Douglas RANGER DISTRICT

www.skyislandaction.org 3-1 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-2 www.skyislandaction.org CHAPTER 3 Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area

The Dragoon Mountains are located at the heart of development. Crossing Highway 80, one passes the Coronado National Forest. The Forest through another narrow strip of private land and encompasses 52,411 acres of the mountains in an area enters the BLM-managed San Pedro Riparian some 15 miles long by 6 miles wide. The Dragoon National Conservation Area. On the west side of the Ecosystem Management Area (EMA) is the smallest San Pedro River, the valley (mostly under private and on the Forest making it sensitive to activities state land jurisdiction) slopes up to the Whetstone happening both on the Forest and in lands Mountains, another Ecosystem Management Area of surrounding the Forest. Elevations range from the Coronado National Forest. approximately 4,700 feet to 7,519 feet at the summit of Due to the pattern of ecological damage and Mount Glenn. (See Figure 3.1 for an overview map of unmanaged visitor use in the Dragoons, we propose the Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area.) the area be divided into multiple management units ( The Dragoons are approximately sixty miles 3.2) with a strong focus on changing management in southeast of Tucson and thirty-five miles northeast of the Dragoon Westside Management Area (DWMA). Sierra Vista. Land adjacent to the western boundary of In order to limit overall impacts on the Westside, a the Management Area is privately owned and remains visitor permit system with a cap on daily visitor relatively remote and sparsely roaded compared to the numbers is recommended. The permit system would eastern side. Until recently, there were only two houses only apply to the Westside Management Area, and along this edge, ranch headquarters for the Horse therefore would contribute to the goal of “multiple use Ranch in west Stronghold Canyon, and the Three management” by providing opportunities for uses and Sisters Ranch in Granite Springs Canyon. Lands along experiences that are being displaced elsewhere on the the western edge are now being developed for houses Coronado. The proposed DWMA is referred to and a resort. Two major residential developments are throughout the document due to the extensive in progress on 19,700 acres adjacent to the west side of management concerns and proposed actions affecting the Dragoons. the area. Moving west from the Dragoons along Slavin Natural History Gulch and Stronghold Canyon toward the San Pedro Geology of the Dragoon mountain range is River, one crosses a patchwork of state and private strikingly beautiful. Huge granite domes, deep land. These state lands are currently leased for grazing canyons, and layers of weathered cliffs and boulder to the owners of the intervening private land but in fields baffle the mind’s depth perception. Large, the future could be available for sale to the highest crystallized, granitic domes resulting from complex bidder, at which point they are opened to geologic activity — including 78 million-year-old “Stronghold Granite”1 — sit atop a layer of limestone

www.skyislandaction.org 3-3 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Figure 3.1 Overview of the Dragoon EMA

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-4 www.skyislandaction.org Figure 3.2 Dragoon EMA Proposed Management Districts

www.skyislandaction.org 3-5 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 sea bottom. This limestone layer reaches the surface flanks of the Dragoons — until the 1890s.6 The extent south of Middlemarch Pass. When the porous layers and health of grasslands was drastically reduced from of limestone came into contact with the impermeable intensive livestock grazing of the late 1800s, the layers of granite, year-round springs and streams were drought of 1891-1893, and from subsequent produced. These springs feed several streams and overgrazing, fire suppression, and climate change.7 cienegas throughout the range. The hard rocks at the The amount of grassland encroached, and/or mountains’ core rise abruptly above the alluvial San completely displaced by shrubs appears to have made Pedro Valley, through which winds the renowned San its biggest increases between 1900 and 1935. The Pedro River. The bulk of the mountain range consists process of encroachment continues today, albeit at a of steep slopes and boulder fields. GIS slope analysis slower pace. The gently sloping grassland areas found shows only about 3,000 acres (one-tenth) of the range along the west flank of the Dragoons are among the to be less than 10% grade. Most of this flat land is in a best modern-day representatives of this habitat type in narrow band at the base of the western cliffs. Soils in all of Arizona and New Mexico. Nevertheless, shrubs the range are primarily decomposed granite; organic in these savannas are growing progressively denser layers easily eroded, leaving them thin and in some (compare the photos in Figures 3.3), and the lower areas, and concentrated in rich swales and pockets bajada slopes are now heavily dominated by mesquites elsewhere. and creosote bush. Vegetation climbs from desertscrub and semidesert The diverse Sky Island vegetation communities of grassland into encinal savanna and mixed pine-oak the Dragoons are home to fifteen species of woodland.2 Slavin Gulch and Stronghold Canyon threatened, endangered, and officially “special contain examples of the region’s distinctive Arizona concern” animals and plants. These include animals cypress riparian forests. These are among the best such as the Peregrine falcon, Chiricahua leopard frog, remaining stands of this tree and its floral and faunal and various endemic cacti. Jaguars have reportedly associates in the nation. In past eras, mighty forests of been seen in the Dragoon Mountains as recently as Arizona cypress were widely distributed throughout 1986 (specimen reportedly chased from Dragoons and the region.3 These trees are now globally-rare, killed in Dos Cabezas). One ocelot was trapped on the restricted to relict patches in wet, shady canyons. In west side of the range in 1927.8 contrast encinal savanna and woodland, are Human Prehistory and History widespread at middle elevations in the Sky Island The first solid archeological evidence of human region. In the Dragoons these woodlands form an habitation in this area shows Clovis hunters spearing important foundation for species diversity. The mammoths in the San Pedro Valley — and doubtless granite sand limestone soils in the range also the Dragoons foothills — by 9,000 years B.C.9 Next contribute to biological diversity. In the Mule came the long occupancy of the Cochise Culture of Mountains, floral surveys found that granite slopes hunter-gatherers, eventual introduction of (like those of the northern Dragoons) had particularly domesticated crop plants, and development of more strong Madrean affinities, while limestone slopes (like densely settled networks of farming peoples. In these those of the southern Dragoons) tended to have a later times, the Dragoon Mountains sat near the higher percentage of plant species with Chihuahuan confluence of ranges for the Mogollon, Salado, and affinities.4 Hohokam peoples that populated the region, possibly The Dragoons contain some of the most intact, as early as 200 A.D. and lasting in some form through species-rich grasslands on the Coronado National the arrival of the Apache.10 Forest. Grasslands and grass-dominated woodlands History of extant cultures in the Dragoon (“savannas”) once clothed some 45% of the Sky Island Mountains dates back at least to the 1500s when region, but loss of topsoil, desertification, and shrub Europeans first made contact with the Apache in this encroachment have relegated classical open grassland region.11 Boundaries of the Sky Island region coincide and savanna to ever smaller and more isolated almost perfectly with the known range of the patches.5 These grasslands were once so productive Chiricahua Apaches, with Chokonen (or Chiricahua), that harvesting wild hay was a major industry Bedonkohe, Chihenne, and Nedhni bands occupying throughout the — including the eastern and western various subdivisions of the region.12 The Chokonen

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-6 www.skyislandaction.org Figure 3.3 Views of Dragoons West Slope,1883 and 2002.

www.skyislandaction.org 3-7 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 range in particular was centered in the Dragoon, Cochise was the chief of the Chokonen band of Chiricahua, Dos Cabezas, and Peloncillo Mountains Chiricahua Apaches. After decades of skirmishes with on both sides of the present U.S.-Mexico border.13 The Mexican soldiers and settlers, 1858 marked Cochise’s compressed latitudinal and elevational gradients that first (peaceable) interactions with newly arriving white characterize the Sky Island region and the area’s high settlers and their military protectors. The peace ended productivity provided year-round hunting and in 1861, when soldiers captured and executed several gathering opportunities, which enabled Chiricahua of Cochise’s relatives. This set off eleven years of Apaches to remain the only entirely non-agricultural mutual violence between Anglos and Cochise’s culture in the American Southwest during this era. Apaches.17 During this time, Cochise and other Written history of the area began with Coronado’s Chokonen Apaches split time between the Dragoon, 1540 journey from Mexico City to the Zuni area of Chiricahua, and Peloncillo Mountains, as well as New Mexico. One proposed route has this epic various sites south of the U.S.-Mexico border, and journey passing up the San Pedro River and along the kept this area relatively free of settlers. west side of the Dragoons. Coronado was followed by In 1872 Brigadier General O. O. Howard, along a series of explorers from Spain and Spanish-ruled with First Lieutenant J.A. Sladen, set out to make Mexico.14 Nevertheless, the resident Apaches managed peace with Cochise. Guided by Thomas Jeffords (the to largely hold their own against first Spanish, then only white man to befriend and become “blood Mexican, and later U.S. armed forces and settlers for brother” to Cochise), and joined later by Chie the next 300 plus years.15 (Cochise’s nephew), and Ponce (Chie’s brother-in-law During recorded history, names for this range have and leader of a Chihenne band of Chiricahua reflected the changing domination of cultural groups Apache), they traced Cochise to his “stronghold” in the region. The current name for this range comes camp in the Dragoons. Making the long journey from from Dragoon Pass at its north end, so named for the Fort Tularosa in New Mexico, they were met on the U.S. Army’s Dragoon regiment that manned many west side of the Dragoons by members of Cochise’s military posts in the late 1850s.16 With the Gadsden band, and led up a stream-filled gorge that, by Lt. Purchase of 1854, the Dragoons and surrounding area Sladen’s description, could only be Slavin Gulch. became part of the United States. American-made Several days of meetings in this basin and in west maps have labeled this range the Dragoon Mountains Stronghold Canyon marked one of the greatest since the late 1860s. The range was previously referred accomplishments in the region’s history. On October to as the “Sierra de la 12, 1872, a peace treaty emerged between the U.S. Peñascosa,” meaning a Government and very rugged, rocky Cochise. This treaty range. Older Apache gave the Chiricahua names for the Apache a reservation mountains are not in that included much any of the major of their original published accounts of homeland, and the area’s history, but comprised much of ethnographer current-day Cochise Grenville Goodwin’s County (Figure 3.4). notes report Apaches The U.S. using the name Government Tsidahólkai for rescinded the Cochise’s Dragoon Chiricahua Mountains stronghold. Reservation Well-known history designation in 1876, of Apaches in the Dragoon after the death of Mountains dates back to Figure 3.4 Chiricahua Apache Reservation as Cochise. the mid-1800s, when designated in 1872, rescinded in 1876 Abolishment of the

