Geillis Duncane and the Sampson Gang

The vicious circle The extraordinary and tragic story of Geillis Duncane (or Geillie Duncan) is highly significant to the history of the Jew's harp. A trial described in the '' of 1591 has two short paragraphs:

At which time she () confessed, that this Guilles Duncane did goe before them playing this reill or daunce vpon a small Trump, called a Iewes Trump, vntil they entred into the Kerk of north Barrick.

These confessions made the King in a wonderful admiration, and sent for ye said Geillis Duncane, who vpon the like Trump did playe the said daunce before the Kings Maijestie, who in respect of the strangeness of these matters, tooke great delight to bee present at their examinations. [1]

Their importance is two-fold. Firstly, in the links of the words 'Trump' and 'Jew's trump'. When combined with a Customs import document of 1481 that describes ‘Jue Harpes’ and ‘Jue Trumpes’, they represent a key link in Jew's harp etymology, allowing us to trace other literary references. Secondly, Geillis is the first named British player of the instrument we can definitely identify, and, of course, that she played for a king, even though this was under extreme circumstances. Who was she, and what were those circumstances that led her acquiring the notoriety that would eventually lead to her death?

Officially she was a witch, part of a or covey intent on, at the very least, undermining the authority of the King, preferably causing his demise. Geillis was the first one caught, tortured into confession, exposing the rest of the coven, was convicted of and eventually executed. Examination of the trial transcripts, and studying three published works on the whole affair [3], reveals a more complex story either of an elder woman thought only capable of simple tasks or of a girl probably gifted as a healer, and being trained as such by a well known wise-woman, Agnes or Annie Sampson. I tend towards the latter as she was used as one would expect from an apprentice – as a runner or messenger; sometimes excluded from important conversations, but generally encouraged to be involved in the rituals devised by senior members. She could also play the Jew's harp. Whether this was part of her duties or a specific talent utilised by the coven, we do not know, but she was sufficiently proficient to impress King James VI.

The majority of the events took place between Edinburgh and , while the main characters in the terrible actions that surround Geillis bring together national and local figures. To one side there is Agnes Sampson. She is the leader of the group and not averse to using her powers for good or ill. The 'clerk' or regional organiser was John Fian. Sampson and Fian seem to be the main contact of a known sorcerer, Richard Graham. He had introduced Agnes Sampson to the King's cousin, Francis, 5th earl of Bothwell, who saw himself as a potential ruler of Scotland if the King died childless. Reputed to be a devil worshipper, intent upon the throne, he was prepared to use any method to achieve his aim, short of murdering the King himself. To the other side of Geillis was her master and employer, David Seton of Trenent, related to the powerful Catholic Seton family of Seton Hall, near the coast of the Firth of Forth. It was his suspicion of Geillis' unusual behaviour that exposes the coven and eventually lead to the plots made against the King, who attends the examination of the accused in which Bothwell is implicated. Wives to witches The historical facts are relatively straightforward. James was born on the 19th June 1566, the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots and Lord Darnley. Mary's abdication in his favour a year later after the murder of Darnley and her scandalous remarriage to James, 4th earl of Bothwell, placed the infant James in the care of rival factions seeking the reformation, or not of the church. Francis Bothwell was three years older than the King, the illegitimate son of King James V's illegitimate son (also James) and Lady Jean Hepburn, sister of the 4th earl of Bothwell. James recognised Francis as 5th earl of Bothwell and as his heir on 29th July 1576 which meant that Francis, or his offspring were, therefore, in line to become King if James VI remained without children himself. While James showed more interest in the young men of court there does not appear to have been any particular problem, but he was conscious of his duty to produce an heir, particularly as the throne of a combined Scotland and England beckoned. Negotiations with a number of European houses eventually resulted in his marriage by proxy to on 20th August, 1589. Francis, meanwhile, had joined forces with a Catholic uprising and been declared a traitor, though he had his sentence suspended. James seems reluctant, either for political or family reasons, to enforce more stringent reprisals on his cousin.

