REPOR TRESUMES ED. 011926 VT 000 410 EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR THE WORLD OF WORK, A VOCATIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR THE STATE OF . BY- SMITH, HAROLD T. W. E. UPJOHN INST. FOR EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH FUS DATE JUL 63 EDRS PRICEMF-$0.27 HC-$6.56 164P.

DESCRIPTORS- SECONDARY EDUCATION, *POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION, ADULT EDUCATION, VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, *TECHNICAL EDUCATION, FEDERAL LEGISLATION, SUPERVISION, FEDERAL AID, EDUCATIONAL FINANCE, COMMUNITY COLLEGES, *AREA VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS, MICHIGAN, CONNECTICUT, NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, FLORIDA, OHIO, KENTUCKY, NORTH CAROLINA, CALIFORNIA, ILLINOIS, MINNESOTA,

RECOMMENDATIONS ARE PRESENTED FORDEVELOPING A MATURE SYSTEM OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN.,THE NEEDS OF EDUCATION ARE PRESENTED. SECONDARY I.NSTITUTIPNS4 POSTSECONDARY PROGRAMS, FINANCING, STATE SUPERVISION, TEACHERS, RESEARCH, AND COUNSELING ARE DISCUSSED. THE HUB OF THE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM OF TOMORROW WILL BE THE COMPREHENSIVE AREA POSTSECONDARY AND ADULT EDUCATION INSTITUTION WHICH SHOULD BE IN EVERY COMMUNITY IN THE STATE. WHEN AN AREA IS NOT ABLE TO SUPPORT A POSTSECONDARY INSTITUTION, A COOPERATIVE AREA VOCATIONAL FACILITY OR EDUCATION CENTER SHOULD BE ESTABLISHED WITHIN A COMMUTING AREA AS AN EMBRYO POSTSECONDARY AND ADULT EDUCATION. INSTITUTION. REPORTS ON WHAT IS BEING DONE OR CONSIDERED IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ARE GIVEN FOR SUCH SELECTED AREAS AS CALIFORNIA, CONNECTICUT, FLORIDA, KENTUCKY, ILLINOIS, MICHIGAN, MINNESOTA, NEW YORK, NORTH CAROLINA, OHIO, AND PENNSYLVANIA. INCLUDED IN THE APPENDIX IS "EXAMPLE OF ABASIC CLASSROOM UNIT FOUNDATION FORMULA FOR DETERMINING STATE SUPPORT OF ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN A HYPOTHETICAL STATE." THIS DOCUMENT IS ALSO AVAILABLE FROMTHE W.E. UPJOHN INSTITUTE FOR EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH,7(39 SOUTH WESTNEDGE AVENUE, KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN 49250. (SL) Education and Training for the World ofWork A Vocational Education Program for the State of Michigan

By Harold T. Smith U.S. DEPARTMENTOFHEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY.

Education and Training for the World of Work

A Vocational Education Program for the State of Michigan

By Harold T. Smith, Ph.D. With Solicited Chapters on Programs in Other States

July 1963

The TV. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research 709 South. Westnedge Avenue Kalamazoo; Michigan The W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research

THE INSTITUTE, a privately sponsored nonprofit research organization, was estab- lished on July 1, 1945. It is an activity of the W. E. Upjohn Unemployment Trustee Corporation which was formed in 1932 to administera fund set aside by the late Dr. W. E. Upjohn for the purpose of carrying on "research into thecauses and effects of unemployment and measures for the alleviation of unemployment."

Headquarters of the Institute are located in Kalamazoo, Michigan. During 1962 offices were opened in two other locations, as follows:

Washington 36, D.C. Los Angeles 13, California 1755 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. 417 South Hill Street

ii Acknowledgments The author is indebted to many individuals who have contributedliberally of time, labor, material, and suggestionsfor this report. He is deeplyindebted to the departments and divisions ofvocational education in nearly allof the states of the nation for materials suppliedconcerning their programs for vocationaleducation; and to those individuals who contributedto Part II of this report. He is particularly indebted to the Division of VocationalEducation in the MichiganDepartment of Public Instruction for its sympatheticcooperation and to those in the UnitedStates Department of Health, Education, andWelfare, the United States Departmentof Labor, and others in Washington whohelped in many ways. The authorowes a special debt to those who read themanuscript at appropriate stages of itsprepara- tion. Some of themare: Carl L. Byer ly, Assistant Superintendent of theDetroit Public Schools, who servedas chairman of the Schools Committeeon Preparing Pupils for the World of Work;Professor Lawrence Borosage of the Department of Education, Michigan StateUniversity, who is Director of the Mich- igan Vocational Education EvaluationProject; Michael Harris of the FordFoun- dation; Norman C. Harris, AssociateProfessor of Technical Educationat The ; Stanley E.Hecker, Assistant Professor of Education, Michigan State University, who suppliedmaterial for the Appendix to PartI; Raymond M. Hilliard, Director, andDenton J. Brooks, Director of Research and Statistics, of the Cook County Departmentof Public Aid; and Harold C. Taylor, Director of the W. E. Upjohn Institute forEmployment Research, and Herbert E. Striner of the Institute's staff. The criticisms and suggestions made havebeen most helpful. The conclusions drawn and opinions expressed, ofcourse, are solely the responsibility of the author. June 1963 HAROLD T. Simi

iii

-7; iNd#AGE Contents RAWNOT NEMbp) PART I. A VOCATIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMFOR THE STATE OFMICHIGAN Introduction Conclusions, Suggestions,and Recommendations 1 3 A Mature System ofVocational and Technical Education for Michigan 3 Purpose Institutions Needed 3 3 Flexibility of the TotalSystem Recommendations for Implementation 5 5 Other Conclusions andRecommendations The Plan of This Report 6 7 I. Secondary InstitutionsNeeded for Vocational Education 9 Institutions for SecondaryVocational Education in OtherStates The Comprehensive HighSchool 10 Area Vocational EducationSystems 10 Institutions for SecondaryVocational Education in Michigan The Detroit Area Program 12 13 Proposal for OutstateAreas 15 II. The Postsecondary ProgramNeeded in Michigan for Vocational Education 17 Postsecondary Vocational-TechnicalInstitutions in Other States Postsecondary Vocational-Technical 17 Institutions in Michigan 18 The Michigan CommunityColleges 19 III. Financing VocationalEducation in Michigan 23 State Support of Public Schoolsin Michigan 23 A Minimum Classroomor Teacher Unit Foundation Formula Financing Area Vocational 24 Education Centers in Michigan 25 Financing Community Collegesin Michigan Operating Budgets 26 Capital Outlay 26 27 Financing a StatewideCommunity College System 28 IV. State Supervision ofVocational Education in Michigan State-Level Supervision in 29 Michigan Today 29 State-Level Supervision inOther States Supervision Needed in Michigan 30 31 V. Considerations OtherThan Those Relatingto Needed Programs Introduction 33 Federal Aid to Vocational 33 Education 33 The Smith-Hughes andGeorge-Barden Acts The National Defense 33 Education Act of 1958 33 The Impact of FederalAid Under the ForegoingActs The Area Redevelopment 34 Act and the ManpowerDevelopment and Training Act The School Dropout 35 Training and Retraining 37 for Out-of-School Adults 39 Training for Those inProlonged Unemployment Guidance and Counseling 40 Research in Vocational 42 Education 43 Vocational Education Teachers 44 PART II. SYSTEMS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN CERTAIN SELECTED STATES

VI. Development of Vocational-Technical Schools in Connecticut 49 VII. A State-Coordinated Plan to Modernize and Extend Industrial-Technical Education to Meet the Demands of the 1960's in New York 57 VIII. Vocational and Technical Education in Pennsylvania 59 IX. Vocational and Related Education in Florida 69 X. Vocational Education in Kentucky 81 XI. The Organization, Function, and Objectives of the Industrial Education Centers of North Carolina 89 XII. Vocational Education in California XIII. Vocational and Technical Education in Illinois 107 XIV. Vocational Education in Michigan 119 XV. An Analysis of Vocational-Technical Training in Minnesota 135 XVI. Report on the System of Vocational Education in Ohio 151

APPENDIX TO PART I.

Example of a Basic Classroom Unit Foundation Formula for Determining State Support of Elementary and Secondary Education in a Hypothetical State 163

vi Part I. A VocationalEducationProgram for the Stateof Michigan Introduction The need for a greater emphasis on the preparation of years of experience and development, the lack of both youth and adults for which today's world of work is cannot be overcome easilyor quickly. everywhere becoming recognized. As important as gen- The development ofan adequate vocational educa- eral education is for the development of the individual tion system, therefore, is prerequisiteto a successful ap.d the preservation ofour culture and way of life, it is program of training and retraining. How not enough for the great majority of to provide people who must such a system as an integral part oftotal education and operate our machines, shops, and offices and provide avoid deadend tracks for thosewho take vocational our services. More and more occupations require skills training constitutes one of the majoreducational chal- and specialized knowledge for whichthere must be lenges of the present day. prior training. For reasons that are explicable, Michiganhas only The relative increase in the demand for people with recently come to realize the severityof its need for a skills and the relative decrease indemand for those well-conceived statewideprogram of vocational-tech- without skills or with obsolete skills are logical results nical education for all of its people.The vigor of the of the technological advance that hasbeen going on for state's economy and the ability of its a long time. The present increase in the industries to absorb pace of tech- large numbers of the unskilled and thesemiskilled on nological advance, including automation,and the accom- its assembly lines obscured thefact that so many ill- panying population explosion haveonly magnified them. prepared people are inour midst. The result is that As a consequence, hundreds of thousands of peoplere- Michigan has taken no firm steps towarddeveloping a main unemployed. They consist of highschool graduates system of vocational education for all of as well as school dropouts, adults who its people, have been although it is beginning to doa great deal of thinking squeezed down and off the employment ladder, women about it.Michigan is fortunate that, in themeantime, wishing to enter or reenter employment,the culturally a heterogeneous mixture of vocational education insti- disadvantaged,and othergroupsthatmightbe tutions has not developed. Theway is open to design identified. a system especially suited to Michigan and The causes of unemployment to implement are as complex as the it with a minimum of investment lossand of disturbance industrial order itself. The lackor the immobility of to established interests. any essential resource, including skilled labor, andpar- For help in determining what to suggest for ticularlythe lack Michigan of entrepreneurial ingenuity and that will make vocational education andtraining for the enterprise, may check the growth of theeconomy before world of work an integral and effective it can possibly provide enough jobs part of the state's suitable for the total educational system,we have looked to experience many unskilled now out of work. But insofar as the elsewhere throughout the nation.The great forces individual is concerned, onecommon cause for unem- alluded to above the pace of technological change ployment is lack of a salable skill. The choice for many, and the population explosion and the ever-growing therefore, may be either to acquirea salable skill or to economic and social problems of settle down on public aid as unemployment that a way of life. have resulted from them havecome within the knowl- Because of the present acuteness of unemployment, edge of all well-informed citizens andeducators. society has become preoccupied with providing short Most of the large industrial cities,where the prob- intensive training programs for one or another of the lems are most concentrated andacute, are now actively groups of unemployed, and rightly so. But over and engaged in efforts to make vocationaleducation and over again such attempts at training have been blocked training an integral part of their educational by the lack of training essentials: objectives. there may beno Some of the eastern states with long industrialexperi- facilities, equipment,or materials; no curriculum; no ence,. such as Connecticut, Massachusetts, instructional aids; or indeed and New no teachers. These are York, are actively engaged in expanding theirprograms products of educational systems and institutions and of in one way or mother into statewidesystems of voca-

1 tional-technical education for secondary school youth, thinking of educators risen to match the problems that out-of-school youth, and adults. our suggestions for Michigan have become in no way California's experience in coping with its great influx novel or unorthodox. In fact, we should emphasize that of population over the past 35 years has resulted in a this entire report presents, not primarily a set of recom- unified comprehensive system, of high schools, com- mendations emanating from us, but rather, a prediction munity colleges, and adult training programs that is as to the course of action towards which Michigan will worthy of note. The recent experience in some of the inexorably be forced to move. We are motivated to southeastern statesin developing a system of area make the report simply by the conviction that the state schools for carrying vocational-technical education to will meet its problems more effectively and more eco- the people is most challenging; the experience of Minne- nomically if it approaches them systematically and with sota and Wisconsin and the thinking in Illinois, Iowa, foresight than if it drifts into a frantic piecemeal solu- Ohio, and other states in the Middle West also have tion to each manifestation of the problems as points of much to suggest. crises arise. The problems of training for the world of The lessons to be learned from the experience of work are with us, and they are growing in intensity with other states make the direction in which Michigan every passing day. The experience of other states is should go in its planning quite clear. Furthermore, so making clear what courses of action are necessary, and fast have the problems grown and so rapidly has the the time for Michigan to act has arrived.

2 a Conclusions, Suggestions, andRecommendations

For the convenience of the reader,we present here our called, will be the comprehensivearea postsecondary major conclusions, suggestions, and recommendations and adult education institution. The national trend is in without argument or support. In doingso, we trust that this direction, and the reasons for itare clear. Most those who appraise andpass judgment upon them will individual high schools cannot offer the variety ofpro- first read the full report. grams needed.More and more vocational-technical courses beyond the high school level are needed. The A Mature System of Vocational and public favors later initial employment than at high Technical Education in Michigan school graduation.Employers favor the older em- ployee and the one who has taken his vocational train- PURPOSE ing at a postsecondary institution. The postsecondary Vocational and technical education must be treatedas institution will have better facilities and amore special- an integral part of total education, which it is.Total ized staff in many fields than the high schoolscan have. education should introduce school youth to the world For these reasons,. more and more youth, when post- of work along with the world of the professionsand of secondary education is available to them,are likely to culture. It should enable youth tomove into their next postpone their vocational training until after high school role in life whether that be to attend college, thepro- graduation.Adults tend to favor the postsecondary fessional school, or the vocational-technical school;or institution over the high school for their training and to enter directly into employment. But there should be retraining for the additional reasons that the teaching no deadend tracks. methods and the professional climatemay be more to The educational system should provide adults and their liking. out-of-school youth, wherever theymay live, the oppor- The logical institution to provide area postsecondary tunity for general and vocational-technical trainingor and adult education services in Michigan is the modern retraining while on the job. community college.Such an institution must not be confused with its predecessor, the two-year liberal arts The system should provide the facilities, the curricula, junior college, which still prevails throughout much of the teaching skills, and the organizational knowledge the Middle West. The modern community college isa required for such special shortcourses and crash train- ing programs as are constantly being required comprehensive institution serving a commuting area by for the offering the services that the people need. benefit of the unemployed and others needing them. Michigan now has 16 community colleges, two more INSTITUTIONS NEEDED are under organization, and others are being planned. They are the state's only area institutions. The institutions needed are (1) the comprehensive By action of the State Superintendent of Public In- area postsecondary and adult education institution, lo- struction, the Michigan community collegesare author- cated ultimately at the heart of every commutingarea ized to provide the five orograms of (1) guidance, in the state; (2) the comprehensive high school, which counseling, and placement;(2)lower levelcollege every high school should strive to be; and (3) the transfer courses; (3) training preparatory to employment cooperative area vocational facility or education center or improvement in employment, and retraining to meet located at the heart of every commuting area that is not technological change; (4) continuing education for cul- yet able economically or otherwise to supporta post- tural, civic, and avocational growth; and (5) community secondary institution. The center would be in factan services. These are the services more andmore widely embryo postsecondary and adult education institution. expected of the modern community college. The comprehensive area postsecondary and adult The Michigan community colleges are struggling to education institution. The hub of the whole vocational attain the modern concept of their purpose. The 1963 education system of tomorrow, by whatevername it is bulletin entitled, The Role and Character of Michigan

3 Community Colleges, prepared by theMichigan Council is equipped with facilities, curriculum, andqualified of Community College Administrators, openswith the staff to teach. Not many individual high school districts are large following paragraphs: enough to afford an adequate vocational education A community collegeis a locally controlled, program. They can only do sothrough area institutions public, two-year institution of highereducation serving the high Schools of their areas or by coopera- which offers broad, comprehensive programsof tively developing shared facilities with other districts. instruction for persons of post-high-school age. The secondary vocational education center. The A community college expandsopportunities for high school districts of those commuting areas that education beyond the high school by(1) offering cannot yet support community colleges to servethem programs in occupational,technical, and semi- as vocational education centers'should plan to act professional training for students planning toenter cooperatively as early as possible and feasible and or- a vocation as well asthe first and second year col- ganize secondary vocational education centers to serve lege academic courses for studentsplanning to as their collectivedepartments of vocational education transfer to four-year colleges oruniversities, (2) for the benefit of youth and adults. Such centers are adhering to an "open door" generaladmission pol- virtually embryo community colleges, and they should icy but being selective in thosewhom it retains, be organized and located with that inmind. graduates and reco,,, mends for placement,(3) re- Metropolitan area special high schools. The Detroit sponding to the particular educationalneeds of the public school system, with its nine school districtsunder community it serves, (4) drawing uponits com- the jurisdiction of one board ofeducation and one munity's total resources in organizingits instruc- superintendent of schools,is already implementing a tional programs, (5) enrolling students on afull or citywide program of comprehensive secondaryeduca- part-time basis, and (6) offering day andevening tion that possesses a great deal of promise.The plan is classes and programs of instruction,and, if eco- that all high school programs shall begenuinely com- nomically feasible, on a year-round basis. prehensive and include such preparatory andbasic The foregoing statement, although acompromise vocational courses as the need dictates.In order to designated as statement, is a long step ahead. Itreflects a clear intent make this possible, certain high schools, specialize in those on the part of thecommunity college leadership to as- special district high schools, are to and for sume the newresponsibilities. vocational courses that are exceptionally costly In our opinion, the statementis lacking in one which the demand is relatively small andoffer them for district. Certain respect. It omits a service that hasattained considerable the benefit of all the high schools of the city- importance in the less densely populated areasof Cali- of these special district high schools may serve as fornia and has started in a small wayin Michigan wide high schools and offer such courses as areessential the demand is still smaller. itself.It is for the community colleges to opentheir to the economy but for which facilities to the high schools of theirrespective areas, Students wishing to take special courses are totransfer district high school for all of on a sound contractualbasis, for appropriate secondary to the appropriate special courses, either academic orvocational, that the indi- their work. vidual high schools cannot afford to offer.The com- The community colleges are notbuilt into this pro- munity colleges can thereby serve as areaeducation gram; they are not asked to serveas vocational educa- centers for the high schools oftheir areas. If they should tion centers for the highschools. In the first place, not do so, parallel areainstitutions must develop to there are no community collegesin Detroit proper and schools, for the area institution consti- only two in nearby suburbs.The two could not begin serve the high it tutes the only known device bywhich training beyond to supply the servicesrequired. But beyond this, that which the individual high school canoffer may appears fromexperience elsewhere that inmetropolitan be made available to youth or adults. areas where fullycomprehensive and special district The state of Michigan must look forward tothe time high schools can be afforded,the high schools may best when there is a modern community college or .anarea serve themselves.Even if community colleges were vocational education center in the heart of every com- available, high school studentscould not be transferred and transporting stu- muting area. to them for all of their courses, single course would The comprehensive high school.Every high school dents to a community college for a It should provide such ele- likely prove impracticable. should be comprehensive. of school dis- mentary and preparatoryvocational programs as class Any outstate school district or group Particularly where tricts with two or more highschools could follow the enrollment and cost will justify. of them there is no postsecondary or secondary areainstitution Detroit plan and ask the high schools or some costly vocational coursesfor within commuting distance, it shouldprovide such after- to specialize in certain training programs for adults and the benefit of all.If, however, the communitycollege noon and evening the state as it should, those out-of-school youth as are needed andwhich the school system develops throughout 4 districts witha community college in their midst should 1. look to the community The Legislature must determine thepublic insti- college first for suchcourses; tutions to be used; that is, the secondary or if a community college is contemplated schools and the in the future, area vocational education centers, the postsecondary it would seem wiser to organize and build a vocational area institutions, and the four-year baccalaureate and education center toserve the several high schools in professional institutions. anticipation of the establishment of the community 2.The Legislature should specify the fieldsof opera- college. tion of each of these institutions. FLEXIBILITY OF THE TOTAL SYSTEM 3. The community college shouldbe unequivocally established as Michigan'spostsecondary area institu- The system proposed is extremelyflexible, and it tion. assigned to supply thecomprehensive educational lends itself to a minimum ofduplication of facilities and programs and community services that havecome to be of economic waste. Furthermore,much time and effort expected of comprehensivearea institutions. It should be will be saved by knowing inadvance the direction in which we are going. strictly limited to two-year lowerdivision college work and to technical and vocational Our proposal is that community programs of not more colleges be estab- than 3 years in length leading lished at the heart of commuting to an associate degree. areas throughout the It should be prohibited by law state as rapidly as they can be afforded, from evolving into a and that, as four-year baccalaureate institution. one of their community responsibilities, theyserve as 4.The Legislature should determinethe priority of education centers for the highschools of their respec- the establishment of the several tive areas and make availableto high school students institutions in new geographic areas. Theproper distribution of community the more advanced andmore costly vocational (and colleges and, in fact, that of all highereducation facili- other) courses that the high schoolsindividually cannot ties would be greatly enhanced ifthe location of four- afford to offer. At thesame time, the high schools in those commuting year institutions or their branches required approvalby areas that do not yet have community a strong state board of education. When colleges should establish cooperative an area will area secondary support the first 2 years of college work, the vocational education centers toserve them in anticipa- community college, with its broader communityservices, should tion of the establishment ofcommunity colleges. be established first.Only after there has developeda The development of the two approaches simulta- demand for upper division neously willfacilitate the spread of comprehensive college work should the establishment of a four-year institutionor its branch be education throughout the state; and thetwo institutions, considered, and then to the community college and the education operate side by side with the center, should community college. gradually meet and ultimately blend into the total 5.The state of Michigan doesnot now have an educational system. Furthermore, if it should develop overall state board of education; that the community colleges but the revised Con- prove unable or unwilling stitution, which will become effective to perform the area services needed by the high schools, on JanuaryI, 1964, provides forone. The new board is vested with we should expect the cooperative area vocational educa- leadership and general tion centers to take the field and in time supervision over allpublic to develop into education, including adult education comprehensive postsecondary institutions. and instructional programs in state institutions, although withsome reser- Recommendations' for Implementation vation in regard to institutions ofhigher education granting baccalaureate degrees. Thenew board is to The state of Michigan has a longway to go before it appoint a state superintendent ofpublic instruction will be able to provide the network of secondaryand and a community and junior collegeadvisory board, postsecondary educational institutions thatcan carry a both responsible to the board. comprehensive program of general and vocationaledu- If the new board is to be ableto carry out its full cation to all of the people in allareas of the state. responsibility for coordinating and supervisingall pub- It is of first importance that the objective of-educa- lic education in the state,it must have well-defined tion and training for the world of work beadopted by authority to make policy decisions withinthe framework the Legislature as a deliberate goal of the Michiganedu- and intent of the revised constitution andsupporting cational system. The action ,needs to be supportedby all law. The board's policy decisions musttake precedence of the leaders in government and educationfrom the over those of the governing boards of the several insti- governor of the state to the officials and boards ofcom- tutions. To be effective, the board willneed strong munity colleges and secondary schools andto all such legislative and public support. Indeed,much may yet groups as professional associations and parent teacher need to be done in order to make it effective. associations. 6. The state of Michigan isnow bearing an inade- Strong action and leadership by the State Legislature quate share of the cost of education below the uni- will mean much; indeed it will makeor break any pro- versity level, and it is distributing itssupport among gram that is undertaken. the local school districts in sucha way as to penalize

5 them for offering the more costly courses, among which federal aid under the various national vocational educa- are many of the most needed vocational courses.The tion acts were built into the formula for state support formula in use for determining the state's share of the of vocational education. cost of elementary and secondary education is intended 10. The community college law should provide that to insure a minimum annual operating expenditure for any school district not a part of a community college the education of every child. For the school year 1962- district be responsible for contributing to the support 63, that minimum was established at $224. If a school of each community college in which any of its residents district's income from all available tax and contractual are enrolled anywhere in the state. The amount of the sources falls short of the minimum amount, plus certain contribution should be equal to the totals,pvting and extras, the state makes up the difference. This differ- capital cost per student at the college attended. Such a ence is the state's share. The state's share of support "chargeback" arrangement would have the effect of mak- for the community colleges is limited to the same mini- ing the community college educational program a regu- mum amount provided for elementary and secondary lar part of a complete state system, and it would en- schools without deducting any offsetting income. courage the formation of community college districts The formula fails the student in that it may dis- within the system. This provision is in effect in a few courage his district from offering him the more costly other states with good results. courses that he needs and that society may want him to A similar "chargeback" arrangement should be made have. Also, contrary to the prevailing national trend, to nonparticipating secondary school districts for stu- the state pays no share of the cost of school plant and dents sent to a secondary area education center. equipment, except that it has begun to do so for com- munity colleges. Other Conclusions and Recommendations The present formula for state support of public schools' should be revised.It should become a formula, such The above recommendations cover our major points as is now used by a number of other states, that pro- with respect to vocational education facilities and their vides a larger amount of state aid for the costlier voca- organization, financing, and implementation. Some other tional courses than it does for other less costly courses. matters, however, are worthy of attention. The formula should include allocations forcapital 1.Our whole attitude toward people's ability to outlay as well as for operation. learn has changed markedly during the past few years 7.Greater state support of community colleges will or even months. We are coming to suspect that anyone undoubtedly be required.A state support formula who can learn to talk acceptably can also learn to read needs to be devised for community colleges that will acceptably and perhaps finally to become employable. reflect the heavier operating costs and capital outlay On the other hand, we have come to see that education for certain vocational courses. must begin where the individual is, and that it may be 8.The entire matter of state support of education a long road from the beginning of education to the needs to be examined from the standpoint of sources acquirement of a skill. The culturally disadvantaged, of revenue, the total amount of state support to be the embittered school dropout, and others may have an provided, and the formulas by which state support will emotional block to overcome before much progress can be allocated to various regions of the state in terms of be made; while the older worker, the housewife return- population, need, and so on. This, however, is but one ing to the labor market, and others who have had some of the many problems of state taxation and expenditure training or even have possessed a skill may move more policy that need reexamination.It is to be hoped that rapidly. the Legislature is on the verge of tackling these long- 2.All out-of-school as well as in-school vocational standing problems; solutions are notoriously overdue. training programs depend upon existing educational 9.Michigan has counted upon federal aid through institutions for facilities, equipment, curricula, teaching the various national vocational education acts to en- aids, and teachers. A state or a city that has not de- courage vocational education in the 'high schools and veloped vocational education institutions will be unable more recently in the community colleges in the four to carry out special training programs in an adequate secondary fields of agriculture, home economics, trade fashion.There will be too many shortages and too and industry, and distributive occupations, and in post- many bottlenecks. secondary fields of vocational education. 3. The elementary school and the junior high school Federal funds have been stimulative, but the admin- must come to meet the problems of the culturally and istration of the funds has allowed a crystallization of economically disadvantaged and other potential school their use that has tended to freeze secondary vocational dropouts. The schools can learn much about coping education in the four fields without reference to change with these youth from the new training programs that in needs. It has even discouraged the multiplication of are now beginning in some of our great city welfare courses in that the more courses allowed, the thinner departments. We have in mind in particular the Cook must the aid be spread.It would be much better if County, Illinois, training program that has been car- 6 ried on for more thana year now by the Department of 9.Closely related to the problem ofteaching is that Public Aid and the Chicagoschools. 4. of counseling, counseling with bothstudents and parents. It should be the aimof the public schoolsto let The importance of counseling is no one leave schoot, so great that the suc- even by graduation, withoutrea- cess or failure of a comprehensive educational sonable preparation forwhat he will do program next. In this may turn upon it.Every effort needs to be madeto connection, school attendancelaws and child labor keep occupation and job information laws and their administration up to date and should be reexamined and immediately available to counselors revised as necessary and teachers. Al- to make it more possibleto provide though we must look to the school dropout government for much of the and potential dropoutwith more occupational information, the schools realistic choices relatedto a work and study must provide the program necessary liaison arrangements and skillfulcounseling that will prepare himfor the world of workthan is personnel. now the case. There should be no legal age of 16 or 10. Under present conditions, 18 until which time an unemployed adult's a student must "sit it out" in school decision to take training or be legally squeezed out of courses may destroy his eligi- school. The job-bound bility for unemployment compensation youth should be preparing or public aid. for job entry and should In such a case, idleness rather thanenterprise is en- remain in school until thathas been accomplished. couraged.Some pattern should beworked out 5. Emergency crash trainingprograms are worth although not necessarily while for the few individuals as a part of the unemployment trained and placed in jobs insurance or general assistanceprograms that will and for what wemay learn from them. But their limita- encourage persons who would benefit fromtraining to tions are very great.Available jobs are most limited take it. Rewards should befor enterprise, rather than in the areas where thereis the greatest unemployment for idleness. The good experiencethat the Cook County and where the problem ofmobility of labor has not been Department of Public Aid has had solved. Our technique for selecting thus far with its trainees needs to be requirement that those selectedfor training must take greatly improved. Thegreat majority of the unem- training as a prerequisite forreceiving public aid is ployed are not ready for intensiveshort courses. Per= very encouraging. haps it is most significant that It supports the hope thata more the vocational education rehabilitating public aidprogram of training and work institutions in Michigan andmany other states are not than that which prepared to provide the facilities, we now have may someday be devised. the equipment, the 11.Everything possible needsto be done by all who curricula, the teaching aids,and the teachersnecessary are interested in vocational education to make the training to create a more program a success. favorable public image of it. 6.If youth camp-type Vocational education programs for out-of-school needs to be recognized and treatedas an integral part youth are to do muchmore than keep youth off the of total education. We streets for a period of time, they forget that much ofour cultural should do four things education was vocational in its for a youth before he leaves origin that laboratory the program: (1) teach him science, for example, has attained how to work, to attain full academic respect- satisfaction from work; (2)make ability only within thepast few decades. sure that he is functionally literateand is thereby ready On the other hand, vocational to receive training for education, more than a skill; (3) acquaint him with general education,cannot escape being judged almost both national and local jobmarkets, and show him how immediately by its product. It, to look for a job; and (4) therefore, is ina good graduate him intoa job or position to contribute muchto its own public image by training for a job, aidedif necessary by transportation doing a good job. and maintenancegrants. 7. Although apprenticeshiptraining is on the de- The Plan of This Report cline, industry can and does doa lot of training for its We now proceed with own needs. Business and industry our full report. The plan is to are counting more set forth what should be expected ofvocational and and more upon the schools,however, to provide the technical education in preparatory training needed for our present-day society, and then employment and also to suggest what institutions, what administrativeorgan- the technical backgroundfor the more technical jobs; ization, and what financial but they must always train structure are needed in their employees for the Michigan before those expectationscan be fulfilled. We semiskilled jobs and fit theminto specific jobs atany are not concerned with such matters level. Business and industry as course content can do and are doing more and teaching methods; thesemust be left to the profes- than they have done in thepast in retraining those who sional educator. are about to be displaced by mechanization. We have drawn heavily 8. upon the experience and Not enough is knownyet about what makes a thinking of practically all of good vocational teacher. The the states of the nation, conventional requirements and documentation could becarried to great length. for certification are quiteinadequate. There is muchto In place of extensive documentation, be learned before certification however, we have requirements for voca- included in Part II of thereport statements of what is tional education teachers shouldbe rigidly fixed. being done or thought in vocationaleducation in certain

7 selected states. We believe that these statementswill cation, each has been written by a responsible and be more helpful than extensive documentation.This knowledgeable person. ,Furthermore, the states repre- report, therefore, is not a scientific workin the usual sented were not selected at random, but each was sense of the term; rather, itis intended to be informa- selected because of the problems being faced or because tive and suggestive. of action being taken or proposed in relation to voca- Although the statements in Part II are not official tional-technical education. The statements are of great statements of the various statedepartments of edu- interest for what they may suggest.

8 .-

I. SecondaryInstitutions Neededfor VocationalEducation Secondary education in itsearly form was designed to If the proposition is trulyaccepted that each level of provide its students withthe basis for culture and to education mustprepare the student for his next role in prepare them to enter a professionor training for a life, whether that be in profession; the goal college, professional school, was both cultural and vocational. technical school, homemaking,or a job, our secondary With the passing of timeand as more people came to schools must become farmore comprehensive than they attend high school, the goalbecame a dual one now are. In order to provide the rightkind of voca- college. entrance for thecollege-bound student, and tional programs for the general education for the two-thirds of our youth who non-college-bound student. now enter the world of work withouta skill, and in The former goal retainedthe reality ofa combined order to help carry the increasing cultural and vocational load of adult edu- purpose; the latter lost sight of cation that now exists and lies the vocational. High school ahead, our facilities for offered general and cultural offering secondaryas well as postsecondary vocational education to many who hadnever before had it, but it education must be greatly expanded. failed to lend reality and motive to the program in that Possible ways by which Michiganmay be able to it failed toprepare the student for job entry his next provide a truly comprehensive step in life. secondary program of education for itsyoung people are suggested by The omissionwas not noticed at first, ex- nor was the perienceexperience in Michigan itself,and experience seriousness ofitunderstood and appreciated.The throughout the nation. magic of high school graduationin itself providedsome motivation, but beyond that,the desire to doa good Institutions for SecondaryVocational quality of classroom workwas not supported byan Education in Other States awareness of immediate purpose and thebelief that the The trade high school had its origin in material being studied the more heavily mattered very much. Thevoca- industrialized states of the East andspread to a few tional was not madea part of the educationalprogram for the job-bound student. states of the Middle West before thepassage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. The evolutionof the strictly Vocational education,as we understand it today, is trade school into becoming a part of secondary a modern school of a substantial com- education through two prehensive character is exemplifiedin Connecticut,as avenues. One is through the establishmentand evolu- reported in Part II of this report. The tion of the trade high school, General Assembly and the other is byway enacted legislation in 1907 authorizing of the Smith-Hughes and any town or George-Barden Acts, which school district to establish and maintain, provide federal reimbursement with the ap- to high schools for offer- proval of the State Board of Education,a free public ing vocational courses incertain specified fields. The trade school. Because trade high school has no such schools were established, come to require that the student the General Assembly took action take considerable work in in 1909 to authorize nonvocational or semivoca- and direct the State Board ofEducation to establish, tional courses suchas English, mathematics, science, organize, manage, and supervise suchschools.The and social science; but it hasnot brought vocational local districts were required education into the regular secondary to supply the sites and schools.The buildings and, withsome small exceptions, maintain federal vocational educationacts are bringing vocational them. courses into the secondary schools, butthe courses are Eleven schools were subsequently only slowly being made established under a part of the total educational this law. Theywere strictly trade schools. They ran program. Too often, the vocational programs and the 8 hours a day, 51/2 daysa week, and 50 weeks a year. college preparatoryprograms are simply offered under Students and teachers the same administration and rang time clocks and in other the same roof, and the ways attempted to maintain a factory atmosphere. school continues to offersingle-track programs that In 1945 the State Board responded are not comprehensive programs at all. to the trend toward providing a more comprehensiveeducation and 9