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-8 www.skyislandaction.org reservation seems to have been related to several the Apaches, (2) the 1881 arrival of the railroad, (3) complex factors. Continued Apache raids in Sonora development of silver and copper mines in Tombstone (some clearly based from the Chiricahua Reservation) and Bisbee respectively, and (4) a boom in the cattle strained U.S.-Mexico relations, and added fuel to the industry.19 The Dragoons were no exception to these ongoing arguments of Anglo Americans such as trends. In the early 1880s, this cattle boom brought General George Crook that the U.S. Army should hundreds of thousands of cattle into Cochise County conquer and subjugate the Chiricahua Apaches.18 alone;20 most of these were in the San Pedro and San Across the west, the government had begun a policy of Simon valleys, west and east of the Dragoons. After concentrating Indians on as few reservations as 1876, several ranches were headquartered in the possible to increase control over the Indians, to reduce Dragoons themselves (see examples below). The first costs of managing reservations, and to free up lands Dragoon mine, the Silver Cloud, began operating for white settlers. Previous attempts to force all around 1879, presumably in the area of Black Chiricahua Apaches on reservations with either Diamond Peak. Over the decades that followed, a Western Apaches (distant relatives) or Mescalero network of small-scale mines achieved modest Apaches (with whom they maintained closer production levels of base-metal ores, gold, silver, and relations) had failed, but many government officials later marble.21 The Dragoons also shared in the still wanted this type of consolidation. Cochise’s region-wide erosive downcutting, soil loss, and unusually strong leadership skills enabled him to massive livestock die-offs of the early 1890s. This crisis negotiate effectively for his tribe’s own reservation in was brought on by the combined influx of huge cattle their traditional homeland, free from subjection to herds into the area — estimated to include over a U.S. military control. His consolidation of power then million animals in Arizona — and crippling drought enabled him to maintain peaceful relations in the U.S. from 1891-1893.22 by largely controlling the raiding and warfare of other The personal histories of two well-known Dragoon Apache bands on and around the reservation. Mountain area residents, William Fourr and Jonathan When Cochise died, some U.S. leaders saw A. Rockfellow, reflect trends in Anglo settlement. Both weakening of centralized power as an opportunity to have left visible legacies here. Billy Fourr was born on force relocation. They also found pretexts for this July 11, 1843, in Prairie Home, Missouri.23 He spent move — no subsequent leader was able to control the most of his younger years working as a cattle herder actions of a few errant individuals, some who killed a and miner, heading gradually further towards the nearby shopkeeper and his associate (who bore some southwest. In 1878, Fourr and his family settled in the responsibility for their own whisky-borne deaths) and west side of the Dragoon Mountains, where he started triggered Army action. U.S. Indian agent John Philip a cattle ranch. Fourr also did a small amount of Clum, head of the White Mountain/San Carlos prospecting, which in later years developed into Apache Reservation, spearheaded the push to dissolve working silver, copper, lead, and gold mines. Fourr’s the Chiricahua Reservation, and forcibly removed the 1400-acre Fourr-F Ranch prospered until his death on Chiricahua Apaches in 1876. This eventually led to the January 9, 1935, at which time he was known as breakout of many Chiricahua warriors and to the Arizona’s oldest pioneer. Army’s long, frustrating endeavor to capture Fourr’s compatriot John Rockfellow followed a Geronimo. For the next ten years Geronimo led many similar trajectory. Born in 1858 in Mt. Morris, N.Y., raids in the region, occasionally camping in the Rockfellow came to Arizona at the age of twenty, Dragoons. Geronimo surrendered on September 6, where he helped open the Tombstone Mine. 1886, in the nearby Peloncillo Mountains, ending Rockfellow worked as a prospector until he had several centuries of warfare between Apaches and the enough money in 1893 to establish his ranch in Europeans and Americans that entered their Cochise Stronghold. During the seventy years he lived homelands. in southeastern Arizona, Rockfellow was Justice of the From the peace treaty of 1872 onwards, Anglo- Peace and Cattle Inspector for the town of Willcox, American settlements expanded throughout the headed the University of Arizona’s preparatory region. This expansion has been attributed to the department, and maintained an office in Tombstone interdependent forces of (1) successive subjugation of as a surveyor and civil engineer. He died on May 16,

www.skyislandaction.org 3-9 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 1948 at the age of ninety.24 His name has remained However, interest in mineral withdrawal has recently attached to one of the range’s most prominent increased and there is currently a proposed alpha- features, Rockfellow Dome, and his large collection of calcite mine threatening the northern slopes of the papers (deposited at the Arizona Historical Society) range. doubtless contain many unexcavated narrative The west slope of the Dragoons retains visible treasures. Rockfellow’s East Stronghold ranch house reminders of its complex historical and cultural legacy. remains a prominent structure in that canyon. Council Rocks, sometimes said to be where the 1872 Management of the bulk of the Dragoons soon peace treaty was signed, has a road sign and trail became the province of the federal government. The erected by the Coronado. In fact, the treaty was signed 1890s saw the creation of a nationwide system of to the north of here,27 but this could have been the site “forest reserves,” partly in response to destruction of of much of the negotiations that led to the treaty. watersheds by free-for-all timber cutting in the eastern Pictographs, ruins, and grinding stones are scattered United States. The Dragoons were incorporated into throughout the rock outcroppings along this west this system in 1903, while some inholdings remained slope. Abandoned mines are scattered throughout the private land. In 1907, the Dragoon Forest Reserve range, including one visible in the high bluffs above management merged with that of the Peloncillo and Slavin Creek. The “Whitehouse Ruin,” which appears Animas Forest Reserves. In 1910, the Dragoons to be remainders of an 1880s ranch house, can be seen became part of the Chiricahua National Forest and near the mouth of west Stronghold Canyon, and has remained so until 1917, when the all of southeastern attracted considerable interest due to a case of Arizona’s federal forest parcels were merged into the mistaken identity. An article in Arizona Highways28 Coronado National Forest. Grazing practices identified this house as belonging to New York’s continued on these now-public lands. The 1934 Taylor infamous fraudulent politician William M. “Boss” Grazing Act eventually attempted to regulate ongoing Tweed. In fact, Boss Tweed never lived in Arizona; he watershed damage from overgrazing and to stabilize also died in 1878, thus apparently pre-dating the that part of the livestock industry that depended on building of the house. Ranchers Henry A. and Hattie public land forage.25 Small-scale mining activity K. Tweed (no relation to Boss) did, however, live in the continued into the 1960s but has subsided since.26 area, and this house may well have belonged to them.29

Elements of Biological Diversity and Cultural Heritage

The Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area or Endangered species, along with other species harbors a unique combination of vegetation types and determined to be Species of Concern or Species of species that contribute to the biological diversity of Interest due to management issues (Table 3.1). Three the Coronado National Forest. The Forest Service of the mollusks listed here are believed by the Forest recognizes that building a framework for ecological Service to be found no where else on the Forest. These sustainability will require management of entire include Teasing Holospira, Apache Talussnail and biological communities combined with special Stronghold Canyon Talussnail. management for particular species. For revision of the Ecological systems and the processes that sustain Forest Plan the Forest Service identified species that them are the foundations of native biological diversity. will be the focus of planning efforts. Species and Vegetation communities and aquatic habitats that are vegetation types of management interest found across especially species rich, diverse, or threatened; or are the Coronado National Forest were described and endemic to the region or locality are of particular listed in the Forest Overview (Table 1.1, page 1-11). management concern. To evaluate current conditions Described here are species and vegetation types and management prescriptions for ecological systems specifically found on the Dragoon Ecosystem the Forest Service is using the framework of Potential Management Area. The Forest Service identified 48 Natural Vegetation Types. Potential Natural Vegetation species of plants and animals including 4 Threatened Types are defined as the vegetation that would

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-10 www.skyislandaction.org Figure 3.5 Ecological Systems of the Dragoon EMA

www.skyislandaction.org 3-11 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Table 3.1 Species Identified by the Forest Table 3.2 Foundations of Native Biological Service to Guide Management Decisions Diversity

Amphibians “Potential Natural Vegetation Types” (bold) as they Rana chiricahuensis Chiricahua Leopard Frog correspond with The Nature Conservancy’s “Ecological Systems” ______Insects Oligocentria delicata A Notodontid Moth Desert Communities Chihuahuan Desert Scrub Mammals Madrean Encinal Woodland Choeronycteris mexicana Mexican Long-tongued Bat Madrean Encinal

Mollusks Madrean Pine-oak Woodland Gastrocopta prototypus Sonoran Snaggletooth Madrean pine-oak Woodland Holospira ferrissi Stocky Holospira Piñon-Juniper Woodland Holospira tantalus Teasing Holospira Piñon-Juniper Woodland Sonorella apache Apache Talussnail Semi-desert Grasslands Sonorella dragoonensis Stronghold Canyon Talussnail Apachean Grassland and Savannah Apachean Shrubland Reptiles Apachean Riparian Grassland Sceloporus slevini Slevin's Bunchgrass Lizard

Other Vegetation Types Plants ______Acacia millefolia Milfoil Acacia Apacheria chiricahuensis Cliff Brittlebush Arizona cypress riparian forest Bouteloua parryi Parry's Gramma Grasslands dominated by native grass species Carex ultra Cochise Sedge Erigeron arisolius Arid Throne Fleabane Physiographic Features ______Eriogonum arizonicum Arizona Wild-buckwheat Fraxinus papillosa Chihuahua Ash Granitic domes Hexalectris spicata var. arizonica Crested Coralroot Limestone outcroppings Mammillaria heyderi var. Little Nipple Cactus Springs macdougalii Margaranthus solanaceus Netted Globeberry Pellaea ternifolia ssp. arizonica Three-leaved Cliffbrake Penstemon superbus Superb Beardtongue Perityle dissecta Slimlobe Rockdaisy Phoradendron bolleanum ssp. Rough Mistletoe pauciflorum Plagiobothrys pringlei Pringle's Popcorn-flower Rhamnus crocea ssp. pilosa Redberry Buckthorn Scutellaria tessellata Huachuca Mountains Skullcap Woodsia cochisensis Cochise Woodsia