Anne's attempt to reach Scotland was thwarted by severe storms and contrary winds and she was forced to make for Norway. After another abortive attempt Anne gave up for the winter and James decided to fetch her, leaving the government to the fifteen year old duke of Lennox as president of the council and Bothwell as his deputy in the King's absence. Reaching Oslo against contrary winds at the end of October, and after marrying Anne in person, their attempts to get back to Scotland are also stopped by bad weather and the decision was made to stay in Denmark until April of 1590. The Danish admiral of the fleet put the difficult conditions down to the influence of witchcraft, and eventually a number of 'witches' are executed in Copenhagen for the crime of raising storms. James and Anne eventually reach Leith, after yet another rough journey, on May 1st 1590.

Sometime in November, 1590, Geillis Duncane was suspected of witchcraft and implicated Agnes Sampson. The story of the coven's attempts to conjure up storms and various other potential attacks on the King and Queen eventually reached James, who by this point had gained some insight into the threat of witchcraft. Whether this has anything to do with his extended stay in Norway and Copenhagen, where serious purges were already underway, or that he had already begun to study it for himself (he was an intelligent man and very studious) we do not know, but he chose, against the advice of his courtiers, to be at the examinations. Agnes Sampson confessed to him personally at the Palace of Holyroodhouse, and Geillis, as we know, was commanded to play the Jew's harp in his presence. Bothwell was implicated by several of the witches (although later retracted by them), tried, and acquitted of witchcraft. He made several attempts to take the King the king captive by force, before going into exile in 1595. When Queen Elizabeth of England died in 1603, James became the first Stewart on the united thrones of Scotland, England and Wales. Bothwell died penniless in Nice sometime before 1614. Newes from Scotland (Roxborough) –anon (1591) Geillis Duncane's tale Geillis' story is much more difficult to pin down. Confessions taken under torture are, to say the least, unreliable and much of what we know has to be considered in the context of superstition, religious bias and, quite simply, people seeing what they wanted to see. The story has been pieced together using twenty-six transcribed documents, six of which have Geillis' own words as written down by her examiners, along with the confessions and trial of Agnes Sampson and others, again under torture.

All the events associated with Geillis appear to happen between a period just before September 1589 and December 1590. There is no indication of her age, but all the clues point to a headstrong young woman or girl. Firstly, she is described in 'Newes from Scotland' a maidservant working for the Deputy Bailiff of Trenant, David Seton, who had only recently noted, much to his astonishment, her skill as a healer. [4] Secondly, Geillis only confessed to one act of witchcraft, the bewitching of laird of Balnaird's hat, and her accusers did not seem too concerned about finding others, only who she could name. Thirdly, she was often sidelined by her seniors in the coven, used as a runner and she states that she knew nothing of what the gang was up to but was only obeying 'him' (presumably the devil) who commanded her. [5] Given all that, while this could apply to an older woman, I believe she is likely to be a young woman in her early/mid-teens. Headstrong teenagers dabbling in perceived dubious activities ars not unusual.

Locations mentioned in the Trial of Agnes Sampson

Agnes Sampson's role is pivotal in understanding where Geillis fits into events, particularly as Agnes had been recognised as a wise woman for many years. Her trial lists fifty-two indictments, of which she is found guilty on all but one. Two-thirds appear to be what might be described as local GP work, with a consistent midwifery role. Her 'patch' was from Treprain near Dunbar in the East to Liberton, near Edinburgh, in the West; North Berwick in the North to Newton near Keith in the South. Her cures were a mixture of sound advice and what was perceived as witchcraft, or at least her power of unauthorised prayer. Rich and poor seemed to have accepted her, and others like her. She might well be described as a white witch using well established non-orthodox methods of healing. The role of the devil was seen by the Catholic Church as an irritant rather than a specific threat, but with the rise of Protestantism and in particular Calvanism, the actions of anyone using unfathomable methods was perceived as the devil's work in action and, therefore, heretical, and it was the actions of Agnes and her coven that brought all these beliefs into the limelight.

Geillis was involved in all the major events associated with the coven during the fifteen months prior to October, 1590, of which there were seven in all. The first, and her first confession, regarded a meeting with someone from Copenhagen, presumably a witch, but not disclosed, sometime in or before August 1589. The only people able to communicate with the Dane were an Irish tailor and his wife, but there is no account of what was discussed or who else was there.

