Historical-Period Apache Occupation of the Chiricahua Mountains in Southeastern Arizona: An Exercise in Collaboration Item Type text; Electronic Dissertation Authors Laluk, Nicholas Clinton Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 24/09/2021 09:01:20 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/347313 1 HISTORICAL-PERIOD APACHE OCCUPATION OF THE CHIRICAHUA MOUNTAINS IN SOUTHEASTERN ARIZONA: AN EXERCISE IN COLLABORATION by Nicholas C. Laluk __________________________ Copyright © Nicholas Laluk 2015 A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the SCHOOL OF ANTHROPOLOGY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2015 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of the Dissertation Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by Nicholas C. Laluk, titled Historical-Period Apache Occupation of the Chiricahua Mountains in Southeast Arizona: An Exercise in Collaboration and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ____________________________________________________Date: December 12, 2014 Barbara J. Mills ____________________________________________________Date: December 12, 2014 Barnet Pavao-Zuckerman ____________________________________________________Date: December 12, 2014 J. Jefferson Reid ____________________________________________________Date: December 12, 2014 John R. Welch Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement. ________________________________________________ Date: December 12, 2014 Dissertation Director: Barbara J. Mills 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that an accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder. SIGNED: Nicholas C. Laluk 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research study could have been completed without the advice and support of my committee, which included Dr. Barbara Mills, Dr. J. Jefferson Reid, Dr. Barnet Pavao-Zuckerman and Dr. John Welch. Thank You for your constant encouragement and assistance throughout the entirety of my graduate school experience. I am grateful to the Coronado National Forest Heritage Program. Primarily my former and current supervisors Mary Farrell and William Gillespie. You both provided guidance and I learned so much about archaeology, Federal service and life as a result of your tutelage and encouragement. I am extremely grateful to the tribal nations involved in this dissertation research. Many thanks to the Apache cultural experts and tribes involved in this research from the Fort Sill, Mescalero, San Carlos and White Mountain Apache tribes. A special thanks to Mark Altaha, Mae Burnette, Holly Houghton, Arden Comanche, Silas Cochise and James Kunestsis. This dissertation was not possible without your direction, advice and friendship. Thanks to Ramon Riley, Chris Adams, Chip Colwell-Chanthaphonh, Alan Ferg, Karina Montez, Larry Ludwig, Clarice Rocha, Seth Pilsk, Sarah Herr, and Mark Sechrist for all your thoughtful comments and assistance throughout the writing process. I am grateful for the funding I received to support the completion of this dissertation from the American Philosophical Society, the Community and Forestry Environmental Restoration Program, the Society for American Archaeology and the Students to Academic Professoriate for American Indians Program. Finally, this dissertation could not have been completed without the love and support of my family. Dad, Mom and Owen I love you all so much. 5 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of Silas Cochise and Jayro Treas. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………...11 LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………….15 ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………...16 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………..........17 Research Setting……………………………………………………………….................20 Previous Archaeological Research: Chiricahua Mountain Research Area………………22 Differentiation of Apache Tribes Involved in Research…………………………………28 Western Apache ………………………………………………………………….29 Chiricahua Apache ………………………………………………………………30 Mescalero Apache ………………………………………………………………..31 Apache Occupation of the Chiricahua Mountains……………………………………….33 Research Area: Spanish, Mexican and Early Euroamerican Exploration……………….36 U.S. Federal Indian Policy and the Apache in Southeastern Arizona…………………...38 CHAPTER 2: APACHE ARCHAEOLOGY……………………………………………42 Differentiating Between Chiricahua and Western Apache Archaeology………………..43 Why “Leave No Trace”?