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-12 www.skyislandaction.org dominate a site under natural disturbance regimes The Dragoon Mountains contains a wealth of and biological processes. Using this classification prehistoric and historic influences. Visible and allows current vegetation to be compared effectively to physical remnants of previous human habitation of its historical range of variation. Because Potential the area include built structures, physical sites, or Natural Vegetation Types are relatively broad objects or assemblages of material culture. Human groupings, and because the Forest contains a high uses of the land compatible with the protection of diversity of vegetation types, we present ecological biological diversity, and traditional Western Apache systems as a focus for management direction. These uses of the land are also an important part of the ecological systems are cross-walked with the Potential Cultural Heritage of the area (Table 3.4). Natural Vegetation Types used by the Forest Service (Table 3.2). Although there are many fine variations in plant communities on the Dragoon Ecosystem Management Areas, ecological systems classify plant Table 3.3 Additional Species that Require communities into broader groups so as to be most Special Management Consideration useful for management actions such as mapping, land Amphibians management, and monitoring. Plant communities Rana blairi Plains Leopard Frog were grouped based on shared characteristics such as natural processes (e.g. fire and flood), substrates (e.g. Birds shallow soils, limestone outcroppings), and local Callipepla squamata Scaled Quail climate.30 Figure 3.5 shows the distribution of ecological systems in the Dragoons. Through contact Mammals with regional scientists and experts, and other people Corynorhinus townsendii Pale Lump-nosed Bat familiar with the Dragoons, we identified ecological pallescens systems, physiographic features, additional species and Myotis thysanodes Fringed Myotis cultural resources that should also be considered in Panthera onca Jaguar the Forest Plan revision. Plants Species that will need special management Coryphantha scheeri var. valida Scheer's Pincushion Cactus attention include species that are endemic to the Epithelantha micromeris Ping-Pong-Ball Button Cactus region or locality, species that have a restricted Graptopetalum bartramii Patagonia Mountain Leather-Petal distribution within the region, and species dependent Lupinus lemmonii Lemmon's Lupine on specialized habitat. Other species that will need Mammillaria wrightii Wright's Prickly-Pear special consideration are species that area rare, Penstemon discolor Catalina Beardtongue Sclerocactus erectocentrus Acuna Cactus vulnerable or declining throughout their ranges; are rare, imperiled or vulnerable in the U.S. portion of their ranges that overlap the Coronado National Forest; or are harvested for economic interests. These Table 3.4 Elements of Cultural Heritage species may not be adequately protected by managing for ecological systems and may require specific Human Prehistory management actions or monitoring. Table 3.3 lists Pictographs and petroglyphs additional species whose needs should be assessed Grinding Holes during plan revision. Human History Council Rocks Dragoon Springs Small, abandoned mines Whitehouse Ruin Site of ambush of Mexican troops by Cochise and followers

Social Values Opportunities for solitude and primitive recreation Opportunities for quiet recreation

www.skyislandaction.org 3-13 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Desired Conditions

Management Vision percolation into the San Pedro aquifer, and reduction The Dragoon EMA shall retain its long-term of erosion of topsoil and sedimentation. Allotment biological, cultural, historical, recreational, and retirement provides opportunities for researchers and aesthetic values in the face of changing human use other users to compare grazed and ungrazed habitats and dynamic ecological cycles. Within the range, the in the range. Increases in grass density improves Dragoon Westside Management Area (see Figure 3.2 habitat for native grazer populations. for map of proposed management area) will be The watershed of the Slavin Gulch drainage is managed for low-intensity use, to provide high- established as a Research Natural Area. Designation of quality backcountry experience to users and to protect this RNA attracts attention of potential researchers, its unique natural and cultural resources. Such and helps fulfill the Forest Service’s mandate to have management will complement higher-use areas all major ecosystem types present on the Coronado elsewhere in the range. represented in RNAs. Traditions of use become established that are Wildlife monitoring transects provide feedback on compatible with the health of the land and that reduce movement patterns of target species, and the factors conflicts among users. Management of this area for that affect these movements. low-intensity helps the Forest Service fulfill its multiple use mandate. The area maintains its historical habitat structure, in part to benefit wildlife of the region and in part to Impacts associated with roads are reduced and accurately reflect conditions during the area’s stabilized. Illegal, user-created roads and redundant historical heyday in the mid to late 1800s. roads are closed and revegetated, and all remaining roads have clear purposes that are balanced against The gently-sloping grassland areas found along their associated impacts. portions of the west flank of the Dragoons remain among the best representatives of this habitat type in Hiking opportunities are enhanced in both extent Region 3 of the National Forest. This area thus and quality, with improved interpretive materials. continues to provide habitat for grassland-dependent Rock climbing impacts are reduced via educational species imperiled by loss of habitat elsewhere. Maintenance of open savanna structure also conveys outreach and active management of numbers and to visitors an accurate sense of what the area was like climbing routes. Impacts of commercial and other during the mid to late 1800s, its most important large group activities are acknowledged, and these historical and cultural era. Maintenance of open activities are redirected to less sensitive areas in other savannah structure also enables visitors an ecologically mountain ranges. accurate experience of what the area was like during Equestrian impacts are reduced and opportunities the historical and cultural era of the mid to late 1800s. for equestrian day-use are enhanced and adequately Spread of invasive species, both native and exotic, is managed. reduced. Invasive exotics are eliminated where The Slavin grazing allotment in Stronghold and possible, and new invasions are actively deterred. Slavin Canyons is voluntarily retired leading to improved infiltration of water into the soil and

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-14 www.skyislandaction.org Conservation Assets

Conservation assets work on behalf of desired and retain a sense of open space for residents, DMR conditions and against the threats to the ecological covenants prohibit fencing of more than 5 acres of and cultural elements of the Dragoons. They will each property; domestic animals are required to be contribute to the Forest Service’s ability to maintain kept within this fenced area. The Dragoon Mountain ecological sustainability on the Management Area. Homeowners Association and the Drylands Institute The following emerged as strengths and opportunities have also begun addressing the very real threats of for conservation on the Dragoon Ecosystem spreading exotic species, including educational Management Area. outreach for homebuyers on the values of planting Dragoon Conservation Alliance native flora. Most of these studies have dealt with somewhat higher housing densities, but have shown The Dragoon Conservation Alliance is a group of that some wildlife species are affected by development concerned citizens from northern Cochise County at much greater distances than others.32 Efficacy of and interested persons around the world. The DMR’s particular mitigation efforts remains to be Alliance is a member of the Arizona Mining Reform seen. Coalition and works in cooperation with Earthworks, Westerners for Responsible Mining, Sky Island Roadless Areas Alliance, the Amerind Foundation, and the Coronado Most of the interior of this range remains Planning Partnership. The Alliance is dedicated to unroaded, largely due to its extremely rugged nature. preserving the Dragoon Mountains for present and Federal RARE II (Roadless Area Review and future generations. The group has been active in Evaluation) analysis identified approximately 33,000 addressing potential threats from mineral exploration acres, of roadless acreage north of Middlemarch and reopening of mines in the area. It also participates Pass.31 Recent (2000-2002) SIA road inventories in landscape-level planning to encourage responsible mapped the current edges of these roadless areas. growth. These carefully mapped boundaries enclose 35,324 Dragoon Mountain Ranch roadless acres. Immediately adjacent to the proposed Dragoon Sky Island Alliance and Coronado National Forest Westside Management Area is the Dragoon Mountain Collaborative Road Closures Ranch (DMR), which encompasses some 18,000 acres Sky Island Alliance and the Coronado National of private lands and controls grazing lease and access Forest have worked to reduce the proliferation of to approximately 26,000 acres of state land. DMR is illegal roads, and to close and revegetate illegal and zoned for “rural development” at minimum lot size of redundant roads in ecologically sensitive areas. The 36 acres per home; most lots are somewhat larger than first road closure and restoration in the Dragoon this. The current build-out phase includes some 400 Mountains took place in Slavin Canyon in November lots; most of these are sold, but DMR estimates that of 1999 and turned 1.5 miles of canyon-bottom road full build-out will take 40 years (only a dozen or so into hiking and equestrian trail. In March of 2001, an houses have been built to date). An adjacent Council additional six roads (2.1 miles) were closed and Rocks Land and Cattle Co. property of 15,000 acres is restored. By 2002 the total number of closed, re- slated for either low-density housing (lots ≥ 36 acres) vegetated roads reached 9 (6.7 miles). March of 2002 or retention as open space in the next phase of saw follow-up revegetation work and re-closure of one development. road segment (687g) at a better natural pinch-point DMR planners have been actively involved in after previous closures were breached. Since then, all mitigating impacts of their development in several rigorously closed sections have remained closed ways. DMR has taken conservation easement on some although informal closure and revegetation attempts 1,000 acres, including 1,100-foot “conservation on the tracks to China Peak have been repeatedly greenbelt” buffers along Slavin and Stronghold breached. Roadbed revegetation success has been drainages. To decrease impacts on wildlife movement striking across the closed segments (Figures 3.6A and 3.6B). www.skyislandaction.org 3-15 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Threats to the Forest: A Need for Change

The Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area has off-road vehicles, camping, hiking, bird watching, rock changed dramatically since the Coronado National climbing, livestock grazing, hunting, equestrian use, Forest Plan was enacted in 1986. Management mountain biking, and cultural and historical tourism. concerns and threats exist in the Dragoons that are Management implications of these activities are not addressed in the Forest Plan, or have not been discussed below. Unless management in the Dragoons, adequately dealt through management. The plan particularly on the west side, is changed, impacts will revision will update existing management direction and add new management direction, both of which should address these concerns. For most of the last 100 years, the Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area has experienced relatively little human use. Historically far from any sizeable population centers, and off the beaten path of all major user groups, Forest managers have long been justified in paying little attention to the area. Over the last twenty years, use has increased exponentially. The area has been discovered by rock climbers and other recreationists, the local and regional populations have grown rapidly, other nearby recreation areas have become Figure 3.6A Slavin Gulch Road immediately before closure, congested with users or subject to new use regulations, and the motorized November 1999 recreation industry has proliferated throughout the country. The Dragoon EMA is no longer a backcountry site with few management needs. Particularly in the proposed Dragoon Westside Management Area, use has become a chaotic, unregulated free-for-all. In order to highlight the need for creating the special management area, threats that affect the westside area are treated separately in the site-specific threats section. As a multiple use area, the west side of the Dragoon EMA is utilized by many people engaged in a variety of activities. These include driving of Figure 3.6B Slavin Gulch Road after closure,March 2000 (Right track shows areas with, versus without revegetation.)