At the end of August 1589, a group of around eleven witches met at a certain George Mott's house in Prestonpans. A letter or 'bill' was written by John Fian, the clerk of the area, to Janet Fairley in Leith with the instructions: 'Marion Linkup, ye shall warn the rest of the sisters to raise a wind, this day at eleven hundred hours, to stay the queen's coming in Scotland.' This was handed to Agnes Sampson who decided that Geillis rather than another girl, Bessie Thompson, should deliver the letter, with an offer of wine if she did so. Geillis refused, but drank some ale, then took the letter to Leith. At Janet Fairley's house there were two Linkup sisters and two Stobie sisters, but there seems to have been some sort of a problem, because Geillis refuses a drink and was pursued by Janet Failey, who Geillis 'gave her on the mouth', which Newes from Scotland (Roxborough) –anon (1591) we think means she hits her in the face. In the confession it says one of them was ill for the next three months, though it is difficult to work out which.

Eight days later preparations were made for the action to take place in Leith. John Fian, Agnes Sampson, Meg Din and Geillis met at the weaver's house in Prestonpans to 'baptize' a cat. Two of the participants put a finger on the side of the chimney crook, a third put their finger on the other side thereby creating a three-way arch. The cat was put three times through the arches and three times under the chimney. The cat was then taken to Begie Tod's house and had four joints of dead men tied to each leg. At midnight in early September, all five met with Janet Failey and they made their way to the pier head. Here there was another altercation between Geillis and Janet as to who should throw the cat into the sea. However that argument was resolved, and with the words "see that there be no deceit among us" they threw the cat as far as they could into the sea to drown and conjure up a storm. The cat, though, did not oblige as it swam back to land and disappeared. Another cat is found, drowned off Prestonpans on the 7th September and in the storm that followed a ship coming from Burntisland to Leith sank off Kinghorn, north of the Firth of Forth, with the loss of wedding gifts and the Queen's handmaiden.

On All Hallow's Even, 1589 the gang raided and sank a ship harboured off North Berwick. References to some kind of raid appear at various, but disjointed points in Geillis' and other confessions, and only a speculative sequence of events can be pieced together. It began when the ‘Devil’ encouraged the group to raid the ship and promised rich pickings. Geillis and Bessie were allowed into the rowing boat, but not onto the ship, though Agnes passed drink to them through one of the ship's windows. The raid was not as successful as promised, the ship was sunk and Agnes argued with the Devil about it on their return. Shortly after one of the raiders was taken to a specially convened meeting and accused of stealing what goods there were.

There now occurred an event that has nothing directly to do with the King, but might help us understand the zeal of David Seton in extracting confessions. On 9th November 1589 Agnes, Geillis, and John Gordon, known as 'Grey Meal', presumably because his complexion resembled the colour of chicken feed, met at Ormiston Bridge between Foulstruther and Ormiston Wood and with a cry of "Haul, Hola", a cord was pulled to bring up the Devil. This consultation had been called by the Devil so that he could tell them how they might 'wrack' or destroy David Seton and his goods. Geillis asked, "Will we get the thing that we crave?" The Devil answered "Yea", gave them some ground glass to sprinkle in Seton's path and went away. Geillis gave the glass to Bessie, who dutifully spread it over the moor where Seton was due to pass. Unfortunately, Seton stayed at home that day and his daughter crossed over. From then on she was 'possessed most pitifully, suffering visions and torment'. [6] His daughter's madness may have brought about Seton's suspicions.

On the first Monday of January 1590, or Hansel Monday, a group including Agnes, Geillis and two others went for a walk near Dalkeith Water. At the King's Ford Geillis was sent up the hillside to collect leaves and told to sit there until called. Geillis looked back and saw a 'black man' come out of a 'well'. When on her return she asked Agnes who he was, she was answered with, "it was not a man but the waf (flapping) of my cloak". At the end of the walk they all went to a certain David Nimil's house in Dalkeith. Here Geillis was again sent a little way from them while they produced a love for the destruction of someone called G?? – the document is partially destroyed, so we don't know which or why. [7] It is here that Agnes confides in Geillis about the passing of the good times, but also mentions that the King goes to fetch his Queen. The King had in fact left for Norway the October before.