r adopted a program whereby 50 percent of the students' sufficiently balanced to provide job marketsin broad time was to be spent on general and related subjects occupational areas, a single schoolcan be highly com- suchasEnglish, mathematics,science, and social prehensive. But the great majority of highschools over studies.The school day was cut to 61/2 hours, and the country are too small or too imbalancedto support the school year to 10 months. so complete a program. They must findsome other way Because the buildings provided by local districts were to make a complete comprehensiveprogram of educa- too often inadequate, and because difficulties developed tion available to their students. This leadsto a consider- over the location of sites, the state began in 1949 to ation of the cooperative area vocational schoolor edu- build its own buildings and in 1951 to purchase the cation center. building sites. Three universal trends are reflected in the evolution AREA VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS of Connecticut's trade high schools: the trend topro- Since World War II,a number of states have vide vocational and technical education free of tuition, launched aggressive industrialdevelopment programs the trend to move away from local financing and ad- of which statewide area systems of vocationaleducation ministration toward state financing and administration, are an important part. These area vocational education and the trend for vocational schools to becomecompre- systems seem to have reached their greatest develop- hensive in subject matter. ment in some of the southeastern states of thecountry. Because of the presence of four postsecondary tech- They are best represented in Part II of thisreport by nical institutes, one of which can be reached by daily Kentucky and North Carolina. commuters from almost any point in the state, the In introducing the new systems, thesestates have not Connecticut trade high schools have not tended to be- been handicapped by old theories, institutions,or tradi- come postsecondary in their course offerings, as is the tions. They have been able to start from the premises trend in those states that have no such postsecondary that new industry demands skilled employeesas never institutions. before, that there are the people to be trained, and Wisconsin has had since 1911 a state system ofarea that the federal government stands ready to subsidize vocational high schools to which studentsmay transfer, certain vocational-technical education under the various with counsel, from regular high schools. The Milwaukee general vocational education acts. The essential idea vocational school is probably one of the world's finest. is to provide training in the skills wanted by the in- These schools are. comprehensive to the extent that they dustries and business services of the state andto offer it require students to spend half of their timeon the basic within commuting distance of all the people. The train- tool and cultural subjects; and in the abence ofa state ing is to be available to high school and post-high-school system of postsecondary institutions, they are being youth as a part of their regular schoolprograms and to called upon to provide more and more vocational employed and unemployed adults and school dropouts courses of a postsecondary character. during late afternoons and evenings. Minnesota has a system of area vocational schools. In order to accomplish the purpose, a state is divided The schools were originally secondary institutions. But into areas in terms of population centers and transpor- they have become substantially postsecondary in their tation facilities, which we call commuting areas. At the course offerings, and they are now under pressure to principal population center of each area is located a offer the first 2 years of college work. This is happening vocational-technical laboratory or shop called a voca- even though junior colleges are operating in the state. tional education center, which serves, in a sense,as the The junior colleges, however, have been academically department of vocational education for the surrounding oriented in their philosophy and origin and are finding high schools. Where an area is large, there may be it difficult to assume the area services that are expected strategically located one or more satellite education of the modern area community college, even though centers, serving somewhat as branches of the parent they are under pressure to do so. center, at which the more popular vocational courses may be taught. The students remain members of their THE COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL home high schools; they are simply transported by Almost all of the states are trying to finda way to school bus to the vocational center on certain days of bring vocational education into the regular high school the week for selected vocational courses. The home high program in order to provide a total comprehensive edu- school usually continues to teach the general courses cational program for all of the students. Some states in vocational agriculture and homemaking, and it may are making a supreme effort to do this by providing a teach any vocational course that it is equipped to teach full line of vocational programs in each high school. and for which there is sufficient local demand. The In metropolitan and other heavily populatedareas remaining more popular vocational courses may be where school districts are large enough to supplya taught at the satellite centers, as noted; and the more sufficient tax base and to provide adequate class enroll- advanced vocational and technical courses, those that ments, and particularly where the industrial mix is require costly equipment and those for which the de- 10 mand is smallest, may be taught only at the parent to that of Michigan. Part I is to upgrade and modernize center. The adult programs may be taught at the parent existing industrial-technical education facilities in the center, at satellite centers, or at local high schools, de- five largestcities.Part IIisto expand secondary pending upon the presence of the necessary equipment industrial-technical education programs in 22 urban and staff; but the tendency is for the adult training load areas. Certain city schools will specialize in such voca- to fall mainly upon the centers. tional education programs as are peculiar to their needs The area centers may be financed entirely by the and supply the special programs for all of the schools in state or jointly by the state and the school or county the city and the surrounding suburban areas. In other districts located in the area. The more rapid progress words, these city schools will provide especially well- has been made under state financing, and the longrun equipped shops or vocational education centers to which trend sums to be definitely toward state financing. But the surrounding schools may send their students for it does not necessarily follow that total state financing such advanced and costly vocational courses as they would always be best under all circumstances. themselves cannot afford to offer. Part III provides for A moment ago, we observed the tendency for trade the establishment of vocational education centers in 26 schools to become more and more comprehensive. From identified rural cooperative areas of approximately 20 the experience of the area vocational schools, such as miles radius to serve virtually as departments of voca- those in Minnesota, and now from the short experience tional education for the surrounding schools. Students of the area vocational education centers in the Southeast, will be commuted from their home schools to these we can conclude that where such schools offer voca- centers on certain days for the vocational courses that tional and technical courses to both secondary and the home schools cannot afford to offer. Part IV pro- postsecondary students, the schools tend to become vides for payments to those rural youth who do not live more postsecondary in character, and high school stu- within commuting distance of an area vocational edu- dents tend to defer vocational training or the more ad- cation center to help pay the cost of attending a voca- vanced vocationaltraininguntilafterhigh school tional education institution in residence. graduation. There are several reasons for the latter.1 The declared intent of the program is to provide Other subject areas are pressing upon the high school opportunities for basic skill development for secondary student's time.The student may more safely defer youth in every location of the state; to provide prepara- choosing a vocational career, for either full-time or tory training opportunities for school dropouts and un- part-time on-the-job training will be available to him employed high school graduates; to offer retraining after high school graduation. The instruction may be opportunities to the unemployed in the economically superior in the postsecondary institutions because of depressed areas; to provide training opportunities that better shops, more specialized staffs, and greater matur- will reduce the number of unemployable in the non- ity of students and of teaching. The public seems to English-speaking populations; to provide upgraded and favor a higher employment age than that of the average updated training for employed industrial workers; to high school graduate. When there is a choice, em- permit older workers whose skills are becoming obso- ployers elect to employ the post-high-school youth. lete to obtain skills necessary to the new industrial re- Some school counselors doubtless advise students and quirements; and to expand and strengthen instructional may exert pressure upon them to defer vocational train- services available to apprentices in the skilled crafts. ing until after graduation. And, of course, there is the California, because of its fast-growing population and prestige of going to college. itsgreat expansion of industry, has been wrestling This trend to defer vocational training until after high with the problems of vocational training of people at school graduation is likely to continue, and over an ex- all levels and ages for the past 35 years. The overall tended period of time, it may go very far. But such problem there has always been acute and pressing be- deferment will make itall the more difficult for all cause so many people have been attracted into the state except the very large high schools to provide the voca- primarily by its climate and have counted upon finding tional education programs needed by the many students jobs, for which they may have need of skills, after their who will not go on to college or even graduate from arrival. On the other hand, the problem may have been high school. The trend makes some cooperative second- made easier in California in that more of the state's ary system of area vocational schools or education new citizens have been of a common American culture centers all the more necessary. than were those in most of the older eastern states. New York now has before its Legislature a four-part It is of special interest to Michigan that, almost from plan to improve its secondary vocational education pro- the beginning, California has depended upon the high gram and to extend it throughout the state. The plan is school and the comprehensive postsecondary school, of special interest to Michigan because New York's there called the junior college, to provide vocational population and industrial mix is somewhat comparable education for both regular students and adults. Perhaps because the junior college has been in existence as an 'See Chapter XII, California, and Chapter XV, Minnesota. area institution for 50 years and began quite early to 11 perform the area services that are coming to be expected week for courses that can be best offered at the centers. of the modern community college, the state never de- It is proposed that the state finance outright the cost of veloped area or trade high schools or even cooperative sites, buildings, and equipment for the vocational edu- secondary area vocational education centers. This situ- cation centers. ation has doubtless encouraged the trend, noted a mo- Only a few of the older highly industrialized states ment ago, for students to. postpone their vocational have had much experience with the area vocational- training until after graduation from high school. But technical education center as a part of their total public also, it has contributed to the inability of a great many school systems. It will be noted in Part H of this report high schools throughout the state to provide an ade- that Pennsylvania has plans for such a program, but quate program of vocational education for their stu- that implementation is blocked by lack of funds and dents.There is a void in the California system at other obstacles.Ohio has made a sincere effort to this point. provide the vocational courses needed through its high In order to help fill this void, some of the junior schools, and has had some success in those high schools colleges in the large unified school districts outside the that are large enough to support a full comprehensive heavily populated areas provide some area services for program. But a full line of vocational programs cannot high schools.Through inter- and intra-district con- be afforded in any but the larger high schools, and even tractual arrangements, these junior colleges make their in them, the more advanced postsecondary programs vocational education facilities available for the use of are not generally available. Ohio is now studying the 11th and 12th grade high school students. The students area center to determine 'low it might be adapted to are transported from their high schools to the junior the needs of the state. Indiana has mapped out a four- college for certain vocational laboratory or shop courses step program for introducing a twenty-area system of that the individual high schools cannot afford to offer. vocational-technical education. The junior college thus serves as an area vocational Cataloguing of the states could go on to the last state, education center for the high schools.It is reported but not much would be added by doing so. The dispo- that, based on experience thus far, this dual area usage sition to make vocational education an integral part of of the junior college vocational education facilities total secondary education and to carry it to all of the provides for a wider variety of occupational prepara- people is very strong. Only the very large high schools tion opportunities, for greater depth of specific training, in diversified and well-balanced areas can hope to pro- for more extensive equipment, and for a more special- vide a full line of vocational programs by themselves; ized staff than would be feasible under any other ar- the rest must find some other way. The separate voca- rangement. This program needs to be greatly expanded. tional high school may become quite comprehensive Illinois has had a thorough study of its vocational within itself, but it does not bring vocational education education needs made by a highly specialized staff. The into the total program for all students. Urban high staff's report has spelled out in much detail its recom- schools in heavily populated areas may specialize in mendation for an area system to be developed over a certain vocational fields and serve students for each other. period of 10 years.Although Illinois has not done Schools of a commuting area may build cooperative much yet toward implementing the program, we have area vocational education centers to serve as their col- reproduced in Part II of this report the staff's summary lective departments of vocational education. The com- and recommendations. They show how it appeared to a munity colleges may open their facilities to the high group of experts that the area program could be used schools of their respective areas and serve as vocational to serve the needs of a midwest industrial state. (or academic) education centers for them. Or almost The recommended program for Illinois provides that any combination of these cooperative devices may be the state be divided into 10 regions and 44 subregions. used as circumstances dictate. A comprehensive community college should be located Now let us turn our attention to Michigan. at the chief population center of each region, and its extension centers might be located at one or more of Institutions for Secondary Vocational the smaller cities in a region. Education in Michigan The recommendation does not contemplate that the community colleges or their subregional extension cen- Leon J. Alger, Research Consultant for the Division of ters should serve as centers for the high schools. All Vocational Education of the Michigan Department of 4tigh schools are expected to be comprehensive in their Public Instruction, has provided us with the statement offerings. But because only the very large high schools of the program of vocational education in Michigan can afford to be sufficiently comprehensive to meet the high schools in Part II of this report. needs, the staff recommended that the high schools of As has been the case in other states, many Michigan subregions cooperate in operating vocational education high schools have tended to limit their vocational edu- centers, similar to the centers in the southeastern states, cation offerings to those for which they may secure where the students may be taken on certain days of the reimbursement from the state and federal governments 12 Under the Smith-Hughesand the George-Barden Acts, settled rural areas of outlying regions. In considering as amended. These offerings are in the four fields of the kind of secondary vocational educationinstitutions agriculture, homemaking, trade and industry, and dis- Michigan should have, we shall begin with theDetroit tributive occupations. area because that is where the problem has been most In 1961-62 reimbursed vocational educationpro- conspicuous and consequently where themost thinking grams provided training for approximately 68,000 high and planning have been done, and because theplanning school youth, slightly less than 20 percent of the total done in Detroit has much to suggest for the otherareas enrolled in high schools andabout 25 percent of those of the state. who need a salable skill whenleaving high school. According to the June 30, 1962,Annual Report of THE DETROIT AREA PROGRAM the Michigan State Board of Controlfor Vocational Most of the large metropolitan cities of the United Education, Michigan hadat that time 537 high school States New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadel- districts, of which 229 or 43 percent provided agricul- phia, Milwaukee, Denver, and others are well aware tural education; 90 or 17 percent provided distributive of .their vocational education problemsand needs, and and/or office education, althoughmany more schools they are taking actionor laying plans for action to meet offered dual-purposecourses in typing, shorthand, and them. This is true also of Detroit. bookkeeping; 336 or 63 percent provided home eco- There are nine school districts in the DetroitPublic nomics education; and 93or 17 percent provided trade School System, each somewhatcomparable in size to and industrial education. Only 12 of the 537 high the school district of Grand Rapids. Allnine are under school districts offered programs in all four fields. A few the general jurisdiction and supervisionof the Detroit of the large high schools offered classes for technicians.2 Board of Education and the DetroitSuperintendent of Becausevocational educationprogramsinhigh Schools. schools are generally limited to those occupationalfields In the fall of 1958 the Detroit Superintendent of having a local demand for skills, the studentmust take Schools appointed the Detroit Schools Committee"to training in one of those fieldsor obtain no vocational explore the present and probable futuredemands for training at all. The likely result isto train too many employable skills on the part ofyoung people about youth for a local industry whenmany of them must to enter the labor market; and to make recommenda- become employed elsewhere in other fields.Many of tions concerning (1) the training which should bea part the 537 high school districtsare too small to have e of the public schoolprogram in proper, convenient sufficient number of studentsto make up efficient-size localities, and (2) appropriate relationshipsamong the classes in needed vocational subjects,even in agricul- components of the total education program." ture; and they are too small to finance suchclasses The Committee made its report in June 1961, and effectively if they were offered. early in 1962 the Detroit Board of Education published Is is obvious that the degree ofcomprehensiveness the report with its actions concerning the recommenda- in all but a few of the state's highschools is not very tions." With very few exceptions, the Board of Educa- great. Furthermore, thereare no area education cen- tion approved the Committee's recommendations, and ters, such as we have observed insome of the south- implementation of the proposed program is being vigor- eastern states, to provide vocationalprograms for the ously pushed. The report is worthy of the full attention surrounding high schools; and thereare just a few of all school administrators and others interested in the instances of two ormore schools cooperating in a voca- adaptation of education to our present-day vocational tional training program. Under thesecircumstances, needs. one might expect that there would bea number of A comprehensive educational program. At thevery strictly vocational secondary schoolsin Michigan, but beginning of its report, the Detroit Schools Committee there are very few of them, and theirnumber is de- firmly established its belief ina comprehensive educa- creasing. Perhaps as much by accidentas by intent, tional program. It stated, on theone hand, that "ability Michigan is committed to comprehensivesecondary to communicate through reading and writing, habits of education, but its program is shorton the vocational dependability, specific knowledge of the city and nation side. in which we live and of the rights and obligations of Michigan is not a uniformly populated and industrial- citizens.. . areessential to the success of every indi- ized state. There is the heavily populated and highly vidual in the world of work." On the other hand,the industrialized Detroit metropolitanarea, and there are Committee said that "there is little merit in designating the outstate areas varying from substantial population any single course of study in the high school as being centers of a hundred thousand or more to the sparsely `College Preparatory.' Quite to thecontrary, there are

2Michigan State Board of Control for vocational Education, 3Board of Education of the City of Detroit, Preparing Pupils Annual Descriptive Report for the Fiscal Year EndedJune 30, for the World of Work, report and recommendationsof a Spe- 1962 (Lansing: Division of Vocational Education,Departmert cialStaff Committee appointed by the of Public Instruction), pp. 2 and 7. Superintendent of Schools (Detroit: The Board, 1962). 72pp.. lithographed. many courses of study in high schools which maylead qualify individuals for "entry" occupations; (2) there to college entrance if the proper selection of elective is a large demand for this training in dr:. area, and subjects is made and a good scholastic record is main- possible employment opportunities are extensive enough tained.It is generally misleading to call one course to justify the training period; and (3) the degree of skill `College Prep' and another 'Business' or 'Vocational' required isnot highly specialized, and it may be when the evidence is clear that many high school gradu- transferable. ates who have followed a business course of study or a Criteria listed for including a program in only a vocational course of study or a general course of study special district high school are: (1) the training is needed are admitted each year to the colleges of their choice for the benefit of industry or society; (2) the enrollment and make good records in higher education." from the entire district justifies the demand, but not in Again, the Committee report states that, "Without every high school; (3) special equipmentis required; excluding or minimizing the goals of cultural enrich- (4) special training is necessary, and teachers are scarce; ment or preparation for family life and politicalciti- and (5) such training is necessary for entrance into zenship,all curricula should recognize and identify employment in a given field. The requisites for offering those elements which have a significant bearing on a course only on a citywide basis are much the same employability and effective performance in a job situa- except that the number of students requesting the train- tion.The practice of classifying courses as 'College ing is too small to justify offering it in each of the special Preparatory' has tended to conceal or obscure the very district schools. practical nature of communicatipn, mathematics, and Which courses will be offered by the individual high other traditional academic skills." schools and which by the special high schools will vary The Committee saw clearly that two separate edu- from district to district and from school to school de- cational programs, one college preparatory and the pending upon the school facilities and the makeup of other job preparatory, even though offered under one the students.In general, however, such vocational administration and one roof, do not make a unified courses as typing, elementary business,homemaking, comprehensive educational program. and shop fundamentals, and "coursesin laboratory The Detroit plan is that each of the nine school dis- experience to provide familiarity with materials, tools, tricts should have the responsibility for determining instruments, mechanisms, and sources of power" will the needs of its students and for developing specialized be offered in all high schools. The special district high courses and programs to meet those needs.Each com- schools will offer the more unique and technical courses prehensive high school Should offer all of the programs and the more advanced courses in every vocational field. needed except those for which the number of students In fact, the Committee recommended that the special is too limited or the specialized facilities and equipment district high school should be prepared to carry the full required are too costly to justify doing so. range of specialties from the science and arts programs In order to meet the need for these exceptional pro- for the exceptional college-bound or profession-bound grams, the Committee recommended that one high students to the simplest world-of-work training in- school in each of the nine school districts should be volved in short-term specific-skill classes for students designated a special district high school and offer those from those high schools that do not provide such pro- programs that are not numerically or economically justi- grams. This, of course, would be the ideal. fied' at all high schools.Furthermore, bedause some Adult day and evening programs. The Committee programs developed in the special district high schools recommended a separately administered and financed may be unique in a single district or in single high program of adult day and eveningclasses to be carried schools, the Committee recommended that such district on by the comprehensive highschools, the special dis- schools then function as citywide facilities for those trict high schools, such post-high-school institutions as special programs and serve several or even all of the may in time develop, and aseparately organized and districts in the entire school system. operated adult training center. The Board of Education approved the general plan The adult program should provide a variety of op- for special district high schools with the qualification portunities such as (1) to complete high school; (2) to that not all of the recommended services might be acquire training for job mobility; (3) to obtain post- offered at one location in a district, but that the services high-school technical training; (4) to acquire knowledge might more advantageously be divided up among two and skills as part of the overall leisure-time activity or more high schools in the district. The Boardalso program for the citizenry; and (5) totake related ap- approved in principle the idea of a citywide high school prenticeship training courses. for highly specialized or technical courses, largely for The Board of Education took no action concerning unusually talented students. this recommendation, however, pending the attention The criteria listed for including a vocational course and study it will receive in the community planning for in the program of all high schools are: (1) the required community schools, a project now partially completed. skills are relatively simple, but the training tends to The Committee recommended also that Cass Techni-

14 cal High School should continueto be developed as a the programs, once initiated, have beensuccessful. But citywide technical institute andto provide technical their initiation is difficult and time consumingbecause courses to high school students of grades 10 to 12, to there are so many problems legal,jurisdictional, post-high-school students, and to adults inan evening financial, and emotional that have to be resolved. program; but the Board of Education felt that this In theory, the contract arrangementcan be used to recommendation was premature and shouldnot be advantage in those local communities where thecitizens approved pending further determination of thepost- are serious about providing youth and adults withan high-school plans for the state. opportunity to secure certain vocational trainingor Summary of the proposed Detroit secondary school retraining. In fact, for some timeto come it may be program. The Detroit program of secondary general the only means by which themore sparsely populated and vocational education, as recommended by the Com- areas of Michigan can provide anything beyondcourses mittee, is quite complete through the senior highschool. in general agriculture, home economics,and secretarial It might well serve as a pattern for smallermetropolitan work for their people. Butwe do not know of a state, areas having fewer school districts or even onlyone dis- with the possible exception 'of Missouri,where the trict with more than one high school, and it offersmany contract arrangement amonggroups of schools has suggestions for the urban and rural schools. Wecan do made a substantial contributionto the total need for no better than to endorse the program and to encourage vocational education, and there isno reason to believe its successful implementation. that it can do so in Michigan. The need for two-year postsecondary technicaledu- The Michigan law could be improved in thisrespect. cation and the need for a more expandedprogram for It provides that a constituent school districtof an inter- adult education were fully recognized by the Boardof mediate district may, under contract, supply"special Education, although no program for meetingthese education" foritsneighboring constituentdistricts. needs was approved by it.Detroit, just as the rest of "Special education," however, is definedas education the state of Michigan, will be unableto establish any- for such as the physically and mentally handicapped, thing like an adequate program of postsecondary voca- anditdoes not include vocational education.This tional-technical education andan adequate adult train- omission from the law ofany mention of contracts to ing program until there is clearlydetermined at the supply vocational education doesnot necessarily pre- state level what kinds of institutions should provide .such clude such contracts, but it reflectsa climate that is programs and how they may be financed. Therecom- not conducive to them. It might be helpful if vocational mendations of the Committee, however, pointthe way education were included in the definitionof "special that every large communitymust go in supplying com- education." prehensive education for those who needpostsecondary It is our conclusion, basedon present practices and or adult training or retraining. trends throughout the nation, that the onlyway by PROPOSAL FOR OUTSTATE AREAS which vocational-technical educationcan be taken, to What can Michigan do to make it possible for its the people of outstate Michigan withany degree of outstate areas to provide vocational education for all successis through a system of comprehensive high of their people, both in-school youth and out-of-school schools and a statewide area system of comprehensive youth and adults, wherever theymay live, for today's postsecondary institutions, into whichour existing com- jobs, wherever they may be? munity colleges should develop. Theways by which Just as other states with small local school districts, this can be done are for the high schoolsof each com- Michigan is encouraging the consolidationof districts muting area to construct andoperate a vocational located in a homogeneous area within which dailycom- education center of theirown, or to contract with an muting is feasible. Consolidations,up to a point, may existing community college toserve as a center for them. strengthen the entire schoolprogram, but they will not The need, however, is for both secondary andpost- produce many high schools large enoughto afford an secondary programs, and the demand for postsecondary adequate line of vocationalcourses. No high school vocational-technical education is very great.Since in can afford to offer a full line of vocationalcourses their beginning form the centersare not likely to be without an enrollment of at least 2,000 students,and able to provide the postsecondaryprograms needed, and not even then unless the supporting community isa since the community collegescan provide both services, diversified one of considerable balance. Nearlyall of the state should, by every reasonablemeans, encourage the outstate high schools, therefore,must find some the spread of community colleges throughout thestate cooperative way of providinga well-balanced program as rapidly as possible, and also encourage them to serve of school and community vocational educationif they as vocational education centers for the high schools. are to have one. In serving the high schools, the community colleges There have been justa few instances in Michigan will not admit high school students into classes with each year of successful cooperation bytwo or three postsecondary students, but only into secondary level high schools in common training projects. In general, classes with secondary students. The students willre- 15

".7.- , main members of their home high schools and be the commuting problem andalso lessens the loadon transported by school bus daily or twoor three times a the major center. week tothe community college for the vocational Wherever such vocational education courses just as they are to vocational education cen- centers are in operation, they tend toassume not only the responsi- ters. The sending school must pay the community col- bility for providing vocational trainingfor young people lege for the cost of the courses, but classes of sufficient but also the major responsibilityfor adult training and size to justify offering the courses needed and wanted retraining. They have the equipment,the businesslike are more possible, and unnecessary duplication of plant, atmosphere, and the professional staff shop equipment, and specialized staff is that adults like. avoided.It In one state, Kentucky, it isa part of the plan that the must be a part of the contract that the offering institu- high school will not offer trade andtechnical education tion will provide late afternoon and eveningclasses for for either regular students the benefit of adults, or adults; the vocational edu- or this essential service will. not cation centers will provide all of that be available. for both groups. In fact, no limitation need be placedon the courses that The most suitableinstrument for enabling high may be taught by a center. schools in those outstate areas that do not have a We have noted that education centersare soon called community college and cannot organizeone to provide upon to offer postsecondary vocatiolial and technical their young people with a reasonably full lineof voca- courses and thereby tend to become more and more tional courses is the area shop or vocational education postsecondary in character unless postsecondary insti- center, now in use in the southeastern states andas tutions are already in the field and proposed in Illinois and elsewhere. In fact, are providing the the special services needed. The centers are, in fact, embryopost- district high schools proposed for Detroitare an adapta- secondary institutions, and they should be plannedand tion of the area center to Detroit. The specialdistrict located with that in mind. high schools of Detroit, however, are total schools in The system of vocational-technical and adulteduca- which the students enroll and have allof their work. tion needed in Michigan should evolve fromtwo sources: The vocational education center proposed for outstate the expansion of the area community colleges,and the Michigan is not a total school; it is the vocational edu- organization of area secondary vocationaleducation cation department of all of the participating schools in centers. The important point is not which of the the population area. two It is a separate vocational educa- systems comes to dominate, but that the two ultimately tion plant with the necessary equipment and staffto meet and blend into one. For this provide training programs in trade and industry, in reason, education centers should be located at the time oforganization agriculture and home economics, and inany other field at points where postsecondary institutionsshould ulti- as desired. The system is quite elastic. Under it, some mately be established. high schools will continue to teach certainvocational The State Department of Public courses, such as secretarial courses and beginning agri- Instruction should determine what changesare needed in existing laws and culture, and most of them will continue to teach the what new laws are needed, ifany, to make it possible, basic homemaking courses. In large andmore sparsely reasonable, and even attractive for theschool districts settled areas, a vocational education centermay have of an area to unite and form satellite training units located strategically an area district for the throughout purpose of contracting with a community college the area, perhaps in connection with well-equipped to high serve as a vocational education center,or to establish schools, where the more popular and elementaryvoca- a center of its own. tional courses can be taught. Thisarrangement lessens

16 II. The PostsecondaryProgram Neededin Michigan for VocationalEducation A great increase in the demand fortechnical and other to relieve the loadon the state university and the advanced vocationalskills skills in suchas automo- state tive, drafting, electrical colleges. and electronics, andmetallurgi- cal technology; machine Connecticut isnow establishing four state-ownedand tools and hydraulics;medical -operated technology and nursing; strictlyvocational-technicalpostsecondary businessmanagement and area institutions. Two supervision;numerous trades; and others are in operation now, andtwo developed are expected to open in thefall of 1963. immediately after WorldWar II. Much of thetraining In California thecomprehensive two-year for these skills isbeyond the secondaryschool level college, Appropriate four-year there called the juniorcollege, has been preparedto institutions offer it forresident accept the responsibility for students, but theycannot serve the greatmajority of providing vocational-tech- nical programs forpost-high-school students the non-college-boundhigh school graduatesand em- and out- ployed adults who of-school adultson a statewide area basis. are in great need of suchtraining. But the Private institutions California junior collegesare not like the conventional have been drawn intothe field and, junior colleges of the indeed, have pioneeredinit. Middle West. Theyare and But their servicesare always have been public, necessarily expensive,and they cannotmeet the total tuition-free, area (community) need. Except in certain colleges supported jointlyby the area and thestate sections of the nation,institu- and publicly. administered. tions designed to bringsuch training to the They are a part of thetotal job-bound public school system ofthe state. high school graduateand the employedadult have been It has been long generally lacking. understood by all partiesconcerned that juniorcolleges For the purpose of should not becomefour-year institutions,and not one stimulating the offeringof the ever has. No other public institution needed training, Congressprovided funds under offering vocational- Title technical training beyondthe high school level VIII of the NationalDefense EducationAct of 1958 has to be used by the states developed in the state.High school graduatesare ex- on an equal matching basisto pected to enter the reimburse institutionsthat offer such training junior college forpostsecondary for the vocational or technicaltraining.' extra cost incurred in doingso. Many of the serious There has developeda recent trend for the junior efforts throughout theUnited States to providepost- secondary vocational-technical college to replace the highschool as the sole provider training onan adequate of vocational education scale have stemmedfrom this Act. for both young peopleand adults,Indeed, there issome feeling that this trend PostsecondaryVocational-Technical may be going too far; that there isa need for sufficient Institutions in OtherStates vocational education in highschools to serve those who will not goon to college and also those who need Some of the more industrialized pre- states of the East have paratory work in high schoolas a prerequisite for public technical institutes that providepostsecondary technical or semiprofessionalwork in the junior college. technical training, but generally not onan area com- In the newer industrialstates, the vocational educa- muting basis. New YorkState has 21 juniorcolleges tion centers serving the and 6 two-year secondary schoolsare being agricultural and technicalinstitutes; called upon to providepostsecondary technical training. and strangely enoughto the Middle West,the junior This seems to be thecase even where junior colleges colleges beganas vocational-technicalinstitutions and only more recently came to offer the collegetransfer 1The upper eighth of highschool graduates are eligibleto courses.Itis enter the university; theupper third are eligible to enter significantthat New Yorkis now state colleges; all are eligible the attempting by act of law to enter the junior colleges, with to require all of theseinsti- the possibility of transferringto a senior collegeupon junior tutions to offer thetwo-year collegeprogram in order college graduation,ifstipulated lower divisioncourses and grade requirementsare met.

17 exist. For example, North Carolina has 21 junior col- development, the publicly supported area vocational leges, five of which are publicly financed, but they are education center is springing up. We have observed the all collegiate in philosophy and orientation and do not tendency for these centers to become more and more offer vocational-technical courses. Kentucky's two-year postsecondary in character and finally to become com- colleges offer no vocational-technical courses of any prehensive by offering lower level college courses. kind. Minnesota seems to be in an intermediate stage, with Up to the present time, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and both the community colleges and the vocational-tech- many other states have not counted substantially upon nical area schools under pressure to become compre- the two-year college to provide vocational and technical hensive. training for high school graduates and other adults, but National figures on community college enrollments in Illinois, Iowa, and a few other states are now giving it a vocational-technical courses are representative of no central place as the key institution in their proposed particular state because of the uneven development of statewideareapostsecondaryvocationaleducation the colleges in the various- parts of the country. For systems. example, the figures will be weighted heavily by what We have observed that Minnesota's area vocational- exists in New York and California. But national enroll- technical schools have grown up in the shadow of the ments in technical training programs under Title VIII junior colleges because the latter did not provide and of the National Defense Education Act of 1958 are seemed unable to provide the vocational-technical pro- shown for 1960-61 in Table 1 for what the figures are grams needed. The Minnesota junior colleges have been worth.Thirty-five percent of the students in prepara- typical midwestern junior colleges. They were estab- tory programs (regular day students) and 34 percent of lished initially as privately supported institutions, and those in extension courses (adult classes) were enrolled their philosophy, training, ambition, and obligations in community colleges, and 49 percent of those in post- have been to provide 2 years of accreditable four-year secondary preparatory programs were enrolled in com- college work. They have lacked funds for adequate munity colleges.These are impressive figures;the plant and equipment and have not found the financing importance of the community college as an area voca- of current operations easy.Most vocational-technical tional-technical institution clearly stands out. courses are relatively expensive, and it is quite under- The ,community college is in a unique position. It standable that junior college administrators have not is a .community area institution.It may offer lower diverted funds into the.vocational-technical area when division college courses and postsecondary vocational- the acknowledged major program is suffering for lack technical courses to its regular students; it may provide of funds..It may be very significant that during the past afternoon and evening programs needed by employed few years the state of Minnesota has appropriated funds adults to increase their knowledge and culture or to for helping junior colleges build more adequate plants. upgrade their skills; and it can serve as an area voca- At the same time considerable pressure is being brought tional center for the high schools of its area. upon both the junior college and the vocational-tech- nical school to become comprehensive, with the junior Postsecondary Vocational-Technical college offering more vocational-technical subjects for Institutions in Michigan high school graduates and adults and the vocational school offering lower level college courses.It appears Michigan, perhaps more than most states, has technical that, in time, the vocational-technical schools may be- and advanced vocational education programs being come in fact community colleges. conducted in one field or another in all of its four-year If we may summarize, states are now calling upon baccalaureate state institutions.Some of these insti- such existing institutions as are qualified to offer postsec- tutions, particularly Michigan State University, Ferris ondary and adult vocational-technical training programs State College, and Northern Michigan University, offer on an area basis. When such institutions have not been vocational courses all the way from 1 week to 4 years in available or have seemed unable or ill disposed to meet length in both resident and extension classes throughout the needs, a new state system of area postsecondary the state. Northern Michigan University, in the Upper institutions has tended to develop. We believe that this Peninsula, is at present operating on the principle that is inevitable. it should provide the people with whatever education The industrial East is using its existing technical they may want academic, professional, vocational, or institutes to the fullest and is building new institutes, as technical.Theoretically,ifthis philosophy could be we have observed in New York and Connecticut. Cali- adhered to over a long period of time, this institution, fornia seems to be the only state that has had a statewide with proper state support, could establish vocational system of comprehensive community colleges capable education branches or centers throughout the Peninsula, of meeting the new need. In the newer industrial states perhaps even on a mobile basis, that could provide where the community college has not yet come into vocational and technical training to high school gradu- being or isstill in its early stages of philosophy and ates, and other adults and even to high school student.; 18

,. 4.- Table 1 Enrollment in Technician TrainingPrograms Under TitleVIII National DefenseEducation Act of1958 July 1, 1960- June 30, 1961 . Number Enrolled Number Kind of School In preparatoryprograms of In Schools Total exten- Second- Post- Total second- sion ary courses Total ary 620 122,952 39,224 Comprehensive high school 11,788 27,436 83,728 168 18,771 4,611 3,664 947 14,160 Vocational-technical highschool 66 13,861 Technical high school 4,457 1,432 3,025 9,404 49 14,462 Vocational or trade 5,968 4,988 980 8,494 school 106 15,300 Technical institute 6,404 1,316 5,088 8,896 25 11,375 Community (or junior) 1,828 108 1,720 9,547 college 176 42,587 Four-year college 13,743 250 13,493 28,844 17 5,522 State board for vocational 1,830 21 1,809 3,692 education 13 1,074 383 9 374 691 Source: Preliminary report ofArea Vocational Education Branch, U. S. Office ofEducation. on an area basis. Such branchesor centers might, in levels and in whateverfields the trainingmay be needed. time, become full-scalepostsecondary institutionson their own. This Indeed, we consider itfortunate for the long pullthat program could be good providedthat Michigan does not have the comprehensive needsof the people a dual system of postsecondary are kept in mind. area institutions, as have But no four-year institutionwith prospects for granting a number of states. Although Michigan is notnow providing the vocational and advanced degrees, inMichigan orany other state, has tech- nical programs needed,it should be ableto move ahead ever been able to retainany such philosophy forvery long. more rapidly because of havingonly one system. This, The prestige thataccompanies graduate and of course, professional schools is simply presumes that the communitycolleges will too great. assume full responsibility for We have observed indiscussing secondary vocational providing the people with the vocational-technicaleducation that they need. education that Michiganhas not developedany kind of a state system of secondary The alternative isnot the status quo. It isto establish vocational schoolsor even a system of postsecondary vocational educationcenters that might develop into vocational-technical insti- postsecondary schools. The tutions parallel to thecommunity college systemthat only nonbaccalaureate in- will provide the stitutions in Michigan that vocational-technical educationpresently offer a significantamount of needed. This would be postsecondary vocational-technical a time-consuming and costly education on anarea thing to do; and if basis are the communitycolleges. Large firms, such we read the trends in otherstates as correctly, we shouldexpect these new institutions those in the automotiveindustry, offer vocationaland to technical training primarily become comprehensiveover a period of time and to to meet their own needs; become, in fact, dual-purpose and private schools offertraining in certain selected community colleges. technical fields. There There are 16 communitycolleges in Michigan,two are no postsecondary public edu- more are being organized, and others cational institutions otherthan the community colleges are in prospect. that are in a position They are of various originsand differ in tradition and to offer vocational trainingto purpose. communities onan area basis. Some are already providinga substantial When federal funds amount of vocational and technicaleducation, and some were made available to the states are providing very little of it. on a matching basis to reimbursepostsecondary in- In general, they havea stitutions for the cost of providing long way to go andsome real hurdles to clear before vocational-technical they can even begin training on anarea basis under Title VIII of the Na- to meet the state's need forarea technical education and adult tional Defense EducationAct of 1958, Michigan offi- vocational training. cially turned to the communitycolleges as the onlypost- THE MICHIGAN COMMUNITYCOLLEGES secondary institutions availableto supply such training. The first Michigan junior It is expecting them college was established in to develop into a statewidearea Grand Rapids in 1914. Eight system of truly comprehensive more such colleges were institutions and to offer established before 1940. Seven have vocational and technical come into being programs to high school grad- since World War II. Twoare now being organized, uates and employed and unemployedadults at whatever and others0 are in prospect.

