meat floured prior to Korokke A breaded and deep-fried , containing either potato or minced meat A deep-fried breaded pork Katsu A deep-fried breaded chicken cutlet Torinokarake A deep-fried chicken without Grilled and/or pan-fried A grilled pork or A of meat and vegetables Okonomiyaki Savory pancakes with various meat and vegetable ingredients A grilled, broiled, or pan-fried meat, fish, or chicken seasoned with a sweetened soy sauce Genghis Khan A barbecued lamb or mutton, with various sea foods and vegetables Steamed Shabu-shabu Thinly sliced beef steamed in a boiled pot, which is dipped in a soy or sesame sauce before eating Sukiyaki Thinly minced beef cooked with vegetables and soy sauce, which is dipped in egg before eating Stewed A pork belly stewed in soy sauce, , and daikon, and egg. A beef and potato stew, flavored with sweet soy Stir-fried Chanpurū A stir-fried dish with meat, tofu, seafood, and vegetables Raw Thinly or thickly sliced raw fish Torisashi Chicken breast sashimi

a Adapted and modified from Yang (2006). K.-C. Nam et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 95–102 101

Table 5 Popular meat-based cuisine in Thailand.a

Category Name of dish Description

Stir- or deep-fried Kai Fried chicken slices with soy sauce and fish sauce Phat kraphao A stir-fried beef, pork, or chicken with basil, chilies and garlic Yam nuea yang A deep-fried stuffed chicken wings Kaep mu A deep-fried crispy pork rinds Soup Tom yam ka A chicken soup Grilled Sate A grilled meat, usually pork or chicken, served with and A marinated grilled chicken A grilled beef brisket Sausage-contained Nhamb A fermented pork sausage with pork and Khao phat A with fermented sausage Sai oua A grilled sausage of ground pork mixed with spices and herbs

a Adapted and modified from Kim et al. (2005); Wang and Sung (2009). b Viserssanguan et al. (2005).

7.1. Thailand There is also a unique eating etiquette at the table. Food must not be eaten fast and mouth must not be opened during chewing. Soup South and Southeast Asia has the lowest consumption of meat per must be eaten with only a spoon. Thai food is generally eaten with a capita of any part of the world, although parts of West and Central fork and a spoon, and chopsticks are rarely used, primarily for the Africa have equally small meat consumption (Grigg, 1995). The consumption of soups. The fork is held in the left hand and is cultural and religious taboos affect the consumption of meat (Harris, used to shovel food into the spoon. The people in North and Northeast 1986). Buddhists have an aversion to the slaughter of any animals and use the right hand to eat sticky rice by making it into balls that are they are a powerful influence in most parts of mainland Southeast dipped into side dishes. Thai-Muslims also frequently eat meat with Asia. This could be due to the poverty of these regions as well as the only their right hands (Horng and Tsai, 2010). religious taboo (Grigg, 1995). Therefore, in Asia, relatively high Most Thai foods can be characterized as containing lots of fresh consumption of meat protein occurs in East Asia, whereas it is limited vegetable and herbs such as citrus, basil, mint, cilantro, ginger, , in Southeast Asia. The annual per capita meat consumption of the , garlic, , pepper, chilies, and so on. Fish sauces are the Southeast Asia is less than half of the East Asia (York & Gossard, 2004). other feature of the Thai foods, which is usually prepared by fermented Southeast Asia covering India, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, shrimp or . Even though Thai foods are lightly prepared using the , , Vietnam, , , and Philippines, has cooking method of stir-frying, steaming, or boiling, they are strongly similar consumption cultures, as it has tropical weather and rice is the aromatic and spicy due to the supplemented secret spices, seasonings, staple. On the other hand, due to different religious habits and and fish sauces. In terms of meats and meat products, although rice is the incorporation of different foreign countries' foods cultures, Southeast and there are Buddhist, meats such as omelets, fried pork, or Asia has versatile consumption cultures even within the country. fried chicken are usually included in ordinary dishes with fried rice, Thus, it is very difficult to summarize the food cultures in all the noodle soups, or steamed rice (Bhumichitr, 1994; Viserssanguan, countries in Southeast Asia. As Thai and has been Benjakul, Panya, Kittikun & Assavanig, 2005). Table 5 shows popular well developed and known to the West, meat products and Thailand meat-based cuisines. consumption culture in the Southeast Asia are described in priority of Thailand and Vietnam. Thailand is famous for its art or architecture with complex 7.2. Vietnam compositions and versatile colors and the features can be easily found in the food culture. A broad range of food ingredients and Although Vietnamese cuisine is somewhat different in the north, cooking methods are incorporated into Thai foods. Thailand has varied south, and central region, there are two distinctive features. One is the geomorphology including foothills and islands and has distinct ethnic staple use of rice and the other is the popularity noodles. Noodles are groups with their own eating cultures (Kahrs, 2003), resulting in the consumed wet or dry in soups or other dishes. Almost all Vietnamese diverse . Various types of cuisine were also introduced foods use abundant fresh herbs such as lemongrass, mint, , and from adjacent countries (noodles from China, from India, etc.) basil. As in Thailand cuisine, fish sauce (nuoc mam) is also well and were modified into the common cooking methods and styles of developed and is wildly used in most foods. Frying in general is less today's Thailand (Cummings, 2000). important than (Nguyen, 2006). Although Vietnamese also

Table 6 Popular meat-based cuisine in Vietnam.a

Category Name of dish Description

Wraps-and- rolls Banh cuon Rice paper (banh tang) stuffed with ground pork, prawns, and vegetables Cha gio Fried Banh cuon Marinated dish Bo luc lac A marinated beef cube, which is served with onions, tomatoes, and rice Grilled dishes Suon nuong A grilled spiced pork rib Ga nuong sa A grilled chicken with lemon grass Nem Nuong A grilled , where meat is usually pork seasoned with including fish sauce Bo la lot A grilled beef roll with a pepper leaf Sausage-typed Cha lua Sausage made with ground lean pork, chicken, or beef and potato starch, and fish sauce

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