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-16 www.skyislandaction.org continue to intensify until they reach a crisis state and guaranteed to increase visitation pressure on the cause extensive conflicts among users. Understanding proposed DWMA and areas south of Middlemarch the current status and impacts of various activities is a Pass. Impacts from these developments include: first step in this process of responsible updating of management. Impacts on wildlife composition and movement via 33 ADJACENT LAND USES activities of loose or feral domesticated animals Land is currently being developed along the Increases in unmanaged visitation from resort- western, northern, and eastern boundaries of the sponsored tours, people entering the Forest from Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area. Two major adjacent development, a planned equestrian center, residential developments are being constructed along and paved roads the west side of the mountains. Immediately adjacent to the proposed DWMA is the Dragoon Mountain Loss of grazing practices that keep land open with Ranch, which encompasses 18,000 acres of private less damage to wild ecosystems than housing lands and controls grazing lease and access to developments approximately 26,000 acres of state land. This land is Affected resources include: geological features, zoned for “rural development,” with a minimum lot springs, ephemeral watercourses, scenic resources, size of 36 acres per home. The current build-out phase eastside and Westside drainages, all ecological systems, includes some 400 lots; most of these are sold, but full all native vegetation types and their associated flora build-out is estimated at 30 years. An adjacent Council and fauna, species particularly sensitive to direct Rocks Land and Cattle Company property of 15,000 human disturbance, prehistoric and historical sites, acres is slated for either low-density housing (lots >36 structures, and artifacts. acres) or retention as open space in the next phase of DEMOGRAPHICS development. The rise in visitation to the west side of the The 1,700-acre Bachmann Springs property, just Dragoons reflects increased publicity and human south of Middlemarch Road and very close to the west population growth in surrounding towns and cities. side of the EMA, has been rezoned to allow for Figures 3.7 and 3.8 show overall population growth in development of higher-density residences and a large Cochise County from year 1900 to 2000 at ten year resort complex. Over 1,000 homes are slated, at more intervals. The subsequent table shows overall than one home per acre, along with a 400-room resort population growth for seven specific towns or cities hotel, an 18-hole golf course, and 700 acres planned as for 1990 and 2000. At the current growth rate open space. Construction on this development has (averaged over the past four decades), the population just begun. The magnitude of this plan, along with a of Cochise County would double in the next 25 years. stated intent to run tours on nearby National Forest, Impacts from an increasing human population in makes for substantial foreseeable impacts. In addition, the area include increases in unmanaged visitation plans to pave Middlemarch Road from Highway 80 to and will likely affect the entire Ecosystem within a mile of the EMA boundary is virtually

Figure 3.8 Overall population growth of Cochise County from 1990 to 2000

Percent Town/City 1990 2000 growth Benson 3,824 4,711 23% Bisbee 6,288 6,090 -03% Huachuca City 1,782 1,751 -02% Sierra Vista City 32,983 37,775 15% Sierra Vista Southeast 9,237 14,348 55% Figure 3.7 Overall Population St. David 1,468 1,744 19% Growth of Cochise County Tombstone 1,220 1,504 23% from 1990 to 2000 Whole Cochise County 97,624 117,755 21% www.skyislandaction.org 3-17 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Management Area, although there is currently a Surveys conducted by Sky Island Alliance in 1998 concentration of impacts in the proposed DWMA. found twenty-one recognizable campsites along Affected resources include all those listed for Land FR687. Since then, this number has more than Development. doubled, with a total of forty-eight as of surveys EXTRACTIVE USES conducted in March of 2002 (Figures 3.9 and 3.10). Livestock Grazing Nineteen of these were created since a Forest Service campsite baseline survey was completed 2001. Several Livestock grazing has been present in the Dragoon of the sites created since 2000 are large pull-through Mountains for some 130 years, at varying levels of campsites created by bus-sized recreational vehicles or intensity and under many different management trucks pulling trailers with horses or ORVs. regimes. With the exception of occasional range conservationists’ cursory measurements of forage The overall size of many existing campsites has usage levels, impacts of grazing have never been continued to grow over time as well. This expansion is formally studied in this range. particularly evident in sites that have been used by group recreational programs such as NOLS (National Particularly obvious cattle impacts have been Outdoor Leadership School), which have turned concentrated in riparian areas and grasslands at the single-tent sites into multi-acre networks of tent pads base of the mountain. Negative impacts of poorly and trails. managed livestock grazing on arid ecosystems are, by now, both well documented and contentious. The user-created campsites vary in the amount and type of use each represents (see CNF report 2001). INVASIVE SPECIES Overall, however, they have clearly visible evidence of Lehmann lovegrass (Eragrostis lehmanniana) impacts on the landscape, which include: which was introduced for erosion control and cattle forage is found on the EMA. It is known to form solid Nearby trees and slopes bare of dead and downed stands that displace native grass species, and continues wood to spread.34 Lehmann lovegrass is also known to Live branches, or entire trees cut for firewood provide lower quality habitat for some native bird and lizard species than do native grass species.35 The Deposition of trash, including human waste diverse stands of native grass on the west side of the Dragoons are threatened by potential establishment of Creation of access trails to and from campsites Lehmann lovegrass which can be prevented or slowed Indiscriminate footpaths and off-road vehicle tracks by appropriate management. lead up steep hillsides and eroding gullies Bullfrog invasion via human-created water sources both on and off the Forest will lead to competition Trampling of vegetation and soil compaction with and predation on native species. Affected is Thin granitic soils visibly compacted Chiricahua leopard frog. NONEXTRACTIVE USES Campsite Proliferation The area along FR687 (including its various spur roads) is currently lined with rustic campsites that do not have toilets, piped water or other constructed facilities. A developed campground on the east side of the mountains serves the users that prefer constructed amenities. Most campsites found on the west side of the EMA were established by visitors rather than by Forest Service planners and few have any indications of defined boundaries. Threats in this area include the unmanaged creation of more and larger campsites. Figure 3.9 Campsite Proliferation with Years Divided into Quarters.

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-18 www.skyislandaction.org Figure 3.10 Campsite Proliferation on the Dragoon EMA

www.skyislandaction.org 3-19 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Conspicuous zones of bare ground due to repeat Soil compaction and erosion trampling Damage to vegetation and wildlife on rock faces Vulnerability of bare, continually disturbed areas to Affected resources include: granitic domes, 36 invasive species limestone outcroppings, all ecological systems Subsequent use of bare areas as established parking adjacent to climbing cliffs, all native vegetation types or camping areas (which prevents reestablishment of and their associated flora and fauna in vicinity of vegetation climbing activity, species especially sensitive to direct human disturbance, and the Peregrine falcon. Hiking and Foot Travel Cultural and Historical Tourism Although remarkably few hiking trails exist in this Visitors come to the Dragoons from across the U.S. EMA, pedestrian use has been steadily increasing over and from overseas to experience the sites where so the past few decades. Most currently obvious off-trail much important American history played out, and to hiking impacts are associated with rock climbing sites, put themselves into the stage of stories many have campsites, and areas used by group programs; these heard and read since childhood. Many of these visitors are discussed in their corresponding sections. Impacts stay in the developed campground in East Stronghold from heavy foot traffic include: Canyon, or in nearby towns, but some use campsites Widening and degradation of trails37 in this management area. The trail that accesses the historical Council Rocks site obviously receives Contamination of soil and water by human wastes considerable foot traffic, and yet is poorly delimited Introduction of alien plant seeds38 and has little interpretive information. The influx of tourists to Karchner Caverns may also be overflowing Clashes between wildlife and humans, and between across the valley to the Dragoons. There is no system wildlife and unleashed dogs in place to assess numbers of visitors or to record what Rock Climbing motivations bring them to the area. Impacts of these The Dragoon Mountains have become well known visitors are likely much the same as for other users for their challenging and scenic rock climbing, (e.g. increased road traffic, campsite proliferation). particularly in the Rockfellow Dome and Sheepshead Equestrian Use areas. Climbers have taken part in the forming of new Significant equestrian use in the Dragoons is fairly roads and campsites, as well as in the establishment of new to the area and has notably increased in recent climber trails to access specific climbs. The terrain years. Some users are likely coming in from nearby found directly below some of these climbs shows high properties along the west side, and at least one set of levels of trampling and erosion. Climbing itself can equestrian users is brought by a commercial tour have significant effects on vegetation and wildlife39 enterprise, WTE Travel. Plans for the Bachmann however, no monitoring of such impacts has been Springs development include an equestrian center done in this range. with opportunities for trail rides to historical sites in Over the last decade, climbing in parts of the the Dragoons. One major threat from equestrian use Dragoons has been restricted during the nesting is the introduction of exotic, invasive species through season (February 15-June 30) of the cliff-nesting horse feed and feces. Range fed horses entering the Peregrine falcon. With the recovery of peregrine Dragoons from adjacent properties may not be much populations and removal from the Endangered of a risk, but will still increase the likelihood that Species list, lifting of these restrictions has been exotics established off the Forest would be spread into discussed, but management agencies have decided to this management area. Presence of Lehmann lovegrass err on the side of caution and leave restrictions in seeds in the horses’ feces could accelerate invasion of place for the time being. Impacts from unrestricted native grass stands. The spread of exotic invasive 40 rock climbing include: weeds through horse feed and feces, which has been so well documented in other parts of the country, has Creation of new roads, campsites, and “climber often been addressed by agencies requiring the use of trails” certified weed-free feed before and during a horse’s