19 The existing Constitution of Michigan to be re- community college are: (1) to provide general education placed on January 1, 1964, by a revision voted by the to all students, whatever their vocational interests may people on April 1, 1963 contains no reference to the be; (2) to offer transfer and college-parallel courses in community colleges; it was written too early. In 1918 preprofessional fields and in the arts and sciences; (3) to the Michigan Legislature provided enabling legislation provide organized occupational programs for students for junior colleges, and in 1951 the name "community who will seek to enter employment immediately after college" was adopted, apparently to designate the colleges leaving the college; (4) to offer adult and community- as locally controlled public institutions rather thaneither service programs of a wide variety; and (5) to provide state or privately controlled institutions and to indicate a full program of student personnel and guidance serv- a broader educational role in providing acomprehensive ices for those enrolled. program oriented to community needs. As amended, We would add one more function, although it could the law now provides that, subject to certain conditions be a part of number 4, namely, to serve as a vocational as to population, size, referendum, andsupervision, any education center for the high schools of its area as the single school district or any two or more school districts need arises and provide certain secondary vocational operating grades kindergarten through 12, or any special education courses that the high schools individually community college district comprised of one or more cannot afford to offer. We have already observed that contiguous counties or of two or more kindergarten such service is now being provided by some of the Cali- through 12 grade school districts, may establish a com- fornia junior colleges in the less densely populated areas munity college. The one very important common con- and by a few Michigan community colleges, although, in dition is that the establishment must have the approval Michigan, in the academic rather than in the vocational of either the State Superintendent of Public Instruction field. There is no reason why such service should not be or the State Board of Education.This requirement and rendered in either field or both. the administration of the distribution of state and federal The Russell report concluded that the then-existing funds to the community colleges provide the principal 14 "Michigan community colleges on the whole accept legal basis for such state supervision over the community and are making energetic efforts to accomplish the five colleges as has existed. functions" listed above, although they "are still placing In 1955 the Michigan Legislature adopted a resolution major emphasis on offerings in preprofessional fields creating a joint legislative committee to "study the rec- and in the usual loWer-division arts and sciences pro- ommended ways and means whereby the increasing grams for transfer credit."" The report points out further needs of the State for higher education may be met in that the community colleges are the chief source of the most effective and economical manner." In June supply for technicians and semiprofesFional personnel 1956 the joint committee, known as the Michigan Legis- in Michigan: they offer more organized occupational lative Study Committee on Higher Education, secured programs of less-than-bachelor's degree length than do the well-known educator, John Dale Russell, to direct a either the state-controlled colleges and universities or complete survey of higher education in Michigan. An the privately controlled institutions, and more students eminent staff was secured, the survey was made, and are enrolled in and complete these programs in them the findings and recommendations, consisting of 12 Staff than in either of the two other groups of colleges. Studies and the Final Report, were published under the The foregoing findings indicate direction and prog- general title of The Survey of Higher Education in Mich- ress; but up to the present time the actual accomplish- igan .2 ments in providing, comprehensive programs are far Staff Study No. 1, made by S. V. Martorana of the from those needed.Itistrue that the community United States Office of Education, is entitled, The Com- colleges give general lip service in their catalogues to the munity College in Michigan, and Chapter IV of Dr. five functions listed, but not all of them seem fully com- Russell's Final Report is given over to the findings and mitted to these objectives.According to a statement recommendations concerning the community college. concerning the community colleges in Michigan that Michigan is most fortunate in having this Survey. was prepared for the Education Committee of the Con- Even though the Survey was made before the passage of stitutional Convention in October of 1961, only 4 of the the National Defense Education Act of 1958, designed 16 colleges offer what might be termed a comprehensive to stimulate area postsecondary technical education, it program for students desiring to enter a vocation im- needs little revision in view of the Act. The Final Report mediately after graduation. A comprehensive guidance clearly defines the philosophy of the modern community function has been attempted in only three of the in- college and its role in the total educational system. stitutions, although all institutions offer some type of The five recognized functions usually attached to the guidance service.General adult education, with and

'Copies of all Staff Studies and the Final Report are available, ;John Dale Russell, Higher Education in Michigan, the Final while they last, from the Michigan Legislative Study Committee Report of the Survey of Higher Education in Michigan (Lan- on Higher Education, P.O. Box 240 (fourth floor, State Cap- sing: Michigan Legislative Study Committee, September 1958), itol), Lansing, Michigan. p. 94. 20 without credit, is offered in four of the institutions. A comprehensive program that will broad program of meet the total needs community service hasnot been at- of the community? Without doubt, tempted in any of the the basic reason lies community colleges, althoughone in their origin and early philosophy.They were estab- institution has madesome commendable beginnings in lished as lower division colleges that area.4 to enable students to take the first 2 years of collegewhile living at home; Referring solely to reimbursedprograms, the State and it appears that, by and, large, Board of Control for Vocational the public still thinks Education has reported of the community college in thisvein. The prestige that during 1961-62, 10of the 16 community colleges attached to "going to college" is provided training in practical very great, and most nursing and other health parents want their children to takea college course occupations for 977 students; only 4provided distribu- rather than a technical ora vocational course. Parents tive cooperative training for 151 students, and Flint and forget that less than one out ofevery three students find Muskegon served 123 or 82 percent of them; 6 provided their way into a baccalaureate institutionand that fewer office cooperative training for197 students, and Flint graduate. The community college should be and Muskegon served 138 equipped to or 70 percent of them. help the others find theirway into other areas of activ- Eleven provided industrial technical trainingfor 9,363 ities and ways of makinga living. students, but Henry Ford served 6,410;Flint, 1,121; Community college administrators and Jackson, 540, or and faculty have a combined 86 percent of the been college oriented too, and theycannot easily make a total.Three community colleges Delta, Gogebic, sudden change in their life-time and North Central Michigan educational philosophy. provided no training in Even this rests in part on public attitude.An officer of any one of the four fields.5 Most, if not all of thecom- the Michigan Council of CommunityCollege Admin- munity colleges, however, offered certain nonreimbursed istrators informs us that publicpressures in favor of the programs, such as office and secretarial and certain academic course andpressures upon the community preprofessional programs. college to becomea four-year baccalaureate institution Thirteen of the 16 community colleges are operated are so great that, in his opinion, it is highlyimportant by single school districts designedto operate grades that the State Legislatureact promptly to establish by kindergarten through 12. Some of thesedistricts pro- law the comprehensiveness ofthe community college vide entirely too small a tax base to finance an adequate program and to define the community collegeonce and comprehensive educationalprogram, and they may not for all as a comprehensivearea postsecondary institu- include a proper commutingarea. The three community tion. With this we heartilyagree.If the community colleges Northwestern Michigan College, North Cen- colleges are to constitute Michigan'ssystem of area tral Michigan College, and Delta College that are education, such an act by the Legislaturewould seem operated by countywideor multi-countywide commu- to be of prime importance. nity college districts, oddly enough, hadno enrollments In this connection, the Russell report favorsthe Cali- last year in distributive or office cooperativeeducation fornia provision that where botha community college or in industrial-technical education; of the three, only and a baccalaureate institutionmay be needed in the Northwestern Michigan College providedpractical same area, the community college should be established nurse and other health occupation training.6 These three first; that when the timecomes to establish the bacca- colleges, which have the district strengthto do a well- laureate institution,a separate institution should be rounded comprehensive job ofarea community edu- organized, and the two institutions should be operated cation, are spending their energies primarilyon the side by. side. We have already observed thatin Cali- college transfer student; andone in particular, organized fornia no junior college hasever become a four-year since the Russell reportwas written, appears, in fact, institution, and that it is not likely to doso. to be interested primarily in becominga four-year Covering the state. One of thegaps in the service baccalaureate institution. rendered to the state by the communitycolleges, a gap The foregoing are notvery impressive accomplish- equally serious to that in thescope of the programs ments with respect to the objective of educationfor the offered, is in geographiccoverage. Three of the colleges world of work. Why, one may ask, cannot the com- are in the greater Detroit metropolitan area, andone is munity colleges movemore rapidly into a balanced now being organized there; eight are in the southern half of the Lower Peninsula; four, includingDelta, are 4Ferris N. Crawford, Some FactsConcerning Community in the northern half of the Lower Peninsula; Colleges in Michigan, presentedto the Education Committee of and only the Michigan Constitutional Convention,October 26, 1961 one is in the Upper Peninsula, although a secondone is (Lansing: Superintendent of PublicInstruction), 13 pp., mimeo- being organized there. graphed. The Russell report recommended thata number of 5Michigan State Board of Controlfor Vocational Education, additional community colleges be established Annual Descriptive Report for the FiscalYear Ended June 30, in loca- 1962 (Lansing: Division of VocationalEducation, Department tions that offer a good potential for the developmentof of Public Instruction), p. 4. institutions of satisfactorysize.Staff Study No. 1 albid. identified 23 such locationsas being of first order of

21 priority and 14 other locations of second order of pri- occupational and business activities of the people, tax ority. Two new colleges have been established since the base, school enrollments, geography of the area, trans- report was written; two more are now being established; portation routes and facilities, and all other important and others are being planned.In identifying the 23 factors. areas of first priority, Mr. Martorana did notinclude Making such studies and mapping out the state into areas in which public or privatefour-year institutions possible future community college districts will require are located. Since then, however,Lansing Community the cooperation and assistance of all the pertinent College has been established in the same area with agencies of the state and should be done in consultation Michigan State University, and it is proving its need. with all interested parties. Its success tends to verify the growing conviction,that Adult education and the community college.The the four-year college does not provide the area services community colleges of Michigan have barely begun to that a two-year college is expected to provide, and that accept responsibility for adult vocational education, the presence of the former does not preclude the need and that program may become very large, particularly for the latter. With this qualification, Mr. Martorana in the metropolitan areas. The organization of sepa- estimated that the addition of 23 more community col- rately administered adult vocational education depart- leges would bring 97 percent of the population of Mich- ments within the college is likely to be found necessary, igan within commuting distance of a two-year or a and separate buildings and facilities may be required. four-year institution. The remaining 3 percent would If it should develop in the more heavily populated areas have to depend on their high schools and the establish- that separate adult training institutions are required, ment of area secondary vocational education centersfor well and good, but the community colleges should be their vocational training opportunities.7 called upon to do their best before this should happen; It will be recalled that the Detroit Board of Education and then the new institution should be kept under the took no action concerning that part of its Special Staff jurisdiction of the area board of education. Committee's recommendations dealing with postsec- The city of Flint, which has one of the more com- ondary and adult programs, pending further study. The prehensive community colleges in Michigan, and also Six County Study of Community Needs proposed that a branch of The University of Michigan, has, speaking the six-county Detroit area needed 5 new community relatively, a very successful adult education program colleges immediately and that15 more should be known as The Mott Community Education Program of planned.8 the Flint Board of Education. As the name implies, the In order to guide effectively the spread of area post- Flint Board of Education supervises and administers secondary institutions throughout the state, the State the Program, and the Mott Foundation finances it. The Board of Education should have jurisdiction over their training projects are considered, evaluated, and recom- locations. The Board should maintain an up-to-date mended by a special committee representing the Board map of the state showing thecommuting areas and and the community. their population centers. Such a map should then play The Program has its own adult education building an important part in determiningthe locations of new and administrative center, but it uses all of the available community colleges and also of secondary vocational appropriate educational facilities in the area.in the education centers because the centers tend to develop winter of 1961-62, more than 1,100 separate classes into postsecondary institutions. were offered in 45 community school adult education In this connection, the Russell report recommends centers.Individual enrollments are exceeding 90,000 that the present specific stipulation of 10,000 population a year. now found in the community college law be abolished Although having the advantage of private financial for the reason that the best safeguards to good practice backing, the Mott Program very likely indicates the in establishing community colleges are (1) the require- direction that adult education in metropolitan areas will ments of sound studies of the localities requesting the take.It is a community institution in the best sense, institution; and (2) the approval of a competent state administered under the area board of education, and agency. Such studies should include a comprehensive closely bound up with the total educational system. survey of population distribution and characteristics,

7We have noted that the proposed New York State area education program suggests a system of public grants for youth living in areas where postsecondary vocational training cannot be made available to help them go away from home for such training. 8Six County Study of Community College Needs, Citizens AdvisoryCouncilFinalReport ([Detroit:The Advisory Council], August 1, 1960), 117 pp. 22 III. Financing VocationalEducation in Michigan

State Support of Public Schools operating revenue of each local school districtsuffi- in Michigan ciently so that the district will have what isconsidered to be a minimum number of dollarsper pupil, a "gross The trend since the thirties has been towardincreased allowance," with which to provide educationfor its state support of public schools.In the nation as a students. Each year the State Aid Act specifieswhat whole, the percent of revenue fromstate sources used this "gross allowance"or "pupil enrollee allowance" in the support of public elementaryand secondary shall be 2 The allowance was raised from $130to $190 schools rose from 15.74 percent in 1930to 54.0 (esti- in 1956 and later to $205, where it remainedthrough mated) percent. in 1960. In Michigan, the state'scon- 1961-62.It was $224 for theyear1962-63.In tribution to local school districts increased from$22 a particular district this per-pupil allowance is multi- million in 1932-33 to $300 million in 1957-58,a rate plied by the number of pupils enrolled. Tothe result of increase exceeding that of the nation) are added special amounts allowed the district for such Michigan, therefore, accepts the philosophy thatthe items as tuition aid, transportation aid, special education state must pay a major share of the cost of educating aid, and aid for financial distress. From the resulting its children. But Michigan's mostrecent share in sup- total is subtracted local property taxrevenue (up to the port of the combined operating budgets of the elemen- rate of 31/4 mills when the pupil enrollee allowancewas tary and secondary schools was still only 39percent, $205 and now at the rate of 37/8 milk- since the pupil while the local district's sharewas 57 percent, and enrollee allowance is $224) and the district's share from the federal government and miscellaneoussources sup- the Primary Interest Fund." The balance is the amount plied 4 percent.Furthermore, Michigan is becoming of state support. one of the few states that do not share in the cost of Under the foregoing state support distribution for- elementary and secondary school capital outlay. mula, the school district is free to apply theunear- Local public support of the Michigan schoolscomes marked funds received to its operating expendituresas entirely from the general property tax.State support it sees fit. The effect is to discriminate against offering comes from (a) the Primary School Interest Fund (a certain vocational courses andeven certain academic carryover from the sale of school lands); (b) the Sales courses. because they may be more costly to offer than Tax Diversion; (c) certain supplemental taxes suchas are conventional classroom courses. Under these cir- the corporate franchise tax and taxeson cigarettes, dis- cumstances, the less wealthy school districts can scarcely tilled spirits, telegraph and telephone services, and in- be expected to offer an adequate line of vocational surance companies doing business in Michigan, some subjects and a full comprehensive program. The formula of which taxes are intended to be temporaryemergency guarantees the district a certain amount of money per taxes; and (d) general legislative appropriations. The student, but it does not guarantee, and even discour- need for revision of the sources of schoolrevenue is a ages, the offering of some vocational education courses part of the need for a drastic reform of Michigan's that many students should have. overall tax system, a discussion of which will not be ''Although the term "state aid" is in common usage through- undertaken here. Our interest is in the distribution of out the United States, we are avoiding the term whenever possible the available funds as it affects the offerings invoca- and are substituting some such term as "state support" or the tional-technical education and training. "state's share" for it; the term "state aid" seems to contradict the state's constitutional and moral responsibility for the education The state of Michigan undertakes to supplement the of its youth. The change in the millage rate from 31,4 to 3!4is designed IWilliam H. Roe, Financing Michigan's Schools, Department to provide no increase in state support to the districts having of Administrative and Educational Services, Professional Series the largest property valuation and the maximum increase to Bulletin no. 25, 2(1 ed., rev. (East Lansing: Bureau of Educa- districts having the smallest property valuation; those districts tional Research, College of Education, Michigan State Univer- inbetween sharetheincrease according to their property sity, 1958), p. 13. valuations. A MINIMUM CLASSROOM OR TEACHER hypothetical state. For the benefit of professional edu- UNIT FOUNDATION FORMULA cators and legislators, the illustrationis included in In order to remove the element of discrimination detail as an appendix to this report; but it is shown in against vocational education and even to encourage and abbreviated form in Table 2. We believe thatsome stimulate it, more and more states are coming to use such classroom unit foundation program would add some version of a foundation formula whereby state greatly to the ability of many school districts in Mich- support can be weighted in relation to the costs of offer- igan to become more comprehensive and to provide ing the -various programs. The districts can then offer needed vocational training for their youth and adults, their pupils the courses needed without being penalized training that otherwise could not be afforded. because of the higher costs. Michigan is depending solely upon the use of federal In California, a base support is provided a local funds matched by state and local funds under the terms school in terms of average daily attendance of all stu- of the several national vocational education acts to dents enrolled in approved .classes, including vocational stimulate vocational education. in the high schools. The education classes.Then, because certain measurable federal and 'state funds are used to reimburse local excess costs are incurred in offering vocational educa- schools for part of the vocational teachers' salaries and tion programs, additional state support, based on a travel. tzacher unit rather than a student attendance unit, is Table 2 provided for such programs. In 1961-62 the foregoing formula produced the following approximate averages Classroom Unit Foundation Program for vocational instruction. for a Hypothetical School District Teacher of Students in Average EDUCATIONAL NEED Full-Time Attendance State Support Basic classroom units (based on number of Education in agriculture $1,J00 students, land area covered, and number Distributive education 650 and type of schools) 69.5 Homemaking education 700 Extra vocational classroom units (based on Trade and industrial education 650 meeting regulations for state approval) 3,0 Teacher of Part-Time or Extension Extra special-education classroom units Classes (based on meeting regulations for state Homemaking education $ 20 per class approval) 3.0 Trade and industrial education. $140 per class Subtotal 75.5 The Florida Foundation Program is based upon stu- dent average daily class attendance and the number, Administrative and special instructional rank, and experience of the teachers.In calculating services units (one additional unit for state support, the average daily attendance required in each six in the subtotal) 12.6 vocational courses is one-half of that required in general Supervisory units (one additional unit for education courses.Ohio and Kentucky have similar each 100 or major fraction thereof in the programs. subtotal) 1.0 In Pennsylvania, the unit for state support calcula- Total classroom units from which financial tions is the student average daily membership (ADM). 89.1 The amount per ADM is established by law; for exam- need is determined ple, for home economics, $20 per ADM; for agriculture FINANCIAL NEED and trade and industry, $35 per ADM; and for distribu- For instructional salaries, 89.1 units (based tive education, $50 per ADM. on education level of teachers, and other New York State has been a leader in perfecting the factors) $474,534 use of the foundation formula. In addition to supplying For other current expenses, 89.1 units some of the weights mentioned above, the New York (based on $1,500 per unit) 133,650 formula provides weights to compensate for great varia- For capital outlay, 89.1 units (based on tions in population density and for the impact of wide $500 per unit) 44,550 variations in cultural background, having in mind the For transportation need (not related added cost necessary to provide adequate training for to units) 40,000 the culturally disadvantaged. Stanley E. Hecker of the College of Education, Mich- Total financial need $692,734 igan State University, has provided a very complete District's share (based on property valuation illustration of how a typical basic classroom unit foun- in the district) $400,000 dation program might work in a given district of a State's share (the balance) $292,734 24 Michigan is now spending over $9 million yearly for Financing Area Vocational Education vocational education, more specifically for administra- tion, teachers' salaries and travel, and teacher training. Centers in Michigan About $3 million is paid from federal and state funds Under the present system of financing secondary edu- and $6 million from local funds. The amount does not cation in Michigan, area vocational education cen- cover cost of such items as buildings and equipment, ters organized and operated by the participating school which, according to current Michigan practice, the local districts of a commuting area would have to be built districts must supply. The combined state-federal voca- with funds raised by an additional millage tax on the tional education funds make up less than one-half of property of the districts.' State funds are not available one percent of the state's local school district budget, and forplantconstruction.Operating costs would be state funds alone, slightly in excess of $1.5 million, charged back to the districts on a contract basis, and make up a little more than one-half of one percent of each local district's share would be met from the prop- the total state appropriation of $292 million for ele- erty 'tax. Students attending the vocational center would mentary and secondary schools.Furthermore, while remain members of their home high schools and be over the past 10 years the local share of the cost of counted in the total enrollment upon which state sup- vocational education has risen 86 percent and the port is based. Also, each local school would receive federal share 134 percent, the state share has increased its share of reimbursement from federal and state funds only 29 percent.Also, reimbursement rates to local under the national vocational education acts for the schools for vocational education have been gradually vocational courses taken by its students at the center. declining until they now average roughly 30 percent We doubt that many, if any, area centers would or of the vocational teacher's salary and 45 percent of his could be established in Michigan under the present travel expenses; in fact, in certain instances' reimburse- system of financing, particularly in the less wealthy ment of salaries has fallen to as low as 20 percent. regions of the state where centers are badly needed; Reimbursement was at one time expected to cover half the property tax simply would not provide the necessary of salaries and all or nearly all of travel expenses. The revenue. Under a classroom unit foundation system of debline is due to added programs without increased financing, used more' and more elsewhere, and which appropriations. Schools are thus penalized for adding we believe should be adopted in some appropriate form more vocational programs. in Michigan, an amount per classroom unit for capital Due to the inadequacy of our state support distribu- outlay as well as for operating costs is included in the tion formula and, undoubtedly, a shortage of revenue, formula. For example, the Kentucky formula provides the state of Michigan has not provided for the support $600 per teacher-classroom unit for capital outlay, and of vocational education in the public schools asit Professor Hecker's illustrative formula, noted earlier, should. It desperately needs a aktribution formula that provides an amount per classroom unit for capital out- will enable schools to provide truly comprehensive pro- lay. The total amount would be allocated back to the grams without penalty, and even to encourage the voca- participating districts on a contract formula basis. Each tional courses where they are needed. The problem of participant would receive its share of state support for providing such a formula should not be too difficult. the students sent to the center just as it would if the It would be most helpful to the cause of secondary vocational courses had been provided in its own school. vocational education if the method of distributing fed- Nonparticipating districts should pay a "chargeback" eral aid tostates under the Smith-Hughes and the covering the full per-student cost, including the cost of George-Barden Acts were changed so that less crystalli- overhead and capital outlay, for students sent to the zation would tend to take place in the use of the funds center. than now is the case and so that new programs designed The experience of other states with school district to meet new vocational training needs might be encour- cooperation in building area vocational education cen- aged more readily than they now are. Change is hard ters has not been good except where the state pays at enough to bring about without having to run the risk least 50 percent of the cost of constructing the centers, of losing federal funds in the process, for every situation and the trend is definitely in favor of the state's paying a creates its own vested interests. Instead of having the larger and larger share. In view of the existing load on distribution of the funds so definitely tied to specific the property tax in Michigan, and in view of Michigan's vocations such as agriculture, home economics, or trade lack of experience in school district cooperation, it does and industry, it would seem better if the funds were not seem possible that Michigan can be an exception. given to a state, still on an equal matching basis and still If secondary vocational education centers are to be based on an approved state plan, for the state's total established in Michigan, it seems clear that the state vocational education program. Just how this should be will have to take the initiative in both finance and accomplished is beyond the scope of this report. leadership.

25 Financing Community Colleges secondary schools ($205 for 1961-62 and $224 for in Michigan 1962-63) nor more than 50 percent of the cost per full-time enrollee at a college. OPERATING BUDGETS This is an inadequate formula by which to determine During the school year 1961-62 the financial support the state's share of the support of community colleges. of the operating budgets of the community colleges in In the first place, the unweighted "pupil enrollee allow- Michigan was provided approximately as follows: from ance" specified for elementary and secondary students charges to students, 41.5 percent; from local property is not a logical basis for determining the minimum needs tax receipts, 19.6 percent; and from state and federal for community colleges."' In the second place, the formula funds, 38.9 percent.' does not take into account the relative wealth of the The operating cost per student in 1961-62 varied community college districts as it does of the elementary from a low of $246 in one institution offering a very and secondary school districts. But the main criticism limited program to a high of $733 in an institution is that this system of distribution encourages the com- offering a full comprehensive program from early morn- munity colleges, as it does the high schools, to offer the ing until late at night. The median was $489. The less costly courses, and it discourages them from offer- average yearly tuition charge made by the Michigan ing the more expensive courses among which are many community colleges is higher than the average charge of the vocational and technical courses. made by the community colleges of the neighboring We are suggesting, of course, that a foundation sys- states; in 1960-61 it was $180 in Michigan as com- tem be used, tailored to Michigan, whereby the distri- pared with $134 in Great Lakes and Plains areas. The bution of state funds to community colleges would be tuition charges made in Michigan in 1961-62 varied based on classroom units with extra units for the more from none to $270 with a median of $180 for resident costly programs. This is the same general plan being students and from $180 to $400 with a median of $248 proposed for the distribution of state support to high for nonresident students. This wide spread in tuition schools, although the minimum cost base, the units of charges made in Michigan suggests that the higher cost, the rates per unit, and the weighting in favor of charges may be made largely out of financial necessity. the vocational-technical programs should all be differ- They may be made in part, however, out of the state's ent. The purpose would be to equalize the cost of the struggle to arrive at a sound tuition and financing policy. local district of offering the various kinds of courses, The trend among the states is toward making no tuition and perhaps in this day of great need for vocational charges at all, particularly in those states that are facing and technical training, even to favor the offering of squarely the need for comprehensive area postsecondary vocational and technical courses. It has been suggested, institutions. however, that weighting might be carried advantageously To some people, the 19.6 percent share of the com- beyond the vocational-technical to certain other costly munity college operating budgets provided for by local courses such as specialized science and language labo- property taxes may seem small; but except fOr some ratory courses, and that the community colleges might state assistance during the past 6 years, the local dis- find it advisable to reconstruct their accounting so as to tricts have been required to provide all plant and equip- show the cost of offering all courses. ment in addition to their share of operating budgets out From the foregoing and from the experience of other of property taxes supplemented by private gifts. There states, we must conclude that 38.9 percent of the com- is a limit to the support that a local community can or munity colleges' combined operating budgets isnot will provide for community colleges, particularly where enough for the state and federal governments to bear if the district remains small. We doubt that an adequate the colleges are to provide a worthwhile comprehensive system of postsecondary area education can be built in program for the people of their respective areas. Michigan upon so limited a tax base. The Russell report recommended that a minimum The state of Michigan began making appropriations foundation program for community colleges, based on for the operating budgets of its community colleges in cost per student, be established and periodically revised. 1945-46 to help provide technical education and voca- The report then recommended that the state contribute tional training for World War II veterans. The annual to the support of the community colleges an amount appropriation has been increased from time to time equal to one-half of the minimum foundation program, until in 1961-62 it amounted to $4,382,490. The ap- that not more than one - fourth of the support of the propriation is distributed among the community col- minimum foundation program should be obtained from leges on the basis of full-time equated enrollments, tuition fees, and that the remainder should be supplied except that the amount per student must not exceed the from local government funds.It was a part of the "pupil enrollee allowance" specified for elementary and recommendation that the local government should be 4Michigan Council of Community College Administrators, :.A California junior college student in full attendance may The Role and Character of Michigan Community Colleges earn 11/2 to 21/2 average daily attendance units for the school, (1963), 8 pp. depending on how many hours a day heisinclasses. 26 permitted to supplya larger support either to provide An appropriation of $6.4 million a program of higher quality than that over a six-year envisioned in the period is entirely too smallan overall amount; $300,000 minimum foundationprogram or to reduce or eliminate per project is too small an amount to providean ade- the contribution from studentfees. But it was alsoa quate challenge in view of present-day part of the recommendation that if costs of con- a community college struction; and 1 year istoo short a time in which to district, after having levied themaximum taxes author- plan and arrive at the point of ized by the state constitution and commitment concerning statutes, cannot raise the more important projects.The system makes long- sufficient revenues for thesupport of one-fourth of the term planning most difficult. minimum foundation program, the difference should be In spite of the inadequacyof the amount, it isre- made up from state funds appropriatedfor equalization ported that the $6.4 million purposes. appropriated for the 6years has provided for 24 percent ofthe cost of capital outlay We agree with the recommendation with the under- made by the 16 communitycolleges during that time standing that the greatercost of offering certain voca- while the districts have supplied tional-technical (from property taxes courses will be taken into account in and gifts) 76 percent of thecost. What these figures devising the minimum foundation program. really show is the inadequacyof the capital outlay for CAPITAL OUTLAY the kind of program that thecommunity colleges are expected to provide. The communitycolleges estimate Financing capital outlay is a major problem in any that, on a 50-50 matching basis,the State Legislature area school program. The present physical facilities of will need to appropriateapproximately $5 millionper the Michigan community colleges are generally inade- year for the next 5 years in order to make possiblethe quate to enable the colleges to fulfill theeducational orderly planning ofnew facilities and the remodeling functions assigned to them. Nineof the 16 community of existing buildings. This is forthe 16 existing com- colleges are now utilizing buildings that were previously munity colleges, and Michigan needsmore than twice used or are now being partly usedfor elementary and that many community colleges if itis to provide area secondary schools. Some of the facilitiesare rapidly postsecondary comprehensive education,including voca- becoming overcrowded. Theseare makeshift arrange- tional and technical education, for allof its people. ments, and such facilities generally do not contribute The Russell report recommended thatthe state con- to efficiency in instruction and to studentand faculty tinue to assist the communitycolleges in financing morale. Seven of the communitycolleges, however, capital outlay projects to theextent of 50 percent of some counting heavily upon private benefaction, have the total cost of approved projects,except that con- embarked upon long-term building programs with facili- sideration should be given to the possibilityof providing ties and sites distinctlyseparate from the elementary from state funds more than 50percent of the needed and secondary schools. Privatebenefaction cannot be capital outlay in districts havingvery limited wealth and counted upon to providea major portion of all the plant bonding capacity in proportionto their needs for edu- and equipment that is needed by communitycolleges in cational services. Furthermore, theamounts to be ap- the state of Michigan; in the main, thesefacilities must propriated for thispurpose should be set up on a come to be provided at public expense. realistic budget basisso that the Legislature may know As noted repeatedly, it has beena basic tenet in what projects are expectedto be financed from the Michigan that the local school district shouldprovide funds appropriated; and all such projects,first proposed its own plant and equipment from the localproperty by the community colleges, shouldhave the approval tax without assistance from the state.This principle of the appropriate state agency. was applied to community college districts until 1956, The Russell report recommended thatthe assistance when the Legislature began making annualappropria- from the state be allowed to applyon the costs of site tions to the Superintendent of Public Instructionfor acquisitions and improvements and ofsuch facilities as construction, alteration, refurbishing,or remodeling of parking areas and student centers, butnot on the costs community colleges. The appropriations amountedto of dormitories or residence halls,because the role of $1.2 million for 1956-57 and 1957-58 and $1million the community college is toserve commuting students. for each of the next 4 years, $6.4 million in all for the The report concedes that resident facilitiesmay be 6 years. justifiable in a few locations where thepopulation is It has been provided in the appropriationacts that sparse and the geographical area served is large, but it no more than $300,000 may be distributed to an indi- cautions that such facilities should be approvedonly vidual district, and that theamount distributed must not where definite justificationcan be shown. Furthermore, constitute more than 50 percent ofthe total cost of the when approved, construction of the facilities shouldbe capital outlay for a project. Furthermore,funds appro- financed by issuing self-liquidating bonds. priated must be used or committed within the year for Although there are some notable exceptions, theex- which they are appropriatedor be returned to the state's perience of other states supports the aboverecom- general fund. mendation. Where the community college districtsare 27

, 1.4. large enough to provide a substantial taxbase, con- community colleges, this system has deterred some areas struction of plant and equipment maybe financed adjacent to a community college district fromcoming the col- jointly by the district and state on a 50-50basis or some into the district and sharing in the support of ratio rather close to that. On theother hand, we are lege, or it has contributed to the failure of an area to forced to conclude that, where communitycollege dis- establish a community college of its own. tricts of adequate size cannot beorganized, the districts In order to meet this situation, the Russell report effect in a few cannot provide substantiallyfor adequate plant and made a recommendation that is now in facilities, and the state must undertake alarger share. states, with good results. Therecommendation pro- In general, the trend is in thedirection of more and posed a statewide plan by which any district notmain- responsible for more state financing ofplant and equipment. Indeed, taining a community college would be college it may be proper to ask whypostsecondary area educa- contributing to the support of each community tion should not enjoy the same state support asdo the in which any of its residents are enrolledanywhere the total four-year baccalaureate institutions. in the state. The support should be based on cost per student of the collegeattended. Such a "chargeback" arrangement would havethe Financing a Statewide Community effect of making the 13th and 14thgrades a regular College System part of a complete state schoolsystem, and it would Community colleges serve many studentsfrom outside require the people in every community to support com- have residents their respective districts.In doing so, they recoup a munity colleges to the extent that they part of the cost by chargingthese students a higher attending them. The report added that therapid growth would seem to indi- tuition than the local district students pay.But this by of community colleges in Michigan total cost. This system throws an cate that the people are aboutready for such a step. no means covers the should be made extra cost burden on thenonresident students, and the We add that a similar "chargeback" districts sending students to districts from which these students comebear no part to nonparticipating school of the cost. Aside from theburden thrown upon the secondary area vocational education centers.

28 IV. State Supervision of Vocational Education in Michigan State-Level Supervision in of Michigan State University. In 1955 the Legislature Michigan Today provided for three additional members to represent employers, employees, and agriculture. A revised State Constitution, voted by the people of Operationally, there has come to be a Division of Michigan, is to become effective on January 1, 1964. Vocational Education in the office of the Superintendent Until then, the old Constitution will remain in effect. of Public Instruction headed by an Assistant Super- Under the old Constitution, the State Board of Edu- intendent for Vocational Education, generally known cation has been only one of several boards governing as the State Director of Vocational Education. In the public education.It consists of four members, three Division there are at present fiveservice chiefs, a elected for a term of 6 years, and the Superintendent of finance accountant, a research consultant, and con- Public Instruction elected for a term of two years. sultants in various services.The Division deals only The duties and responsibilities of the State Board of with those vocational courses for which there are fed- Education have not been those that the name ordinarily eral funds. implies. The Board has not had jurisdiction over edu- The State Superintendent is now, in fact, heldrespon- cation in the elementary and secondary schools of the sible for state supervision of community colleges, and state.Its responsibility has been the general super- he has endeavored to assume that responsibility within vision of Michigan rehabilitation institutions and four the limits of the law. The present supervision includes: former state teachers colleges: Central Michigan Uni- 1.Approval for initial establishment versity, Eastern Michigan University, Northern Michigan 2.Approval of programs to qualify for state subsidy University, and Western Michigan University. The re- for operation maining four-year baccalaureate institutions, including 3.Distribution of state aid subsidies for operation The University of Michigan, Michigan State University, 4.Approval of architectural plans for building con- Wayne State University, and Ferris State College, and struction the two-year community colleges have their own govern- 5.Approval of capital outlay projects for which ing boards, Michigan has not had an overall educational state subsidies are requested on a matching basis (sub- policy-making board. ject to additional approval of the state administrative The State Superintendent of Public Instruction has board) had such general supervision over all public instruction 6.Distribution of capital outlay matching funds for in the state as has existed. He is an ex officio member approved projects of all boards having control of public instruction in any Furthermore, in his position as approval authority state institution, with the right to speak but not to vote. for initial establishment, the Superintendent of Public He has not been governed by any of them, nor has he Instruction has adopted as a policy that it is appropriate been able to look to them for authority for his policy for community colleges to provide education consistent decisions. with the purposes of the individuals and the society of In 1918 the Michigan Legislature created the State which they are a partfor all persons above the twelfth- Board of Control for Vocational Education to cooper- grade age levels, subject only to the restrictions in the ate with the United States Office of Education under the state statutes, and he has also indicated unequivocally terms of the Smith-Hughes Act and to serve as a policy- that the educational functions appropriate for com- making body in the administration of reimbursable munity colleges to fulfill include those enumerated in funds for vocational education. This Board originally Chapter II. The weakness inherent in his pronounce- consisted of four members: the Superintendent of Public Instruction, who servesasitsexecutive officer; the 'Ferris N. Crawford, Some Facts Concerning Community Chairman of the State Board of Education; the Presi- Cr rages in Michigan, presented to the Education Committee of theMichigan Constitutional Convention, October 26,1961 dent of The University of Michigan; and the President (Lansing: State Superintendent of Public Instruction), p. 4. 29 ment, however, is that the authority for it rests solely the state as defined by the constitution and the legisla- on his position as "approval authority for initial estab- ture.This is evident in the statements of the several lishment." The Superintendent's position is weakened states presented in Part II of this report. immediately after the establishment has taken place. New York and Connecticut in the East have strong The Division of Vocational Education is assisted by boards established by law and tradition. North Carolina, two professional and two nonprofessional advisory Kentucky, and Florida in the Southeast have strong groups. One of the professional groups is the Michigan boards with substantial powers prescribed by law. Council for Vocational Administration composed of 18 In the Middle West, Ohio asserts that the state board local school superintendents, one from each of the exercises strong leadership throughout the state, but the Michigan Education Association regions.Because it extent of its authority is not so clear. The proposed is regional, the membership tends to represent those program for Illinois provides that "a state board of vocational programs that are present in the smaller education should be created and assigned general pol- school systems, the majority of which have only agri- icy-making responsibilities for the public junior colleges culture and/or homemaking programs. The other pro- and the public elementary and secondary schools."It fessional advisory group is made up of the local directors adds that there should be an appointed state superin- of vocational education, who generally represent the tendent who would serve as the chief executive of the larger school systems. board. The two nonprofessional advisory groups are the Minnesota has three boards that tend to compete Advisory Committee on Title VIII of the National with each other in the area of higher education. They Defense Education Act and the Michigan Curriculum are the State Board of Education, the University Regents, Program.The latterisa cooperative arrangement and the State College Board. In 1959 the State Legis- through which state curriculum committees, interested lature authorized the appointment of a state liaison individuals, and other voluntary and official agencies committee for the purpose of resolving such differences work together to improve Michigan's schools. The cur- and duplications of function as tend to develop among riculum committees are advisory in nature and deal with the boards; and there was the underlying implication specific curricular areas in vocational education such as that if this committee could not accomplish the pur- agriculturaleducation, business education, guidance, pose,the Legislature might have to do so through home and family living, and trade and technical edu- further legislation. cation. Perhaps California has the most constructive sug- We will not attempt to appraise the effectiveness of gestions for Michigan in the area of state supervision. the Curriculum Program except to say that tangible We have already observed that the areas of operation results, such as a library of curricula on vocational for the state university, the state colleges, and the com- education and training, are not much in evidence. The munity colleges have been definitely established. This use of the Advisory Committee on Title VIII has been makes possible an orderly expansion of the total educa- limited primarily to considerations relating to reimburs- tional program according to an overall plan. able programs under Title VIII. The Committee has The supervision of public education in California not become an important factor in promoting an inte- from the kindergarten through the community college grated program of comprehensive postsecondary educa- is under the jurisdiction of a single policy-making State tion. The Division of Vocational Education has been Board of Education consisting of 10 lay citizens ap- too exclusively oriented to the secondary program of pointed for four-year terms. This Board takes up where vocational education, and the community colleges have the constitutional provisions and the law stop, and from not embraced the vocational education part of their there on itdetermines the general policies for the programs with enough sincerity to make effective ad- government of the public schools and community col- visory committee work in the postsecondary area leges.Its rules and regulations have the effect of law. possible. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction is responsible to the Board for the administration of the State-Level Supervision in Other States entire program. He has a substantial department of six divisions of which the vocational education staff is an Those states that have been able to make the greatest integral part. There is also a Bureau of Junior College progress in developing a state system of vocational Education, headed by a bureau chief, responsible to the education have had strong central policy-making boards State Superintendent. of education, The authority of a board may stem from The county superintendents of schools in the 58 coun- the state's constitution, but it is the responsibility of the ties of the state perform an intermediary role.They legislature to pick up where the constitution leaves off are supported mainly by the state. Their services in- and make sure that the state board is definitely charged clude curriculum development, special subject matter with the responsibility of making policy and guiding consultations, care of businessaffairs, and keeping and directing the total public educational program of records. 30 alit-4441511dr- '41.igtiL

The major tenets of the California school systemare 5. The Legislature should make provision for ade- embodied in law, and the State Board's job is to ad- quate financing of the total system. minister the law and to fill in policy-makinggaps as 6.Finally, there is need for a strong state board of necessary to comply with the intent and spirit of the education. The board should have well-defined author- law. On the other hand, a high degree of local auton- ity over all public education of the state from kinder- omy and responsibility prevails throughout the state, garten through the institutions of higher education.It without which there could be no strong system of public should have the authority to make policy decisions as education. In recognition of this and to capitalizeon necessary to carry out constitutional provisions and it, it is said that, to a large extent, the administrative legislative acts and intents relating to the total educa- function of the State Department of Education is per- tional program. This board should not take the place formed by means of professional direction and leader- of the local governing boards of the various institutions, ship rather than by direct intervention in local school but its policy decisions should take precedence over district operations and administration. In fact, a part those of the governing boards, including those of the of the State Superintendent's staff is dispersed through- four-year baccalaureate institutions. out the state and spends a great deal of time in liaison There is no need for two state boards, one for general work with lay committees and advisory groups of education and the other for vocational education, be- all kinds. cause vocational educationisa part of thetotal It can be observed from the statement of the several program. It has worked out in other states which have states in Part II of this report that all strong state had both a state board of education and a board of boards, no matter what the source of their strength is, vocational education that the two boards have combined lean heavily upon state-level and local-level lay advi- into one operating board or otherwise have come to sory committees, for the boards must be sure of the operate as one board. soundness of their policy decisions, and they must exer- The Superintendent of Public Instruction should be cise real leadership in the implementation of the deci- responsible to the State Board of Education for the sions. A state board cannot be effective without the administration of the program. He should have an guidance, counsel, and support of these advisory groups. ample staff and should develop a strong liaison program throughout the state. Supervision Needed in Michigan The revised State Constitution goes a long way The weaknesses in Michigan's state-level supervision of toward providing a strong State Board of Education, education become apparent. There have been entirely but itleaves much to be done by the Legislature. too many boards and still no policy-making board to Section 3 of Article VIII provides for a State Board of which the State Superintendent of Public Instruction is eight members elected at large for terms of 8 years as responsible for the administration of public school edu- prescribed by law. The Board is. vested with "leader- cation. The causes of this situation lie deep beneath ship and general supervision over all public education, the surface. Rather than point them out, we will en- including adult education and instructional programs deavor to state positively what is needed before Mich- in state institutions, except as to institutions of higher igan can have strong state-level supervision of education, education granting baccalaureate degrees." or indeed a well-integrated program of education at all. The State Board is to appoint a State Superintenaent We believe that the essential ingredients can be found of Public Instruction for a term of offiCe determined in the experience of other states, and that they are as by the Board. He is to be chairman of the Board follows: without the light to vote, and he is to be responsible to 1.There is need for the Legislature to supplement the Board for the execution of its policies. He is to be the State Constitution as necessary to define the objec- the principal executive officer of a State Department of tives of the state's educational program, including both Education having powers and duties prescribed by law. the vocational and the academic, and to provide the Section 7 of Article VIII states that the Legislature basis for a master plan for all education in the state. shall provide by law for a State Board for public com- 2.There is need for the Legislature to determine munity and junior colleges that shall be advisory to, the public institutions to be used, that is, the elementary and whose eight members shall be appointed by, the and secondary schools (including area vocational educa- State Board of Education. tion centers), the postsecondary area institution (which The foregoing provisions of the revised Constitution, we believe should be the community college), and the when supplemented by the necessary supporting legis- four-year baccalaureate and professional institutions. lation, should make it possible for Michigan to have 3.The Legislature should specify the fields of opera- the strong state-level educational leadership and super- tion for each of these institutions. vision that it needs. This seems quite clear for public 4. The Legislature should determine the priority of education through the community college level.But the establishment of the several institutions in new geo- the ability of the new State Board of Education to bring graphic areas. public education policy at a higher level under state 31 control is not clear. That is likely to depend heavily of some of the major universities to establish branches upon the attitude and support of the Legislature, the in areas of the state when the establishment of com- state administrative officers, and perhaps finally, the munity colleges, with their broader community services, will of the public. should have prior consideration. The present sprawling Policy control over the four-year institutions of higher tendency of these universities needs to be brought into education, however, is outside of the scope of this line with an overall state plan for institutional coverage. report except in one respect, and that is the disposition