………………………………………………………………....45 Apache Archaeology: Previous Research………………………………………………..48 Apache Archaeology: Use of Oral Testimony…………………………………………...48 Historical-Period Apache Battlefield Archaeology…………………………………...…51 Previous Research on Apache Archaeology in Southeast Arizona…………………...…53 CHAPTER 3: CULTURE CONTACT AND THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF COLONIALISM…………………………………………………………………………57 Culture Contact and the Archaeology of Colonialism Research Studies………………..59 7 Table of Contents – Continued The American Indian Experience: Moving Toward a Multivocal History………………63 CHAPTER 4: INDIGENOUS ARCHAEOLOGY AND COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH WITH AMERICAN INDIAN COMMUNITIES…………………………70 Overview of Indigenous Archaeology in the U.S……………………………………….70 Approaches and Definitions of Indigenous Archaeology in the U.S……………………70 Archaeological Theoretical Contributions to the Development of Indigenous Archaeology in the U.S………………………………………………………………….75 Processualism Influence …………………………………………………………75 Post-Processualism Influence ……………………………………………………76 Civil Rights Activism and Vine Deloria Jr………………………………………………77 Establishment of Tribal Museums and Cultural Preservation Programs………………...79 U.S. Development of Indigenous Archaeology: Key Legislation……………………….81 Indian Self-Determination and Education Act of 1975………………………….81 National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 ……………………………………..82 American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 ……………………………….83 Archaeological Resource Protection Act of 1979 ……………………………….83 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 ……………..84 Archaeological Collaborative Research with American Indian Communities………….87 Note: My Own Journey………………………………………………………………….91 American Indian Scholars……………………………………………………………….94 CHAPTER 5: DATA COLLECTION METHODS…………………………………......97 Archival and Ethnographical Research……………………………………………….…97 8 Table of Contents – Continued Pedestrian Survey………………………………………………………………………...99 Cultural Heritage Resources……………………………………………………………..99 Metal Detector Survey………………………………………………………………….102 Collaboration……………………………………………………………………………103 Site Records and Site Data……………………………………………………………...106 CHAPTER 6: SITE TYPES, DESCRIPTION AND DISCUSSION…………………..107 Apache Site Types……………………………………………………………………...108 Material Means of Recognizing Post-1850 Apache Sites………………………………110 Presence of Material of European Origin ……………………………………...110 Rock Rings, Cache Areas and Other Features …………………………………111 Ceramics ………………………………………………………………………..113 Agave Roasting Pits ……………………………………………………….……118 Horse Bone and Horse Pictographs …………………………………………....120 Other Possible Apache Rock Art ……………………………………………….124 Metal Axe Cuts ………………………………………………………………....127 Chiricahua Mountain Research Areas and Findings…………………………………...128 Cave Creek ……………………………………………………………………..129 Apache Pass (Fort Bowie Area) ………………………………………………..129 The “Bascom Affair” Incident ………………………………………………….131 Horseshoe and Pothole Canyon Areas …………………………………………135 Rock Creek ……………………………………………………………………...136 Jack Wood Canyon ……………………………………………………………..147 Rucker Canyon …………………………………………………………………150 9 Table of Contents – Continued Rucker Canyon Area Sites and Survey ………………………………………….152 1869 Apache/Military Battlesite ………………………………………………..155 Apache Scout Camps in Rucker Canyon ………………………………………..157 Apache Scouts …………………………………………………………………..158 Apache Archaeology: Discussion………………………………………………………169 CHAPTER 7: A PLACE, PRAGMATIC, AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPE APPROACH TO APACHE HISTORY………………………………………………..172 Anthropology and “Place”……………………………………………………………...172 The “Place” and “Space” Dichotomy…………………………………………………..173 Archaeological Use of Place……………………………………………………………174 Apache Conception of “Place”…………………………………………………………177 American Pragmatism and Archaeology……………………………………………….182 Cultural Landscapes…………………………………………………………………….191 Brief Overview of Landscape Theory and “Cultural Landscape”……………………...193 Cultural Landscapes: Ethnography, Collaboration and Landscape Archaeology……...194 Place and Material as Social Investment……………………………………………….199