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-20 www.skyislandaction.org presence in a given management areas (e.g. most of Direct impacts of repeat visits by large groups in this USFS Region 1). Establishment of alien seeds in riparian areas is particularly detrimental because these small area, e.g. campsite proliferation discussed above areas are subject to less climatic extremes which tend Overall increase in visitor use resulting from the to prevent exotic plants from establishing in other introduction of so many people, and subsequently area. Such impacts need to be more actively their acquaintances, to the area monitored in any area receiving significant equestrian use. The proper place of equestrian use in the Granting of special-use permits (e.g., for landscape needs to be addressed directly. commercial rock climbing, orienteering) beyond carrying capacity Impacts arising from horse trailers driving off roads include the conversion of relatively bare areas to Affected resources include those listed for campsite permanent campsites which become denuded and proliferation. continue to expand in size. Tethering of horses to Wildcat Trails picket lines and confining horses to small portable Wildcat, or user-created trails, are a major problem corrals is creating areas where the ground has been in the Dragoons, particularly in the proposed Westside trampled to bare dust. and Eastside Management Districts. The majority of Continued unmanaged equestrian use of the area trails are created by equestrian users (Westside) and will contribute to increased erosion and soil rockclimbers (East and Westside). The numerous compaction on trails41 and trampling problems off trails created by rockclimbers are to access rock faces designated trails.42 on the edges of the Forest, as well as remote interior Special Use Permits locations. These have resulted from both commercial and non-commercial use. Special use permits are required for all commercial groups using the National Forest and for non- Equestrian use has become very heavy recently and commercial groups over 50 people. The Coronado has resulted in many impacts, which have been listed Forest has provided records of special use permits above. On the Westside, this use has resulted in a maze only as far back as 1997. There appear to be gaps in of trails, with disastrous results. Miles of trails have this information; including the omission of at least been created, many on steep slopes. This combined one commercial climbing group known to have a with the highly erosive nature of the decomposed special use permit, and at least one actively-advertising granitic soils found here, is doing tremendous tour group that may or may not have the required resource damage. Trails rapidly become trenches on permits. Nevertheless, National Forest records show steep slopes, which leads to the creation of even more 2,518 special use permit user-days approved for the parallel roads, which then become erosive trenches. All Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area in 1997, rising commercial equestrian use on this Dragoon to 3,625 user-days approved in 2002. Rock climbing- Ecosystem Management Area should be banned. Non- focused groups (NOLS and Colorado Outward commercial equestrian use on much of this range Bound) account for 2,068 of these user-days per year should be restricted to existing roads, or designated since 1997, and equestrian groups increased from 100 equestrian trails that are located in areas to minimize user-days in 1997 to 235 user-days in 2002. The impact. Some roads that would be closed during the number of equestrian users has certainly increased Travel Management process could be converted to substantially since. These numbers of commercial equestrian trails. visitors translates into heavy advertisement for ROADS AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM recreation in an area in which indiscriminant use is Just west of Middlemarch Pass, FR687 heads off to already taking an unmistakable toll on the landscape. the north, skirting the western slopes. A few miles This is compounded by a lack of monitoring of group further east, FR697 climbs from Middlemarch Road numbers and impacts. up into the high-elevation basin of Gordon Camp, Impacts from the high number of special use user- and FR345A climbs from Middlemarch Pass into days permitted include: China Camp. Several small spurs from 687 and 697, which access campsites, trails, and grazing-related structures, are also designated and signed. China

www.skyislandaction.org 3-21 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Figure 3.11 Map of Dragoon Westside wildcat roads and trails

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-22 www.skyislandaction.org Camp road FR345a lies mostly within the East side the Dragoon Inventoried Roadless Area (IRA) to the management area, but ends within the Slavin Canyon top of China Peak. watershed in the proposed DWMA. Upper reaches of Gordon Camp and China Camp roads 697 and this road are addressed here. 354a are channeling off road impact into the core of Gordon Camp and China Camp roads FR697 and the Dragoon range. 354a penetrate the heart of this small range and U.S.-MEXICO BORDER despite apparent low usage, threaten to compromise Immigrant and Smuggling Traffic the integrity of the EMAs central roadless area if off- Foot travel of migrant individuals occurs on the road abuses increase. Despite Forest Service signs Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area. Many vehicles stating off-road driving is prohibited, many spur roads have been abandoned in the Dragoons in recent years. have been illegally created or extended by Recreational users occasionally come in contact with indiscriminant drivers. As of May 2002, road migrant travelers in the range, but to our knowledge inventories by Sky Island Alliance found 18 illegal, no aggressive encounters have been reported by either user-created roads (totaling some nine miles) within side. the proposed westside management area. These roads appear to have been created by recreational users. The impact on the Dragoon Management Area is Wildcat ORV tracks tend to form dead-end spurs close to non-existent when the temporary Border from campsites and roads; several have carved gashes Patrol Checkpoint on Highway 80 (just north of in steep slopes and wash sides. One wildcat road has Middlemarch Road) is not open. When this turned a spur-road designed to access a single Checkpoint is open, the resulting impact is campsite (FR687e) into a high-use loop road lined tremendous. with ever-expanding camping areas (see also Campsite Foot travel of migrating people often occurs along Proliferation). washes and ridges rather than on designated hiking Affected resources include: springs, ephemeral trails. Impacts of this type of foot travel should be watercourses, scenic resources, eastside and westside generally similar to those of recreational hikers, but drainages, all ecological systems, all native vegetation steps to mitigate these impacts will necessarily be quite types and their associated flora and fauna, vegetation different. types and communities not adapted to frequent fire, In most cases, foot travel within this area is tied to riparian vegetation and species, and species especially driving and camping activity, but assessment of sensitive to human disturbance. impacts of all foot traffic is necessary. Gordon Camp Basin Affected resources include: springs, all ecological Currently mapped roadless areas that encompass systems, all native vegetation types and their 35,324 acres are being infringed upon by one illegal, associated flora and fauna, grasslands and savannas, user-created road that runs to the top of China Peak lowland flora and fauna, riparian vegetation and from an abandoned mine north of Gordon Camp; species, and vegetation and communities not adapted such infringement shows the need for formal to frequent fire. protection of this roadless area and for continued Border Patrol Interdiction Efforts monitoring of off-road driving impacts. This EMA receives noticeable traffic related to the Gordon Camp and nearby China Camp have not U.S.-Mexico border some 30 miles south. The Border experience much campsite proliferation along roads Patrol occasionally patrols FR687 and routinely although considerable accumulation of trash has patrols Middlemarch Road, apparently focusing occurred at some campsites in Gordon Camp. FR345a efforts between Highway 80 and the CNF boundary. to China Camp also has small, informal campsites Unlike other borderland areas on the Coronado, there along its margins. is no evidence that off-road driving by the Border The closure of the road to China Camp from the Patrol has yet contributed significantly to proliferation Gordon Camp area has been breached and closure of illegal roads in the EMA. This is likely due to the signs on a road leading to an abandoned mine have fact that the range is not right on the border, and that been vandalized. From this mine site ORV tracks now FR687 provides adequate law enforcement access to lead some 1.1 miles up steep, shallow-soiled slopes of the area. www.skyislandaction.org 3-23 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 The Border Patrol agency engages in and affects SITE-SPECIFIC THREATS activities on National Forest Land, and therefore needs The invasive exotic “Tree of Heaven” has to be considered in management planning. Strong established a small but expanding population along fluxes in immigrant traffic have been associated with Slavin Gulch just off of FR687. This stand appears to changes in the placement of the Highway 80 Border have been cut at least once, but will require re- Patrol checkpoint from Davis Road south of treatment and consistent follow-up to prevent a more Tombstone to just north of Middlemarch Road. The serious infestation. The tree was planted as an northern placement has made Middlemarch Road and ornamental in nearby communities (abundant in FR687 part of routes that bypass the checkpoint. Due Bisbee, most likely present also in Saint David and/or to the relatively mild topography of the area around Tombstone) and escaped from cultivation. Its location FR687, it is unlikely that all possible vehicular bypass along FR687 is no surprise, given the well- routes stemming from FR687 could ever be sealed off. documented role that roads play in dispersing alien FR687 would therefore be a poor focus for attempts to plants.43 restrict motorized migrant travel through the area. Shrub and tree encroachment into grasslands of Management success in this area will require a high- lower slopes is an example of one of the most level of coordination with the Border Patrol on the regionally common patterns of invasion by native sighting of checkpoints close to the National Forest, as plant species.44 Repeat photography in the area shows well as integration into a larger management the extent of this conversion in some parts of the framework for the whole Coronado National Forest. range (Figure 3.3). Forces and management activities PROPOSED DRAGOON WESTSIDE MANAGEMENT AREA that contribute to shrub encroachment need to be Within the Dragoon EMA, the proposed DWMA evaluated with an eye towards maintenance and has traditionally been relatively remote and not restoration of grassland habitats. heavily used. Exits from I-10 leads visitors to the north Forest Service grazing allotments on this westside and east slopes of the range, where they pass the region are the Slavin Allotment, which includes both Amerind Foundation museum, the town of Dragoon, Stronghold and Slavin Canyons, and the Granite scattered tourist shops, and parcels of private land Springs allotment at the southern end of this before reaching a developed campground in East management area. The permittee of the Slavin Stronghold Canyon. Just east of the campground, the allotment took voluntary non-use in Slavin Canyon growing community of Sunsites abuts the National from 1995 to 2000. During this time, recovery of Forest boundary, and brings a high density of roads riparian vegetation was striking. Sky Island Alliance along with increasing density of houses. documented the return of a spring that had Road access to the west side of the Dragoons is via disappeared so completely as to have had a fire ring the well-graded dirt Middlemarch Road, which runs built in the center of what is now a cienega. Cattle between the towns of Tombstone and Pierce. have since been returned to the Slavin Allotment. Middlemarch Road crosses the Dragoon EMA, Potential impacts of livestock grazing include: damage running between the northern and southern stands of to riparian vegetation, water diversion and drawdown. the Dragoons. Off the EMA, Middlemarch Road will Council Rocks soon be paved from Highway 80 near Tombstone to Heavy visitation in the Council Rocks area, within one mile of the National Forest boundary. without a clearly marked foot trail, is leading to Three main dirt roads, designated and signed by the trampling of vegetation and the spread of a broad Forest Service, split off Middlemarch Pass and enter network of mini-trails. the west side of the EMA. Proposed Dragoon Eastside Management Area Campsite Proliferation Threats include intensive rock-climbing activity in This problem is most seriously affecting areas in Cochise Stronghold, creation of new roads, campsites, the proposed DWMA most notably along FR687. See and “climber trails. the Nonextractive Uses section for further information.