32 V. Considerations Other Than Those Relating to Needed Programs

Introduction Federal Aid to Vocational Education THE SMITH-HUGHES AND GEORGE-BARDEN ACTS In the process of making this study, we concluded that the two major needs with respect to vocational training Vocational education in the secondary schools was and retraining are (1) the deliberate choice of education launched by the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. The Act for the world of work as an objective of the educational appropriated $7.2 million annually to be allotted to the system; and (2) the provision of vocational education states on the basis of rural, urban, and total population facilities, properly organized and coordinated, within for expenditure on an equal matching basis for voca- which a good program of education and training could tional education in agriculture, home economics, and be carried on. These two needs, therefore, have been trade and industry in the. secondary schools. Later laws the focus of the report up to this point. extended the program to Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Virgin The explorations that led to these conclusions, how- Islands, and Guam. In order to be eligible to receive a ever, ranged in many directions; and it is our purpose share of the funds, a state is required to provide an nova to record some observations and conclusions drawn approved state plan for the use of the funds and to from those explorations.This will not be done in a designate a state board to administer the program. systematic and exhaustive way. But even so, our obser- In 1946 the program was greatly expanded by the vations may prove of interest and value to those who are George-Barden Act. Today, Title I of this Act covers concerned with vocational education. training in agriculture, distributive occupations, home First, we include some descriptive material pertaining economics, trade and industry, and fisheries occupations. to what is now going on in vocational education under The total authorized annual appropriation under Title I of federal aid and training programs. There is the present the Act, still based on the 1950 Census, is $29,642,080. on-going program of vocational education under the The total of permanent appropriations (Smith-Hughes Smith-Hughes and George-Barden Acts and the Na- Act) and authorized appropriations (George-Barden tional Defense Education Act of 1958; and there are Act and amendments) for federal aid to secondary the emergency programs under the Area Redevelopment vocational education, based on the 1950 Census, is Act of 1961 and the Manpower Development and $37,035,410.1 Training Act of 1962. Second, when we look at vocational training from THE NATIONAL DEFENSE EDUCATION ACT OF 1958 the standpoint of the groups of persons for whom such Title VIII of the National Defense Education Act of training has been thought to be important, we discover 1958 added Title III to the George-Barden Act of 1946. that, although training is usually a part of the problem, It authorized appropriations up to $15 million for the there are also other problems. We shall comment on fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, and for each of the some of these problems, particularly with respect to the 3 succeeding fiscal years,to be apportioned among culturally disadvantaged, the functionally illiterate, the the states according to population and occupation dis- school dropout, and the recipient of public aid. tribution for expenditure by the states on an equal Third, when we look beyond the major vocational matching basis for area vocational education programs. education needs related to objectives and facilities, we For the purpose of the Act, an area vocational education find that there are still other problems. Three of these 'Title II of the George-Barden Act, added by the 84th Con- problems vocational guidance, research, and avail- gress (P. L. 911), authorize,' an annual appropriation up to ability of trained teachers will be discussed briefly. $5 million for instruction (not secondary) in practical nursing. 33 program (1) consists of one or moreless-than-college- Table 3 grade courses conducted under public supervision and control on an organized systematic basis, (2) is designed Reimbursed Vocational Education to fit individuals for useful employment ashighly skilled Enrollments in Michigan Schools, technicians or skilled workers in recognized occupations by Service that require scientific or technical knowledge, and (3) is made available to residents of the state or an area of the 1961-1962 state designated and approved by the StateBoard of Out-of-School Control for Vocational Education. The trainees must Service In-School YouthY and Total Students Enrollments either have completed junior high school or, regardless Adults of their school credits, be at least 16 years of age and All services ... 67,505 78,481 145,986 able to profit by the instruction. Agriculture 12,455 4,310 16,765 The Act was timely in that the demand for such Distributive and training was an actuality.As already noted, it has office 6,051 13,827 19,878 stimulated greatly the emergence of area postsecondary Homemaking 40,443 20,430 60,873 institutions designed to supply technical and advanced Trade and vocational courses on a commuting area basis to high industrial .. 6,317 34,631 40,948 school graduates and out-of-school youth and adults. Practical nursing 0 1,828 1,828 Area technical THE IMPACT OF FEDERAL AID UNDER THE programs ... 2,239 3,455 5,694 FOREGOING ACTS Michigan received $2,011,445.68 of federal aid under Source: Michigan State Board of Control for Vocational the foregoing acts for the year 1961-62. Table 3 shows Education, Annual Descriptive Report for the Fiscal Year Ended the services for which reimbursement was received and June 30, 1962, p.I. the number of in-school and out-of-school students bene- We noted in an earlier chapter that Michigan is de- fiting.Table 4 shows the average rates of reimburse- ment of costs received during the peakfive-year periods pending upon federal and state reimbursement to pro- as compared to the average ratesreceived during the 5 vide the state's share of support for the extra cost of years of 1958-62 and the reductionin the average rates offering vocational courses in high schools. Table 4 of reimbursement from the earlier periods to the latter shows that this is not working out satisfactorily. Over period. the past 20 to 25 years, the portion of the cost of offering Of the 537 secondary school districts in the state in vocational courses in the several fields covered by reim- 1961-62, there were 229 or 43 percent offering agri- bursement has dropped from approximately two-thirds cultural education and 336 or 63 percent offering home- of the cost to approximately one-fourth of the cost, ex- making education.Enrollments in these two services cept that for courses in agriculture it has dropped to totaled 52,898 and made up 78 percent of the total in- only 38 percent. The local schools have been required school enrollments in reimbursed vocational education to bear only an additional 29.2 percent of the cost of programs. Distributive and office education andtrade courses in agriculture while bearing anadditional 35.2 and industry education were each offered in only 17 per- to 48.0 percent of the cost of other reimbursed courses. cent of the Michigan school districts and to only12,368 The demand for training in fields other than agriculture in-school students. Only 12 school districts or slightly has increased more than has the demand for training over 2 percent offered programs in all 4fields. in agriculture, so that the funds for reimbursement must Except for agriculture and homemaking, the number be spread thinner in the other fields. The system, there- the and percent of Michigan high schools offering federal fore, provides the least federal-state support where and state reimbursed vocational courses is very small, need has increased the most. We do not know, of course, and it must be concluded that reimbursed vocational what the effect of the system is on the offering of needed education in the Michigan high schools is not reaching vocational courses that are not reimbursed, but it must be a substantial number of students in theservices where it negative and may be substantial. is now most needed. We do not object to the reimbursement system as a The whole enrollment of 78,481 out-of-school stu- device for stimulating vocational training in new fields dents in reimbursed courses does not seem to stand up where new and added facilities are needed promptly. The Well in comparison with the 90,000 annual enrollments new demand for area technical programs atthe present in the Mott Community Education Program of the Flint time is a case in point. But reimbursement for courses Board of Education alone, noted earlier. And yet it indi- in the fields of agriculture, home economics, andtrade cates that the real demand for business andindustrial and industry has been going on substantially unchanged training is by those out of school. This is the field for for 45 years, and reimbursement for courses inbusiness the postsecondary and adult education area School. subjects has been going on for 20 years.Imbalances 34 Table 4 The Area Redevelopment Act is designedto provide assistance for the development of industry Average Rates of Reimbursement in defined for depressed areas. A part of itsprogram is to aid in the Vocational Education in MichiganSchools, retraining of unemployed workers for jobsin existing or by Service new industries in depressed areas.For this purpose, Peak 5-year period and 1958-62 period Congress authorized annual expenditures of $4.5million for training and $10 million for subsistencebenefits, Average Percent ofReduc- payable for a maximum of 16 weeks inamounts equal Reimbursement oftion in to the average unemployment insurance paid in thestate Peak Costs Average where the training is taken. The United StatesDepart- Service 5-Year Percent Period In In of Reim- ment of Labor and the local Employment Security office peak 1958-62burse- recruit and test trainees, and the UnitedStates Depart- period period meet ment of Health, Education, and Welfare makesarrange- Agriculture 1938-42 67.2 38.0 29.2 ments with the local or state vocational training officials Homemaking ... 1934-38 55.2 20.0 35.2 to provide the specific job training required. All-day trade and The Manpower Development and Training Actcon- industrial 1936-40 58.8 20.6" 38.2 sists of two parts. One authorizes the undertakingof a Cooperativetrade broad program of research studies to develop informa- and industrial. 1941-45 68.0 27.0 41.0 tion on many aspects of the nation'smanpower require- Cooperative ments and resources. A comparable provisionwas placed distributive.. . 1938-42 75.0 27.0 48.0 in the Smith-Hughes Act 45years ago.Nothing of Cooperative importance ever came of it, however, and little attention office 1941-45 68.2 27M 41.2 is being given now to this part of the Manpower Devel- opment and Training Act.Research of production Source: Same as Table 3, pp. 59-64. resources, of new services likely to be wanted, of market 20 percent for the last 4 years. trends and information, and of various possiblesources of employment, for example, would help to direct train- and crystallization of imbalances aresure to develop in ing into the right channels and contribute greatly to so long a time. employment in the future. Granting the need for a special emphasis onarea voca- The second part of the Act, generally considered to tional and technical education at the present time,we be the main part, makes available over a three-year believe that it would be better if federal funds forvoca- period ending June 30, 1965, $435 million of federal tional education were given to the states, undera state funds to help pay for training programs, not just in de- plan, to be distributed to the local institutionson a basic pressed areas, but anywhere, to equip workers with skills classroom unit foundation formula for state support of for jobs known to be available. Training is conducted in education, such as proposed in Chapter III, with extra the same manner as are vocational education programs units or weights built into the formula to compensate under the general vocational education acts, more spe- for the extra cost of offering vocational courses. The cifically, the Smith-Hughes and George-Barden Acts. receiving schools would then be free to offer the more At the national level, the programs are under the direc- costly vocational courses without penalty. tion of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare; and at the state level, they are generally under the THE AREA REDEVELOPMENT ACTAND THE direction and supervision of the state department or MANPOWY'R DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING ACT division of vocational education. It is possible that the subsidies provided in the Area Through June 30, 1964, the federal government will Redevelopment Act of 1961 and the Manpower De- pay the total cost of vocational training for the unem- velopment and Training Act of 1962may help to make ployed. During the third year, the cost of training the training the unemployed, even training the ill-prepared unemployed will be shared equally by the federal and unemployed, a reality, just as the national vocational state governments. The cost of training others than the education acts sparked the introduction of vocational unemployed will be borne equally by the federal and education for youth in the public Schools. The advan- state governments throughout the program. For the tages made available by these new acts should be used purpose of the program, workers in farm families with to the fullest wherever possible. But the programsare an annual net income of less than $1,200 are considered job-oriented, emergency, crash programs; theyare in no unemployed. The Act provides for payment of weekly sense a substitute for a worthy vocational education allowances for not more than 52 weeks to selected un- system. In fact, their success depends heavily for facil- employed persons who have a minimum of 3 years of ities, curricula, teaching aids, and teachers upon theex- experience in gainful employment and who are heads of istence of a well-developed vocational education system. families or households. Unemployed youths who are 35 over 19 but under 22 years of age and who do not The 29 programs in progresswere serving more men. qualify for a regular training allowancemay receive an Of the 1,039 trainees, 57percent were in programs allowance at the rate of not more than $20 a week. mainly for men and 43 percent inprograms mainly for The usual weekly training allowance will be an amount women. Thirty-eight percent of the traineeswere in 14 equal to the average weekly unemployment insurance automotive, machine operating, and weldingprograms; payment in the state, except that the trainee shall not be 10 percent were in 4 cookingprograms; and 9 percent penalized for taking the training. Adjustments of the werein10 woldworking and surveyingprograms. training allowance are provided for employed persons. Thirty-five percent of the traineeswere in 5 nursing A trainee may receive transportation and subsistence programs, and 8 percent were in 3 secretarial and office expenses for separate maintenance not to exceed a rate programs. of $35 a week, and also 10 cents a mile for transporta- For those trained, the effortsare doubtless worth tion where transportation is necessary. while, and if a flow of a thousand peoplein training Michigan moved rapidly to launch trainingprograms can be maintained over a period of severalyears, the under ARA and MDTA, and the accomplishments social impact should be significant. In comparisonwith shown in Table 5 were reported by the Division of the total number of people unemployed in Michigan, Vocational Education of the State Department of Public however, the number of people likelyto be trained Instruction on March 18, 1963. Thirty-sevenprograms under the programs seems quite inadequate. The director involving 1,065 trainees had been completed, and 29 of the Research and Statistical Division of the Michigan programs involving 1,039 trainees were in progress. Employment Security Commission has stated that it is The programs completed presumablywere those quite likely that the number of actual trainees in allof started first. They were those in which the schoolshad the training programs that have, are, or will be instituted had experience in teaching and for which theywere in Michigan under ARA and MDTA will not exceed equipped with teachers, course material, and otheressen- 10 percent of the number that were anticipated bysome tials.Of the 1,065 trainees, 49 percentwere in 16 of the supporters of this legislation in Washington and secretarial, office, and business programs, and 31per- elsewhere. We fear that this statement is correct. cent were in 15 automotive, machine operating, and These programs are crash,emergency, job-oriented welding programs. Sixty-five percent of the traineeswere programs. First, the Michigan Employment and Security in programs which we have classifiedas mainly for Commission offices must locate the jobsfor which women, and 35 percent were in programs mainly for trained workers are needed and will be employed.Next, men. the Employment Security offices must seekout, screen,

Table 5 Training Programs in Michigan Under the Area RedevelopmentAct and the Manpower Development Training Act Completedor in Progress, as Reported on March 18, 1963

Number of Programs Number of Enrollees Programs° Completed In progress Total Completed In progress Total Per- Per- Per- Per- Per- Number Number Number Number Number Per- cent cent cent cent cent Number cent Total 37 100 29 100 66 100 1,065 100 1,039 100 2,104 100 Mainly for men 17 46 21 73 38 58 371 35 591 57 962 46 Automotive 6 16 4 14 10 15 78 7 118 11 196 9 Machine operating. 5 14 8 28 13 20 175 17 223 21 398 19 Welding 4 11 2 7 6 9 78 7 60 6 138 7 Woodworking 2 5 2 7 4 6 40 4 61 7 101 5 Cooking 0 4 14 4 6 0 105 10 105 5 Surveying 0 1 3 1 2 0 24 2 24 1

Mainly for women... 20 54 8 27 28 42 694 65 448 43 1,142 54 Secretarial, etc... 16 43 3 10 19 29 517 49 82 8 599 28 Nursing 3 8 5 17 8 12 150 14 366 35 516 25 Waitress 1 3 0 1 1 27 2 0 27 1

Source: Division of Vocational Education of the Michigan Department ofPublic Instruction. The groupings are ours. 36 and select the most likely trainees. Then,the Division self-employed or small business entrepreneurs. But the of Vocational Education of theState Department of same conditions that cause many youth to drop out of Public Instruction mustsecure able teachers with prac- school failure to learn to read and write functionally ticalexperience in the field and equippedwith ap- or to do simple arithmetic, failure to achieve emotional propriate course material. And finally,the necessary or psychological stability and poise, and the lack of equipment and teachingspace must be made available. family and other environmental stimulation cause The hurdles are not provingeasy to clear. Com- them to fail when out of school. Employers do not want munities have not been particularly imaginativein com- to employ them. They not only are considered to be ing up with jobs, and jobsmay not be available where immature and unskilled, but they are suspected of being unemployment is greatest.Prospective employers may of low intelligence and competenceor otherwise unde be reluctant to assure jobs for trainees. Qualifiedteach- sirableas employees.They are subject to selective ers are scarce and are likely to have full loads. Few will service, and employers do not really need them. These have either the practical experienceor the necessary youth, therefore, become known as school dropouts. course material for teaching the specialized skills re- They drop out into idleness and oblivion only to show quired. A few states have built up a supply of industry- up again on the welfare rolls or in the police courts. experienced and trained teachers upon whom theymay Out-of-school training of the school dropout ispar- call on relatively short notice. California has claimed to ticularly difficult to accomplish because of the emotional have 7,000 such persons. Some states, notably Cali- block that he has developed againstany kind of formal fornia, have on file a substantial supply ofcourses of learning. Any training, in or out of school, that hemay study, accumulated from past experience, and have be persuaded to undertake must necessarily begin in the curriculum-building research centers to helpset up very areas in which he failed in school and which he course material for new training programs. Such is not came so thoroughly to hate. He is very likely to have the case in Michigan; each teacher must locate and all of the handicaps of the functionally illiterate adult organize his own course material as best he can. In fact, plus an intense hatred for anything that resembles school. the training programs completed and in progress in For those out-of-school youth whoare ready for it, Michigan are those more commonly offered in high some form of vocational training may be the principal schools and adult training classes and for which, there- vehicle around which a more complete rehabilitation fore, materials and teachers are available. program can best be built, and many efforts to provide States must look to such institutions as they have to such programs on at least a pilot basis are now being carry crash training programs. Some have area schools undertaken. at both the secondary and the postsecondary level that The Detroit Board of Education and the Council for regularly provide training for adults and out-of-school Youth Service sponsor a Job Upgrading Program for youth as an important part of their total programs. There 16- to 20-year-olds, under which students attend school are no such in Michigan other than the community 3 hours a day and work 24 hours a week. Thereare college; and in an all-day conference held at Michigan now 10 centers in operation serving approximately 1,000 State University on December 1, 1962, on the MDTA youth each year. This is good insofar as it goes, but program, the community college was scarcely considered there is a continuous long waiting list, and the number as a possible factor in the program. The baccalaureate being served is woefully inadequate in view of the thou- state schools are doing a little, but the high schools sands of 16- to 20-year-olds estimated to be out of school are expected to carry the main load. and unemployed. At this same conference, there was almost bittercom- The Chicago Board of Education has arranged work- plaint that industry is not providing equipment needed training programs for school dropouts witha number in training programs to the extent contemplated, and of Chicago business firms. The Double Eprogram consequently, government expenditures for equipment for Education and Employment was started with were running almost double the amount budgeted for Carson, Pirie, Scott & Company. It is now in its second the purpose. year and embraces such firms as Illinois Bell Telephone Michigan has not built up over the years the kind of Company, Science Research Associates, The Fair Store, vocational education system in terms of institutions, the Conrad Hilton Hotel, and the Continental Illinois curricula, teachers, and traditions that enables it to make National Bank and Trust Company. The Double T pro- the most of crash training programs. Perhaps if it had gram for Training and Tryout provides ground done so, we would not need the crash program so badly. training and jobs in such areas as food and hospital service and the needle trades. The Double C program The School Dropout for Census and Counseling will provide permanent Not all who leave school early fail to acquire a skill or school records of all Chicago dropouts and enable the to find some way by which tQ make a living. In fact, a schools to keep in touch with them. The academic end goodly number rise to high positions in business and of these programs is work related, and the teachers industry, government, and elsewhere; and many become concentrate on the development of vocational compe- 37 tence. On .the other hand, they stress the arts of self- The fourth is to "graduate" each youth, as he becomes expression, letter writing, and newspaper reading, and ready for it, into a job or training for a job, with provi- how to handle personal finance and to buy intelligently. sion for followup as necessary until he is 21 years of The total program has been pronounced a success, age.It is recognized immediately that these accomplish- but not a perfect success. Officials have noted that 32 of ments must be achieved with individuals, rather than the 108 dropouts cleared for the first year's program had with groups en masse. not been placed at the year's end. The usual manufac- These youth-salvaging experiments are worth while, turing jobs have been scarce, and new fields of employ- not only for the benefit of the few youth that they may ment must be found.Itisfelt, however, that this help directly, but for what the public and the schools problem can be met. may learn from them. In the last analysis, the conditions A businessman's organization in France, known as the that cause a youth to become a dropout must be met Society for the Defense and the Development of the and met early by the schools. The solutions must be Commerce and Industry of Marseilles, has been sponsor- preventative measures taken early; remedial measures ing a program of rehabilitation and training for under- taken later may only scratch the surface. privileged idle teenagers 14 to17 years old,since We said earlier that no youth should graduate from 1949. In the spring of 1962, 320 youth were in training high school without qualifying for his next role in life. under the program, and it was expected that the number We now say that no child or youth should be "promoted" would soon increase to 400. The instructors are not to any next step in school before he has acquired the regular school teachers.They are professionals and necessary prerequisitesto provide him a reasonable skilled workers with experience in youth movements. No chance for achievement at the new level. To promote an fixed study program is set up in advance because the unprepared child is a concealed acknowledgment that youth to be taught may be quite belligerent toward the school is failing in its service to the child. On the everything relating to school. In that case, the beginning other hand, to allow a child to "sit it out" at any grade must be with the elementary principles of discipline, level must not be tolerated. He must experience the honesty and truthfulness, cleanliness, and even modesty. satisfaction of achievement, some achievement other The actual program features both school education and than that of defeating both the teachers and the school manual training leading into the various vocational fields. and even getting graduated into oblivion. It is said that the program now has a body of alumni The question may be asked whether we are expecting and former sponsors of such size and influence that too much of our schools. Without debating the ques- placing the trainees is no longer a difficult matter.2 tion in the overall, we must insist that we are not ex- The foregoing programs can be quite helpful for those pecting enough of our schools in relation to the potential young people who have the educational requisites to take school dropout, although we may be expecting too much the training, but they are of no value to the hardened of the individual teacher.If the child will not respond functional illiterates. These youth must start with read- to the sincere efforts of a competent teacher, he should ing, writing, and arithmetic, as do illiterate adults. have the early help of others in the school who are The Cook County (Illinois) Department of Public spending all of their time in dealing with those like him. Aid has just launched a specially designed course em- This must be done within the framework of the school. bodying the use of specially prepared material and It will take organization, staff, and special equipment; electronic laboratory equipment for 40 selected func- but if the school fails, society may be called upon to tionally illiterate school dropouts. It is an important part take care of the dropout all the rest of his life. of the plan that each youth should progress as rapidly We must agree that vocational education alone is not as his abilities and interests dictate. The sponsorshave the solution to the problems of the potential school high hopes for the course. dropout; but industrial arts, manual training, or even If mass youth-salvaging programs, such as the pres- regular vocational courses may be the best vehicle upon ently proposed Youth Camp, are to accomplish much which a well-conceived rehabilitation program may be more than to keep youth off the streets for a period of built. Every program or combination of programs that time, they must do four things for him before he leaves the counselor thinks is best for the youth should be the program. The first is to provide him with the oppor- possible.If it is believed that he should have industrial tunity to learn how to work to experience the satis- arts or some special introductory vocational work out- faction of achievement by honest work for how to side his grade level, that should be possible.If it is felt work is something that everyone has to learn.The that it will benefit a physically mature youth to take second is to help the functional illiterate become literate an available part-time job and remain part timein so that he may be able to receive training for a job. The school, regardless of his age, that should be possible. It third is to acquaint him with the labor markets, both ought to be possible to allow a youth to take a full-time local and national, and teach him how to look for a job. job, under school supervision, with the provision that he supplement the job with related evening vocational train- 2"Training Program for School Dropouts," FranceActuelle (Paris) Vol. XI, no. 9 (May 1, 1962), p. 7. ing. There would need to be the further understanding 38 that if, for any reason, the youth shouldlose the job, a may need to be modified and administered differently new program would necessarily be workedout with than they have been in the past. Theyare the com- him. As a last resort; it might he consider'-necessary pulsory school attendance law and the child labor law. to assign a youth to some socialagency or to institutional Enough has been said about the former. care, but he still would be of concern to the school. The Michigan child labor law and its administration This proposal implies greater elasticityof school pro- need to be reexamined and recast, ifnecessary, to make grams and greater discretion on the part of school sure that they allow youth to take worthwhile jobs, jobs counselors and teachers in recommendingprograms for that will inspire pride and self- respect, as a part of a disadvantaged youth thannow generally exist. But it combined school-work program. Those who qualify for is not an idle pruposal born out of desperation. A num- man-size jobs and can pass an appropriate physicaltest, ber of state laws now provide for part-timework and at whatever age, should be eligible to take the jobs. Most part-time school attendance for the early school-leaver. ywith arrive at the time when theywant to learn to work The school attendance law in New York State, forex- before they are now allowed to work at challenging jobs, ample, provides thata youth may drop regular school and to be denied the right to doso is damaging. Surely, at 16 years of age provided that he has a job and also it is possible to devise ways of protecting youth from the takes 4 hours a week of schooling ina continuation evils of "child labor" without denying them the right school. He must continue the training until he becomes to have work experience at the time when theyare 17 years of age, when the law permitsany student to psychologically ready for it. We all have to learn to work, drop out of school.California law requires full-time just as we have to learn everything else thatwe come to attendance until age 18, except that at age 16 part-time know. attendance may be permitted at the rate of 3 hours a day if the student is unemployed or 4 hours a week if he Training and Retraining for is employed. Out-of-School Adults A number of the large cities in this country and abroad Out-of-school adults cannot be treatedas a homogeneous are conducting experiments in combined work and group. Their employment skills and abilities extend school programs. The Great Cities School Improvement from no skills at all to the highly technical. Toomany Program consists of experiments of various kinds aimed adults today are unemployed, andsome of the unem- at helping theculturally disadvantaged.New York ployed are at least temporarily unemployable.Some in / City has probably had the longest experience in trying all of these groups, from the highly skilled technicianto to meet the problem. The Higher Horizons Program, the functional illiterate, have need for vocational train- launched in 1956 and designed to keep students in ing. school, has now been extended to at least 65 elementary Formal apprenticeship programsare now training only and junior high schools. Another experiment in New about 12 percent of the skilled craftsr-n; and probably York City provides a half-day school and half-day work due to restrictive rules and regulations, the lengthof the program for those who are under 16 and who expect to training period, and the high cost of the trainingto both leave regular school at 16. Also, the continuation school the trainee and the employer, apprenticeship training is program is used to encourage 16-year-olds with jobs to on the decline. On-the-job training in modern business stay on after becoming 17 until their training is com- and industry is substantial, and business and industry pleted. may a,ways have to provide the final training in skills in Properly carried out, the above proposal wouldre- order to adapt the skills to particular needs. quire that every job-bound youth stay in schoolor in a More and more firms large enoughto do so are helping school program of training or of training and work, their employees upgrade their skills, acquaintingthem tailored to his needs and best interests, until he becomes with more than one job, and training them fornew jobs qualified for and moves successfully into employment. created by the introduction ofnew products. But the Qualifying for employment, rather than high school smaller firms and those without substantial researchand graduation, should be the goal. A youth determinedat development programs find such inside retrainingpro- any time to be unable to qualify for employment would grams difficult to carry out, and even the larger firms do necessarily be transferred to some socialagency, and not find it feasible to provide all of the training that their in any case, the responsibility of schools fora youth employees must have. The training istoo costly, and wouldnecessarily end when he reaches theage of trainees will be lost constantly to other firms who donot majority. There should be no earlierage 16, 17, or have training programs of theirown.Industry, there- 18, for example at which an unprepared youth may fore, is looking more and more to the schoolsto provide drop entirely from school. When such arbitraryage their employees with the prerequisites for training, all limits exist, the more important it is thata combined the way from training in job literacy to education in work-training program be provided. science and technology; the more advanced the ski'; the Before work-training programs such as proposed more education the schools must provide. The most above can be carried very far in Michigan, two laws significant fact, therefore, is the necessity for cooperation 39 The security provided by with the schools assuming and risking no new enterprise. by the schools and industry, hini to stay in the same the responsibility for teachingthe prerequisites for all the welfare check may cause the higher and more town or the same state whenhe ought not to do so. If a skills and the basic elements of work out well, there is all thetrouble technical skills, and industryassuming the primary re- new job does not semiskills or lesser skills and risk of delay in gettingback on the welfare roll. sponsibility for teaching the the trainee from skills to particular situations. Sometimes being in training removes and for adapting the higher and thereby stops his This cooperation should existthroughout the entire edu- the unemployed classification support from public sources. cational spectrum. retrainable people are Industry's efforts to alleviate the hardshipssuffered It is recognized that the most General Electric those who already have a skill.They know what a skill by those laid off may also miscarry. Company, for example, provides those laid offwith is, obviously have the ability tolearn a skill, and are what a skill can do for tuition refunds for training in new skills,lump-sum pay- motivated by the knowledge of vesting requirements in them. The possession of alearning technique and moti- ments for relocation, and lower important, within pensions;atthe same timeitencouragesrealistic vation are. proving to be far more benefit levels, gives 'reasonable limits, than the ageof the learner.Itis state unemployment compensation continues exceedingly important that technicaltraining and training one-half pay when state benefits run out, and life and medical insurance without cost forthe employee in skills needed by society beavailable to these people in their skills or acquire new and his family for a year after layoff.But in a great order that they may upgrade security overcomes skills and make their old jobsavailable, when they still number of cases, the urgent need for everything else, and the employee wants to stayaround exist, to others not so advancedin training as are they. for at least a year to see if by chance ajob will open up. This is important to society, eventhough it may not be benefit of the trainee'simmediate As long as his benefits last, it seemsthat he will avoid to the immediate taking a gamble; he will not move to a newlocation; employer. for em- and he will not learn a new skill,especially if the tuition The correct vocational education program that he could otherwise draw ployed adults, therefore, wouldsupply the training in payment uses up money society, and the training upon after hisunemployment benefits expire.3 skills and technology needed by rewards need to be and evening classes Somehow, by some manner, the would be offered in late afternoon than idleness. The issue within commuting distance of allwho are eligible to take for choosing enterprise rather becomes one not only of opportunitybut also of moti- it.Such classes must be designedfor adults, and the techniques used must be vation. What choices, other thanidleness, do the un- teaching methods and other which training is one, in their respective trades. employed have? What choices, of geared to adults experienced available to them? And how canthe The training should beprovided in postsecondary and can be made But some of the more unemployed be motivated to takethe risks involved in adult education institutions. idleness? Society needs provided by high schools or choosing something other than elementary training can be involving centers.Where postsec- to experiment furtherin providing choices their vocationaleducation not made work, but ondary or adult educationinstitutions do not exist, the training and public employment worthwhile work that every city, town, orcounty needs high schools must do the bestthey can to provide the to have done. Ourwelfare laws and administrative more advancedtraining. regulations should be redraftedwith the need for training TRAINING FOR THOSE INPROLONGED UNEMPLOYMENT and the need for somealternative to idleness included the same opportun- among the essentialconsiderations. Unemployed adults should have More and more thought :s adults, but the problems to This is not an idle dream. ities for training as employed Chronic unemployment, the be met in providing trainingfor them are far more acute being given to the problem. tendency for existence onwelfare to become a wayof and complex.Just as others, theunemployed must They must be able to life, and the ever-growing costof welfare make it urgent qualify for the training proposed. people into reemployment the written and spokenlanguage of that a way be found to move use and understand enable them to performworthwhile the job sufficiently well totake the training, and even more rapidly or to benefits. with the training, they musthave the personal qualities services in return for their We have in mind thoseunemployed who have ex- that will make them employable. compensation allowances It is not easy to disentanglethe problems involved in hausted their unemployment arising from em- and are living on some form ofgeneral aid. Who are training the unemployed from those needs, and what can be ployer-employee rules and relationshipsand from public these people? What are their unemployed may done about them? Every cityand community of sub- welfare policies and practices. The this problem. Many pilot try to hold out for the olajob a job that may never stantial size is concerned with skills and again exist for the sake of utilizing old 3Earl. S. Willis, "General Electric'sPlan for Financing Re- retaining seniority rights. Welfarerules and regulations training," Management Record, Vol.XXIV, no. 4 (April 1962), too often reward theunemployed for taking no chances p. 24. 4.0 studies and programs are being undertaken to determine fifth grade, but only 59.9 percent of them testedout as how best to cope with it. Butnone exceeds in thorough-. functionally literate.Functional literacy decreased al- ness, size, and imagination the effort being made by the most as the ages increased, with only 6.7 percent 'Cook County (Illinois) Department of PublicAid and of those 58 to 63 years of age testing outas functionally the Chicago Board of Education.1 Theprogram is based literate.Sixty percent of this age group had beenpro- on a very excellent and detailed study of thoseon per- moted through the fifth grade. manent aid." One conclusion drawn from the above must be that The Cook County (Illinois)experience. As of mid- a large majority of the 60,000 able-bodied adults living December 1962, 270,000men, women, and children in on public aid are quite unemployable by present-day Cook County were receiving public aid.They equaled industry and will never be employable without sub- 5.1 percent of the population of thecounty, or 7.5 per- stantial training. A few may be ready to train forsome cent of the population of the city of Chicago, and 25 vocational skill. These few are constantly being pressed percent of the Negro population; in fact, 82.2 percent into rehabilitation and training programs, but training of them were Negroes. Public aidto these people was for the majority must start with reading and arithmetic amounting to $15.7 milliona month. Of the sample of the fundamental tools for vocational learning. those of employable age studied, 680 in all, 87.6percent The Cook County study supports the observation that had either been born in Illinoisor had resided there over the postwar business recoveries have not resulted in re- 5 years, and 69.7 percent had either been born in Illinois employment of those squeezed down and out of employ- or resided there over 10 years.They were not pre- ment by the preceding business recessions as business dominantly newcomers, as is sometimes presumed. Half recoveries formerly did. The old jobs have remained of the sample group were between 26 and 40years of filled by other people, or they no. longer exist, and the age with an average age of 32.3 years. new jobs require qualifications that the unemployed do From the sample studied, it is estimated that approxi- not possess. mately 60,000 of the 270,000 receiving public aidare So we have a growing body of relatively young people. able-bodied adults of employableage, and that if these coming to live quite permanently on public aidas a way could be made employable and be placed in jobs,all of life. Most of them can read very littleor not at all, but 50,000 to 60,000, mainly the old and infirm,would and their only communication with the larger society is be removed from public aid. through the radio and television.They have become Of the 60,000 able-bodied adults that should beem- economically, socially, and culturally isolated from the ployable, approximately 19,000or 32 percent, were rest of society and are actually developing a more or men, and 41,000 or 68 percent were women, mostly less permanent way of life based on public, support and married and unmarried motherson aid for dependent yet apart from the society that provides the support. children. Almost 60 percent of those supported by public aid in In spite of the predominance of Negroes, thecommon Cook County are children, and children continue to be causal denominator one that runs throughout the born, in and out of marriage, and to be reared in this entire group is not race or color, as much ofa handi- isolated way of life. They are wholly unprepared eco- cap as these may be, but ignorance. Of the total sample, nomically, socially, or culturally to cope with school or 93.4 percent were reported as having been promoted any organization of the larger, outside society.The through the fifth grade and therefore should be function- isolated way of life, therefore, tends to become self- ally literate. But when measured by the New Stanford perpetuating and threatens to go on generation after Reading Test, only 49.3 percent were found to be func- generation at greater and greater public expense and at tionally literate, and most of these scoredso little above the same time to generate delinquency and crime against the minimum that serious reading difficultieswere indi- the larger society. cated."In fact, only 44 or 6.5 percent scored the The Cook County Department of Public Aid has its maximum, indicatingthatthey had completed the rehabilitation centers and job-placement programs,now learning of the basic fundamentals of reading.All of serving more than 13,000 persons, and the Chicago those of age 16 to 21 had been promoted through the Board of Education has its vocational education training centers for adults.But these do not reach the 60,000 1Comparable programs, although not so far along, are being able-bodied adults whose lack of elementary education conducted in Baltimore, Maryland, and in Norfolk, Virginia. disqualifies them for job training.Therefore, with the 5A Study to Determine the Literacy Level of Able-Bodied facts in hand, a program for training these illiterates Persons Receiving Public Assistance, prepared under the di- was rection of Dr. Deton J. Brooks, Jr., Director of Research and worked out with the Chicago Board of Education, and Statistics, Cook County Department of Public Aid (Chicago: publicly announced in March 1962.The Board of The Department, August 1, 1962), 166 pp. Education supplies the teachers and curricula, and the 6Even 37.9 percent of the 504 reported as having completed Department of Public Aid screens and supplies the the 8th grade and 21 percent of the 87 reported as having been graduated from high school tested out as functional illiterates. trainees and provides the large amount of social service These 191 made up 55.4 percent of the functional illiterates. that must accomppny the training. 41 It is a part of the program that those selected for A more promising suggestionisthat publicaid training must accept the training or forfeit their eligibility recipients be given the choice of working-or training. for public aid. Thus far, however, acceptance of training and class attendance have been good, so that the with- Guidance and Counseling holding of aid has not become an issue. It is obvious that an ideal schoolprogram must count As of December 1962 approximately 8,000 adults heavily upon guidance and counseling, with emphasison were in training under this program, and 10,000 more the personal and cultural during the student's earlyyears, were screened and ready for training. Two hundred and and with more and more emphasison the vocational as ten experienced teachers, mostly moonlighters from the the student moves into the high school and post-high- Chicago schools, were providing the instruction. school years. Indeed, the program requiresa quantity The results have surpassed expectations. Unlike young and quality of counseling scarcely yet attained, and it children, adults have acquired a spoken language and, assumes an availability of information about present and therefore, do not have to stop and verbalize as much as future job openings that does not yet exist. do children in learning to read. When they once get the Every child is an individual and is entitledto indi- idea of letters, sounds, and words, they may acquire in vidual counsel and guidance concerning preparationfor a matter of weeks as much as will children in several his next probable step in life. What should be hispro- years.Also, different adults will advance at different gram in view of his ambitions,abilities, and short- rates. comings? What is the right program for the especially Because of this and because adults will progress faster able, or for the culturally, socially, intellectually,or if they are permitted to read in terms of their own ex- physically disadvantaged? Theanswers are individual perience, the conventional elementary reading books are answers upon which a great deal may depend. of little value, and new appropriate reading materials A very important and difficult part of guiding the must be devised. 1 nerefore, 40 Chicago teachers spent child is counseling with his parents. The prestige of going the summer of 1962 preparing new course materials, to college is so great in our society that almost all based on the experience of the preceding months. parents want their children to go to college.It is rare Thus far, all of the trainees are in the prevocational that a parent can be objective, realistic, or understanding training stage. As they become functionally literate, they concerning his child's limitations and shortcomingsor should be transferred into the existing adult vocational special talents. training programs and finally into jobs. For most of the The amount of job information needed by counselors trainees, these transitionswill- be big steps, and an is phenomenal it extends all ',he way from knowledge enormous amount of wise counseling and guidance will of jobs immediately available for the lesser skilled and be needed to help them take each step. the unemployed to knowledge of probable trends in jobs The Department of Public Aid sees no reason why at for the more highly skilled and the technician. least 50,000 of the estimated 60,000 able-bodied men We cannot accept unqualifiedly the bald statement, so and women now receiving public aid cannot be brought often made, that training does not and even cannot into the training program provided that the public under- create jobs, nor can we accept unqualifiedly the com- stands the social and economic importance of doing so. panion statement that training must be only for im- The immediate problem, of course, is that of finance. mediately foreseeable jobs.It was found in Denver, for Will the Board of Education be provided with the funds example, that the knowledge that older workers were requiredfortheneededteachers,curriculum, and being trained for garden and yard service uncovered a facilities? Will the Department of Public Aid be provided demand for such service; people had not been asking the funds for carrying its part of the program of testing, for garden and yard workers because of having become screening, and counseling? We can only trust that if the convinced that no such workers were available. New public is well informed, it will intelligently vote in terms skills are. resources available to enterprisers.But itis of the larger good. essential for the sake of both high individual motivation Thereis a strong feeling growing throughout the and good social investment that training lead to jobs, not country that able-bodied recipients of public aid should 10 years hence, but reasonably soon. It is important that be required to work for their public support whenever jobs requiring the lesser training he well defined and thatis possible. We should insist that such work be immediately available, particularly for the unemployed worthwhile work of value and not meaningless made trainee.Jobs requiring post-high-school technical train- work; that it should be rehabilitating work, work that ing, on the other hand, may not need to be defined so encourages self-respect and dignity in the worker. The specifically or availAble immediately., they must real real danger in such a program is that it might lend itself possibilities, nevertheless. to the development of slave labor and a permanent way Arthur Silverman,Vocational Training of the Unskilled of life based on slave labor; not much better than a way ( Milwaukee: Milwaukee County Department of Public Welfare of life based on free public aid. 1November 17,19601), 13 pp., mimeographed. 42 It is most important, therefore, that every counselor them would constitute and individual trainee have a substantial study in itself, but access to the most up-to-date a few examples may be given. employment informationthat society can provide con- What do we know aboutthe learning processes of cerning existing jobs andjob prospects and probabilities. youth, adults, or sc.-poi dropoutsin view of their cultural There is little doubt thatan expansion of this service and social backgrounds, theirexperiences of success would constitutea valuable social investment and that or the service is failure, and the kinds ofmanipulative skillsto be a proper one for government to render. learned? Much essential information is,in fact, now beingas- What do we know about sembled; but it is made available curriculum building for too late, and proper teaching manipulative skills? use is not being made of it. With We are finding again in an improvement in the implementing the ManpowerDevelopment and Training technique for gathering data,and with our new ability Act programs that a competenttradesman from industry to process data rapidly bymeans of the computer, job or a trade teacher from high schoolis handicapped analyses and prospects couldbe made available to frequently to the point of completefrustration for lack counselors more currently than theynow are. of an organized curriculum and The provision of better course materials for the job information and the de- course undertaken. There needs to bea state curriculum velopment of mature counselorswho have adequate laboratory designed to plan and psychological and vocational to help teachers plan knowledge and experience curricula for newcourses, and the curricula need to be are two long-term problems thatcannot be ignored. kept on file in a curriculum library forreference and use by new teachers and those buildingcurricula for new Research inVocational Education courses. We know from the experience in otherstates that the number ofcourses for training skills in industry There is developing for the firsttime a serious nationwide can run into the hundreds. interest in research in vocationaleducation; and Mich- What makes a good teacherin the various vocational igan finds itself in the vanguardof the new research. The State Division of Vocational Education fields? What kinds of teachertraining produce the best has one full- teachers in the different vocational time research consultant anda small research staff. The areas? Beyonda Certain point,isit simply more subject-matter consultant and the staff dosome research on their own, skills, but the chief purpose is more teaching methods, or more liberalarts and cultural to stimulate research by the courses that are needed? Does teacher training universities and colleges and alsoby the high schools need to differ for the teaching of differentskills and vocations? and other institutions teachingvocational skills. Several How can we improve market andjob information for research projectsare .now in process, but the majorac- better counseling? For thatmatter, what makes a good complishment has been the MichiganVocational Edu- counselor, and how can he be trained?There are endless cation Evaluation Project, whichthe State Division of experiments to be conducted withindustry in order to Vocational Education has largelyfinanced. The Project know how best to serve industry andhow industry may has been under way for about 3years and is now almost contribute to training. completed. What research projects The Evaluation Project has are most worth while at any been conducted under given time? A briefsurvey made by one of the task the general direction of MichiganState University and forces of the Michigan Vocational EducationEvaluation headed by Professor LawrenceBorosage of the College Project has disclosed that most of theresearch done up of Education, but almost all of themajor universities and to the present time in Michigan has been in thefields of more than 200 educators of the state have hada part in it. The findings agriculture and home economics, and thatvery little are sure to be of great value, but the indeed has been done in interest aroused by the large participation the fields of trade and industry may be of and business education. Surely, research in even greater consequence. In fact, the trade and even before the proj- industry and business education fields shouldbe high ect is actually completed, other studiesare stemming on the list of studies needed. from it: There has been organized Early in 1963 Michigan State a Michigan Educational University was granted Research Council, and the Evaluation a $211,000 contract by the United Prdjt:ct is likely States Department to suggest or recommend that this Councilbe strength- of Labor's Office of Manpower,Automation, and Train- ened so that research proposals ing to conducta three-year research project may he submitted to it on retraining for appraisal as to timeliness, feasibility,and probable unemployed workers. The goalis to determine whether value, with the further expectationthat the Council may retraining programs confernet economic advantages he able to help find funds upon the individual participants, society to finance those proposals as a whole, and deemed of most likely value. The lead the government budget, and if Michigan has so so, how large such net recently taken in vocational education research advantages may be. can be of inestimable value to industrial, growth The whole area of vocational and employ- education bristles with ment in the future. Appreciation of its worth questions that need to be answered. and its Any attempt to list encouragement and support are important. 43 Vocational Education Teachers circumstances, we consider it fortunate that teachers in Michigan's community colleges, like teachers in its four- One of the most stubborn problems to be met in the year colleges and universities, are not nowrequired to expansion of vocational education is the limited supply hold certificates, as they formerly were. of competent teachers. Full-time vocational education teachers in the Michi- Subject-matter competence is a primary requisite for gan high schools are generally required to hold the same any teacher, but particularly forthe vocational teacher. certificates as other teachers. Exceptions can be allowed, For certain preparatory courses such as agriculture, however, and a vocational teacher may be granted a home economics, industrial arts,office training, and temporary certificate to teach the particular coursesof some distributive education courses asatisfactory depth his trade in adult training programs. of subject matter may be acquired in college. But occu- The present elasticity in certification requirements for pational .subject matter in many trades and industries is vocational education teachers should be retained until not taught in college, and if it were,quite generally it more is known about what makes a good vocational would soon become out of date. With rare exception, teacher,Furthermore, itwill facilitate recruitment of depth of subject matter in these fields can be acquired the increased number of vocational education teachers and maintained only through occupationalexperience. who are going to be needed as vocational education Even if an individual should know that he would like comes to assume the load that is inevitably ahead. to do occupational teaching, he would have grave diffi- Few states have met the problem of occupational culty in acquiring simultaneously the necessary expe- teacher qualifications and certification adequately. To rience in industry and the academic and teacher training do so will be a real challenge to the vocational educator. courses usually required for a degree and ateacher's California has worked outa "broad-based teacher certificate.Furthermore, few people in industry are licensure structure" for vocational teachers, and it claims aware that they might become teachers; they aresought to have arrived at patterns of recruitment, selection, out and recruited because there is no other source of training, and placement that work fairly well. Problems supply.Only then do they become concerned with persist, however, particularly in relation to salary scales. academic and teacher training subjects. At best, such This is accomplished by two devices: a series of con- beginning teachers are faced with years of extension tractual agreements with teacher preparation institutions and summer classes, and they Must frequently return to paid for out of vocational education funds; and the industry in order to bring their vocational knowledge assignment of staff members of the state department, and skills up to date. some at headquarters and some on the campusesof the The problemofacquiring competent vocational teacher training institutions, to coordinate and assistin teachers is aggravated by the traditions and standards the teacher' preparation process. that have developed in the teaching profession. Rank, One wonders about paying public institutionsfor prestige, status, and salary scales are geared to yearsof conducting teacher training programs when that would schooling, degrees obtained, and seniority.Further- seem to be their publicduty, even though such con- more, the salary scale for teachers may not compare tractual arrangements have been the national pattern favorably with journeymen's pay, and teachers' pay since the inception of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. raises may be smaller and more infrequent. Why should Evalu- full-time teaching under As a part of the Michigan Vocational Education any skilled journeyman shift to tion Project, the reacher traininginstitutions of Mich- these circumstances? igan were frankly asked whether they wouldcontinue Part-time vocational teachers who teach a special financial while remaining in industry offering the teacher training programs if the course or an extension class withdrawn. They do compensation, for so doing were gradually fare better than full-time occupational teachers. Enough of the institutions said that they would sothat not expect to become a part of theteaching fraternity. the Project has recommended to theState Board of Their combined pay is beam.. They have lessdifficulty Control that it adopt the following policies: in keeping up in their skills. And they usually are not of voca- held to the same certification reqtarements asthe full- a. Th:it reimbursement on present programs time teachers. tional teacher education be reduced over a three-year reim- One of the reasons why area and professional voca- period so that by the school year 1964-65 general tional schools are sometimes favored over the compre- bursement would be eliminated. hensive public schools, including the community colleges b. That beginning 1964-65, reimbursement he pro- in some states, is' that the former may have the greater vided only for those services that are cqnsidered essen- freedom in selecting and hiring teachers for their subject- tial to the promotion and further development of vo- matter competence and skills without being tieddown cational education, and which services would notbe too much by certification requirements, salaryscales. provided adequately without such reimbursement.The and prestige considerations that have grown up in the findings of the Project study suggest that includedin academic teaching world.Because of the foregoing these services might be the following: 44 Assisting teachers, counselors,and coordinators service that the teacher training institutions should be through visits to localprograms. able to provide. Occupational teachersmust be recruited from industry, and they must be provided with in-service Developing and distributing instructionalmaterials training as a part of their total teacher trainingprogram. (including programmed materials). Without such in-service training, adequate recruitment of satisfactory teachers from industry cannot successfully be Conducting in-servicetrainingconferencesfor carried out. teachers, counselors, and coordinators. Furthermore, vocational education teachers; justas industrial employees, live under the threat of having The services most needed andto be reimbursed under their occupational skills become obsolete, and it oughtto this plan might be expectedto change as the needs be reasonably feasible for them to acquirenew occupa- change. Reimbursement for servicesprovided under this tional teaching skills while on the job. arrangement should cover all costs.This policy could Some of our state schools Michigan State Uni- be implemented, in part, beginning withthe school year versity, Ferris State College, Northern Michigan Univer- 1962-63. sity, and perhaps others should build appropriate c. That at least 25 percent of the funds budgeted for training programs for teachers of occupational skillsas teacher education be designated for researchand experi- has long since been done for teachers of agriculture and mentation.Teacher education institutions should be home economics, and as some institutions (most recently invited to submit proposals with the understandingthat Ferris State College) have already startedto do.It in- any proposal accepted may be financed in full through volves some changes in the formal academic requirements the use of these funds. for degrees for occupational vocational teachers, and it The Project further recommended thata committee be requires some new procedures. The appropriate educa- appointed by the State Board to review andrecommend tional value of occupational skills hasto be recognized, to the State Director proposals for research and experi- as has that of agriculture and home economics. Journey- mentation which should be funded underc above.' men who enter the teacher training program should The State Board of Control is already putting the receive credit for the skills acquired in industry. recommendations into effect, andsome additional re- The usual teacher education courses required should search is being sponsored and financedout of the funds be confined to those that are relevant. The training made available. institution must make arrangements with industry to We ,strongly support the recommendations, including provide the trainee with the practical instruction and those of paragraph h proposing the continuation of the experience needed in his chosen occupational skill. This use of contracts for certain essential services that might might involve employment during summersor even for not otherwise be provided. The great need that teachers, extended periods during the regular school year. Practice counselors, and coordinators have for help in keeping teaching must necessarily be done in schools teaching up with the fast march of the vocations and the teaching the skills, much as elementary and secondary practice of vocations justifies the visits from the teacher training teaching is now done.There must be a cooperative institutions. We have already referred to thegreat need program carried on by the training institution the for help in writing curricula and instructional material vocational school or comprehensive high school and for new programs and revising oldprograms. This is a business and industry