As we know, the King returned with his Queen in April 1590. On 31st July 1590 there is a further attempt to produce a potion, this time to cause his death. The coven met at Acheson's Haven, near Musselburgh, and Geillis helps in drawing up the Devil, who appeared ‘like a bundle of hay’. After answering his usual 'have you been faithful' question, the Devil gave instructions for the preparation of a potion to attack the King, purportedly at the request of the earl of Bothwell. This is the first time Bothwell is mentioned by name. A wax image of the King, though not called by his name but 'Goodman', is passed around to each present who mutter the King's name, before it is given to Jenny Stratton, presumably for roasting. As a backup, a potion is proposed requiring a toad to be hung by its legs over an oyster dish until all its juices are extracted. This was to be smeared on an item of the King's under-garments but, although an attempt is made later to obtain the clothing from a servant, he refuses. At the end of the meeting the Devil says he can provide an answer with the proviso that it probably will not work! [8]

The final event takes place at North Berwick on 31st October 1590. This was a convention of three , including Agnes' gang and the Leith coven. The 'Newes from Scotland' proclaims that the witches travel across the sea on riddles or sieves, though both Agnes and Geillis confessed, rather more prosaically, that they were taken by horse – Agnes by her son-in-law. Somewhere between thirty-nine and two hundred witches attended, probably nearer the former and the whole event was stage-managed, Remains of church with Sea Life Centre where we think the dance took place most likely by John Fian, who was there in disguise. Many were dressed in taffeta and they began with a dance led by Geillis playing the trump, or, as it is better known, the Jew's harp. Each turned widdershins or anti-clockwise, about, the six men nine times and the women six. The dance went on a bit too long, because the Devil was not amused to be kept waiting and made them kiss his backside as a penance once they entered the church. The Devil then called out each person present's name to which they replied "Hear, master". When Robert Grierson was named he complained he should have been called 'Robert the Comptroller' or 'Robert the Rower' as he was the treasurer. The Devil asked if they had been good servants before giving a sermon entitled, 'manie goe to the mercat, but all buy not' [9]. He then instructed them to desecrate three graves for the fingers, toes and noses of the deceased, to be divided amongst them for drying and grinding into a powder with which to do evil. He promised a wax image of the King to roast, commanded them to "Spare not to do evil and to eat, drink and be blithe, taking rest and ease, for I will raise you up the latter day gloriously", and some accounts say they kissed his backside again before leaving. [10]

Geillis' constant absences from Trenant, though, were noted by her master, David Seton, and sometime in November 1590, after cruel examinations, her confessions lead the authorities to the rest of the group. At first Agnes denied knowing her, and it is only after the intervention of the King and the discovery of 'the devil's mark' that the full story begian to be revealed. The King was so astonished upon hearing that Geillis played the trump at North Berwick that he has her brought to him to hear for himself. She, therefore, becomes the first recorded player of the instrument to play in front of a reigning monarch. The only other two I have come across are Franz Koch for Fredrick Wilhelm II of ???? at the end of the 18th century and John Wright for Queen Sofia of Spain in 1991. During her ordeal Geillis is forced to implicate two women from the upper class, Barbara Napier and Euphamie MacCalzeal, though she later retracts and asks God's forgiveness as these were given under torture at Trenant. Unfortunately it was too late as both were executed. It smacks of old scores being settled.

Agnes Sampson was executed on 28th January 1591, and Geillis Duncane along with Bessie Thompson were executed on 4th December 1591 at Castle Hill, Edinburgh, by being worried, or strangled, before their bodies were burnt. [11]

The Devil and the earl of Bothwell The one character who constantly appears throughout the testimonies of all those convicted is the Devil. Just to confuse things, the leader of a coven could be called the Devil, although sabbats were overseen by a Grand Master, who was the ‘Devil’. Covens met regularly at esbats and, according to the confession of Isabel Gowdie in 1662, all their "...acts and deeds between the great meetings must be given account of and noted in his book at each meeting". They were taking minutes! The meeting at North Berwick was a sabbat, or gathering of more than one coven for Devil worship, although questions are asked by historians as to whether the meeting actually took place at all. They question how it was that no one locally commented on the arrival of one hundred people to dance in their kirk-yard? Who set up the candles in the church and who cleared up afterwards? Why didn't the incumbent intervene or complain to the kirk session? One clue might be that original St Andrew's Parish church was on a remote and isolated island, only accessible during low tide. The locals do not seem too worried about what might be going on at the kirk as, according to PG Maxwell-Stewart, their minister, Thomas Greig noted sadly that his parishioners were spiritually indifferent and often profaned the Sabbath by piping and dancing. [12] It is also doubtful if the number of 200 witches noted in 'Newes from Scotland' is correct. Opinion, therefore, is divided as to whether the event took place.