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-24 www.skyislandaction.org Proposed Dragoon Springs and Blacktail Hill Management Areas The major threat in these areas, are from a proposed Alpha-calcite mine in the north end of the area. Approval of this mine would lead to intense direct human disturbance of the area through the creation of new roads, greatly increased traffic, dust, and groundwater impacts.

Recommended Objectives and Management Actions

Use of the Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area opportunities here for uses and experiences that are (EMA), particularly in the western portion of the area being displaced elsewhere on the Coronado. has grown to a point which demands active A second corner post of this plan is closure of management to protect the natural and cultural illegal and redundant roads, and enhancement of heritage of this outstanding area. The following opportunities for non-motorized recreation. This proposed actions are a means to transform use of this conversion will contribute to the establishment of a area from its current free-for-all state into a progressive balance between high-impact and low- sustainable pattern that enhances natural and cultural impact uses, and a better mosaic of opportunities resources of the area while enabling visitors a high- according to the National Forest’s “recreational quality wildland experience. Immediate redirecting of opportunities spectrum.” The proposed management destructive uses will avert much future conflict that actions also provide a proactive plan for integrating will continues to develop as a fast-growing population management of this area into the dynamics of the becomes accustomed to unregulated use and quickly entire region. By highlighting ways in which comes to view all these uses as inalienable rights. The management of this area affects (and is affected by) redirection of use now will establish traditions of use wildlife movement corridors between Sky Island compatible with the health of the land, and that will mountain ranges, watershed protection for the San come to be viewed as inevitable, natural uses of the Pedro River and the communities that depend upon land. We recommend objectives and management it, and actions of nearby private landowners and other actions that will address these threats if they are federal and state agencies, the actions pave the way for incorporated into the revision of the Coronado collaboration with other land managers on shared National Forest’s Land and Resource Management goals. Managers of public land, for example, often see Plan, as well as subsequent project-level activities. private land development as a “wild-card” that affects Central to the management proposals for the their sphere of duty, but over which they have no Dragoon EMA is the division of the EMA into influence. Actions are proposed for working with management units with a focus on actively managing private landowners and with other agencies to Dragoon Westside Management Area (see Figure 3.2). minimize impacts of nearby developments on this The management strategy for this area will be to limit public land. overall impacts by establishing a permit system that The following proposed Objectives and Actions provides a cap on daily visitor numbers and provides a apply to the entire Dragoon EMA. Objectives and low-cost means to monitor use. The proposed permit actions specific to the proposed Dragoon Westside system would affect only this part of the Dragoon Management Area (DWMA) are found in the next EMA, and would therefore contribute to the goal of section. “multiple use management” by providing

www.skyislandaction.org 3-25 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Adjacent Land Uses Objectives Actions Minimize negative impacts of nearby private-land Advocate for and negotiate conservation easements on private lands, focusing development on the ecological and cultural attributes. on areas deemed particularly important as wildlife habitat and movement Maintain integrity of wildlife corridors within the Dragoon corridors. Ecosystem Management Area, and between the area and Advocate for and negotiate protection of key state trust lands from future sale the following: San Pedro River, Whetstone Mountains, for development, including parcel surrounded by Dragoon Mountain Ranch and other key mountain ranges. parcel that would form a continuous protected corridor from the Dragoons to the San Pedro River. Ecological Restoration Objectives Actions Maintain and restore healthy grasslands. Reduce shrub encroachment via fire and manual mechanical thinning. Adapt Maintenance of open savanna structure conveys to visitors an accurate sense protocols used successfully at Fort Bowie Historical Site, including deployment of what the area was like during the mid to late 1800s, its most important of volunteer workforce. historical and cultural era. This also enables visitors an ecologically accurate Tip competitive balance in favor of grasses over shrubs by removing cattle- experience of what the area looked like. grazing pressures in some areas (see Extractive Uses). Monitor shrub encroachment via repeat photography using points originally Fire photographed as early as 1883. Shrub encroachment is actively managed with Maintain natural disturbance regimes, especially fire. a combination of fire and manual thinning. Grassland restoration work conducted at the Fort Bowie National Historic Site (Larry Ludwig, pers. com) Wildlife Movement provides precedence and experience-based recommendations for safe, effective, Maintain integrity of wildlife corridors within the Dragoons, between the small-scale grassland restoration in historically important sites. Dragoons and the San Pedro River, and between the Dragoons and other key Fire mountain ranges. Work with private landowners to build support for prescribed burns. Educate landowners about home fireproofing strategies in construction and landscaping. Wildlife Movement Use information gained from wildlife tracking transects between the Dragoons and the San Pedro River (including Slavin and Stronghold drainages) to inform management decisions. On these surveillance transects, gather data on movement patterns of target species and the variables that affect these movements. Use these data to take site-specific management action.

Extractive Uses Objectives Actions Manage grazing on current allotments so that loss of grass cover, soil, and Facilitate voluntary retirement of the Slavin grazing allotment in Stronghold sensitive habitats (e.g., riparian areas) is minimized. and Slavin Canyons.

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-26 www.skyislandaction.org Invasive Species Objectives Actions Reduce the spread of invasive species, both native and exotic. Eliminate Require use of certified weed-free feed before and during presence on the invasive exotics. Actively deter new invasions. Coronado National Forest. Eradicate the “tree of heaven” population in Slavin Canyon through immediate removal and continued monitoring. Engage in cooperative planning with nearby communities and with other agencies to reduce exotic species introductions by promoting native-species landscaping and highlighting the dangers of exotic species introductions. Engage in cooperative planning to prevent human-made water sources from acting as conduits for bullfrog colonization of waters in the Dragoons that are home to endangered Chiricahua leopard frogs. Include an immediate focus on water traps in the Bachmann Springs golf course. Involve nearby housing development residents preventing and monitoring alien invasions.

Non-extractive Uses Objectives Actions Shift the balance between motorized and nonmotorized recreational Regulate use of hiking trails to minimize degradation of the trails themselves opportunities across the range so that the overall level of impact on and the ecosystems through which they pass. ecological and cultural attributes of the landscape is reduced. Convert sections of illegal and redundant road into hiking and equestrian trail Promote visitor appreciation of historical, cultural, and ecological resources.

Special Interest Areas Objectives Actions Highlight the outstanding natural values of the watersheds for west Establish a Research Natural Area that encompasses the watershed of Slavin Stronghold and Slavin drainages. Ensure that protection of these values Gulch, to the Forest boundary. Include Madrean Encinal and Arizona cypress remains a high priority in management decisions that affect the area, and riparian forest in the RNA. (See Figure 3.2 for a map of the proposed special stimulate research in the processes. management area.) Fulfill the National Forest’s mandate to have all major ecosystem types Encourage initiation of new research projects within this RNA by informing present on the Coronado represented in RNAs. research centers of this designation, promoting these research opportunities at Maintain ecological values (including wilderness characteristics and research scientific meetings, and providing documents of support for researchers’ potential) of the wildest areas in the Dragoon Mountains. funding proposals. Secure formal protection for the 35,324-acre roadless area north of Middlemarch Pass. Close and revegetate the illegal, user-created road that runs from an abandoned mine north of Gordon Camp to China Peak. Manage 35,562 acres to maintain their wilderness characteristics. (See Figure 3.13 for a map of the area to be managed to maintain wilderness characteristics.)

www.skyislandaction.org 3-27 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Figure 3.12 Travel Management Plan and Route Recommendations for the Dragoon EMA

Roads/Transportation System Objectives Actions Restore roaded areas degraded by indiscriminate driving. Close and revegetate all remaining illegal roads. See Figure 3.12 for the Improve balance between motorized and non-motorized recreational proposed Transportation System. opportunities. Reduce the road/trail ratio below 5:1 through the conversion of appropriate Reduce additional proliferation of wildcat roads. roads to trails, addition of new trails and closure of wildcat spur roads. (See also road conversions in DWMA) Relieve pressure of off-road driving on National Forest law enforcement staff. Restore closed roadbeds through erosion control and vertical mulching. Improve overall primitive quality of visitor experiences.

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-28 www.skyislandaction.org Proposed Dragoon Westside Management Area

In order to transform the current chaotic free-for- quality, low-density outdoor experiences (towards the all use on the westside of the Dragoon EMA into a set “primitive” end of the USFS “recreational of user traditions that are sustainable, we recommend opportunities spectrum”). Because this area has such a cap on daily visitor numbers in the proposed outstanding historical, ecological, and scenic values DWMA through a permit system. There is ample and yet is so fragile, reinforces the argument that this precedence for this user permit framework; sites area is a particularly good candidate for low-density throughout the country use similar permit systems in primitive-area management. some or all of their management areas, including in Limiting impacts of all recreational user groups Arizona: Grand Canyon National Park, Aravaipa along FR687 without regulating entry would require Creek, Rincon Wilderness, Chiricahua National full-time enforcement personnel and a significant Monument, Cabeza Prieta NWR, San Bernardino investment in infrastructure which is beyond the NWR, recreation areas on Indian reservations, and Forest’s operating budget. Such funds would be better others. spent in areas in which high visitor use is more Unlike most remote sites that use permit systems, appropriate and more easily managed. Other parts of the DWMA site is easily accessible from major the Coronado National Forest, including East population centers, entrance does not require high Stronghold in the Dragoons, are already better clearance vehicles, and much of the site can be equipped to support large numbers of visitors without appreciated from designated roads. A backcountry- excessive degradation resources. These other areas style permit system here would make a primitive, already provide opportunities for recreation that can wildland experience accessible to visitors with be accommodated in higher-density, more intensively restricted mobility and/or limited economic means managed areas. along with traditional backcountry enthusiasts. The following proposed objectives and actions are The daily visitor cap in the DWMA would ensure specific to the proposed DWMA. that the Dragoon EMA retains opportunities for high