"Ralph C. Wenrich, A Study to Determine More Effective Kays of Using State and Federal Vocational Education Funds in the Further Development of Vocational Teacher Education in Michigan, a part of the Michigan Vocational Education Evaluation Project (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Office of Research Administration, June 1962), pp. 24 and 25. 45 Part II. Systems ofVocational Education in Certain Selected States ERECEDING PAGEBLANK- NOTFILMED

VI. Development ofVocational-Technical Schoolsin Connecticut BY EMMETT O'BRIEN'

The State Trade Schools The Beginning This act provided that building, equipment,courses of study, and teacher qualifications be The state system of vocational-technicalschools in subject to the Connecticut was established in1910. In 1903 the approval of the State Board of Education,and that schools operated under the provisions of the Governor appointed a commission "toinvestigate prac- act would tical means and methods ofIndustrial and Technical receive state reimbursement for one-half thecost of Education." This commission reportedto the 1905 support and maintenance not to exceed $50,000an- nually. This "state aid" was to be extended during session of the General Assembly. Inthe light of later the succeeding 2 years to notmore than two schools. developments, the following statements containedin the report are especially significant. It will be noted that this law, passed in 1907,pro- "The need for schools of thissort seems to your vided only for "state aid" to towns, but perhapsmore significantly, it stressed the following: commission to be immediate andpressing. Connecticut's record in industrial life isone of which our citizens are 1.Free instruction to any state resident justly proud. The inventive capacity ofsons of Connecti- 2.State approval of courses to be offered cut is recognized everywhere. The skill ofour workmen, 3.State approval of the facilities and standards of members of a generation aboutto pass off the stage, training is beyond dispute. This natural adaptabilityand this 4.State approval of teacher qualifications acquired skill have been prominent factorsin develop- 5. A plan for regional orarea service for trade ing and maintaining the prosperity andgood repute of schools our Commonwealth." And further, "Your commission Furthermore, in the administration of theprogram, the has been moved to advocate the assumptionby the town school boards were considered agencies of the state of a part of the burden of the establishment and state. maintenance of trade schools in order that thestate The program provided for by the act failedto be may justly insist that instruction be free to all hersons. implemented by any community or group of communi- If the schools were maintained by thetowns exclusively ties. In 1909, therefore, the General Assembly, feeling itis fair to suppose that the advantages wouldbe en- that action should not be delayed longer, repealed the joyed only by the residents of the largertowns and this permissive feature of the 1907 law and "authorized would be a calamity." and directed the State Board of Educationto establish As a result of the work of the 1903 commission and two such schools in towns best adapte i for thepur- its report, the 1907 session of the General Assembly poses." enacted legislation "concerning the establishment of free These schools were to be free public schools andwere public schools for insruction in the principles andprac- to provide both day and evening instruction in the "arts tices of trades." This act authorized any town or school and practices of trades." The Boardwas authorized district to establish and maintaina free public school directly to establish, organize,manage, and supervise in the principles and practices of such tradesas might, such schools, and to expend notmore than $50,000 with the approval of the State Board of Education,be per year for the purpose. designated by the local school authorities. Such schools, A town in which a school was located was required if and when organized,were "to be open to all residents of this state." supply a building and maintain it, including thecost of heat, light, and power, and one-half of the janitorial 1 Director of the Division of Vocational Edo:ation. (7'on- service; the state would equip the building andpay the nectieut State Department of Education. salaries of the teachers. 49 The State Board, having $100,000 at its disposal, The essential parts of the new policy were as follows. oroceeded to establish such schools in New Britain and A broadened program of general education was to be Bridgeport. adopted. The schools were to educate as well as to train. Subsequently, it established 11 additional schools as A program of instruction was adopted whereby 50 follows: percent of the student's time in school was to he spent Putnam 1913 in general and related instruction and 50 percent in Torrington and Manchester 1915 shopwork and in related trade theory. Four years each Danbury 1917 of English, social studies, science, and mathematics were Meriden 1918 to be taught. There were also to be guidance services Stamford 1919 and health and physical education in each school. The Middletown 1925 school day was to be cut from 8 hours to 61/2 hours, and Willimantic 1928 the school year to 10 months. The names of the schools Hartford 1929 were to be changed from "State Trade Schools" to Norwich 1942 "Vocational-Technical Schools," prefixed by the name Waterbury 1953 of some individual prominent in the community because Hamden 1956 of his contribution to industry, government, or educa- These schools ran 8 hoursa day, 51/2 days a week. tion. For example, the State Trade School of Hartford Students and teachers rang time clocks. The school became the A. I. Prince Vocational-Technical School. year was 50 weeks with 2 weeks' vacation for students Mr. Albert I. Prince was an editor of the Hartford Times and instructors. Only major national holidays were and for many years had served as Chairman of the observed. There were no other vacation periods. State Board of Education. Students were admitted at any time during the year and were graduated individually at the end of 4,800 State to Provide Buildings hours of satisfactory performance. Two-thirds of the In.1947 a question arose concerning the facilities in time was spent on shopwork. The other one-third was which these schools were operated. It was considered devoted to "related work"blueprint reading and shop impossible to conduct the new-type program in the old mathematicstaught inrelation to the tradework in elementary schools, factory buildings, and other make- the shop and limited in scope and depth of content. shift structures in which the trade schools had been There was little general education taught. A primary operating. The Legislature, therefore, at the request of purpose of the program was to produce, under school the Board, amended the enabling act to permit the auspices, an atmosphere as nearly similar to that in state to build its own buildings. In 1948 a 10-year, long- industry as possible. range program was adopted to provide new modern There was very little selection of students, guidance buildings, well equipped and in good locations.In services were limited, and it was common practice for 1949 three schools were requested. The Legislature ap- the sending schools to refer to the state trade schools proved five, although the $7 million appropriated for those students who were not academically minded. The them was the amount requested for the three schools. dropout rate was high. Insubsequentlegislation,from 1949to 1961, In spite of the limited character of the program, $43,238,500 has been appropriated, the funds being concentrating as, it did on shopwork, the schools gradu- raised mostly by bond issues. ated many fine young men who became successful me- It is important to note that in the development of chanics and solid citizens of their communities. It is not this new program we first set up a statewide citizens' uncommon today to find many of these graduates in consulting committee, composed of 17prominent positions of importance in the industries of Connecticut. people selected from industry, labor, education, and the public. The committee voted to support the pro- The Vocational-Technical Schools gram, and so informed the State Board ofEducation. A Broadened Program In addition to the statewide committee, local con- Over the years many changes in social, economic, and sulting committees were established in each area Where technological conditions took place, and the programs a school was proposed. These local committeesusually in the state trade schools did not keep pace with these appointed several subcommittees such as site commit- changes. The schools were doing a good job of trade tees, curriculum committees, and legislative committees. training, but they were neglecting the development of Also, every statewide organization of any significance the individual student. His potentials were not being was provided with a copy of the program, and someone realized, and the instruction was not such as to offer from the vocational division met with them to explain the a challenge to the better students. The heads of some program whenever the opportunity to do sooccurred. schools believed that some revisions were inorder. In the beginning, the town in which the school was Accordingly in1945, the State Board of Education to he located was required to provide the site.Diffi- adopted a changed policy. culties developed inseverallocalities over the sites. 50 however, and in 1951 the Legislature provided that the operating grant providedto the town whereby the state state should purchase the sites. pays for the "excess cost" of providing vocational When the state took over the construction of the new agriculture, includingyoung farmer and adult farmer buildings and the purchase of sites, it assumed the en- programs. The law also provides fora consulting tire cost of plant and operations.The new buildings committee, advisory to the local board are modern and well equipped, and in which the are in dignified center is located and made up of 1representative for locations. They have libraries,combination auditoriums each 50 farmers in thearea. and gymnasiums, cafeterias, science laboratories, class- The vocational-technical schoolsareall rooms, and plenty of parking regional spacea far cry from secondary schools. Forsome courses, such as tool and the old days whenany old factory building was con- diemaking, a 13th year is required. sidered good enough for housinga trade school. Transfer from a local high schoolto a vocational- technical school may be made Use of Statewide CurriculumCommittees at any time, butis usually made at the beginning ofa school year. The The program is kept up to date by the use of statewide vocational-technical school makes the finaldecision to curriculum committees, which workclosely with craft admit a student, butevery attempt is made to get agree- committees from the industries. There issuch a com- ment, on a guidance basis, between thetwo schools. mittee for each trade or subject matter in the curricu- Similarly, transfers can be made from thevocational- lum. Each committee has a resource person attached to technical school back to the high schoolon agreement itusually a director, assistant director, or some person between the two schools. A transferstudent must be especially qualified in that field. Thecoordinating link in good standing and be recommendedby the principal with the local community is the local advisory or of the sending school. Previous schoolrecord, attend- consulting committee, appointed by theCommissioner ance, punctuality, citizenship, and test resultsare the of Education. These committeesare made up of mem- basis for the transfer. bersfrom management and organizedlabor(not It should be noted that three ocational-technical necessarily equally represented), schoolpeople in the schools, located in areas where thereare junior high area, and the general public. It should be understood schools, admit students from the end of the ninthgrade that all policies are finally made by theState Board of only. In other such schools,an exploratory period in Education. the ninth grade is provided. The State Board of Education is madeup of nine The vocational schoolsare not designed to qualify members, one representing each of the eightcounties, students for admission to college, althoughsome stu- and one representing the stateat large. The members dents are admitted to engineering collegeson an indi- are appointed by the Governor for overlappingterms vidual basis by comprehensive examinations.In fact, of 6 years, three being appointedevery other year. about 10 percent of the graduates dogo or to higher The present makeup of the Board is fivemen and four education. women. The present chairman is an industrialist and The vocational-technical school students inboth day banker from New Haven. and evening classes pay no tuition. A mandatorytrans- The Commissioner is appointed by theState Board portation act requires the local hoard of educationto on a continuing contract. The Division of Vocational pay for daily transportation to the vocational school, the Education is on a par with three other divisions, and state reimbursing the town for 50 percent of thecost. the director of each divisionreports directly to the Maximum reimbursable transportationcostis $300, Commissioner. Each directorisa member of the but a local hoard may pay more than this if itso desires. Administrative Council, which, in effect,serves as the If at any time the transportationcost is $200 or over, Commissioner's Cabinet. The organization chart of the local board may elect topay maintenance. the Division of Vocational Education isshown on the Each vocational- technical school hasa guidance following page. counselor; he is usually someone who has qualified for All trade and industrial education, both dayand guidance while a member of the staff ofa vocational- evening,isprovided by the state. Other vocational technical school. He worksvery closely with the coun- programs, such as agriculture, home economics, and selors in the sending schools. We have frequent meetings distributive education, are operated under localboards of the counselors in our schools, andwe sometimes have of education in local high schools andreimbursed from combined meetings of counselors and industrialists of federal funds. Consultative services foragriculture, the area. home economics, and distributive educationare pro- We use the State Employment Service, andour use vided from the Central Office of theVocational Division of itis increasing. We have foryears put the respon- in the State Department of Education. sibility for placement on the school, which keepscon- There is a state law providing for theconstruction stant contact with industry. We place better than 90 of vocational agriculture facilities bya town or center, percent of our graduates in trades for which theyare reimbursed 100 percent by thestate. There is also an trained.

51

It CONNECTICUT STATE DEPARMENT OF ORGANIZATION CHART Hartford EDUCATION DIVISION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ASSISTANT DIRECTOR DIRECTOR 1-- RESEARCHEXECUTIVE CONSULTANT ASSISTANT ACCOUNTANTFACILITIES AUDITOR PLANNING State Technical InstitutesNorwalkHartfordBureau of Technical Institutes, Chief AdultTradeBureau14 Vocational-Technical EducationPreparatory of Vocational-Technical Programs Courses Schools Schools, Chief Agricultural EducationYoungSchoolBureau ProgramsFarmer of Vocational and Adult Services, Courses Chief Curriculum DevelopmentNorwichWaterburyBridgeport (proposed) TeacherIndustrialSchoolCurriculumLicensed Education ServicesLibrary,Supervisory Practical Development Nurse Training Training Physical Education DistributiveHome Economics Education EducationCooperativeAdult Classes High School Training PersonnelEveningindustrial Technical Contacts InstituteHartford Program - Stamford and Health, Guidance. Audio-Visual. Special Services StateAdultSecondary Employee ( lasses School Training Programs NorwichHamdenNewMeriden Britain Bridgeport TorringtonWaterburyNorwalkDanbury SchoolFireman Custodian Training Training We have experience in .training the unemployedand one of our vocational-technical in training fornew industries. The instruction schools we have pro- may be vided a special classroomfor this activity. These classes, given by our regularteachers, or wemay employ teach- ers from industry. We provide known as PTX (part-timeextension), are usually in the the latter teachertrain- evening, although ing throughour supervisory staffs. some of them, where the employer We do not have sends the apprentice for4 or 8 hours and pays him,are a good system of followupon our in the daytime. dropouts. Many whodrop out get jobs andreturn to our schools for evening instruction. As a part of our trade andindustrial education pro- Some failuresare gram, we maintain a staff of four due to inability- to reador to handle mathematics, and people to conduct supervisory training inindustries. These in some of theseinstances, dropoutsreturn to the send- programs are provided in the plants andare usually held on company ing school formore instruction, even thoughwe do time.They include suchcourses as quality control, provide remedial workin subjects suchas reading and mathematics. human relations, job simplification,and job instructor Our graduate training. This service isin considerable demand. The surveys provide a measure ofour per- general idea is that formance, andwe learn from them what needs we train certain designated people strength- who in turncan train others. In this way, the ening and what changesshould be made. We planto program close out programs that can fan out to covera large number of people. The become outmodedor obsolete. companies that we New programsare carefully considered by serve pay the cost of travel and curriculum clerical service incidentalto the classes. and craft committees andmust be approved by the State Board of Education. We conduct alsoa fireman training program for the fire departments of thestate, A full-time man,a former battalion chief ofone of our large cities, supervises the Teacher Training for program, and he employs other Vocational-Technical Schools instructors to conduct regional training schoolsfor local departments.We An important aspect ofour program is teacher training. make arrangements with theUnivers;ty of Connecticut Each new instructor is urgedto matriculate in a bach- to conduct a fire college eachyear, which involves fire elor's degreeprogram at one of several state colleges. chiefs, fire marshals, andother top administrative offi- Basic instructor training,required for certification, is cers. In the program we have investigativeofficers, fire given by members ofour central office staff, whoare insurance officials,experts in arson, and otherswho affiliated members of thecollege faculty. More than conduct a series of lecturesfor administrative officials. one-half of the teachers inour schools have at lea t the Another service, providedfor the public schools of bachelor's degree. the state, is aprogram for school custodians, in which Graduate programsare provided at severalstate instruction is givenon the care and maintenance of colleges and the stateuniversity. Because all ofour public property. Instructorsin the program areour own administrators are promotedfro.-.1 within the ranks,our vocational- technical schoolstaff(carpenters,electri- people are encouragedto take advanced degrees. Our cians, and plumbers),as well as experienced custodial directors are required to have a bachelor's degree plus supervisors and representativesof companiesmanu- 30 semester hours. Twoof our present directorsare facturing cleaning fluids,pneumatic systems, and the graduates of our schools whohave gone on to get their like.This program is offered duringvacation periods bachelor's and master'sdegrees, and inone case, the and consists of fourcourses which are progressive in doctorate. character and operate forapproximately 1 week each. It should be noted that,because all of theseprograms Evening School andAdult Programs are state operated, considerable flexibilityis present. A most important partof our operation isour evening Transfer of personnel anduse of our state-owned build- ings make it easy to determine school adultprogram, which is operated inevery school. the need for aprogram The program is flexible,and new couises requested by and to start it without unduedelay. Approval of local boards and local superintendents unions or others,can be started promptly. Whenpro- is not required, and grams are large enough, theyare supervised by assistant there are no geographicallimitations resulting inques- directors.In other cases, theyare supervised by day tions as to whopays tuition and other costs. school instructors, whoserve on a per diem basis. Before a class is started,we must be assured that it will The Technical InstituteProgram have an enrollment of 15students.If the average daily In 1956 and 1957 attendance falls below 10 we promoted a research studyon and there areno mitigating the "Need for Technicians in circumstances, the class isclosed. Connecticut." The study was prepared by our Department anda committee from Working closely with theState Labor Department Connecticut industry; and theinterviewing was done by Apprenticeship Division,we provide technical and re- personnel from industry. Theresults were reported in lated instruction for apprenticesin industry. In each "Bulletin No. 82, State Departmentof Education." 53 indicated the need for The Norwich and WaterburyInstitutes will offer the As a result of this study, which electrical, and tool technicians, the State Board requestedfrom the Legis- basic technologies of mechanical, chemistry. lature funds, raised by bond issues,for four technical technology, and probably industrial Technical institute day students paytuition of $100 institutes. evening students pay $5 per course. The technical institute is a two-yearpostsecondary a year, and -science; it is in- school emphasizing mathematics and Evening Technical InstitutePrograms tended to train engineering aideswho work under the direction of a graduate engineer.Graduates occupy Although the day programs of instructionin both the such jobs as design draftsmen, testtechnicians, quality vocational-technical schools and the technicalinstitutes control technicians, sales engineers,methods engineers, are of primaryimportance, the evening school programs and a host of similar assignments. of adult education have specialsignificance. These eve- The Legislature granted funds forinstitutes at Hart- ning programs provide instruction to personsalready ford, Norwalk,' Waterbury, andNorwich. The Hartford employed who come to our schoolsfor the purpose of State Technical Institute has beenin existence since upgrading their skills and adding totheir technical )46.It operated in temporary quartersuntil 1960, knowledge.In addition, itis possible for an evening when it moved into a new buildingespecially designed school student to qualify in about 5 yearsfor a diploma for it.The Norwalk State Technical Institutestarted from a technical institute. Theevening schools serve operation in September 1962.Construction of both the more than twice as manystudents as the day schools. Norwich Institute and the WaterburyInstitute was started in June 1962, and theseinstitutes will be in Teacher Training forTechnical Institutes operation in, the fall of 1963. All teachers in the technicalinstitutes must have a is ECPD The Hartford State TechnicalInstitute degree in engineering, science, ormathematics, two Professional Develop- approved (Engineers' Council for courses in professionalpreparation for teaching, and 3 ment). We expect to request approvalfor the additional years' experience in incligtry.%.nior instructors and institutes when they have met the requirement(5 years) department heads must have also4 years of successful for ECPD approval. teaching experience in a technicalinstitute.Directors The State Board of Education votedin May 1962 to uthd assistant directors musthave the degree, 30 semes- grant associate degrees inapplied science to the gradu- ter hours of professionaltraining, and 5 years of teach- ates of the state technicalinstitutes. ing in an industrial or technicalinstitute. In the development of theseinstitutes we relied heavily on citizens' consultingcommittees and sub- Summary establishing voca- committees, similar to those used in Connecticut's modern vocational-technicalschools have curricula, tional-technical schools. They suggested the developed from the old-time tradeschool. course names anddescriptions, sites, and the general The technical institute programhas been a logical laboratories. Their counsel layout of the buildings and and natural developmentgrowing out of the needs of value in the development of these was of incalculable industry. institutions. The findings of a survey of thegraduates of the tech- In the spring of the year 1962 we set up a newstate- nical institute in Hartford madein 1961 support the wide Consulting Committee on Industrialand Technical opinion that the technical. instituteis a proper institu- Education composed of top-level people fromindustry, tion for Connecticut. labor, education, and the generalpublic.This com- Consulting committees ofinterested and competent mittee is advisory to the StateDirector, the Commis- citizens have been a key factorin the development of sioner of Education, and the StateBoard. our program oftrade and industrial education. The programs offered at the HartfordInstitute are Operation of the trade andindustrial program di- mechanical technology with ametallurgical option, rectly by the state is desirablefor the following reasons: determined at a electrical technology with an electronicsoption, tool 1.Policies and procedures can be technology, and civil technology.In September 1963 central source. nuclear technology and data processingwill be offered. 2.There are no geographicallimitations. In the above-mentioned coursein mechanical tech- 3.Particular programs can hedecided upon and nology, an option is offered in the second yearwhereby operation begun quickly withoutwaiting for local boards, the student may concentrate onmetallurgy. superintendents, or others to make uptheir minds. industrial program is a part The programs offered at NorwalkInstitute are electri- 4. When the trade and academic-minded administrators cal technology with an electronicsoption, mechanical of a regular school, budgets, personnel, andother technology with a metallurgical option,tool technology. neglect the program in and industrial chemistry. parts of the operation. 54 5. A statewide system makes it easierto transfer centrating adequate facilities in one place, thus elimin- personnel to points where they are needed. ating the necessity to duplicate equipment. 6.Individuals who are potential leadersor directors 8.It is difficult, if not impossible, to get local boards can be identified and given early responsibility. All of to provide needed buildings and facilities, and in some our administrators are products of out system. cases, in our experience, adequate maintenance of the 7. A large area can be covered efficiently bycon- buildings and facilities,

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56 VII. A State-Coordinated Planto Modernize and Extend I ndustrial- Technical Educationto Meet the Demands of the 1960's in New York' BY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATEOF NEW YORK THE STATE EDUCATION DEPA TMENT

Effective utilization of manpowerresources is essential State Departments of Labor and Social Welfare has to the industrial and economic position of. the state. been developing a long-range four-point program of The new manpower skills involved in automation, the state and local action. Further consultations with rep- upgrading and updating of skills because of changes in resentatives of the State Department of Commerce, in- technology, the redistribution of employment dueto dustry, labor, and other affected groups have been relocation of industries and the specialmanpower re- scheduled for an earl- date. quirements for national defense, all tend to create Briefly stated, the plan is as follows: circumstances which adversely affect the economic well- Part 1.The Metropolitan Planto upgrade and being of New York State and its citizens. modernize existing industrial technical, education facili- A number of other factorsare adding to the com- ties in the five largest cities, The principal needs in plexity of the problem.Uneducated and unskilled New York, Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, and Y-nkers non .English speaking people are swelling the numbers lie in the direction of (a) new curriculums to replace of unemployed in the large metropolitan centers. Con- those which do lot provide reasonable employment tinuing large numbers of high school graduates and possibilities, (b) revision of those curriculums which dropouts, similarly unemployable,are entering the labor are essential to the economy of the state, but which market. Sharp changes in the distribution ofage groups have not kept pace with industrial change, (c) moderni- and the increasing proportion of women in the work zation of shop and laboratory space, and (d) replace- force create additional difficulties in fulfilling the skill ment of outmoded and otherwise unuseable equipment. demands of our economy. These improvements will provide a revitalized, re- Industrial-Technical Training Isan furbished program of industrial-technical education for approximately 60,000 secondary school students and Economic Resource 75,000 out-of-school youth and adults, consistent with A comprehensive statewide system of industrial-tech- the economic needs of the state and the individual needs nical education for secondary school youth, out-of- of the people concerned. school youth, and adults can meet the demands of Part 11. The Urban Area Plahto expand incliatrit:1- industry for technicians and skilled craftsmen in the technical education programs in smaller cities to include decade ahead.With appropriate cooperation of the suburban school districts in contiguous areas. Within industrial, labor, and governmental agencies concerned, appropriate geographic limits determined by the density and with manpower planning in accordance with tech- of the school population, small city school districts can nological developments and expansion,a comprehensive enlarge their programs to serve the needs of the sur- system of industrial-technical education becomesan rounding suburban area.This will require expansion economic resource which, can insure the continuing of existing buildings in some instances, and in others industrial leadership of the state, hold and attract in- building completely new facilities and providing new dustry, and foster the economic well-being of its citizens. equipment. The State Education Department with thecoop- This phase of the coordinated plan will establish 22 eration and advice of local school leaders and the metropolitan area programs and serve approximately I The plan is under consideration by the State Legislature. 31,000 secondary school youth as well as 40,000 out- 57 of-school youth and adults in programs of retraining, This phase of the plan would provide educational occupational upgrading, preemployment training and opportunities for approximately 6,000 rural youth who related instruction for apprentices. would make a greater contribution to the state's short Current data indicated that the available secondary supply of skilled and trained manpower. The total plan school population would justify establishment of urban should be restudied when area facilities are established. area programs in areas in and around Mepham (Nas- The number of interested students outside the range of sau), Niagara Falls, Potighkeepsie, Rome, Schenectady, area facilities may warrant some type of program of Troy, Utica, Watertown, Albany, Binghamton, Dunkirk, "Educational Grants." Elmira, Floral Park, Jamestown, Kingston, Olean. Ba- tavia, Lawrence, East Meadow, Levittown, Corning, Finance and Administration and Lockport. Part III. The Rural Cooperative Area Planto estab- The four-part plan for industrial-technical education is lish shop centers to provide industrial-technical educa- capable of completion within a ten-year period. Imple- tion for students disadvantaged on the basis of their mentation of all portions of the plan will require ap- geographic locations.Geographic centers have been proximately $120 million. Funds for the first two years identified which could function effectively as instil .:- of the plan will be required principally for refurbish- tional centers to serve approximately 600 day school ment and modernization of equipmentinexisting students each, with core industrial-technical curriculums buildings, in the amount of approximately $5 million. in 7 to 10 trade or technical subject fields. Each center Thereafter, for the remaining eight years of the plan, would serve approximately a 20-mile radius and, as $12 to $15 million will be required annually. necessary, permit rural youth to attend their own home Responsibility for administration, staffing, and op- district schools for portions of their secondary educa- eration will be ,vested in local boards of education. tion other than shop or laboratory courses. Supporting legislation will he required to permit the Achievement of this phase of the coordinated plan complete development of the plan. requires constructing and equipping the shop centers and will serve a total of 36,000 secondary school youth SUM; nary and 40,000 adults. There are approximately 26 centers tentatively identified as rural cooperative areas, includ- The plan when implemented will: ing Bay Shore, North Syracuse, Erie County District 1.Provide opportunities for basic skill development No. 1, Erie County District No. 2, Glens Falls, Hornell, for secondary-school youth in every location in the state Huntington, Ithaca, Johnstown, Massena-Potsdam, Mid- in order to prepare for the industrial needs of tomorrow, dletown, Phelps, Oneonta, Bellport, Plattsburgh, River- wherever and whenever they occur. head, Rockland County, Valhalla, Newburgh, Center- 2.Provide preparatory trair,;ngopportunitiesfor each, East Rochester, SpencerportAuburn, Owego, school dropouts and unemployable high school gradu- Peekskill, Roslyn, See map on page 56. ates, consistent with the emerging skill demands of the Part IV. Tuition Poymews for Rural Youthto per- economy. mit youth, not otherwise served, to participate in a 3.Offer retraining opportunities to the unemployed suitable program established under one of the preced- in the economically depressed areas fon new skill de- ing plans. A considerable number of students are lo- mands of existing employment opportunities. cated in rural areas outside the range of a cooperative 4.Provide training opportunities which will reduce area school or an urban industrial-technical program. the number of unemployable in the non-English speak- Equal opportunity to acquire industrial skill training ing population, as well as other adults without market- can be achieved for these rural youth in any one of the able skills. three plans described previously through the provisions of existing legislation. 5.Provide upgraded and updated training for em- Currently, a pupil residing in a district wherein high ployed industrial workers to meet the increasing skill school courses are offered, but no vocational program demands of industry. is available, may attend any other school within the 6.Permit older workers whose skills are becoming state in which vocational courses are available, and the obsolete to obtain skills necessary to the new industrial tuition charged to the district in which the pupil re- requirements. sides, except however, the cost of transportation need 7.Expand and strengthen the instructional services not he paid by such district. This must he for full-time available to apprentices in the skilled crafts in order to vocational courses, not merely isolated subjects. meet existing shortages.

