722 Almanac change their culture. In 1887 Congress passed the Dawes Allotment Act, which provided for dividing the reservations. Government agents were to assign each tribal member a 160–acre homestead–an allotment. Any land remaining was declared surplus, and this surplus land was to be opened to settlement by homesteaders. At this time the did not apply to the . By 1906 all of Oklahoma west of the territory of the Five Civilized Tribes had been opened to settlement. The Indian reservations had been changed to counties in the new . Homesteaders received farms in Oklahoma Territory by land runs and a lottery. The first portion of opened to settlement was the , a 2 million- acre tract in the center of Indian Territory. Only about 10,000 claims of 160 acres each remained, so in order to give all homeseekers an equal chance, officials decided to open the Unassigned Lands by a . On April 22, 1889, more than 50,000 homeseekers ran to stake their claim, and by evening, every homestead had been staked and town lots in Guthrie, Kingfisher, , and Norman were claimed. Nearly 1,000 blacks made the Run of 1889. Most were from the South and many obtained homesteads. Langston was an all-black town established by these pioneers. Other land runs were held in 1891 in central Indian Territory; in 1892 in the Cheyenne and Arapaho reservations; and in 1893, the largest land run in history opened the Outlet. The final land run was in 1895 when the Kickapoo reservation was opened for settlement. For the next land opening, federal officials used the lottery. The surplus lands of the , , , Wichita, and Caddo reservations were opened. In 1906 the Osage reservation was allotted, and no surplus land for settlers existed. In addition, the Osage tribe held mineral rights in common, which later contributed to their being some of the wealthiest people on earth during the oil boom in the decades following statehood in 1907. After each reservation was allotted and settled, it was shifted from Indian Territory to Oklahoma Territory. Once a dispute with Texas about the ownership of Greer County was settled by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1906, which denied Texas’s claim to the land, western Oklahoma had reached its present area and shape. The newly arrived Oklahoma pioneers suffered great hardship. Money was scarce, and the environment was often cruel. Families lived in sod houses or dugouts due to short- ages of timber. Much of Oklahoma was grassland, and wood–when it was available–was used for fuel. Otherwise, dried buffalo or cattle dung, known as “cowchips,” fueled the pioneers’ stoves. During the pioneer period, most Oklahomans lived in the country on homesteads. However, several towns grew with the spread of the railroads. Guthrie, Oklahoma City, Norman, Enid, Woodward, El Reno, Lawton, and other towns developed into regional trade centers. Pioneer farmers marketed grain, cotton, and livestock. Guthrie was the territorial capital with a population of about 6,000 people in 1890, at that time the largest town in Oklahoma Territory. Statehood

Oklahoma’s present state government had its beginning during the territorial period. The guide for forming a government for Oklahoma Territory was a law passed by Congress in 1890, the Oklahoma Organic Act. This law provided for a governor, a secretary, and a supreme court of three judges. The president of the United States appointed these offi-