Non-extractive Uses Objectives Actions Camping Camping Camping in the DWMA should remain primitive and dispersed. Close wildcat campsites created since 1998; determine which remaining campsites would best provide for visitors’ use and enjoyment while minimizing Reduce proliferation of wildcat campsites and continual expansion of negative impact of visitor activities on the landscape. existing sites. Close pre-1998 campsites with unacceptably high impacts. Cultural and Historical Tourism Clearly define designated campsites with small numbered posts and, where Improve visual aids for visitors; promote visitor appreciation of historical, necessary, vehicle barriers. Clearly mark boundaries of designated campsites, cultural, and ecological resources. focusing on unobtrusive means such as low barriers of rock, railroad ties, or native vegetation. Equestrian Use Assign campsites on a first-come first-served basis when issuing camping Hold equestrian impacts to a level at which equestrian use can be sustained permits. without damage to the base resource or conflict with other users. Install formal fire pits in sites with multiple fire rings. Restrict fires to formal fire pits at these sites. Monitor placement and extent of campsites at least once per year, using the CNF’s 2001 campsite study as a baseline and template. Bar equestrian camping in this area; redirect equestrian camping and horse tethering into other, less sensitive management areas (e.g. certain designated campsites in the Black Diamond management area just south of Middlemarch road). continued

www.skyislandaction.org 3-29 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Non-extractive Uses continued Actions Convert some illegal and/or redundant roads into trails, e.g. end of China Camp road. Cultural and Historical Tourism Provide interpretive trail maps that inform users about the area’s natural and cultural history while guiding their travel across the landscape. Establish well-marked and defined trails to historic and cultural sites. Collaborate with Tribal stakeholders to develop outreach materials for signs and brochures. Use ecological restoration work to enhance authenticity of the cultural and historic experience. Equestrian Use Specify which trails are open to equestrian use. Monitor width, condition, and presence of non-native plant species along these trails. Suspend equestrian use (for whatever time period necessary) if impacts are deemed excessive.

Special-use Permits Eliminate special-use permits for commercial groups in the DWMA. Redirect activities of commercial and other large recreational groups to less sensitive areas in other mountain ranges. Overall Usage of Area Objectives Actions Redirect and manage overall human impacts; reduce current and future Establish a (no-fee) permit system in the DWMA with overall cap on daily conflicts among user groups; provide opportunities for low-density, high- visitor numbers. Visitor cap will be based on number of designated campsites quality outdoor experiences. and parking spots. Enforce use of permit system by installing a locked gate at the south end of FR687, with key or combination granted upon procurement of permit. Eliminate special-use permits for commercial groups in this management area.

Roads/Transportation System Objectives Actions Improve balance between motorized and non-motorized recreational Exclude all ATV use in the DWMA. opportunities in the DWMA. Ban ATV use of FR687. Provide incentives for users to respect closures in the remote area of Gordon Convert sections of illegal and redundant road into hiking and equestrian trail Camp. including the terminal sections of China Camp Road FR354a and Gordon Camp Allow foot, bicycle, and equestrian access to the Gordon Camp basin. Road FR697. Close and revegetate the illegal, user-created road from abandoned mine up to China Peak (Gordon Camp area, off of FR697). Use natural pinch-point along FR697 just north of Gordon Camp to close vehicle access to abandoned mine site from which this track is being entered. Convert the remainder of this dead- end but scenic road section into hiking and equestrian trail.

continued

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-30 www.skyislandaction.org Roads/Transportation System continued Actions Monitor closure of illegal China Peak track and other road closures in the Gordon Camp basin. If closure is violated in this remote area, automatically trigger closure of road to Gordon Camp and install a locked gate at a natural pinch-point near the beginning of this road at FR697. Advocate against permanent Border Patrol checkpoint on Highway 80 at Middlemarch Road, to reduce creation of wildcat roads and violations of road closures off of FR687.

Wilderness

Wilderness is a cornerstone for protecting WILDERNESS SUITABILITY biological diversity and ecological sustainability on the The Dragoon Mountain Roadless Ares is situated Forest. Whether designated, or proposed, these areas in the center of the Coronado National Forest of provide a refuge for many species from large southeastern Arizona, 20 miles northeast of carnivores to small invertebrates. They also provide Tombstone in Cochise County. One of the most opportunities for the highest quality primitive visually striking and inspirational mountain ranges in recreation including activities such as hiking, the Sky Island region, the Dragoon Mountains are backpacking, horsepacking and hunting. As roadless steeped in rich history and prehistory. The sharp areas become increasingly scarce in the United States, granite spires, hoodoos, and deep boulder-filled remaining roadless areas on the National Forest that canyons of the central Dragoons are of the highest meet wilderness criteria deserve protection. scenic quality to be found in the country. The lower The Coronado National Forest is required to elevations, which begin around 4700 feet, contain analyze potential Wilderness Areas during Forest Plan Madrean Encinal grasslands dotted with evergreen Revision. It is mandated by both statute and oaks near drainages and outcroppings. From there, regulation that the Forest Plan revisions include vegetation is primarily oak woodlands with piñon- wilderness suitability analyses. In this document, areas juniper woodlands in higher elevations. Relict suitable for wilderness are mapped and described for populations of Arizona Cypress (Cupressus arizonica) each Ecosystem Management Area. Lands with are found in larger drainages on both the east and west wilderness characteristics must be considered for sides of the mountain and in the Rockfellow Dome recommendation as potential wilderness areas during area — a rare vegetation association found in plan revision. These areas should be designated as relatively few locals. Mount Glenn, at 7,519 feet, Wilderness Study Areas in recognition of their towers 2,800 feet above the surrounding valleys. The outstanding qualities and managed to protect their west slopes feed the San Pedro River while the eastern wilderness characteristics. Identification of areas slopes drain into either the Sulphur Springs Valley or suitable for wilderness should not be influenced by San Bernardino watersheds to the south. nonwilderness activities or uses that can be seen or Geologically speaking, the Sky Island landscape heard from areas within the potential wilderness. began to take form between 70 and 40 million years Protection of wilderness-quality roadless areas ago. This was a period of intense folding and faulting. through designation as Wilderness Study Areas is key The activity was of volcanic and igneous intrusive to ensuring the ecological integrity of the Coronado origin, and of greatest importance in the placement of National Forest. Remaining roadless areas with major ore bodies. Most of the present ranges were wilderness characteristics are essential tools for the uplifted during the Basin and Range disturbance Coronado National Forest to be able to maintain between 30 and 25 million years ago. Volcanism and ecological sustainability on each Ecosystem sedimentation have led to a complex structural history Management Area and across the Forest. of the basin range. What resulted from this geologic

www.skyislandaction.org 3-31 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Figure 3.13 Area Suitable for Wilderness and to be Managed for Wilderness Characteristics

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-32 www.skyislandaction.org activity in the Dragoon Mountains are large, waves of grasses and large oaks stop abruptly at the crystallized, granitic domes atop a layer of limestone rock faces of Sheepshead and other steep prominent sea bottom. The hard rocks at the mountain’s core rise ridges that soar upward. The east side of the unit is no abruptly above the surrounding valley leveled at a less striking. Only one primary hiking trail crosses the great plain by the San Pedro River. When the porous range, leading from the West Stronghold over a high layers of limestone were brought into contact with the saddle into East Stronghold Canyon. The Slavin Gulch impermeable layers of granite, year-round springs and trail heads east from FR687 towards China Camp. streams were produced. The resulting geologic history The rock faces of Cochise Stronghold, Sheepshead, of the Dragoon Mountains makes for dramatic rosy Rockfellow Dome, and others in the middle granite rock faces with striking visual characteristics. Dragoons, are a popular rock climbing destination. Throughout this roadless area, outstanding Climbers from across the world visit the Dragoons opportunities for solitude and primitive recreation each year to climb various routes and relish the exist. The entirety of this area meets the criteria incredible views of the Sky Island region from atop identified in the 1964 Wilderness Act, which follows: many of the spires. The Rockfellow Dome area is (1) generally appears to have been affected primarily closed to climbers during Peregrine Falcon breeding by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s season, March 1 through June 30. The west side of the work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding Unit, on FR687, is a popular deer-hunting destination. opportunities for solitude or a primitive and Bird-watching and photography are also popular. unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least five Because of the outstanding scenic qualities of thousand acres of land or is of sufficient size as to Dragoons, professional and amateur photographers make practicable its preservation and use in an flock to the area. unimpaired condition; and (4) may also contain Cultural/Archaeological Values ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, During the mid-1800s, the Dragoons were the educational, scenic, or historical value. primary residence of the Apache leader Cochise and As such, the area described below is suitable for his band of Chiricahua Apache Indians. During the addition to the existing National Forest Wilderness 1860s, this mountain range was the theater from system. which many skirmishes and battles took place. On Inventoried Roadless Area October 12, 1872, a peace treaty was consummated The existing Inventoried Roadless Area (IRA) as between the U.S. Government and Cochise. Cochise identified by the Coronado National Forest, via a kept the peace until his death in 1874, at which time computer model (Recreation Opportunity Spectrum) Taza, Cochise’s oldest son, became chief. not designed to identify roadless areas, and using an Today, one can visit Council Rocks, a reported outdated transportation system map, identified 14,232 location of the 1872 peacemaking treaty, and visitors acres in the Dragoon IRA. On-the-ground field may still explore and discover many artifacts, checking by Sky Island Alliance has determined that including grinding mortars, pictographs, and pottery the roadless acreage in the Dragoon EMA is 35,562 shards. The mountains almost breathe the spirit of an acres. earlier time and offer an outstanding scenic and Recreational/Scenic Values cultural experience. The remainders of a 1880s era ranch house, belonging to Henry A. and Hattie K. The Dragoons hold a certain air of mysticism Tweed, can be seen just south of West Stronghold within their steep rock ledges and deep canyons. Canyon. Many archeologists and historians visit the Visitors are awed by the sun-drenched cliffs, walls of Dragoons to search for and experience the numerous upright granite, and surreal landscapes this range places of historical significance. offers. Opportunities for solitude and adventure abound. Many small valleys, hidden canyons, and Watersheds sheer escarpments offer the visitor ample opportunity The north-south orientation of the Dragoons for wilderness experiences. The west side of the distributes water to watersheds to the east and west of Middle Dragoon Unit is accessible from only one dirt the complex. Stronghold Canyon East and road that leads north from Middlemarch Road. There, Middlemarch Canyon East both drain into the Lower