58 VIII. Vocational and Technical Education in Pennsylvania By EDWIN L. RumPF1

Introduction school districts. In 1904 an agricultural instructor was employed by the Board of Education for the public high This roort deals primarily with vocational and techni- schoolinWaterford. The School Code of1911 caledification in Pennsylvania conducted under the directed that an assistant state superintendent of in- auspices of the State Board for Vocational Education dustrial education be appointed, as well as an expert in and supported by local, state, and federal funds. Only drawing. Subsidized vocational industrial education be- a brief reference is made to the scope and nature of gan in 1913 with the passage of the Showalter Act. In vocational education programs conducted by agencies the same year the first vocational homemaking program other than the public schools. was established. Pennsylvania was one of the first states Some background information is first presented to to take advantage of the Smith-Hughes Act, passed in help the reader understand more clearly the program 1917, and the stimulatory effect of this ,nd other fed- that exists today. eral acts over the years has been remarkable. Certain aspects of vocational and technical education The contribution made by vocational and technical in Pennsylvania's public schools are reviewed. These education to Pennsylvania over the years has been of include the organization of the program and how it is no little significance. The usual programs of agricultural implemented, what services are being rendered, special education, business education, distributive education, features that seem worthy of treatment, and vocational homemaking education, and industrial education have needs related to groups that might be affected. been offered. In addition, special educational services An attempt is made to analyze certain factors that dealing with the rehabilitation of veterans and civilians, have had an impact on the growth and development of .war defense and war training programs, veterans' train- vocational and technical education in Pennsylvania. ing, public service occupations, practical nursing, and Finally, the writer attempts to forecast what the technical education have been given as need for these future may hold for vocational and technical education became manifest. in Pennsylvania. During the war emergency the vocational educational program, like some sleeping giant, became aroused and Background Information made a monumental contribution.It showed what it could do. Over 600.00 men and women in Pennsyl- The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania gave early rec- vania were trained in war industry occupations, and ognition to the importance of industrial education when another 94,000 were given supervisory training. Moti- itpassed the General Assembly Act of 0.83. Pre- vated by the exigencies of the times, all people cooper-. dating the Smith-Hughes Act by 34 years, this legisla- ated and combined their efforts to utilize and exploit the tion authorized the second-class cities to establish and possibilities of vocational education to the fullest. Then, maintain schools for instruction in the "mechanic arts the emergency having passed, vocational education and kindred subjects." Related subjects were taught as seemed to have lost some of its luster. Like the forgotten early as 1885 in the Philadelphia Manual Training war hero of yesteryear, who was honored by the "ticker School where, itis reported, "The whole boy is put tape" parade down Broadway, so v )rational education to school," that "he learns by doing' for "the educa- came to be viewed in a dimmer light. Few today realize tion of all the faculties." the great contribution that vocational and technical In 1900 mechanical drawing was taught in 34 public education can make to our youth and adults, to our I Director, Bureau of Curriculum Administration, and State economy, and to our nation during any period, whether Director of Vocational Education. an emergency exists or not. 5 9 Vocational and Technical Education in tinuous until the operating school board signifies its intention to discontinue the program or the State Board Pennsylvania Today for Vocational Education indicates, through the State Today vocational and technical education in the public Director, that the program is no longer reimbursable schools encompasses all of the reimbursable programs because it fails to meet the standards previously agreed conducted under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes, upon. Vocational programs are operated in schools the George-Barden, the Area Redevelopinent, and the representing the various classes'of school districts based Manpower Development and Training Acts, at the on population (first, second, third, and fourth class). federal level, together with state laws required to make In a few cases, the operating agency is the county the administration and operation of these programs legal. school board where area technical schools have been The entire program is operated under the State Board established. for Vocational Education in accordance with the Penn- sylvania State Plan for Vocational Education mutually FINANCING TIDE PROGRAM agreed to by the United States Office of Education and Tile foundation system of state aid to public scholls is the State Board for Vocational Education. More than used in Pennsylvania. All vocational and technical Au- 100,000 youth and adults are served each year at a dents are included when the basic or foundation support total expenditure of approximately $10 million of local, due any school district is calculated. Since a school dis- state, and federal funds. trict receives this support for its day program regardless of the type of student, this report will be concerned only ORGANIZATION AND IMPLEMENTATION with those supplementary reimbursements that a school Under Pennsylvania law, the State Council of Edu- district receives as a result of operating an approved cation functions also as the State Board for Vocatio vocational and/or technical education program. Education. It consists of the State Superintendent of The local support for vocational education comes from Public Instruction, who serves as its executive officer, the general fund and is derived from taxes levied by the and nine other members, all appointed by the Governor. local school board under the powers granted by state In the organizational structure at the state level, two law. State support in the form of reimbursements' to the deputy superintendents of equal yank are directly be- local, school district is also derived from tax sources neath the Superintendent of Public Instruction and and/or federal augmentations. above the State Director of Vocational Education. The At the state level, federal augmentations are placed Deputy Superintendent for Administration is respon- in a federal custodial fund. Transfers from the federal sible for budget expenditures and personnel administra- custodial fund to the State Treasury are made only after tion.The DeputySuperintendentforCurriculum state and/or local expenditures have been made to sup- Services administers and supervises the curriculum port these transfers on a "matching" basis. services. The State Director of Vocational Education, who also serves as the Director of the Bureau of Cur- Payments to the local school districts operating voea riculum Administration, may work through eitha tional, programs are generally made 1 year in arrears. deputy superintendent, depending upon the nature of These payments are based on annual preliminary and the task to be accomplished. Serving in a dual capacity, final report forms, which certify to the expenditures made the State Director has duties and responsibilities beyond by the school district for vocational education in accord- the area of vocational and technical education, but for ance with established laws, regulations, andprocedures. the purpose of this report, only the latter will he in- Both the regular day and adult programs are reimbursed cluded. in this fashion. Although the State Director is ultimately responsible Programs for retraining of the unemployed, including for the total state vocational and technical education practical nurse education and programs operating under program, many of his duties are delegated to the head the Area Redevelopment Act, are reimbursed 1 month state supervisors of the various services. It is through in arrears. the state supervisors that contact is made with the school Payments to county boards operating area technical districts and that programs are developed, approved, schools are made in advance to cover a six-month period operated, and reimbursed. of operation. Advance payments are based on an esti- Program approval is based on such items as estab- mated budget submitted prior to the period that the lished need for a particular type of vocational and/or budget will be in force. The payment for the second technical education, a properly certificated teacher, pro- six-month period is also estimated, subject to adjustment vision for adequate supervision, submission of a course based on the experience of the first 6 months. of study, adequate facilities, provision for necessary The amount of reimbursement to school districts for equipment and supplies, and action by the local school operating vocational programs is established by law. In board to establish the program and maintain its opera- the day program, it is based on an amount payable for tion. Approval at the state level, once given, is con- each student in average daily membership (ADM). This 60 varies as follows: home economics, $20; agriculture and area coordinators of vocational industrial education, trade and industry, $35; and distributive education, $50, and field instructors in distributive education attached per ADM. Approved travel of vocational administrators, to certain institutions.Special research projects con- supervisors, and teachers at the local is reimbursed ducted by the teacher education institutions are at 80 percent of the amount expended. No reimburse- established and supported under separate grants by merit is given for administrators, supers isors, and teach- agreements or contracts. ers on the day program other than that indicated above. No program will be approved for reimbursement if the ADMINISTERING THE PROGRAM administrator or supervisor in charge is not properly The overall pattern of administration varies from certificated and qualified. service to service. Or: the adult level, vocational reimbursement is based Agricultural education has been established primarily on the number of hours of teaching. Prior to July 1962, in the rural areas. These programs, depending upon it was 80 percent of the teacher's hourly rate up to a size and function, may be headed by one or more teach- maximum of $2.50 per hour. The state was paying a ers serving day students, young farmers, and adults. reimbursement of $2 per hour even though some dis- The teacher's immediate responsibility is to the local tricts had to pay more than $2.50 per hour to get quali- school administrator, although he also reports through fied teachers. Beginning in July 1962, this reimbursement the Area Supervisor of Agriculture to the Head State became 80 percent of a maximum of $4 per hour. Re- Supervisor, who reports to the State Director of Voca- imbursement for supervision of the adult program up to tional Education. 20 percent of the total amount expended for teachers' The distributive education program at the local level salaries may be claimed. is headed by a Coordinator of Distributive Education. Reimbursement for area technical schools follows the This person also reports through the local school ad- above pattern except that, in addition, an amount equal ministrator to the Head State Supervisor of Distributive to $800 multiplied by the subsidiary account reimburse- Education. In some areas, the field instructors attached ment fraction times the number of teaching units is also to either Temple University or the University of Pitts- reimbursed.Transportation costs are reimbursed for burgh may give assistance to the program at the local area technical schools on the same basis as they are for level.In some of the cities, the Coordinator of Dis- other schools or districts. tributive Education may report to and work through an Where agreements or contracts have been made with intermediate administrator, such lc, a local Director of a school district to provide an educational service, such Vocational Education. as retraining the unemployed, practical nurse education, Homemaking education programs operate in most of or programs under the Area Redevelopment Act, pay- the schools in both rural and urban areas. The Area ments are made in terms of the agreement or contract. Supervisor, as in the case of agriculture, is the liaison Usually the school district will furnish the facilities and with the Head State Supervisor of Home Economics, who some of the equipment and will provide supervision. reports to the State Director. All other items such as the salaries of teachers and Trade and industrial education programs include prac- clerks, the cost of supplies, and travel costs are reim- tical nursing, retraining the unemployed, area technical bursed in full. Equipment purchased by state and fed- training, and programs under the Area Redevelopment eral funds becomes the property of the state. Products Act, in addition to the usual functions that this service resulting from such training programs are turned over to performs. At the local level these programs are headed the state for distribution to tax-supported institutions by a Director of Vocational Education or a Supervisor throughout the Commonwealth at no charge. of Industrial Education. The local Director of Vocational Experimental programs are financed in a fashion Education may also have responsibility for other areas similar to that of retraining. of vocational education. The Area Coordinator of In- Teacher education programs are conducted under dustrial Education is the liaison between the local school continuing agreements with several colleges and uni- district and the Head State Supervisor of Trade and versities to provide certain vocational teacher education Industrial Education, who reports directly to the State services. The program of vocational teacher education Director. is supported primarily by grants-in-aid of federal and Of the field personnel operating for the State Depart- state money. Guidelines for the operation of the pro- ment of Public Instruction, only the agriculture and the gram, criteria for the program itself, qualifications for home economics supervisors are included as a part of the teacher educators, and information of a similar nature department administrative staff for budgetary purposes. are contained in the state plan. Annual budgets are They come under the supervision of the head state super- submitted for approval, and reimbursement is made visors, and are attached to a number of county offices, monthly on actual expenditures. depending upon their area of operation. Field it,' motors Also included in the teacher education budgets are in distributive education are attached to universities, but funds to support personnel in various fields of research, are considered as field staff under the !lead Stare Super- 61 visor of Distributive Education. The area coordinators advisory committee. Only a few vocational programs, IA industrial education are also attached to universities, however, have such a committee. For the past 2 years but they are considered the field staff of the Head State trade and industrial education has had ,'an advisory Supervisor in this service. committee at the state level.Efforts to establish com- mittees in the other sere ices and to establish an overall Promising Features of Program state vocational education advisory committee, have met with little success. Below are some comments pertaining to special fea- Several reasons may be given for the failure to main- tures of great promise for the future of vocational and tain active advisory committees. Some people oppose technical education in Pennsylvania, if they are properly the committees, fearing that they may become too exploited. powerful and attempt to establish policy, rather than AREA TECHNICAL SCHOOLS remain advisory. The committees are not kept informed. Meetings are not made meaningful and purposeful. A During the summer of 1960 a comprehensive study was committee may be too large and unwieldy. A status made of the Commonwealth, dealing with business and committee, rather than a working committee, may have industrial needs, school facilities, density of population, been appointed. Frequently, a committee will lose in- and related items, in view of preparing a state plan for terest because no procedures have been established for area technical schools. As a result, a state plan was renewingitsmembership or providing new points subsequently prepared and in March 1961 the State of view. Gard for Vocational Education appro-sred it. In essence, The value of good advisory committees to the con- the plan established 44 administrative units with an ulti- tinued progress of vocational education is no longer a mate projection of 79 area technical schools, as shown matter of debate.Where these advisory committees in the accompanying map. have been organized and have functioned, they have Each area technical school may serve as a "depart- contributed much to the success of the program. ment" of several cooperating schools, or it may offer a le,bry complete educational program with vocational and tech- EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMS nical education as the principal objective. The area Specific research in agricultural education, home eco- technical school concept involves the "pooling" of nomics education, and trade and industrial education pupils, facilities, and resources. Courses offered may be has been made possible by having a research specialist at the technician, trade, or operative levels. This makes in each of these fields at the Pennsylvania State Uni- possible a broader curricular offering for both youth and versity. An advisory committee in each field meets adults than the traditional type of school organization periodically to assist in developing and carrying out a can afford.If the area school operates in conjunc- plan of research in its area.This program is in its tion with other secondary schools, the need for audi- infancy, and its financial support represents aboutI torium and gymnasium is eliminated.The building percent of the total expended each year for vocational structure becomes quite functional, and initial building and technical education. costs are reduced. Experimental programs have been undertaken to de- Under the state plan for area technical schools, ad.. termine new direction for vocational and technical ministrative units, in some instances, cut across county education in the future. One such program is to com- lines, while in other cases only a portion of a county or pare the relative potential of secondary school students a single county may be included. The plan states, with that of adults in developing proficiency in data "County boundaries will be given consideration. How- processing and computer programming. Another is to ever, service to an area will not be sacrificed in order compare the relative success in pursuing a course in to maintain the county as an administrative unit." electronics of a group coming from the usual college Although only four area technical schools have been preparatory course and another group having had a established and are functioning under the state law course in vocational electricity. A third project com- providing for them, others are seeking approval. pares the results of closed-circuit television teaching Technical courses are also given in other schools. In with that of the teacher in the classroom. A final exam- the year just completed, almost 5,50 students were ple is a program in distributive education that is at- enrolled in technical courses in 23 high schools, with tempting to utilize the backgro, ad of a vocational 19 giving courses in the day school and 14 offering graduateinagriculture to develop salesmen for the courses in the adult program. rural areas. A study of trade and industrial education and the ADVISORY Commrrm s retraining program was made in 1961 as a result of the It is mandatory under law that each area technical recommendation of the Governor's Committee on Edu- school have an advisory committee, and itis recom- cation.The committee also recommended studies of mended that each vocational program function with an the other fields of vocational education. 62 COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTIONBureau of Curricukun Administration HARRISBURGJanuary, 1961 1;AP7747.74 N LW YORK - nict7F.Ain - 0 TIE7tr. rCUA7 NEW YORK BWADFCTO, susQuEITANNA WAYNE 11 12 41 1 FaRs11-- --e' LYCOMING SUCLIVAiii v7C-124NZTACKA - - CLINTOW 23 .,7 4 LuzERNFn 13I moiR-0-e / PINE r 4. ; 25 CLEARAt. . cc .171 I.* JUNTA z 11;., 26 - 1 - 4 9 - . . Ir. 3/ cc0Z 32 . BEDFCR - . S6mERsc1 . a., ...._. 'FRANKLIN. ). A 16 ' :WAS HI ( Ô\ . ...,..11)./ . . ADAMS : . . ./ y - - OM /* .... W. VA...... sshoolthroughout students the Commonwealth. and adultsThis may map Thesebecome shows schools competent a proposed will provide members administrative occupational of our workingorganization opportunities society. for theso that operation high of area technical schools MARYLA ND;;; is; ON served by resident schools orUnshaded other schools areas in do not have the necessary population to support a school. These areas will be the Commonwealth. TRAINING TEE UNEMPLOYED of 30 hours per week. The continued operation of a program is dependent upon placing in jobs at least60 Although the programs for training the unemployed are now authorized under Section 2508.3 of the School percent of those completing the course. Laws of Pennsylvania, 1957, such training has been Selection of trainees for training and placement on conducted since 1951. From 1951 through 1961, 127 the job after completion of training is the responsibility of the State Employment Service. The conduct of the programs provided training for 14,924 unemployed, in- the responsibility of the Department of cluding recipients of public assistance. Of these pro- trainingis grams, 88 were operated for less than a one-year Public Instruction and its counterpart at the local levet. period, and 40 of these were operated for 3 months or The program is 100 percent reimbursable from state and federal funds on those items that are reimbursable. less.The total cost for 10 years of operation was $998,301.66, a cost of $66.82 for each of the 14,924 In most cases this will cover 90 percent or more of the persons trained. amount expended by the local school district. About 80 percent of the amount that is paid to the local school The objective is to provide brief, intensive vocational districtsas reimbursement comes from state funds. training for unemployed and uridei employed adults. Items that are reimbursed include the following: wages Training is designed to equip recipients of public as- and salaries of personnel essential to the conduct of sistance and other unemployed with basic skills and the program, such as supervisors, teachers, LlcrkF, jani- technical knowledge required for entrance into a local tors, and repair mechanics; travel expense of personnel industry, business, or other type of employment. Dur- on official business; cost of consumable suppliesfor in- ing the first 7 years the size of the program remained struction, office, janitor, and maintenance mechanic; relatively constant with an average annual enrollment communication charges for postage, telephone, printing, of 1,396 and an average cost of $83,000 per year. duplicating, and advertising; insurance charges for the During the past 3 years the annual enrollment has in- protection of plant and equipment, social security, work- creased from 1,364 to 3,094, with a corresponding men's compensation, and retirement funds; overhead increase in cost from $85,000 to $250,000 per year. charges of five cents per trainee hour of instruction; and The need for training is determined by the State freight charges for the transportation of finished prod- Employment Service, and programs are initiated coop- ucts to the disposal point for distribution to charitable eratively by .representatives of the local school district, or state institutions. the Employment Service, and the Department of Public Sound administrative and educational practices must Instruction.Training is'asually conducted in public be followed if the training program is to be successful. school facilities, although in-plant training will be ap- Establishment of training needs and the determination proved if it seems more practicable. All programs come of available trainees are the responsibility of the State un,1,-r the jurisdiction of vocational educators in the De- Employment Service. The organization of a responsi- partment of Public Instruction and are under public ble local advisory committee to represent the interests supervision and control. of the community and potential trainees in developing Applications for course approval include a proposed a sound training proposal is most important.The com- budget covering file period of training, a course outline mittee advises with officials of the local school district indicating the hours per major unit of instruction, a and the employment office. A course outline to provide description of facilities and equipment, and a training intensive training for immediate placement on a job will schedule. In addition, a letter from the State Employ- be developed mace easily if specific training needs are ment Service indicating the availability of trainees and determined in consultation with personnel directors and employment opportunities and a letter from the County responsible plant officials. In retraining programs, edu- Board of Assistance indicating the availability of train- cators must think in terms of developing a single skill ees must also accompany the training proposalfor- rather than broad areas of skills. Training programs must warded to the State Department of Public Instruction. be developed on the basis of need rather than on the basis Applications for training are reviewed at the state of existing facilities. A realistic budget must be de- level by a committee composed of representatives of veloped_ and the entire operation must be justifiable. the State Employment Service, the Department of Labor Selection of the instructional staff is very important, and Industry, the Department of Commerce, the Bureau and since the occupational areas for which training is of Public Assistance, the Budget Secretary's Office, and neededare not usually representedinthe school the Department of ,Public Instruction. vocational program, it may be necessary to Seek instruc- When completed and appioved, the budget applica- tors from those in the industry oroccupation to be tion form constitutes a contract between the local board served. of school directors and the Department of Public In- There is no substitute for good supervision, and in struction for the conduct of the program. Courses are most instances, supervisors must bedeveloped. Retired limited to a maximum of 6 months' duration for any local vocational supervisors and directors havebeen one trainee, and classes are conducted for aminimum found to serve capably. 64 Finally, adequate financial and statisticalrecords The following excerpts are appraisals taken from the must be maintained in order to justify programs already Educational Research Monograph No. 3, The Chance completed and to support proposals for future pro- to Learn, published under the direction of the Governor's grams. Committee on Education, October 1960. "This study reveals that the biggest deficiency in AREA REDEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS curricular offerings in Pennsylvania is in an area that Since the enactment of the Area Redevelopment Act, many educators outside of the immediate field neglect area redevelopment projects amounting to over $200,- vocational education, particularly trade and industrial 000 have been developed and approved in Pennsylvania education." -- more than in any other state.This may be partly "With the exception of the largest senior high schools, because of the large areas of substantial and persistent our high schools as a group failed to present a voca- labor surplus in Pennsylvania, and partly because of the tional education adequate to the need." state's previous experience with retraining under its own "With an estimated 65 to 70 percent of our secondary program. With 51 of the 67 counties qualifying under school graduates going immediately to work in business this act, the effect of this legislation in the Common- and industry (Educational Research Monograph, No. 1) wealth has been tremendous, not only in training but in the importance of vocational education is obvious." other respects.Administration and operation of the "The number of pupils enrolled in all kinds of state- program under the fedei al act ki sorn..what more diffi- approved vocational courses expressed as the percentage cult than that of the state retraining program because of the total enrollment in grades 10 through 12 (350,- more governmental agencies are involved and because 000 pupils in 1958-59) is given below. The data were all proposals must be forwarded for approval at the taken from reports to the Federal Government by the federal level. Continued operation of the program will Department of Public Instruction: permit a more accurate evaluation. Agriculture 3 percent Distributive Education less than 1 percent SIGNIFICANT STATE LEGISLATION Home Economics 4 percent In 1961 the State Legislature authorized the Depart- Trade and Industrial 7 percent ment of Public Instruction to establish, operate, and Business Education 22 percent." maintain a program of vocational education in any area The foregoing excerpts indicate quite accurately the of the Commonwealth where, in the opinion of the scope of the vocational education program at the high State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the voca- school level today. Vocational training in agriculture tional education needs of youth and adults are not being and home economics comes closer to filling the need met. Although money was not appropriated to imple- than does training in other areas. Distributive education ment this act, the law has great possibilities, if and when needs vast expansion, and trade and industrial education money becomes available. needs to serve three times the present number in order Another act, also passed in 1961, permits boards of to achieve its proper goal. second- and/or third-class districts, presently operating Young farmer and adult programs in agriculture, approved vocational programs, to join with county adult programs in distributive education, and adult school boards for the purpose of establishing area tech- programs in home economics education should be nical schools. greatly expanded.At the adult level, trade and in- dustrial education should serve from five to seven times Needs the number now enrolled (presently, 21,000) in order In this section, some appraisal will be made of the to serve those who could profit from such instruction. program of vocational education in Pennsylvania and Lack of funds has prevented an expanded program of how well it is meeting the needs. training the unemployed needed to meet current de- One measure of the efficiency of the total educational mands and to cope with requirements in the immediate program is the dropout rate. A recent report released future. by the Bureau of Research, Department of Public In- If post-high-school training is defined as an educa- struction, reveals that the dropout rate for grades 7 tional program that requires high school graduation as a through 12 during 1960-61 was 3,7 percent in contrast prerequisite, or as a program above the high school to 5.0 percent 4 years earlier. This is an improvement, level, there is very little of it. But if the term is defined but no concentrated statewide effort is being directed to as a program that admits students who have achieved reduce the rate further. Philadelphia has an occupation- age 18 and can profit by the instruction, then there is ally oriented, nonreimbursable program enrolling about much of it, relatively speaking. Under the latter defi- 900 students each year, which is aimed at the school nition, it is estimated 4:hat more than 30,000 people are dropout.Results to date have been very gratifying. regularly enrolled in post-high-school courses. Much more, however, needs to be done statewide in During the past year almost 5,500 were enrolled in this respect. . technical courses offered in the public schools. 65 Vocational and Technical Education lation recommended by the Governor's Committeeon (Other Agencies) Education.Specifically, the legislationrequires that area technical schools must be provided for in county Included here is some indication of the scope of voca- plans submitted as a part of any reorganization. tional and technical education.being conducted by This new emphasis on the larger administrative unit agencies other than the public schools. Primarily, these will probably result in an increased size ofmany school programs involve adults. districts and of some schools. Hence, educationalserv- PRIVATE TRADE SCHOOLS ices that were hitherto not practicable because ofex- A recent check indicates that118 privatetrade cessive costs will become possible since thecosts can be schools are approved in Pennsylvania. About 1 year spread over a greater number of people in the larger -tra ago,morethan11,000studentswereenrolled, unit. Vocational and technical education will beone of and 8,900 graduated during the license year.There the educational Services benefited. were 875 instructors employed. All schools listed, in- BUILDING COSTS cluding music, modeling, and dancing schools, have a A rapidly increasing elementary and secondary school declared vocational objective in their training programs. population has made it necessary that school districts The majority of these schools are located in Pittsburgh build to meet the new demands. This buildingprogram and Philadelphia.The highest enrollments were in has placed a heavy burden on the taxpayer.Hence, electronics, automotive, drafting, and commercial art those who are kindly inclined toward building forvoca- courses, in that order. tional and technical education purposes find it difficult PENNSYLVANIA STATE COMMONWEALTH to secure the necessary public support.Only to the CAMPUS SYSTEM extent that this need is generally felt by the public will This branch campus system provides lower division adequate vocational and technical education facilities instruction for students planning to continue their edu- be provided.It would appear that a public works pro- cation at the university's main campus, but it also offers gram might supply the answer. full-time, two-year, terminal programs. Most of these CURRICULAR OFFERINGS terminal programs are technological in content and The international complex has had its effecton cur- lead to the associate degree.Approximately 4,000 ricular offerings; it has placed a renewed emphasison part-time and evening students attend classes each year such subjects as mathematics, science, and foreign at the 13 branch campuses. The full-time student body languages. This change in emphasis has not been with- of a branch campus varies in size from 100 to 1,000, out its beneficial effects, but an unfortunate byproduct with an average enrollment of 300 to 400. About half has been the neglect of the vocational program. After of the full-time students are enrolled in two-year, asso- almost 5 years of the post-Sputnik era, however, the ciate-degree curriculums. Currently, more than 1,000 educational climateisagain becoming favorable to students are enrolled in agriculture, business adminis- vocationaland technicaleducation.A better and tration, chemical technology, drafting and design tech- stronger program will emerge. nology,electricaltechnology,surveying technology, production technology, and food service and housing FINANCIAL EFFORT AND SUPPORT administration. Increased building costs, increased salaries for pro- fessional personnel, and the general increase in costs APPRENTICESHIPS IN INDUSTRY across the board have strained the financial efforts of It is difficult to ascertain how much training is being the majority of school districts. Few districts have been done in industry, because reports are incomplete. Many able to make the necessary effort, beyond the support apprentices are never registered, and a great deal of of the usual school operations, to expand sufficiently the informal training takes place. However, 6 months ago vocational offerings.Furthermore, the reimbursement there were almost 7,300 registered apprentices. for vocational and technical education has not been increased for almost 20 years. A readjustment in re- An Analysis of the Situation imbursement is long overdue. Certain conditions have prevailedin the Common- wealth that have strongly influenced the progress that ATTITUDE OF SCHOOL- ADMINISTRATORS has been made in the area of vocational education and Vocational and technical educationisinexorably training. We will comment upon a few of these con- intertwined with the total educational program. This is ditions. as it should be. No part of the educational program should be more important than the whole. Yet, there SCHOOL DISTRICT REORGANIZATION needs to be a greater understanding and appreciation Pennsylvania is in the throes of school district re- on the part of the general school administrator of the organization. Impetus for this action came from legis- contribution that vocational and technical education 66 can make to the overall program. Likewise, itis in- Program of Retraining and under the Area Redevelop- cumbent upon the vocational administratorto under- ment Act has shown that such cooperation is not only stand and appreciate just how vocationaland technical desirable but possible. Greater strides in this direction education fits into the total educationalpicture. All too will he made under the impact of the Manpower De- often, the progress and direction of thevocational pro- velopment and Training Act, which is now being im- gram is determined by individuals in authority who have plemented. no real knowledge of or interest in the program,or, on the other hand, by individuals who know vocational What of the Future? education but do not seeits relation to the whole. It is most difficult to predict precisely what Greater utilization of advisory committees, which course the are pngram of vocational and technical education will take mandatory for area technical schools in Pennsylvania, in the future because of the many intangibles that should help to insure greater understanding and better are balanced programs. involved. But despite the dangers that are inherent in prognostication. the following statements are made with GUIDANCE some feeling of confidence. Guidance personnel and school counselors have been Vocational and technical education in Pennsylvania at a disadvantage because of heavy work loads. Many is on the threshold of a period of great growth and have felt more secure in guiding college-bound students progress. There will he greater acceptance of the pro- gram by more and more people. than the vocationally inclined students. From theirown experience and training most counselors know the The indications are that there will be increasedsup- college world better than they do the vocational world. port of the program at .both the local and state level. Furthermore, parentsare likely toinsistthattheir Educators in the vocational field will tend to work children be guided into college. In sonic caz,z..s the stu- "across the board" in meeting the needs of the youth dent who possesses above- average ability has been and adults to be served. "guided out" of the vocational and technical education Business education (office occupations), although not program, regardless of his interest in a technical field presently reimbursed from either state or federal funds, requiring as much ability on his part as a formal college will assume a position of increasing importance in the program. Fortunately, guidance personnel are improv- field of vocational education.Programs in this area ing in numbers and quality, and better guidance infor- are being subsidized under the State Retraining Plan. mation is becoming available to them. and this practice is apt to be extended under the Man- power Development and Training Act. SEGMENTED VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Technical education will increase at the post-high- Not all of the ills that have befallen vocational edu.- school level.Technical education may also he offered cation stem from causes outside of this field. Much of in the state colleges of the Commonwealth and be reim- the difficulty is directly attributable to the people who bursed from both state and federal sources. are most closely associatLd with the program. Tradition- Guidance and counseling services will become more ally, vocational education has been segmented into the realistic and will result in the enrollment of more stu- various services. There has been little crossover from dents of high quality in vocational education and in one service area to another in meeting the needs of the better service to those of lesser abilities. individual student. Yet, an analysis of the needs of the In addition to increased support for vocational and student may indicate that a combination of two or more technical education programs, greater incentive to estab- services may be required to meet his needs. Much re- lish and maintain such programs will be created by inLins to be done in this respect. Vocational and tech- providing for more reimbursement payments in ad- nical education will never attain its greatest potential vance. Advance payments will have a stimulatory effect. until the needs of each student are fully analyzed and an Advisory committees will increase in numbers and in educational program is developed for him, based on the importance. These committees are essential in order to possible contributions of all the educational services, insure that the needs of those to he served will be met. vocational and otherwise, that can best help him attain Finally, more area technical schools will be built. maximum self-realization. School district reorganization will make financing more feasible.Funds for building purposes may become COOPERATION OF VARIOUS STATE AGE' ;CIEs available from both state and federal sources. This will Educators must come to the complete realization that encourage school districts to redirect some of their they do not and cannot operate in a vacuum. There resources into technical schools.Pressures will build must he greater cooperation with other agencies at all up to use technical school facilities for retraining the levels local, state, and federal if the greatest good unemployed and underemployed under the new federal for the greatest number is to be achieved. Experience retraining acts. All of these will combine to make many in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania under the State area technical schools a reality in the next few years. 67 kREcroiNG PAGEBLANX.