If it did, one theory put forward is that the Grand Master who appeared was in fact the earl of Bothwell, who certainly had the motive and the knowledge. A more likely candidate, though, is Richard Graham, a well-known magician, someone frequently mentioned by the arrested witches as a key figure in their plots and magical operations, and the person who, according to the English ambassador, used to command Geillie Duncan to have the witches assemble. [13]

All the significant Devil appearances happen from 1588 after the death of Mary Queen of Scots in 1587. While she is alive there was the possibility of further heirs, but with her death Francis was, as we have seen, definitely the next in line after James. The King's decision to marry was likely to exclude Francis from the throne, but the birth of a daughter in March 1590 gave Francis an heir and a potential heir to the throne, which may have encouraged him to more desperate acts.

Coincidentally, as events unfold the requests of the Devil to the group also have the appearance of desperation. First he tries to stop Anne sailing from Denmark, (Danish witches) then Norway (the cat). Then he participates in the raiding and sinking of a ship, eventually trying more direct means once the King has returned (Acheson's Haven), before extolling the masses at North Berwick. The final appearance was to John Fian while he was in prison, where the Devil came 'all in black with a black and white in his hand' [14] and demanded 'if he would continue his faithful service according to his oath and promise made to that effect' [15]. Fian was likely to be Francis' main accuser, but after initially spilling of the beans, Fian was mysteriously sprung from imprisonment and when recaptured in Saltpans refused to say anything further, even under the most hideous torture. Was Bothwell or one of his agents the Devil in the prison and was he got at during his short freedom?

Bothwell was tried for witchcraft in 1593, but acquitted, though he had the motive and the opportunity. Unfortunately, accusations of his involvement have to be seen in the light of torture. Richard Graham was the main witness, but was executed in 1592, while the other main accusers didn't last more than two months after arrest. Geillis was a follower, not a leader, and she was dead in just over a year.

Geillis's legacy The more you read about the events surrounding the North Berwick convention, the more bizarre and strange it seems, with all the hallmarks of, what can only be described as, the Sampson Gang using their powers in the area east of Edinburgh to their own ends. All the evidence points to Geillis being drawn into events rather than instigating them, though the Foulstruther attempt on Davis Seton may well have been for her. In all the other events she was sent away, told to sit to one side or used as a messenger. She had her moment at North Berwick kirk and Geillis' importance to the history of the Jew's harp is central to anyone searching for the early use of the instrument. When Geillis led those dancing in the kirk of North Berwick, it would lead to her death, but gave us an essential piece of information on the Jew's harp. She would probably have preferred to remain anonymous.

Postscript: One final coincidence. Bothwell was a frequent visitor to Fast Castle, a meeting place of the Gowrie conspirators who plotted against James VI and fifteen miles South East of Berwick. During the excavation of the site between 1971 and 1986 a small rusty piece of cast iron was found that was identified by the archaeologist, Graeme Lawson, as a late medieval Jew's harp, dated around the late 16th century.

X-ray of the Fast Castle find

Michael Wright February 2011

1. Newes from Scotland, (Roxborough) - anon 1591 back to article 2. The Nomenclator, or Rememberbrancer of Adrianus Iunius - Ralph Newberie & Henrie Denham, 1585, page 350. back to article 3. Bothwell and the Witches, Godfrey Watson, Robert Hale, London 1975 ; Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland, ed. Lawrence Norman & Gareth Roberts, University of Exeter Press, 2000; Newes from Scotland back to article 4. Newes from Scotland back to article 5. Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland, Document 1 back to article 6. Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland, Document 1 back to article 7. Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland, Document 3 back to article 8. Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland, Document 4 back to article 9. The True History of the Kirk of Scotland, 1678, David Calderwood, Scolar press, 1971 back to article 10. Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland, Document 2 back to article 11. Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland, Document 9 back to article 12. Satan's Conspiracy - and Witchcraft in Sixteenth-Century Scotland, P G Maxwell-Stuart, Tackwell Press, 2001 - page 151 back to article 13. Satan's Conspiracy - Magic and Witchcraft in Sixteenth-Century Scotland, P G Maxwell-Stuart, Tackwell Press, 2001 - page back to article 14. Newes from Scotland back to article 15. Newes from Scotland back to article