www.skyislandaction.org 3-33 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 Sulphur Springs Valley, providing essential waters to Wildlife—Common and Sensitive Species the Willcox Playa, a prime destination for tens of The Dragoon Mountains are home to 15 species of thousands sandhill cranes each winter making their plants and animals that are threatened, endangered, or migration south from Canada and Siberia. Across the officially designated as “of special concern” by federal ridgeline, Stronghold Canyon West, Slavin Gulch, and state agencies. They also harbor large mammals Middlemarch Pass, and Smith Wash provide the such as mountain lion, black bear, javelina, and coati. means for water transport and serve as important A jaguar was reported in the Dragoons as recently as wildlife migration corridors to the middle stretches of 1986 (an individual killed in the Dos Cabezas the San Pedro River, while also contributing water to Mountains to the east was said to have been chased meet the demands of the valley’s ever-increasing from the Dragoons). Mexican jays, several species of residential population. hummingbirds, and large raptors are among the Vegetation wildlife easily seen in this mountain range. Plant communities found here include excellent The Peregrine falcon occurs here and is listed as a examples of the region’s distinctive Arizona cypress Species of Concern under the Endangered Species Act, riparian forests and encinal oak savanna. The west side as a Sensitive Species by the U.S. Forest Service of the unit contains some of the few remaining stands (USFS), and as Wildlife of Special Concern by the of native grasslands that once reached to the San Arizona Game and Fish Department (AZGFD). It Pedro River, supporting populations of mule deer, inhabits steep, sheer cliffs that overlook woodlands, coati, and javelina. Slavin Gulch retains water most of riparian areas, or other habitats that provide avian the year with a healthy, grass-laden channel, and prey species. sycamore, ash, and cottonwood trees, as well as stands The Chiricahua Leopard Frog is listed Threatened of the rare Arizona cypress. The headwaters of Slavin under the Endangered Species Act, as a Sensitive Gulch contain one of the largest stands of Arizona Species by the USFS, and as Wildlife of Special cypress in southeastern Arizona amidst its rocky Concern by the AZGFD. It inhabits aquatic areas in canyon walls. woodlands, grasslands, and deserts in rocky streams Wildlife with deep pools east and south of the Mogollon Rim. The area as a whole provides a wide variety of The Chiricahua Leopard Frog has been extirpated habitat for game and non-game species. Animals such from this site. There are 12 known historical sites in as black bear and mountain lion, which favor large the Dragoon EMA, with 2 in the roadless area and the areas of relative isolation, have a preference to such others directly dependent on the roadless area for areas without roads, within their home ranges. Many watershed services. There are a number of appropriate other wildlife and game species can be found here, sites that may have extant populations of the frog or including javelina, mule and white-tail deer, gray fox, have the habitat in place for reintroductions. The and coati. Peregrine falcons soar overhead, hunting for Dragoon Mountains has been identified in the prey. Chiricahua leopard frog Recovery Plan as a Management Area in Recovery Unit 4. Management Areas are where recovery actions will be focused.

DRAFT 11.05.08 State of the Coronado Forest 3-34 www.skyislandaction.org 1 Chronic, H. 1983. Roadside Geology of Arizona. 23 Gregg, M. 1961. Uncle Billy Fourr: cattlemen Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula. extraordinaire. Arizoniana. Fall 1961. and Willson, R. G. 1956. Pioneer and well-known cattlemen of Arizona. 2 Brown, D. E., editor. 1994. Biotic Communities: McGrew Commercial Printery, Phoenix. Southwestern United States and Northwestern Mexico. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 24 Wilson, 1995. 3 Brown, D. E., editor. 1994. 25 Bahre, 1995. 4 Wentworth, T.R. 1981. Vegetation on Limestone in the 26 Wilson, 1995. Huachuca Mountains, Arizona. The Southwestern 27 Sweeney, E. R. 1997. Making Peace with Cochise The Naturalist (30) pp. 385-395. 1872 Journal of Captain Joseph Alton Sladen. University of 5 Brown, D. E., editor. 1994. Oklahoma Press, Norman. 6 Bahre, C. J. 1995. Human impacts on the Grasslands of 28 Negri, S. 1992. Boss Tweed’s hideout and Cochise’s southeastern Arizona. In: M.P. McClaran and T.R. Van council rocks lure trekkers into the Dragoon Mountains. Devender, eds. The Desert Grassland. The University of Arizona Highways Magazine. Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. p. 230-264. 29 Dean, R. 1993. January 11 letter to Arizona Highways’ 7 Summarized in Bahre 1995 editor, and subsequent March research memo, from Riva Dean, reference librarian at the Arizona Historical Society, 8 Brown, D. E., and C. A. López González. 2001. in archives of the Arizona Historical Society. Borderland Jaguars. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 30 Marshall, R.M., D. Turner, A. Gondor, D. Gori, C. 9 Reid, J., and S. Whittlesey. 1997. The Archeology of Enquist, G. Luna, R. Paredes Aguilar, S. Anderson, S. Ancient Arizona. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Schwartz, C. Watts, E. Lopez, P. Comer. 2004. An 10 Reid and Whittlesey. 1997. Ecological Analysis of Conservation Priorities in the Apache 11 Cordell, L. S. 1984. Prehistory of the Southwest. Highlands Ecoregion. Prepared by The Nature Conservancy Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, and Reid, J., and S. of Arizona, Instituto del Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo Whittlesey. 1997. The Archeology of Ancient Arizona. Sustentable del Estado de Sonora, agency and institutional University of Arizona Press, Tucson. partners. 152 pp. 12 Opler, M. E. 1941. An Apache Life-Way: The economic, 31 USFS. 1986. Arizona Supplement to the Draft social, and religious institutions of the Chiricahua Indians. Environmental Assessment, Roadless Area Review and University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, London. Evaluation (RAREII), USFS 13 Sweeney, E. R. 1991. Cochise: Chiricahua Apache Chief. 32 Clarke, A. L., and T. Pacin. 2002. Domestic cat “colonies” University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. in natural areas. A growing exotic species threat. Natural Area Journal 22: 154-159. 14 Fischer, D. L. 2001. Early Southwest Ornithologists 1528- 1900. University of Arizona Press., Tucson. 33 Odell, E. A., and R. L. Knight. 2001. Songbird and medium-sized mammal communities associated with 15 Thrapp, D. L. 1967. The Conquest of Apacheria. exurban development in Pitkin County, Colorado. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Conservation Biology 15:1143-1150. and Clarke, A. L., and 16 Barnes, Will C. 1988. Arizona Place Names. The T. Pacin. 2002. Domestic cat “colonies” in natural areas: A University of Arizona Press, Tucson. growing exotic species threat. Natural Areas Journal 22:154- 17 Sweeney, 1991. 159. 34 18 Sweeney, 1991. Anable, M.E., M.P. McClaran, and G.B. Ruyle. 1992. Spread of introduced Lehman lovegrass (Eragrostis 19 Bahre, 1995. lehmanniana Nees.) in Southern Arizona, U.S.A. Biological 20 Bahre, 1995. Conservation 61:181-188. 21 Wilson, J.P. 1995. Islands in the Desert: A History of the 35 Bock, C. E., J.H. Bock, K.L. Jepson, and J.C. Ortega. Uplands of Southeastern Arizona. University of New 1986. Ecological effects of planting African lovegrasses in Mexico Press: Albuquerque. Arizona. National Geographic Research 2:456-463. 22 Bahre, 1995.

www.skyislandaction.org 3-35 State of the Coronado Forest DRAFT 11.05.08 36 Masters, R.A., and R.L. Sheley 2001. Principles and Farris, M. A. 1998. The effects of rock climbing on the practices for managing rangeland invasive plants. Journal of vegetation of three Minnesota cliff systems. Canadian Range Management 54(5): 502-517. Journal of Botany-Revue Canadienne De Botanique 37 Leung, Y. F., and J. L. Marion. 1999. Assessing trail 76:1981-1990. and conditions in protected areas: application of a problem- McMillan, M. A., and D.W. Larson. 2002. Effects of rock assessment method in Great Smoky Mountains National climbing on the vegetation of the Niagara Escarpment in Park, U.S.. Environmental Conservation 26:270-279. southern Ontario, Canada. Conservation Biology 16:389- 38 Tyser, R.W. and C.A. Worley. 1992. Alien Flora in 398. Grasslands Adjacent to Road and Trail Corridors in Glacier 40 Campbell and Gibson, 2001. National Park, Montana (U.S.). Conservation Biology 6: 41 Deluca, T. H., W. A. Patterson, W. A. Freimund, and D. 253-262. and N. Cole. 1998. Influence of llamas, horses, and hikers on soil Campbell, J. E. and D. J. Gibson. 2001. The effect of seeds erosion from established recreation trails in western of exotic species transported via horse dung on vegetation Montana, U.S.. Environmental Management 22:255-262. along trail corridors. Plant Ecology 157: 23-35. and 39 Nuzzo, V. A. 1995. Effects of Rock Climbing on Cliff Cole, D. N., and D. R. Spildie. 1998. Hiker, horse and llama Goldenrod (Solidago sciaphila Steele) in Northwest Illinois. trampling effects on native vegetation in Montana, U.S. American Midland Naturalist 133:229-241. and Journal of Environmental Management 53:61-71. and Kelly, P. E., and D.W. Larson. 1997. Effects of rock climbing Leung and Marion, 1999. on populations of presettlement eastern white cedar (Thuja 42 Kutiel, P., H. Zhevelev, and R. Harrison. 1999. The effect occidentalis) on cliffs of the Niagara Escarpment, Canada. of recreational impacts on soil and vegetation of stabilised Conservation Biology 11:1125-1132. and Coastal Dunes in the Sharon Park, Israel. Ocean & Coastal Camp, R. J., and R. L. Knight. 1998. Effects of rock Management 42:1041-1060. climbing on cliff plant communities at Joshua Tree National 43 Tyser and Worely, 1992. Park, California. Conservation Biology 12:1302-1306. and 44 McClaran and Van Devender, 1995.

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