IX. Vocational and Related Education in Florida BY G. W. NEUBAUER1

Population Concentration and Distribution total program of vocational and technical education in of the Labor Force the state and for its articulation with other state educa- tional services. Florida has 67 counties.The northern half of the The Division of Vocational and General Adult Edu- counties contains approximately 26 percent of the popu- cation is one of seven divisions in the State Department lation, the central one-third contains 40 percent, and the of Education having the primary purpose of providing southern one-sixth contains 34 percent. consultative services relating to specialized aspects of Most industrial and technical development is con- the educational programs of the respective counties. centrated along the two coasts of central and southern This division, headed by the State Director, is respon- Florida and in certain interior counties in the center of sible for administering, coordinating, supervising, and the state. However, the eastern and western extremes of promoting vocational and general adult education in the northern section, primarily the Pensacola area and the state, including the preparatior of vocational and Jacksonville, contain extensive concentrations of in- related education teachers. dustrial and military establishments that require many technical personnel. The division consists of five sections, each headed by As to agriculture, general farming prevails in the a State Supervisor. These sections include Vocational Agriculture; Vocational Business, Distributive and Co- northern and western part of the state, citrus production and cattle raising in the central portion, and truck operative Education; Vocational Home Economics Ed- ucation;' Vocational Industrial Education; and General farming and sugar cane growing in the southern portion. Adult Education. Of these, Vocational Business Edu- Florida's program of vc Itional and related education cation, Diversified Cooperative Training, and General in general reflects its industrial and occupational struc- ture. In 1960 all of the 67 counties supported at least Adult Education are supported entirely by state and local funds.In addition, a Consultant for Technical 1 vocational service.Nearly all had agriculture pro- grams; three-fifths had business, distributive, and co- Education and a Consultant for Industrial Arts 'are administratively attached to the Industrial Education operative education programs; two-thirds had industrial section. A Consultant for Business Education, respon- education; and all had home economics education pro- grams. sible for vocational and general business education, is part of the Business,Distributive, and Cooperative State Administrative Structure for Education section. Vocational and Related Education Each vocational section has several area supervisors who work under the direction of the section head. These The State Board of Education, chaired by the Governor supervisors, through frequent visitations to local centers, and with the State Superintendent of Public Instruction supervise program operation, determine adequacy of serving as secretary and executive officer, is also the offerings and facilities, assist in improving instructional State Board for Vocational Education. The other mem- effectiveness, and review placement and followup of bers include the Secretary of State, the Attorney Gen- students and graduates.In addition, they make sure eral,and the State Treasurer.Through theState that state and federal funds are spent in conformity Director of Vocational and General Adult Education, with regulations of the State Board and the require- the State Board is administratively responsible for the ments of the Florida State Plan for Vocational Edu- I Research Specialist, Vocational and Adult Education, Florrda cation; and they recommend schools that meet estab- State Department of Education. lished standards for reimbursement. 69 for Vocational substantially more from its own revenues in terms of Local Operational Structure its resources. and Related Education The size of a county's population determines the The Florida public school system,which includes voca- immediate administrative structure under which the tional, general adult, and relatededucation, is a county county vocational program operates.The state plan system.There is no .provision for autonomouscity stipulates that counties with a population of 50,000 or organizations or independent schooldistricts.Hence, more shall appoint a localdirector of vocational edu- the responsibility for alleducational activities in the cation who will be assisted by appropriatesupervisory respective countif-s is ultimatelylodged in the county personnel as program growth requires. superintendent and the county boardof public in- In counties having fewer than 50,000 peoplebut struction. using 8 or more vocational instructional units, alocal The county board consists offive members. One is director may be appointed or a vocationalsupervisor selected from each of the five countyboard residence or coordinator may bedesignated to act in that capacity. units of districts into which every countyis divided. Although In counties using fewer than eight vocational coordi- elected from residence districts, theboard members are alltypes, a vocational teacher, supervisor, or selected by all qualified voters of the countyand repre- nator may be assigned to assistthe county superintendent sent the entire couny insteadof single districts. in administering the program. elected for a four-year ,The county superintendent is Vocational term by the qualified votersof the county in64of the Types of Schools Conducting 67 counties. In the remainder,he is appointed by the and Technical Education Programs county board for a four-year term,which may be re- Vocational and technical education inFlorida is con- newed indefinitely. ducted at a number of instructional levelsand in a Vocational education and generaleducation are variety of institutions. The institutions includeregular, equally important parts of the state'sminimum founda- vocational,vocational-technical,and comprehensive tion program, passed by the Legislaturein1947to en- high schools; vocational schools; juniorcolleges; adult sure at least minimumeducational opportunities for all centers; and an area administrativestructure. Florida children.County educational programs are A comprehensive high schoolprovides preparation operated with minimum foundation programunits. for a variety of occupations. For lackof a more explicit allocated for different purposes such asinstruction, ad- definition, a comprehensive high schoolis one that ministration, supervision, and studenttransportation. offers vocational courses in at leastthree federally re- The amount of money received by a countyfrom the imbursable areas and includes four or moreof the fol- minimum foundation program is based uponstudent lowinginitscurriculum:agriculture,distributive economics, in- average dailyattendance and the number, rank,and education, cooperative education, home teaching experience of teachers. Rankrefers to the pro- dustrial education, and technicaleducation. At present, fessional qualifications of the t acher;for example, the Florida has49comprehensive high schools, but more degree he holds, or its equivalent,and the amount of are under construction orin the planning stage. All but college work completed. Theequivalency provision is five of the remaining secondaryschools are regular high particularly important to industrial andtechnical edu- schools that either provide preparationin a number of cation teachers and to part-time teachersof vocational vocational areas only one or two of which arefed- subjects who frequently have extensivework experience erally reimbursable or make noprovision for voca- but only a minimum of professionalpreparation. tional education. are vocationalhigh Instructional units are granted to thecounties on the Four ofthe remaining five isa vocational-technicalhigh basis of average daily attendance,which, for vocational schools, and the fifth school. The vocational andvocational-technical high courses,ishalf that required for generaleducation enrollment of a school is schools are located in Jacksonville.Tampa, and Pensa- subjects. For example, if the the state. They large enough to require themaintenance of an average cola the oldest industrial areas of 1940'sand early1950'sto daily attendance of approximately26students, a full were establishedduring the classes if the prepare non- college -houndyouth for business, clerical, instructional unit is granted in vocational Although the vo- instructor maintains a minimum averagedaily attend- and industrial-technical occupations. given way to emphasis If enrollment falls below theminimum, the cational high school concept has ance of 13. high schools, the existing voca- financial value of the unit is prorated.The advantage upon comprehensive allowed in order to tional facilities are beingcontinued, at least for the in favor of vocational courses is and general curricula compensate for the greater costin coordinating such present. The college preparatory the vocational schools are morerestricted than courses.It is not intended that countyschool systems in minimum foundation similar curricula in comprehensivehigh schools. Greater will he supported exclusively from preparation, and program funds. Each countyis expected to contribute emphasis is placed upon occupational 70 a more extensive vocational curriculum is provided for The number of counties served by a junior college youth and adults than is found in all but a few compre- depends upon potential student population and local hensive high schools.Nevertheless,itis considered readiness to support it.Some colleges serve a single more desirable to decentraliZe vocational education county, while others enroll students from. -two, three, or opportunities because students in comprehensive high more counties.It is believed that a county or group of schools have access to more diversified curricula and counties must have a minimum potential junior college activities while learning an occupation. enrollment of 400 students. When a junior college is Inadditiontoregular and comprehensive high established through joint effort of two or more counties, schools and vocational and vocational-technical high the county in which the school is located becomes the schools, the state has17 special vocational schools county of control, and the others are known as co- located in 14 counties. Four of these are single-purpose operating counties. schools in that they enroll only adults for practical Within the State Department of Education is a Divi- nursing or law enforcement training. A fifth is a pub- sion of Community Junior Colleges. This division helps licly supported aviation school offering courses for both the junior colleges develop programs that meet the high school students and adults. Four of the remaining needs of the counties they serve, and ithelps them 12 are adult centers providing preparatory and exten- carry out the duties and responsibilities with whichthey sion training for out-of-school emullees only.Voca- have been charged by law or State Board directive. tional courses for high school students in these four The State Junior College Advisory Board, a seven - counties are included in the curricula of the secondary member lay committee appointed by the Governor, schools.In the remaining eight, a variety of vocational makes recommendations to the State Board of Edu- courses is offered for high schoolstudents and adults cation relating to personnel, curricula, finance, and the alike. These eight are located in seven of the more densely articulation and coordination of junior colleges with populated counties in which industrial education in the other educational agencies.It also reviews capital out- high schools is not extensively developed. lay requests and recommends the establishment of new All of the schools are under.the control of the board junior college areas. of public instruction and the county superintendent of Other state agencies with which liaison is maintained the county in which they are located. One, the Mary are the State Board of Control,which supervises the Karl Vocational School, is an administrative division operation of the state's university system, the Florida of the Daytona Beach Junior College, but it is operated Educational Television Commission, and the Profes- with county funds apart from the junior college budget. sional Committee for Relating Public Secondary and Two of the schools were in operation before the Higher Education. Second World War; they evolved from the "opportunity - Because of- tde additional responsibility that junior schools" designed to train people for office occupations. colleges place upon county boards, Florida law re- Both are a part of the public school system and are Another was quires that a local advisory committee consisting of operated with state and local funds. representatives of the county or counties served shall established and developed as the result of a private be appointed.This committee has a local function grant for stimulating vocational education in asingle of the similar to that of the State Junior College Advisory county. Most of the remainder were outgrowths It assists the junior college and makes recom- War Production Training Program of World War II. Board. mendations to the county hoard in matters relating to Since the war, program development has been stimulated finance, curriculum, and general policies.In addition, by federal grants-in-aid for promoting vocational edu- the committee and the county superintendent must con- cation, including the establishment of practical nurse president, who is confirmed Training for technicians has,of cur in the nomination of a trainingfacilities. by the county board and appointed by the State Board provisions course, been greatly facilitated by Title VIII of Education.. Members are nominated by the county of the National Defense Education Act. hoard according toa formula established by State Board regulations and appointed by the State Board The Junior College of Education. The junior college structure of Florida also reflects the Usually a junior college begins operationsina county unit system of educational organization.The temporary facility for which the local schoolboard junior colleges, presently numbering 25, are administra- assumes the cost of lease or rental. A permanentsite, tively responsible to the State Board of Education however, must he agreed upon by the counties to be through the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. served and must be approved by the State Board of Locally, however, they are controlled, through the Education with respect to size, accessibility, topography, county superintendent, by the county boards of public and related requirements.Permanent sites must he instruction of the respective counties in which (hey are provided by local school boards.Up to the present located. time, however, most of the sites have been obtained as 71 gifts from interested individuals, groups, orgovern- ities in which they are located and forthe counties which they serve To a more limited degree,they offer mental agencies. a variety of The state bears the initial cost ofthe construction of preparatory and extension training in trades, technologies, and occupations, so that the voca- permanent facilities and equipment asspecified to meet The size of the tional needs of adults are more adequately met. minimum educational requirements. of cur- legislative appropriation for this purposeis determined To accomplish these purposes, three types ricula are provided in accordance with regulationsof by the full-time equivalentstudent enrollment in the school during the fall term of the yearpreceding the the Florida State Board of Education.One is the college parallel curriculum consisting of academictransferable is,modified periodically to request. The formula used general cultural and service reflect growing enrollments and risingcosts. ,courses. Another includes adults in the counties served. includes $400 per courses and activities for The minimum foundation program terminal voca- replace obsolete The third, also for adults, consists of instructional unit for capital outlay to tional and technical courses which reflectlocal and buildingsandtoaccommodate limitedenrollment be state employment needs. growth.These funds, or any part thereof, may relatively extensive for building All of the junior colleges have accumulated by the county board to be used Many also have technical repayment of bonds issued bythe college-parallel curricula. or pledged for the education programs. Most offer general andcultural State Department of Education forthat purpose. Basic courses and services.Terminal vocational training, current operating costs are metthrough the minimum distributive, and jointly by the however, particularly in agricultural, foundation program, which is financed industrial occupations, is not quite so common. counties. This basic support state and the cooperating this lack. Not by minimum student fees A number of factors help to account for program is supplemented equipping appropriate local tax sources the least of these is the cost of and by additional contributions from Probably equally important. how- state's share of training facilities. The State Legislature appropriates the ever, are two furtherdeficiencies. One is lack of under- current operating costs andallocates construction funds; standing of employment requirements onthe part of provides consultative the State Department of Education many college faculties.The other is lack of experience assistance and establishes the generalregulative frame- with vocational programs on the partof many ad- work within which the colleges operate;and the State public attitude ministrators. Junior College Advisory Board reflects This makes the selection of the presidentof a junior regarding the total program.Nevertheless, most de- if his institution is policies are college a highly critical matter, for cisions governing specific programs and various responsibilities control makes to carry out satisfactorily the made locally since it is believed that local assigned to it in the state's educationalstructure, he junior colleges more responsive to localneeds. must understand andappreciate, the significance of the As a result, there is closerarticulation between the vocational area of education as well asthe academic. programs of the collegeand other educational agencies in the county or cooperatingcounties. For example, Use of State and Local duplication of effort in providingvocational, technical, Advisory Cominittees and general adult education isminimized, and facilities effectively. The college is more sensitive State and local advisory committeescontribute greatly are used more vocational education. Most of to the need for providing avariety of community serv- to the effectiveness of ices and to the importance ofoffering training pro- them meet periodically, and theyhelp to keep vocational occupational require- grams in technical andother occupations as needs are educators abreast of changing changes affecting training identified by local surveys. Industry, civicand fraternal ments and of technological groups, and the communitygenerally have a closer feel- for specific vocations. ing of identification with the college and are more According to provisions of the FloridaState Plan for interested in ensuring that it carries out itsresponsibil- Vocational Education, state advisorycommittees for economics, ities effectively.Iri addition, costs may be more easily agriculture,distributive education, home adjusted to the economic status of cooperatingcounties. industrial education, and technicaleducation shall con- and the minimum program assuredby state funds may sist of outstanding people in therespective fields. They be extended through greater localeffort. are nominated bythe appropriate statesupervisors, appointed for Junior colleges in Florida serve severaldifferent pur- recommended by the State Director, and by the State Superintendent. poses,allquitedistinct.They reduce enrollment one- to three-year terns by permitting high school A state committee for industrial artshas also been pressures on the universities and gen- graduates to take their early college work attwo-year established.Nonvocational home economics commuting eral business education, however, usethe vocational institutions, which are frequently within and cooperative distance of their homes. In addition,they provide educa- homemaking, business. and distributive tional and cultural services for adultsin the commun- education advisory committees. 72 Slightly under half of the vocational agriculture de- education go to the junior college president, who makes partments had local advisory committees duringthe the appointments. To eliminate dual committees,it is past school year. The principal of the schoolinvolved, recommended that the local director's office and junior in consultation with the agriculture teacher, nominates college personnel concur in the nominations made to the persons for membership who are interestedin agricul- county superintendent for appointment. tural education, and they are appointed by the county Considerable program strength is provided by local school board, usually for a two-year term. advisory committees, selected and approved by local A separate local advisory committee is not always school authorities, who are familiar with training needs organized for each cooperative program. Sometimes a and opportunities in the communities in which they live. single committee serves all such programs in a given high school or county. It is recommended that the com- Guidance and Vocational Education mittee be composed of representatives of business,the Another important key to a successful vocational edu- press, the school, industry, and civicorganizations in- cation program is adequate student guidance. Require- terestedinyouth.Members are nominated by the mentsforcertificationasa guidance counselorin teacher-coordinatorin consultation with the school Florida schools have been established by theState principal and are appointed by the county superin- Department of Education. The requirements include a tendent for terms which may vary in length from county combination of teaching experience and professional to county. In several communities, advisorycommittees course work. Beginning in1964, however, a master's also work with adult vocational business and distributive degree in guidance will also be required. programs. At present a minimum of 2 years of classroom ex- Considerable attention has been devoted to stimu- perience is mandatory.Approximately 15 semester lating the use of 'local advisory committees in industrial hours of graduate work, must be distributed amongthe education during the past 2 years, with gratifying re- following technical areas: principles of guidance; indi- sults. A majority of counties with industrial education vidual analysis, including the administration andinter- programs have countywide generaladvisory committees pretation of tests, rating scales, and personal records; The county toassistin county program planning. counseling procedures; occupational information;and superintendent appoints the members for one- or two- administration of gaidancc services. Another 15 semes- year terms from nominationspresented by the local ter hours must be taken in the areasof psychology, director.It is recommended that, insofar as possible, education, and economics and sociology, with amini- nominations reflect organizations directly concerned mum of 3 semester hoursin each area. with industrial training, including representation from As with many other educational services, thedevelop- ,both employer and employee groups. Joint apprentice- mental level of student guidance programsdepends ship committees are, of course, the advisory committees school personnel and the apprenticeship-related classes suchas masonry, upon the interest of individual for economic status of the respective counties. Someschools plumbing, carpentry, electricity, and sheet metal work. educa- in which occupation or craft have extensive guidance programs, including Training programs tional and psychological testing and interpretation, advisory committees are widely used are those pre- counseling, and placement services. These are available paring practical nurses, a-tit° .motive mechanics, cosme- to elementary and high schoolstudents and to adults. tologists, aircraft mechanics, and dental assistants.The In other schools, guidance is primarily theresponsibility members of these committees are also appointedby the of the classroom teacher. county superintendent for 1 or 2 years uponthe recom- The State Department of Education stimulates con- mendation of the local director in consultationwith inguidance through periodicstate the principal or coordinator of the programconcerned. tinuinginterest craft or conferences and county workshops. Guidance releases, The committees consist of representatives of the include occupation in which training is being given, andshould which are distributed at quarterly intervals, personnel include membership from both management and em- discussions of problems confronting guidance and lists of publications and materials ofinterest to ployee groups. It is recognized that there is a pressingneed in Nearly all technician training programshave local them. most counties for guidance servicesfor adults.In a advisory committees.Because much technical edu- few high schools, counselors remain afterschool hours cation is provided within the junior college structure, communities do not personnel of the institutions offering the programs are to work with adults, but most selecting the committee members.For provide this service. involvedin extensive programs outside of juniorcolleges, recommendations Dade County, however, is an exception. An certified adult for membership are made by the localdirector or the adult guidance program, with a staff of high school day and evening coordinators to the countysuperin- counselors and closely articulated with the Among the services tendent, who appoints the members. Injunior college program, has beendeveloped. programs, recommendations fromthe dean of technical provided are: 73 1. Reviewing the personal, educational,and occupa- decades. In 1940, about 5 percent of the state's popu- tional histories of individuals as an aidin developing lation lived in the seven counties. By 1960,however, self-understanding. the proportion had dropped to slightly under 2 percent. 2. Administeriug and interpretingpsychological and This reflects not only the population lossin the seven- growth rate of educational tests. county area, but the relatively faster 3. Counseling with ',ndividual adults onthe basis of other parts of the state. The median incomes of families in six of the seven testresults, and interpreting the implicationsof the below results for educational, occupational,and perso.ial ad- counties ranged from almost $2,600 to $1,450 $135 justment. the state median. In the seventh, however, it was 4. Helping adults to plan a general oroccupational above the state median. In four of the seven counties, education program, if they so desire. over half the families hadincomes below $3,000.In 5. Helping adults to find jobs whenthey are ready one, the proportion was 2 in 3, andthe lowest ratio for employment. was 3 in 10.In all the counties, the median educa- Among the tests and records used to determineedu- tional level of the people who were 25 years of age and below the state cationalachievement and aptitudefor trainingin over ranged from 1.5 to almost 3 years specialized occupations are General AchievementTests, median of 10.9 school years completed. Otis Tests of Mental Ability, GeneralEducational De- The age distribution of the populationhas also velopment Tests, Kuder Preference Record,School and altered materially.In 1940 well over half (54.6 per- College Abilities Test, and theCalifornia Tests of cent) were in the "under 25" age group. By 1960the Reading and Arithmetic.Experimentation is carried proportion had dropped to 48 percent. During the same 26.0 on to determine theprognostic value of various instru- period the "25 to 44" age category declined from ments. Results are analyzed andprovide assistance in percent to 21.8 percent, while theratio of those "45 revising admission requirements to training for numer- and over" jumped from 19.3 percent to approximately ous specialized vocations. 29.3 percent.These data demonstrate the extent to which the younger, more productive age groupshave Selected Program Developments left the region to find employment. And this,in turn, gets to the very heart of the problem. ofthe Employment needs,thefinancialcondition isto the most im- The purpose of the Area Education Project county, and the demand for training are increase educational opportunities and servicesavail- services portant factors determining thevocational able to youth in small rural high schools.Potential represented and the number and kinds of courses training areas were determined through occupational for offering all offered. Some institutions have facilities interest inventories in which junior and seniorhigh_ extension vocational services, including preparatory and school students identified specific occupationsthat ap- training in a dozen or more industrial andtechnical Although training plans are geared extremely limited pealed to them. occupations. In others, offerings are primarily to the needs of West Florida counties,the and may be confined to a single service. training also prepares youth for employmentin occu- below are The programs and institutions described pations of their interest outside of these counties. discussed precisely for that not typical. Indeed, they are With funds provided by the NationalDefense Edu- However, each represents the response of a reason. cation Act, a guidance and testing program wasestab- training single county or group of counties to particular lished with headquarters at a juniorcollege located in needs and problems. Space does not permit a report on participating in the project. flawless. one of the seven counties all operational patterns in use, but none are Because the funds available to any single countywould However, they demonstrate that considerable program have been inadequate to provide the servicesdesired, flexibility can be achieved. the cooperative multicounty project wasdeveloped. CHIPOLA AREA EDUCATION PROJECT To aid in establishing guidance andtraining services An innovation of considerable promise forassisting that would meet the needs of the greatestnumber of in the further development of seven countiesin north- students, an advisory board consisting of the seven west Florida is the Chipola AreaEducation Project. All county superintendents and the projectcoordinator was the counties involved have common problemsand organized. The coordinator of the project is also project cultural characteristics. Their economies areprimarily director.He works with coordinating committeesof agricultural. All are relatively sparsely populated, many school personnel in each county. However, theadvisory family incomes are comparatively low, and theedu- board must approve all actions taken in connectionwith cational level of adults is somewhat under that ofmuch the program. counties are of the remainder of the state. Most of the high schools in the seven Four of the seven counties have lost in population comparatively small, making itdifficult and costly to since 1940. The area experienced a netdecline of ap- add further vocational courses in theindividual schools. proximately a thousand people during the past two Most of them offer vocational agricultureand hone 74 economics, and some have business andcooperative school officials in the seven counties in developing ways education, but findingan adequate number of suitable of meeting the training and guidance needs of high training agencies for the latterprogram isa serious school students and adults in the area. problem. Among the benefits deriving from the project are (1) Considerable attention was devotedto surveying and the provision of extensive guidance and testing services, testing high school students to determine theirinterests, which none of the counties could individually afford. aptitudes, IQ's, and achievement levels. From thesedata (2) the establishment of some post-high-school indus- and the results of a surveyon the need for technicians trial and technical training, and (3)a growing awareness in Florida industries, conducted by the StateDepart- on the part of many academic teachers of the range ment of Education, a number of additional training of student interests and aptitudes not related to col- areas,particularlyinindustrial-technicaleducation, lege work. were identified.Among these were electronic tech- The greatest single problem. in spite of federalex- nology, drafting and design technology, and automotive penditures, is a lack of funds, which severely limits the meehanic;;.Flectronic technology is now being taught provision of needed training facilities.Closely related, within the junior college structure;, and drafting and however, is the need to make the best possibleuse of design technology will soon be offered, but automotive existing fundsThis may involve the establishment of mechanics has been delayed because fundsare lacking one or more high school centers to pi uvidc additional for building and equipping an instructionalarea.It is vocational education for youth in the seven- county area. planned, also, to offer additional vocationalcourses Further demonstration of such needmay he required, such as business education and cosmetologyas demand together with closer administrative coordination, but and finances permit. a workable pattern has been established. Post-high-school students are transported for these courses at the junior college at the expense of the coun- DADE COUNTY VOCATIONAL-TECHNICAL PROGRAM ties in which the students live. In 1960 Dade County and metropolitan Miamicon- The problem of extending such vocational educa- tained approximately I in 5 of the state's population tion opportunities to boys and girls who will not attend and I in 6 of the school children in grades 1-12. To the junior college and who need the training before this total has been added a growing number of Cuban graduating from high school still remains to be solved. refugees both children and adults---. who are fleeing for the services of the junior college have not beenex- the Castro dictatorship. tended to them. They can enroll only in vocational Literacy education for Cuban refugees. One of the big education courses offered in the high schools that they problems confronting Dade County is assimilating these attend. newcomers into the community. and a major difficulty There are several approaches to this problem. Indus- is that most of them do not speak English. Before they trial arts, consisting largely of woodworking, is offered can find jobs or benefit from vocational instruction, in some high schools. One possibility is to establish they must acquire a minimum command of English. additional industrial arts programs emphasizing instruc- Therefore, much attention is being given in the regular tion in areas having immediate industrial application. day schools and in adult general educationcourses to Another is to introduce one or more vocational indus- literacy education or intensive English. trial courses such as automotive mechanics and drafting Ithas been estimated that between11,000 and in a single high school center to serve the students of 12,000 Cuban refugee youngstersare enrolled in grades more than one school.Still another is to provide more 1-12.In addition, an average of 9,000 adultsare con- comprehensive curricula in the high schools of the re- stantly being taught by a stair ranging variously from spectivecounties.But lackoffundshasseverely 135 to 200 full-time and part-time teachers who serve restricted moves in any of these directions, however approximately 20,000 adults annually. Certified teach- desirable they may be. The dual use of facilities by ers who have sonic command of Spanish and who vocational agriculture and industrial arts remains still volmiteer their services are used. Retired teachers and another possibility. others who had left the profession have been recruited. School officials in the area are aware ofthe additional College graduates desiring to he of help in theemergency training opportunities which could be made available have been granted temporary certificates to teach adult for adults iffacilitiesin secondary centers were ex- classes.Even so,it has frequently been necessary to panded. Ultimately, it is planned to use junior college conduct ',lasses through interpreters. A six-hour orien- facilities for technical extension and other adult courses tation workshop is held for personnel participating in in areas such as radio and TV repair and servicing. the program, and a full-time personis employed w Neither the coordinator of the project nor the only coordinate instructional activities. coordinator of vocational and technical education in Intensive English courses for adults are given inel,e- the area is a member of the junior college staff.Roth ning and adult high school centers in full-time and part- are on the payroll of a single county but work with time pr)grams. Some classes operate during the regular 75 school day, but most are held during lateafternoon nological courses in aeronautics, air conditioning and and evening hours. refrigeration, civil engineering, construction, data proc- Instruction is provided on three levels. Astudent essing, electronics, graphic arts, instruments, machine must achieve a minimum score,equivalent to eighth- drafting and design, and mechanics; and courses in grade reading competence, on a standardizedreading industrial management and supervision. These offerings achievement test before enrolling in a vocational course. are not considered technician training courses. Because If mathematics is important in the occupation forwhich of the difficulties so frequently encountered in attempt- training is desired, a student must also demonstrate ing todefine a technician, the courses are simply satisfactory competence on a standardizedmathematics intended to prepare for employment in technical occu- achievement test. pations.Credits are earned for these courses, but no It has been found that most refugee youngstersin particular attentionisgiven to their transfer value. high school classes are not yet sufficiently proficient in If a course is needed, itis provided.Itis notable, English to profit from vocational instruction.Adults however, that credits in many of the above programs demonstrate most interest and ability in vocationalbusi- are accepted by four-year institutions. ness subjects and hotel andrestaurant training.Rela- In addition, the college offers technical extension tively few have entered industrial or technical education courses in a number of areas. One of the most popular courses. isindustrial management and supervision, which is Preindustrial and pretechnical courses. The vocational limited only by the availability of qualified instructors. and related education program incorporates several Among the groups and agencies served are the Dade innovations which help to meet student needs. Among County Metropolitan Government, the fire and police these are the preindustrial and pretechnical courses chiefs of the county, hotel managers, postal employees, offered in a number of high schools having appropriate and a number of aviation companies. instructional facilities. The courses are neither indus- Electronic data processing. Electronic equipment for trial arts nor vocational education. They are intended processing educational data is in use in a number of primarily for10th-graders who are not yet eligible moredenselypopulatedcounties,includingDade for industrial, technical, or cooperative education. In- County. Computers are being used to improve record cluded are prevocational courses in cabinet andmill- keeping and to expedite course registration procedures. work, cooking and baking, dry cleaning and laundry, Although only limited applications to problem solving electronics, machine shop, printing, radio and TV re- exist at present; it is believed that interest in such utili- pair, tailoring, and trowel trades. The purpose of these zation will grOw. In a recent survey conducted in the courses is to develop basic conceptsand skills in the county, teachers in a variety of instructional areas, in- vocational areas to which they provide an introduction. cluding industrial arts and vocational education, ex- In addition, they help to determine the competenceof pressed considerable interest in learning more about youngsters in the areas selected for study and toequip programmed instruction. them with a fund of understandings permittingfaster As noted above, a two-year curriculum leading to an progress in later vocational work. associate degree in data processing is offered by the However, the "pre" courses are not required of 10th- junior college. In addition, numerous short courses and graders, nor are they prerequisites for enrollment in extension courses are given, and certain of the prepara- vocational courses. They are one of three elective se- tory offerings are elected by prebusiness, premathema- quences provided for 10th-gradestudents interested in tics, and preengineering students. industrial-technical education. The other two are in- Testing, guidance, and student selection. Students are dustrial arts and technical education. admitted in two ways to high school vocational courses Technical education. Technical education in Florida or to technical classes in the onehigh school offering is given at three instructional levels and in several types them. They may perform satisfactorily in a 10th-grade of schools. At the secondary level, technical preparatory industrial arts or prevocational course related to the courses are taught in comprehensive and vocational- vocation they desire to study, or they may meet mini- technical highschools.Most technicalpreparatory mum requirements on standardized testsof mental training, however, is done in junior colleges. Extension ability, reading, and arithmetic skills.Minimum and classes, on the other hand, use the facilities of compre- probationary percentile requirements are .higher for hensive high schools, junior colleges, and adult centers. technician trainees than for other vocational students. At present, one high school in Dade County has courses Approximately half of the admissions to 'sigh school in construction and in electronic and mechanical tech- industrial and technical courses are probationary. nology. The rest of the preparatory work is located on Contrary to common practice, high school students the Dade County Junior College Campus. may enter the industrial or technicaleducation program Eleven preparatory training curricula for technicians when they are in the 12th grade. Those electing a are offered by the junior college.These include tech- technical specialization can complete their second year 76 of training in the junior college. Those who are indus- current and potential labor market is constantly studied trial education trainees may enroll in an adult program to determine present demands and changing job require- or take a closely related junior college course for their ments. The student's counselor works with the place- second year of training. This flexibility stems from the ment officer and instructor in contacting prospective closearticulation of secondary vocational and tech- employers so that the student is placed to his own and nical programs with post-high-school and adult education the employer's best advantage. permitted by local control of the county's educational The trade instructor assumes major responsibility for facilities. placing his students because he is most familiar with All technician trainees enrolled in junior college-pre- their qualifications and employer needs. The placement paratory courses take technical aptitude and achieve- office, on the other hand, handles most placements for menttestsadministered by theFloridaIndustrial business education graduates and for students seeking Commission. In addition, the college is cooperating in part-time jobs.Monthly placement reports are com- the United States Office of Education technician testing piled, and a complete record for all programs is de- program involving four instructional areas: aeronautical, veloped periodically.Close liaison with the Florida electronic, mechanical, and machine design technology. Employment Service is also maintained. In the adult vocational ,.ducation program, minimum Program supervisors and coordinators cooperate with standards have been establi,ied for admission to train- the Guidance Department in planning and conducting ing for every trade taught.Test batteries, varying by followup studies of each past year's graduates to de- trades, have been designed to determine an applicant's termine the jobs they hold and their assessment of aptness for specific training and his probable success training effectiveness.In addition, employers are con- in the occupation.2 To ensure that training meets cur- tacted to evaluate trainee performance as related to the rent occupational demands, every instructor has a course course studied. outline which has been approved by the curriculum Provision for low achievers.It is recognized that a committee. certain proportion of youth lack the inherent capacity About 85 percent of all adults are processed through to succeed in a typical high school program. Yet, they the adult guidance program before enrolling for a will become job seekers and need the opportunity to course.Most of the remainder are home economics become as self-reliant as possible. To keep these youth students who are taking courses for self-improvement, in school and to provide them a level of education but some evening trade extension enrollees are also commensurate with their abilities, a diversified mechan- exempt. The latter, however, must present a letter or ics course is taught in three high schools by specially other evidence indicating that they are or have been qualified teachers. The course is intended for10th-, employed in the occupation for which training is being 11 th-, and 12th-graders having IQ ratings of 85 or less; given or in one which is closely allied. it consists primarily of metal fabrication or production work; it continues for 2 or 3 periods daily. During the Nearly all adults take the Gray- Votaw- Rogers read- remainder of the school day the students take selected ing and mathematical achievement testbattery. An academic courses in which they are able to achieve applicant failing to achieve the minimum required scores some measure of success. may retake the tests after additional study. If he passes, Projected program modifications. In the near future, he is further screened by members of the appropriate technical education curricula will be evaluated to de- craft committee and by instructional and guidance per- termine if they are meeting changing employment needs sonnel who provide additional counsel based upon his as identified by appropriate advisory committees.It is test performance. also anticipated that some technical training in the If problems develop after the student is admitted to junior college will be organized on a cooperative basis. training, his case is reviewed. Upon the outcome of The student will attend school for a part of the time further counseling, he is retained or dropped from the and work part time at a job requiring technical pro- course.If itis deemed .desirable that he discontinue ficiency of the type which he is studying. training, he is encouraged to establish new vocational Upon the advice of appropriate advisory committees, goals, and may take a general aptitude test battery to and due to local employment conditions and the results aid in determining such goals. of program evaluation, a number of courses not meeting Placement and followup of students and graduates established objectives have been discontinued and re- are an integral part of the adult guidance service. The placed by new classes conforming more closely to cur- rent employment demands. The result has been an 'At the time of writing, students training to become food handlers had been tested, and the program had been evaluated. increase rather than a decline in enrollment.It A test battery in the hotel workers' training program was in anticipated that other courses, particularly in the ex- process of being evaluated to determine its effectiveness as a tension program, will be examined closely to ensure screening device.In part, the validation process consisted of checking the instructor's estimate of a student's class perform- their continuing sensitivity to changing occupational ance against his scores on a test battery. requirements. 77 INDUSTRIAL-TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT technical education center projected for Pinellas County DAYTONA BEACH JUNIOR COLLEGE and the Tampa Bay area.This center, the first of its The Daytona Beach Junior College is one which kind in the state, grew out of a need expressed by provides a very diversified curriculum, including 12 industrial representatives for an institution that would different industrial education programs and 2 tech- be adequately equipped to provide technical prepara- nology programs.In addition, trade and technical tory,extension, and supervisory courses specifically extension courses are given within the administrative reflecting immediate industrial requirements in the area. structure of the college. Technological courses may be provided in mechanical Terminal industrial education is provided in the Mary drafting and design, machines, metallurgy, illustration, Karl Vocational Division, an administrative part of the air conditioning and refrigeration, electronics, and in college. The courses include appliance service; auto- other fields for which a need is identified by school motive mechanics; cabinet making, millwork, and fur- officials and advisory committees. The program offered niture making; cosmetology; drafting; gasoline engine will include only technical laboratory work and instruc- mechanics; industrial electricity; industrial electronics; tion in closely related areas, such as applied technical landscaping and industrial iursery work; photography mathematics and science, technical report writing, and and photo finishing; practN1 nursing; printing; and allied fields identified in cooperation with representa- watchmaking. Construction technology and electronics tives of industry. technology, on the other hand, are offered within the The center will give high school graduates of sec- transfer division of the college.The trade extension ondary school technical education programs a chance program includes apprenticeshiptraining in sheet metal, to continue their technical studies.It will aid people plumbing, carpentry, and electricity. A distributive who want concentrated instruction in specific technical education program is also provided, and the school in- fields without having to meet the general educational cludes a vocational rehabilitation center. Slightly under requirements for an associate degree. When completed, one-fourth of the total enrollment is made up of voca- staff and facilities will also be available to employed tional students. These are primarily adults, but upon technicians, engineers, and other industrial personnel the recommendation of their principals, a small number for short courses and extension courses and for other of high school students are also taking vocational instructional and related services. courses. The Director of the Mary Karl Vocational Division Conclusions is administratively responsible to the president of the Each of the vocational programs reviewed aboveis college and, through him, to the county superintendent the response of a county or group of counties to a of public instruction. The same is true of the Director problem. The Chipola Area Education Project, for of the Adult Education Division, the Director of Tech- example, dramatizes thedifficulties encountered by nical Education, and the directors of the other divisions sparsely populated and financially restricted counties. and services within the college structure. Some counties have a relatively large number of high If a county director of vocational education should schools with small student bodies.In these, itis im- be appointed to the county superintendent's staff, it is possible to provide a reasonably comprehensive pro- anticipated that he will work through the Director of gram of vocational offerings.In surveys of vocational the Mary Karl Vocational Division in matters relating programs in such counties, it isfrequently recommended the high schools to the college vocational program. In that a single high school be designated by countyschool and other adult centers of the county, he will work with officials to house a comprehensive vocational program, appropriate administrative personnel in these centers. and that students from neighboring high schools inthe All adult vocational and technical education and all county be transported to that school totake vocational general adult education offered in the two counties courses not offered in theschools they attend.In the served by the junior college are administratively a part evenings, the facilities can be made available to adults of the junior college organization. One advantage is the for preparatory or extension training as employment centralized administrative control over vocational and demands require. general adult offerings in the area served by the college; Additional area education projects can be developed in providing the anotheristhe economies effected by groups of adjoining counties with small highschool services requested. However, if the organization is to populations.In the event a junior college is not avail- function effectively, adequate provision must be made able for a center, it will be necessary to construct an for supervising its many facets, and budgetary responsi- area center or to designate acentrally located high bilities and controls must be clearly defined. school to serve in that capacity.It will, of course, be PINELLAS COUNTY TECHNICAL EDUCATION CENTER necessary to make arrangements totransport high school An innovation among Florida institutions providing students froth neighboring counties to the center. How- technical education is the publicly supported two-year ever, such a procedure is alreadyfollowed with junior 78 college students who are transported by school bus from personnel to explore the role of the junior college in the counties in which they live to the junior college county programs of vocational education. Dade County serving their area. demonstrates the advantages of close articulation be- It is believed that technological developments at Cape tween secondary school industrial and technical educa- Canaveral and the needs of associated industries and tion programs and junior college and adult education services will create a demand for additional centers programs. A similar situation exists with respect to like that under construction in Pinellas County. Spe- vocational industrial education in a number of the 25 cialized training needs for employed technicians can junior colleges, particularly if they share a campus with best be met through short courses and extension courses a secondary, school. In such casestraining facilities are offered in such centers. The facilities can also be used not duplicated. Instead, they are used at different times for intensive preparatory training of qualified people by both high school and junior college students and are who are seeking immediate employment. also available for extension courses.It is believed that At the present time Florida has 49 comprehensive this practice has considerable merit and can be extended high schools. Others are under construction, however, to situations in which the schools do not have a common and more are being planned. As the number increases, campus. A combination of appropriate administrative it is believed that a higher proportion of high school procedures and a common purpose are needed to ac- students will enroll in vocational courses.In 1960 complish this. slightly over 1 in 4 students in grades 9-12 took voca- Itis anticipated that statewide and local orogram tional courses. By far the greatest proportion, however, development will be based increasingly upon t1. , results were enrolled in vocational agriculture and home eco- of research. But this will not be possible until studies nomics. In view of the growing demand for trained having predictive value are undertaken.Electronic clerical and sales people and for skilled workers and data-processing equipment is indispensable in research. technicians, more emphasis is being given to extending It is anticipated that future research designs will take educational opportunities in these areas in the newer greater advantage of the machine's vast potential so that high schools. it will not remain merely a tool for expediting the col- Potentially disastrous in its implications is the prob- lection of administrative data and performing routine lem of youth who are dropping out of school before clerical calculations. graduation. Lack of interest or ability in school sub- Florida is growing at a phenomenal rate. Advance jects, a desire to become economically independent, or is compounded upon advance in rocketry and in less the need to assist in family support are among the spectacular industries and services as well. Farm income principal sources of difficulty. Some help would prob- and output are rising, but the proportion of farmers is ably result from scheduling industrial arts for greater declining. More homes are being established, but more numbers of youth. Making vocational education avail- women are employed outside the home. Moreyouth able at an earlier age for youth of lesser ability or are in school, but many are not finishing. Factorssuch dwindling school interest and providing more work as these are part of today's social reality. All dramatize experience programs might cause these youth to remain the need for more training and retraining, for adequate in school longer. In any event, they would be equipped guidance for youth and adults, for more programs help- with rudimentary skills to make them more employable ing youth to determine their interests and capacities. when they leave school. These needs can be met promptly and with vision by a Extensive efforts are being made through conferences flexible program of vocational and related education. with junior college presidents and other administrative

79 PRE MG PAGE B L T F I L M ED

X. Vocational Education in Kentucky BY E. P. HILTON'

According to census reports, Kentucky hada population Vocational Agriculture of 2,944,806 in 1950 as compared to 3,038,156 in 1960. There were in 1960 aboutone million persons In 1961 fewer than 3,000 boys graduated from high in the labor force, distributedamong the professions school with training in vocational agriculture. Recent and occupations approximately as follows: followup studies of our students show that about one- third of those having taken vocational agriculture in Occupational Groups Percent high school actually farm. This means that only about Professional, technical, and kindred workers 6.1 one-third of the 3,000 new farm operators each year Managers, officials, and proprietors, have received training in vocational agriculture in the except farm 6.8 high school program. Of the remaining 2,000 graduates Farmers and farm managers . 17.4 in vocational agriculture, some enter vocations related Farm laborers and foremen 7.4 to farming or vocations in which agricultural experience Clerical and kindred workers 8.3 and training are very helpful; some enter industry based Sales workers 5.7 on the skills learned in farm mechanics classes; and Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers 11.5 others enroll in post-high-school trade and technical courses as a result of an interest aroused while in these Operatives and kindred workers 19.9 classes. Service workers, except private household 6.1 Departments of vocational agriculture in the rural Laborers, except farm and mine 5.6 high schools are providing agricultural training for Private household workers 2.5 young men out of school and other adults who have Not reporting 2.7 just entered or are already established in farming. During the decade there was much shifting of work- During the year 1960-1961, 2,181 young men just ers among occupational groups. Some rural counties entering farming were enrolled in courses of instruction lost as much as 25 percent of their population. Agricul- in agriculture.Most of the young farmer courses of ture isstill the state's largest industry, however, and study are set up on a four-year basis. This means that more workers are engaged in farming than in any other there are a few more than 500 completing the young occupation. This will be true for many years tocome. farmer course each year. This is about one-sixth of the Even if the present downward trend in the number of number that should be completing such courses. farms and farm operators should continue over the next Classes of instruction for older farm operators are decade, the state will need a minimum of 3,000new offered each year to help existing farmers adjust to the farm operators per year. In this day of modern tech- changing practices in agriculture. A total of 4,757 of nology these people must have training. Another im- the 150,904 farm operators in the state were enrolled portant industry in thestateiscoal mining.The in such programs of instruction during the year 1960- number of workers required in coal mining has also 1961. The regular high school teacher of vocational declined markedly due, among other things, to mech- agriculture usually teaches one group of young farmers anization and automation. Other than in mining and or adult farmers, and within the limits of available farming, occupational groups have tended to follow funds, additional teachers are employed to teach in the the national pattern. program. There are now in the state 15 teachers devot- 1Director of Vocational Education, Kentucky Department ing full time and 5 teachers devoting part time to the of Education. teaching of adult farmers.All teachers employed for 81 young farmer and adultfarmer programs are members were enrolled in preparatory training programs in these of the high school faculty and are entitled to all the areasin the year 1960-1961. An additional 6,064 rights and privileges of other faculty members. already employed received training on a part-time basis to help upgrade them in their work. Vocational Home Economics THE DEVELOPMENT OF AREA VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS The 1960 census indicates that there were 851,867 households in Kentucky. During the school year 1960- In Kentucky, all programs of trade and technical 1961, 25,854 high school students were enrolled in education are operated through area vocational schools. approved home economics programs in 317 highschools Although these schools are primarily postsecondary out of a total of 507 high schools in the state,and in institutions, the high schools send their students to them addition, 6,065 persons were enrolled innoncredit for trade and technical training. The few community or adult homemaking classes. Instruction for adult home- junior colleges operating in the state have provided no vocational or technical training up to the present time. makers may be given by the regular high schoolteacher or by special instructors.All persons teaching adults A significant amount of vocational training is pro- are employees of the localboards of education, and the vided by private schools and industry.Private trade local boards are reimbursed in full from state andfed- and technical schools serve a few people in select areas. eral funds for their salaries. Private business schools serve a substantial number of Only a small percentage of present or potential home- people, but for the most part, they are located in metro makers are receiving instruction in home economics to politan areas and are not reaching students in the more help them meet the everchanging demands and needs rural areas. of homemaking. The program in the high schoolsis Industry has been doing a good job training its own being limited by inadequate funds and lack of qualified employees. But most industry has been located in the personnel. Since most teachers of home economics have metropolitan areas, and its training programs do not large classes of high school students, little time is left reach people in the rural areas. Industry is turning more for instruction for adult homemakers, or for organiza- and more to the area vocational schools for the training tion of adult classes and supervision of the special in- of its prospective employees and the upgrading of the structors.Requests are on filefor more thai. 40 skills of its existing employees. additional high school home economics teachers. Area school programs may be administered by local boards of education or by the State Board of Education, Distributive Education which, in Kentucky, is the same as the State Board for Approximately 57,000 persons in the state are engaged Vocational Education, but the trend is toward State in sales. Through our distributive education program, Board operation. Three schools have been operated by 763 high school students were being trained for this pro- the State Board for some time, and upon authorization gram during the year 1960-1961.The classes in distrib- of the Legislature, the operation of seven more was utive education are operated as a part of the localhigh transferred to the State Board on July 1, 1962. Only school in cooperation with retail and wholesale stores four of the schools are now being operated bylocal in the community. Each student enrolled in a distribu- boards. tive education class is employed for 15 hours per week Operation of the area schools by theState Board in some business and is following a supervised work has proved to be more satisfactory than operationby program agreed upon by his teacherand his employer. local boards.In the latter case, the board of a single In addition to the high school classes in the cooperative school district must assume the full responsibilityfor program, 1,927 persons alreadyemployed in the sales operating the area school on behalf of all the districts field received instruction to upgrade them in their work. in the area. The primary concern of a localboard is The need for the training of persons in the sales Ut.,1 education within its own district, and it is difficultfor distribution, field is not being met. Kentucky is a state a board to develop an areavocational program satis- of many small towns and villages, and in mosthigh fa( tory to all of the districts in the area.Operation by schools there is not enough demand to justify the em- the State Board assures total area responsibility, pre- ployment of an instructor for distributive education; the vents jealousies from developing between localdistricts, present prograths are found in our larger cities. and facilitates administration of the schoolsaccording to the state pattern for area schools. Trade and Technical Education The area vocational school system in Kentuckybegan The training for technicians, craftsmen, foremen, opera- in 1938 with the establishment of the MayoVocational tors, and service workers is carried on through voca- School in Paintsville and the West KentuckyVocational tional programs intrades and technical education. School for Negroes in Paducah, and it expandedsub- These combined occupational fields employ about 37.5 stantially during World War II when the country was As percent of the workers in the state. Only 4,637 persons faced with the urgent need of skilled manpower. 82 shown on the accompanyingmap, each of the area fact, the choice of courses offered is heavily influenced schools is designed toserve a number of counties. by the requests of industry. The schools have rathercomprehensive offerings ORGANIZATION OF COURSES covering most occupations. Oneschool may have course offerings for asmany as 20 different occupations, and Courses are organized to meet the training needs of the course offeringsmay be expanded as needed. the occupation. Theymay range from 1 or 2 weeks to 2 years in length. Most .basic Building facilitiesare now being expanded at 9 of the courses for the skilled 10 area schools being operatedby the State Board of trades are organized for 2,640 hours of instruction. These courses may be completed in 22 months Education. The Northern KentuckyState Vocational of full- time instruction of 6 hours School is just completinga million-dollar building pro- per day on the post-high- school level.High school students may enroll in the gram. The Mayo State Vocational School is addinga classroom and science buildingto cost approximately area vocational school for 3 hours per day, 5 daysper week, during their last 2 $400,000. West Kentucky VocationalSchool is adding years in high school and com- a new vocational building at a cost of approximately plete the course by attending 6 hoursper day for 1 full year after graduation from high school. All of the half a million dollars. New vocationalbuildings that area will provide about 30,000square feet of floor space vocational schools, with the exception of Ahrens,serve as vocational departments for all high schools each are being constructed at six otherarea schools, cooper- namely, Ashland, Harlan County, Hazard, Jefferson ating with them. The high school pupil enrollsin his County, Madisonville, and Somerset. regular high school and takes at leasttwo nonvocational courses for one-half day, and he spends the other half Each of the area vocational schools is administered day of 3 hours in the area school in vocational by a director. The State Board of Education appoints classes. The area vocational school doesnot have a program of the director for each state-operated schoolupon the activities, such as athletics, for high schoolstudents; recommendation of the Stiperintendent of Public In- the students are expected to participate in theprograms struction. The director is responsible to the Director of of their home high schools. Trade and Industrial Education in the Bureau of Voca- The Ahrens Vocational School isa comprehensive tional Education, State Department of Education,for vocational school and offers both nonvocationaland the administration of the program in his school. vocational courses.It offers a four-year program and The direCtor of each area vocational school operated gives a high school diploma.It also offers instruction by a local board of education is employed by the local for adults on the post-high-school level in muchthe board of education upon recommendation of the local same manner as do the other area vocational schools. superintendent of schools. He is responsibleto the local Courses of instruction in practicalnurse education board through his superintendent for the administration are offered in cooperation with local hospitals. They and operation of his school. Although the directorof are 12 months in length, and are open only to post-high- an area vocational school is administratively responsible school students. either to the State Board of Educationor to the local board of education, he leans heavilyon the local school COURSE DEVELOPMENT administration in his area for counsel and adviceon all Each course offered by the area vocational school is matters pertaining to school organization and admin- developed by the instructional .staff in the school in istration. An area vocational school would have diffi- consultation with labor and industry.Craft advisory culty in succeeding without the support of the school committees are used by each school. in developing and administrators in its area. keeping up to date all course material and techniques in instruction. COURSE OFFERINGS AND ORGANIZATION Each area vocational school offers, in additionto Extension Centers Area postsecondary technical-vocaticnalcourses, a variety of Vocational Schools courses of less than college grade or of noncollege grade Although the 14 area vocational schoolsare fairly well but broad enough in scope to provide training for the distributed geographicallyover the state, they are not major occupational fields in which the residents of the within commuting distance of all who need theirserv- area are engaged. The courses provide for preparatory ices.In an effort to serve all the peopleon a com- training for entrance into industrial and businessoccu- muting basis, extension centers from the original14 pations as well as for upgrading those already employed. schools are being developed. The extension centersare Training is provided for industrial and electronic tech- not expected to offer postsecondary courses; theyare nicians, licensed practicalnurses, beauty culture, food primarily to serve the students in the junior and senior trades, and office practice,as well as for most trades classes of the high schools located within theircom- found in the area. The course offeringsare limited only muting areas.It is expected that the day school prepar- by funds for programs and by the demand forthem. In atory program in the extension centers will consist 83 4.2.3.1. WesternHarlan AshlandLafayette County Area Area Area Voc. Area Vocational Voc. School Voc. School School SchoolAREA VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS KENTUCKY 7.6.5.9.8. HazardJeffersonNorthern MayoMadisonville StateArea Ky.County Voc.StateVoc. Area Area SchoolSchool Voc. Voc. Voc. School School School 12.11.10.14.13. SomersetOwensboroTilghman WestLouisville Kentucky Area AreaArea Voc. Voc. Voc. School School School DAVIS,/ ONIO

0 A.EXTENSION CENTERS IN Barbourville (Knox Co.) OPERATION (1)(2) MaysvilleGlasgowEXTENSION (Barren (Mason Co.) CENTERSCo.) PLANNED OR UNDER CONSTRUCTION D.C.B.E.F. JacksonWestMillardBelfryPrestonsburg Liberty (Pike(Breathitt(Pike Co.) (MorganCo.) (Floyd Co.) Co.) Co.) (3) Morganfield (Union Co.) almost entirely of high school students, but training for 15.Transportation costs for high school students adults will be provided after regular school hours and should be borne by the transportation formula in the during the evenings. foundation law. A committee of vocational educators and others has 16.All utilities will be prorated between the high developed a plan for locating extension centers, and school and adult programs. the following criteria have been approved. Extension centers are operated cooperatively by local 1.Extension centers should be located to serve the boards of education and the area vocational schools. people in the community. Centers should beso located When a local board of .education wishes to establish an that regular school attendants will not have to be trans- extension center,it must submit to the Division of ported more than 25 or 30 miles to attend a school, and Trade and Industrial Education a request for the estab- one area school or a center should not be nearer than lishment of an area vocational extension center. This 25 miles to another. requestshould be supported by thefollowingin- 2.There should be a minimum of three approved formation: areas of training. 1.Facilitiesor buildings available for vocational 3.There should be a minimum of 1,500 students 9,,ur.ftqus, or the plans for the building of such structures. enrolled in the upper 4 grades of the cooperating schools. 2. The high school enrollment in the participating 4. The center is to be administered by thearea voca- center and the number of students from the 11th and tional school serving the area at the time thenew subarea 12th grades who could profit from and would be inter- is established. ested in the vocational course 5. A minimum of 100 young men enrolled in the 3. A survey of the out-of-school youth in the area, I 1 th and 12th grades of the participating schools who including both boys and girls from the ages of 16 through are interested in and could profit from vocational train- 21 and some indication of the number of these who ing must have indicated through preenrollment their would desire and could profit from such training desire for such training. 4. A sample survey of adults through the ages of 21 6.The center mus", provide opportunities for the to 25 and some indication of their interest in vocational training of out-of-school youth, those 16 years of age training or above who have dropped out of public schools. They,.. 5. A map of the area showing the roads leading to of course, must have the abilities and aptitudes to profit the center, distances of the schools from the center, and by such training. some information about the density of population 7.Adults must also be given an opportunity for 6.Population trends and other information indicat- training. ing the prospective growth or decline of the population 8. A testing and guidance program approved by the in the area Bureau of Guidance in the Department of Education At the present time, five extension centers are being must be in operation by all participatiug counties. operated in cooperation with the Mayo State Vocational 9.Buildings in which training is to be done must be School in Paintsville.The Knox County Board of furnished by local people. Such bu;.,lings must meet the Education is cooperating with the Harlan County Area approved standards for the course offerings and must be Vocational School in an extension center at Barbour- approved by the Division of Buildings and Grounds in ville.,Extension centers at Glasgow, Maysville, and the Department of Education.(Minimum standards Morganfield are now in the planning or construction should be listed for each shop.) stage. These centers are shown on the map presented on 10. The local boards of education must be financially an earlier page. able to participate in a building program before they can It will require approximately 20 extension centers in provide any capital outlay for this purpose. Their finan- addition to the 14 parent area vocational. .schools to cial ability is to be determined by the Department of bring trade and technical education within the reach Finance in the Departthont of Education. of all the people within the state.This program is 11. The instructional costs are to be paid from the being implemented as fast as facilities and operating foundation program funds and special state and fed- funds will permit. eral funds. The courses offered in the extension centers will be 12. Any instructional costs of high school students the same in content as those offered in the parent area will be borne by the allotment of funds under the foun- vocational school, but the extension centers will offer dation program. only those courses that are of local interest and that 13.Equipment will be furnished by the areavoca- train for the more common occupations.Usually the tional school serving the center. Such equipment will be high school student will enroll in the extension center purchased from state and federal funds. for 3 hours a day, 5 clayS a week, during his junior and 14. The total cost of education for out-of-school senior years, and complcie the course in the parent area youth and adults will be borne by state and federal school by attending 1f411year after high school grad- funds. uation. 85 Financing the Program The cost of instruction for students under 21 years of age is financed through the foundation program. These The programof vocationaleducationisfinanced students pay only.a fee of $3 per month for instructional through local, state, and federal funds. supplies. The cost' of instruction for students 21 years The secondary phase of vocational educationis of age and over is financed through state and federal financed through the state foundation program for funds for vocational education and from fees charged education.Under this program, each districtisre- each student. At the present time the fee for those 21 quired to make a minimum local effort; and after this years of age and over is $15 per month. No contract effort has been met, the state pays the additional cost between local boards of education and the area voca- of the program up to a minimum level. Kentucky Re- tional school is made for adults. The area vocational vised Statutes state: school recognizes no district boundaries for those 21 Section 157-360 (1) In determining the cost of the years of age and over. foundation program for each district, the Superin- The financial support for vocational education for the tendent of Public Instruction shall allot to each year ending June 30, 1961, was as follows: district classroom units for elementary and second- Federal funds all programs $1,227,254 educa- ary schools, classroom units for vocational Foundation funds (state and local) .. 3,904,146 tion,classroomunits forspecialinstructional State fundsvocational appropriation 1,203,071 services for exceptional children, classroom units Fees and incidental receipts 299,867 for superintendents, principals and their certifi- cated assistants and special instructional service $6,634,338 personnel, classroom units for supervisors of in- struction, and classroom units for directors of Teacher Training pupil personnel; provided, however, that the num- The training of teachers for vocational subjects is a ber of classroom units allotted any district shall problem in Kentucky. All the state colleges and some not exceed the number of teachers employed by private colleges offer training for teachers of home the district. economics, but the turnoverisrapid, and thereis The basic classroom units are allotted on the average always a shortage of home economics teachers. This is daily attendance of 27 pupils per teacher. Vocational particularly true in the more outlying areas where there education units are allotted under Kentucky Revised is little or no employment for the teachers' husbands. Statutes as follows: It is not so true in Franklin County where husbands may be employees of the state. (4)... oneclassroom unit shall be allotted for each full-time teacher, and a proportionate fraction The training of teachers for agriculture and for trade of a classroom unit shall be allotted for each less and industrial education is centered in the University of than full-time teacher of vocational classes that Kentucky. The supply of teachers being trained in meet the regulations of the State Plan of Voca- agriculture about meets the demand under the present tional Education as approved by the State Board of financial support for vocational agriculture. Education; a proportionate fraction of a class- Teachers for the trades programs must come from room unit shall be allotted for each teacher em- industry itself. The first requirement for a trades teacher ployed to teach evening, part-time, or short unit is that he know his job. All teachers of trades subjects classes for less than a school day or a school year are required to have aminimum of 3 years of work that meet the regulations of the State Plan of Voca- experience on a journeyman level. After teachers have tional Education as approved by the State Board been recruited from the trades field, they must be given started in the teach- of Education. some preservice training to get them ing field, and then be upgraded through inservice All vocational units are allotted to the district sending training. pupils to the area vocational school. This district con- The preservice workisdoneattheuniversity. tracts with the area vocational school for all pupils Throughout the year, teacher trainers from the uni- under 21 years of age from its schools. The contract versityofferprofessionalcourses by' extension for rate will depend largely on the funds received from the teachers in the area schools. Teacher trainers also give state's foundation program for classroom units in voca- individual on-the-job instruction to employed teachers. tional education.Each classroom unit in vocational During the month of August when the vocational education carries with it an allotment of funds for each schools are closed, all teachers are brought into the teacher as follows: university for a two-week inservice training program. Teachers' salaries $4,000 to $4,600 Vocational teachers in all fields have a difficult time Operation costs $900 in keeping up to date.ChangesQare taking place so Capital outlay $600 rapidly that a constant inservice training program must 86 be carried on. The majority of homemakers are also in vocational agriculture and in certain areas of home- wage earners, and the courses of study in homemaking making when needed. In sparsely settled areas or in must be constantly adjusted to meet the implications of urban areas, where there are too few farm boys and the dual job. The mechanization and expansion of the courses in agriculture become too costly for thehigh farm as a business unit make it necessary that teachers schools to offer, programs in vocational agriculture may of agriculture constantly change their course of study be established in the area vocational schools for those and their teaching materials. Workshops for teachers boys who need and want such training. For this type of in farm mechanics, farm management, and other phases program, the boys would be transported from theirhigh of farming must be provided to keep the teachers up schools to the area schools in the same way that stu- to date. dents are transported for trade and industrial education Teachers in the trades fields must have not only programs.It is contemplated, for example, that a pro- inservice training through individual instruction and gram of vocational agriculture will beestablished in organized group instruction but also the opportunity to the area vocational school in Jefferson County, which is know what is going on in the trades field in which they largely urban, because there are a number of boys en- are teaching. Opportunities must be provided forthem rolled in the different county high schools who want to visit the factory or the shop and be brought up to training in agriculture. The only difference between the date on what is new in their fields. vocational agriculture in the area vocational school and One of the biggest weaknesses in the training of that in the local high school will be the length of the teachers for the trades occupations is inadequate pre- course and length of class session. In the areaschool, service training.If the quality of these teachers is to courses will be 2 years in length, and classsessions 3 be improved, some means must be found to provide a hours long; in the local high school, courses will be 4 preservice training program that will combine trade years in length, with daily 60-minute class sessions.In experience and professional training. the local high school, the boy will receive one unit of credit, while in the area vocational school, he will re- Research ceive two units of credit per year. Itis contemplated that the area vocational schools Another weakness in our vocational education pro- will provide training for certain occupations related to gram in Kentucky is the lack of adequate research and farming, for example: training of technicians in agri- followup studies. About 10 years ago, a study was made culture, or training of specialists to serve farmers in of what happened to the boys who had vocational certain areas such as farm management, pest and weed agriculture in high school in the decade from 1940 to control, and fertilizer and feed services.This type 1950. Since this was the war-years period, as well as of training program will require the cooperation of two being 20 years ago, the findings are not now applicable. or more of our present vocationaleducation services. The study needs to be repeated. A research program In like manner, training in certain specialized serv- is being inaugurated in the homemaking field, with all ices related to homemaking, such as household help, the state colleges participating. Comprehensive research dieticians, child-care specialists, and certain other oc- programs in many fields of trade and industrial edu- cupations, may be offered best by the area vocational cation are needed, and greater use should be made of school. the existing research, Under the present federal vocational education acts, federal funds are not available for the support of train- Prograin Projection ing in certain occupations. In projecting the program of Theplanforimplementingtheareavocational vocational education in Kentucky, itis contemplated school was given increased emphasis by the recent that sonie of these programs may be conducted best in session of the Legislature in placing the operation of the area vocational schools. For example, training for 7 more of the 14 area vocational schools under the State office occupations is now being done in the area schools. Board of Education. When the area vocational pro- Vocational education in Kentuqky has accepted the gram isfully implemented, vocational education in responsibility for training for occupations below the trades and industry will be available within commuting professional level, and it is implementing these training distance of most of the high schools and people in the programs as fast as funds andfacilities will permit. state. Descriptions of two of the most recent programs follow. The programs in agriculture and home economics continue to be an integral part of the programs of the AREA REDEVELOPMENT PROGRAM individual secondary schools, and the high school de- Under the Area Redevelopment Act passed by Con- partments in vocational agriculture and home economics gress in 1961, 24 training programswith 466 persons continue to provide training for both high school youth enrolled are in operation or have just been completed in and adults. But itis a part of the plan that the area the state. These programs range from 2 to 16 weeks in vocational schools will provide programs of instruction length.They are organized and administered by the 87 can be obtained.The demand for trainingunder this area vocationalschools, and the facilitiesof the area will the area school program will far exceedwhat the funds available school are usedinsofar as possible. If too, is being operated facilities are support. This training program, facilities are notadequate or available, schools, and many of the where em- through the area vocational rented, or the trainingis done in the plants for two or three voca- departments in the schools will operate ployment is expected.In all instances, the area day shift will be kept avail- supervision shifts per day. The regular tional school directoris responsible for the enrolled in the regularvocational' and for theadministration of the able for the students of the instruction program, and thebalance of the day andevening will Since 84 of Kentucky's120 counties are program. be used for the AreaRedevelopment and the Manpower eligible for training programsunder this act, this pro- during the next 2 years. Development and Training programs. gram isexpected to expand These programs, plus anysubsequent requests for for training werepending approval Thirteen applications training, show clearlythat vocational programs mustbe as ofSeptember 15, 1962. flexible to meet the manyand varied trainingneeds of PROGRAM The area vocationalschool MANPOWER DEVELOPMENTAND TRAINING business and industry. Program, approach seems to be thebest approach inKentucky The ManpowerDevelopment and Training in 1962, will be in training needs. under legislationpassed by Congress toward meeting these operation in the state as soonas approvalof programs

88 XI. The Organization,Function, and Objectivesof the Industrial EducationCenters of North Carolina BY IVAN E. VALENTINE'

Introduction this in mind, extension units have been organizedby several centers in the larger North Carolina's system ofvocational educationen- areas. The extension units visions the maximum utilizationof human and natural are administered and supervised by the parent centers. There is always the possibility, bpwever. that resources. The chief institution in thesystem, aside from a unit may develop into a center and the high school, is the IndustrialEducation Center, come under its own jurisdic- which is designed toprepare people for the occupational tion. The whole system of centers is shownin the map needs of industry. The IndustrialEducation Center is on the following page. No post-high-school technical training is done at the extension units; such not a secondary school; it is primarilya postsecondary training.is school. But it serves the vocationaltraining needs of done only at the centers themselves. The unitsconcen- thestate's people and industriesat whateiier level. trate on training high school seniors and others inpre- Indeed, it is a part of the state'sprogram for industrial employment courses and on training unemployedand expansion. employed adults and out-of-school youth in skills and A primary purpose of Ciecenter is to provide post- new skills.They give particular attention to training for the needs of new industry. high-school technical-vocational trainingfor qualified high school graduates. An equallyimportant purpose is High School Vocational Program to provide needed training, basedon occupational sur- veys, to employed or unemployed adults and out-of- As in other states, the usual reimbursable vocational school youth who need to acquireskills or new skills training programs may be offered by those secondary or to upgrade their present skills and knowledge in order schools of North Carolina thatcan qualify. The tradi- to meet the demands of present-day industry.Much of tional programs in homemaking and agricultural edu- this kind of training is for the unemployedand the un- cation are offered in the majority of high schools, large and small. deremployed. A thirdpurpose of the center is to offer Distributive education and industrial coop= preemployment training to selected highschool seniors erative training programs are offered ina substantial enrolled in high schools that donot provide such train- number of high schools on a part-time basis for selected ing.This, of course, isa service of particular value to juniors and seniors. A very limited number of trade the smaller high schools. Thecenter, therefore, offers programs are offered, and then only in the larger high schools.As already noted, the Industrial Education training opportunities in technicaland tradeskills, agricultural technology, distributiveeducation, health Centers offer the day trade vocational preemployment education, and homemaking for bothmen and women. programs to regular high school seniors, selected ona limited basis. North Carolina offers The system of Industrial Education Centersin North no technical training Carolina is now 3 years old. Thereare 20 centers in to high school students. Some adult education iscon- operation, and the number of studentsserved had gone ducted on a limited basis in the eveningprograms of from 18,000 in 1959-60 to 22,000 in 1960-61to 30,000 the secondary schools, but most of the adult education in 1961-62. The ultimate intent isto have these centers is taught in the Industrial Education Centers and their so strategically located as best toserve the needs of units. industry on an area basis and, wherepossible, located Other Institutions Off ering within commuting distance of all eligibletrainees. With Technician Training 1Coordinator, Industrial Education Centers,North Carolina There is in operation one technical institute,a division Department of Public Instruction. of North Carolina State College, thatprovides addi- 89 0 LOCATIONS OF EXISTING INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION CENTERS AND THEIR RESPECTIVE UNITS

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93 ititermineAce. F!LME7

XII. Vocational Educationin California By. WESLEY P. SMITH'

Within 4 years following statehood, Californiabegan to finance, insurance, real estate, and personal services plan, to design, and to create opportunities forits youth also have eminence in the world. and adults to obtain essential occupationalskill and knowledge. From 1854, when mechanics inSan Fran- Public School System cisco made plans for self-improvementand education in the industrial occupations then existing,until 1962, The public school system in Californiaspans educa- when some 565,000 personswere enrolled in occupa- tional levels from kindergarten through the 14th grade tion-centeredcurriculumsprovidedbythepublic and enrolls more than four millionpersons in the fol- schools,progresstowardoccupationalproficiency lowing categories: through systematic patterns of vocationalinstruction Kindergarten through the 8th grade.._2,550,000 has been steady, widespread, and successful. High school, grades 9-12 775,000 The growth and characteristics of vocational educa- Junior college, grades 13-14 150,000 tion in California have been influenced significantly by Clasks for adults 550,000 the state served and by the organization ofthe public school system.Adequate understanding of vocational The public school system embraces 1,686separate education in California, therefore, necessitatesgeneral school districts, each with itsown elected board of comprehension of the state and its total schoolsystem. trustees: The following descriptive statementsare intended to Elementary school districts provide such a background. (elementary schools only)1,316 (4,798 schools) The State of California High school districts (high schools only) 221 (589 schools) One hundred and nine years after admissionto the Separate junior college districts Union, California has become themost populous state. (junior colleges only) . 30 (67 colleges) For at least the past 15years California has been adding Unified (consolidated) school to itstotal population an average ofsome 500,000 districts persons each year, and the indications are that this rate (elementary schools, high of increase will continue.California is a large state schools, and junior colleges) 119 geographically.Third in size among the states,itis 1,000 miles long and varies from 150 to :375 iniles in TOTAL COST width.It comprises 158,693 square mile= oarea dis- The 1960 operating expenses of the public schools tinguished by great contrasts in topographyr d climate. were $1,372,560,902. In addition to these annual op- With approximately 17,000,000peop...:, California erational costs, the state, in six separate elections since has a civilian work force of nearly 7,000;000. Withinthe 1940, has voted $1,155,000,000 in bonds to assist past few years the state's economy has changed froman in the construction of schools in the least financially agricultural to an industrial emphasis. Still maintaining ab1e districts.In June 1960 the total bonded indebted- its position as the leading state in value of itstotal farm ness of California's public schools, in addition to the income, California's industrial complex has assumeda outstanding state bonds for school construction,was production capacity of vast proportions.Its business $1,835,060,351. activities in transportation, wholesale and retailtrade, STATL FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF ScilooLs (State Director of Vocational Education, California Depart- California's Constitution has long recognized the ment of Education. state's iesponsibility for assisting its local, autonomous 95 school districts by sharing the costs of instruction. Cur- STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION rent provisions in the Constitutionprovide for a "gen- The determination of the general policies for the eral school fund" whose sizeis determined by total government of the public schools, in addition to the school enrollments. Approximately $200 is setaside statutory policies, is a function of the State Board of annually for each full-time student or equivalent Education, a group of 10 citizens appointed for four- elementary, secondary, junior college, or adult and year terms by the Governor withthe consent of each school district is paid at leas', $125 per studentin two-thirds of the Senate. There exist no statutory quali- attendance each year. An equalization provision makes fications for State Board members. Traditionally, the possible higher payments to the poorer school districts. Board is composed of lay citizens not connected with Currently the "state aid" approximates a little less than schools or colleges. 50 percent of the total instructional costs, notincluding RULES AND REGULATIONS capital *outlay. The rules and regulations established by the State MANDATORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE Board of Education are contained as Title V, California California laws require full-time school attendance Administrative Code. These rules and regulations have through high school graduation or until the age of 18. the effect of law upon the operation of all aspects of the At the age of 16, however, part-time attendance is per- public school system. mitted at the rate of 3 hours per day if the young person STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION is unemployed or 4 hours per week if employed. Administration of statutory policies and of State Board of Education policies is vested in the Superin- FREE TUITION tendent of Public Instruction, elected on a nonpartisan No tuition is charged for any segment ofinstruction basis by the people of the state at four-year intervals. in the public schools.Through high school (kinder- garten through the 12th grade), allinstructional sup- STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION plies, including textbooks, are furnished free of charge The State Department of Education has been created to all students.In the 13th and 14th grades and in by statutes for the purpose of assisting the Superin- classes for adults, however, books, paper, and similar tendent of Public Instruction and the State Board of instructional essentials must he furnished by students. Education in administering pertinent laws, rules, and Eligibility for enrollment at any grade level is dependent regulations. To a large extent, the administrative func- upon residence within therespective school district tion of the State Department of Education is performed boundaries. Through the use of interdistrict attendance by means of professionaldirection and leadership agreements, students with special needs may crossdis- rather than by direct intervention in local school district trict boundary lines in order to participate in specialized, operations and administration. area-type courses or curriculums. The Department of Education is composed of six divisions, each with an assigned area of responsibility: Com NroN GRADE-LEvEr. ORGANIZATION 1.Division of Departmental Administration(the Grade-level organization in the public school system "housekeeping" unit that deals with departmental budg- normally is divided as follows: ets, personnel, research, etc.) 2.Division of Public School Administration (the K - 6 elementary unit responsible for disbursement of the School Fund to junior high 7 - 9 local school districts, school construction, surplus prop- senior high 10- erty distribution, school districting, etc.) 13 14 junior college 3.Division of Instruction (containing all units re- A small number of school districts are organized sponsible for curriculum, quality of instruction, etc.) under the K-8 and 9-12 levels, but long-term trend has 4.Division of Higher Education (containing all units been toward the grade-level breaks indicatedabove. In responsible for post-high-school activities of the public some instances there are "intermediate"schools con- schools, accreditation, teacher licensure, etc.) sisting of grades 6-7-8 as a separate school organi- 5.Division of Special Schools and Services (the unit zation. responsible for state-operated resident schools forthe deaf and blind, vocational rehabilitation, andspecial SCHOOL LAW education for the physically and mentally handicapped) The public schools operate under laws passed bythe 6.Division of Libraries (the State Library, attached State Legislature.These laws are assembled in an to the Department of Education ) "Education Code" that contains all permissible and all required conduct of local school districts, theirboards COUNTY EDUCATION OFFICES exists a of trustees, their administrators, their teachers, andtheir In each of California's 58 counties there superin- students. "county schools" unit headed by a county 96 tendent of schools. These units and personnel function SIZE OF SCHOOLS in an intermediary role between the State Superin- Enrollments in individual schools vary widely, but tendent of Public Instruction and the local school the current averages approximate the following: districts. Services provided include curriculum develop- ment, specialized subject matter consultation, business Elementary 300- 450 affairs, and records. These servicesare supported mainly Junior high 800-1300 by the state, but with some financial assistance by the Senior high 1300-1800 respective counties. Junior college 1600-2200 CERTIFICATION OF, TEACHERS MANDATORY SUBJECT MATTER All persons who render professional services within Statutory requirements at the elementary school level the public schools must be licensed by the state. The include reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic begin- licensure system recognizes four general areas of such ning in the first grade. Not later than the fourth grade, professional services: instruction, specialized nonteach- instmction must begin in English, geography, and his- ing services, supervision, and administration. -tory. Beginning not later than grade 6, instruction must Collegiate institutions preparing students for these be given in civics, a foreign language, natural science, professional services are accredited by the State Board and health. At least 50 percent of the instructional time of Education and by the regional accrediting association. must be devoted to reading, writing, language study, The licensure system recognizes the variety of pro- spelling, arithmetic, and civics. fessional services and the variety of preparation essential General requirements for high schools stipulate that to render such services. Vocational education services, there must be included in grades 7 to 12 the following: as all other specialized services, are integrated within 1.Five years of English the single, total licensure system. With few exceptions, 2.Twenty semester periods of American history one year beyond the baccalaureate level is required of 3.Twenty semester periods of world history and all regular teachers. world geography 4. Ten semester periods of American government LENGTH OF SCHOOL YEAR 5.Courses in the Constitution of the United States The public schools in 'California must be in session 6.Courses in fire prevention a minimum of 175 days each year. 7.Courses in physical education SUMMER SCHOOL SESSIONS 8.Instruction in public safety and accident pre- vention Many elementary schools, the majority of high school 9.Instruction in manners and morals districts, and most junior colleges operate a summer 10.Instruction on the nature of alcohol and narcotics school program of approximately 6 weeks. In the sum- 11.Driver education mer of 1961, 193 high school districts alone provided 12.Instruction in the principles and practice of first aid programs for 226,546 students, nearly 30 percent of the number of students enrolled in the regular sessions. HIGHER EDUCATION At an increasing rate, the summer session programs Not a part of the "public school system," but a signifi- permit youth to broaden their subject matter experience, cant part of publicly owned and tuition-free educational in addition to receiving remedial assistance in certain institutions, is the extensive availability of separate units subject-matter areas.In the summer of 1961, for ex- of the University of California, with 7 major campuses, ample, there were more than 100,000 enrollments in and the units of the State College System, with 15 the applied arts of business, homemaking, and industrial campuses. education. The University of California, enrolling 60,000 stu- ACCREDITATION dents, is administered and controlled by a Board of A program of accreditation for high schools and Regents, appointed by the Governor. junior colleges exists within the state. The Western The State College System, enrolling 75,000 students, Association of Schools and Colleges, a successor to the is separately administered by a Board of Trustees, ap- Western College Association, has overall accreditation pointed by the Governor. responsibilities.Special units within this organization All units of both systems are financed directly through undertake the responsibilities for high school, junior grants by the State Legislature. Tuition is charged only college, and four-year college accreditation. The policy to nonstate residents. The functions of the two types boards for accreditation of high schools and junior of institutions are differentiated by law, and among such colleges contain representation from the State Depart- differences is the allocation to the university system of ment of Education.In addition, each "visiting com- the sole right for graduate work beyond the master's mittee" has, by policy, a representative from the State degree level. Department of Education. 97 Accreditation for teacher education purposes,includ- WHERE OFFERED ing vocational education,is conducted through the Vocational education is provided to young persons means of a specialCommittee on Accreditation, created who are enrolled full time in regular classes inhigh and used by the State Boardof Education. This com- schools and junior colleges.It is also provided on a mittee contains within its membershipthe State Director part-time basis to out-of-school youth and adults, em- of Vocational Education. ployed or unemployed, in adult education or extension classes.

The Program of VocationalEducation ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS In 1960 a Citizens' AdvisoryCommittee, created by Vocational education is always specific. To be suc- the California Legislature tostudy the public schools, cessful, a program of vocational education shouldhave identified the desired goals of publiceducation and in- the following characteristics: cluded among these goals thefollowing statement: 1.The program is directly related to employment dep9nds upon indi- opportunities. The strength of our culture 2. The content of the courses is based uponperiodic the essential viduals who are competent to fulfill analyses of the occupations for which thetraining is occupations.Itis an important function ofthe to being given. schools to develop the competence necessary 3. The courses for a specific occupation areestab- the jobs of the work carry on the jobs ofsociety lished and maintained with the advice andcooperation world, in the cultural world, in thephysical world, medicine, in of the various occupational groups concerned. in engineering, in merchandising, in 4: The facilities and equipment used ininstruction various areas. law, in teaching, and in all the other are comparable to thosefound in the particular occu- This avowed purpose of the public schoolsin California pation. has long been accepted and endorsed.The degree of 5.The conditions under whichinstruction is given attainment, however, has varied from school toschool duplicate as nearly as possible desirableconditions in the and from year to year. Although theultimate accom- occupation itself and at the same timeprovide effective plishment has not been universal,the achievements learning situations. have been consistent and significant. 6.The length of the teaching periodsand the total hours of instruction are determined bythe requirements DEFINITION of the occupation and the needs of thestudents. Vocational education, as a general term,is con- 7.Training in a particular occupation or occupa- sidered in California to be that part ofthe total pro- tional area is carried to the point ofdeveloping market- gram of education thatdeals specifically and in an ableskills,abilities,understandings,attitudes, work organized, systematic manner with theacquisition of habits, and appreciations sufficient toenable the trainee skills, understandings, attitudes, andabilities that are to obtain and hold a job. necessary for entry uponand successful progress within 8.Classes are scheduled at hours andduring seasons an occupation.For certain occupations such attainment convenient to the enrollees. requires years of collegiate preparation.Other occu- 9.Instruction is offered only to personswho want, pations may demand far less formalizedtraining. need, and can profit from it occupationally. Vocational education, as a descriptive termin Cali- 10. The teachers are competentin the occupation fornia, applies solely to the preparationfor occupations for which they are giving instructionand possess ade- that can be achieved through thehigh schools, the quate professional qualificationsfor teaching. junior colleges, and the adult classes that are a partof 11.Vocational guidance, includingeffective followup California's public school system. of all students who finish ordrop out of a course, is an integral and continuing part of the program. AIM 12.Continuous research is an integral partof the Vocational education has as its controlling purpose program. useful employment. It is the preparation of persons for AN INTEGRAL PART OF THETOTAL intended to serve the needs of two distinct groupsof alieady employed and those EDUCATION PROGRAM people those who are to he some- who are preparing for initial employment. Vocational education is not considered thing apart from the total programof education.It SCOPE does not take the place of generaleducation.Instead, general education foi stu- Vocational education encompasses all thevarious it supplements and enhances homemaking, dents who want training for a chosenoccupation. Voca- occupations in the fields of agriculture, of business, distributive, industry, public service,trade, tional education is but a part an important part Itis part of a and technical areas. a well-balanced,total school program. 98 well-rounded program of studies aimed at developing shall enroll and serve the needs of all youth regardless competent workers and recognizing thatthe American of color, creed, ethnic origin, sex, or occupational goal. worker must also be competent economically, socially, There exist, therefore, no specialized "trade" or "voca- emotionally, physically, intellectually, and civically. tional" high schools in California. Early attempts to operate and maintain specialized high schools were ADMINISTRATION unsuccessful. Vocational education, just as all other phases of the The degree to which California high schools provide total program of public school education in California, for vocational education is determined by the com- isorganized, conducted, and administered by local prehensiveness of each institution. Almost every high school districts in conformance with the provisions of school serving a rural area offers vocational instruction the Education Code and the 'Rules and Regulations of in agriculture. Every high school provides for some type the State Board of Education. of vocational instruction serving the office occupations. FEDERAL RELATIONSHIPS Every high school offers some type of industrial edu- The development of certain types ofvocational edu- cation. Every high school provides homemaking edu- cation has long been the concern of the federal govern- cation. The functional vocational nature of these programs ment.Beginning in1917 with the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act, Congress has approved a seriesof varies considerably. One measurement of the vocational supportive measures for the further development of nature of such programs isindicated by the number of All federal assistance has been high schools that offer programs that qualifyunder the vocational education. for based upon two fundamental ideas:(1) that vocational federal vocational acts. The following breakdown education is in the national interest and is essential to 1961 provides such a measurement: the national welfare, and (2) that federalfunds are Number of necessary to stimulate and assist the statesin making Vocational Education High SchoolsEnrollment adequate provisions for such training. Agriculture 208 13,924 Continuously since 1917, with the acceptance by the Homemaking 252 50,000 California Legislature of federal aid for certain types of Distributive 38 829 vocational education, California public schools have Trade and industrial 67 5,238 been recipients of both federal and state funds appro-, priated for certain specific patterns of occupational Total effortin the provision of instruction in the Although influenced by federal aid for applied arts is another measurement of service to occu- preparation. The following enrollment and certain types of vocational education, California's pro- pational preparation. federally aided gram of vocational education has notbeen limited to percentage figures for 1961 classes not federally aided phases of vocational instruction. indicate the extent of these efforts: Percent of Total AT THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL High School It should be pointed out that thejunior high school Enrollment becomes the initial opportunity forboys and girls to General Education Enrollment experience instruction in applied arts subject matter on Agriculture 11,000 Industrial arts 271,000 35 a departmentalizedbasis. The characteristic California junior high school requires all boys toenroll in in- Business 150,000 33 20 dustrial arts for from 1 to 2 years, and allgirls to enroll HomeMaking 155,000 in nonvocational homemaking education for asimilar It should be noted that the above tabulations repre- period of time. Metropolitan junior highschools often sent enrollments in a single semester or asingle year. provide considerable offerings in "generalagriculture," The number of boys and girls whoexperience such and, at an increasing rate, more and morejunior high instruction prior to graduation becomes muchlarger schools are providing for the learning of basicbusiness than the above figures indicate.For example, itis skills. estimated that 87 percent of all high school students No vocational education, as strictly defined, isoffered !lave enrolled in at least one semester of businessedu- at the junior high school level, exceptthat in school cation prior to leaving high school. systems where vocational courses inagriculture and Any analysis or assessment of vocational instruction home economics are offered in the senior highschool to at the high school level must considerthe following which the students will matriculate, thesesubjects may factors: be made available in the ninth year. 1.The extensive growth of juniorcolleges in Cali- specificity in prepar- AT THE HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL fornia has influenced the degree of California high schools are comprehensive by nature ing high school youth for job entry.The availability of long-prevailing policy junior colleges has, without question,decreased the and in composition. Futhermore, other and philosophy indicate that the publichigh schools emphasis upon vocational education programs 99 than in agriculture and homemakingeducation. As an by the presence ofa junior college, which, by its very increasing number and percentage of highschool stu- nature, is an "area" institution. dents enter junior colleges, it becomesconvenient for In no sense of the word should theamount of voca- them todelay specificpreparationforjobentry. tional preparation at the high school levelbe measured This tendency is bolstered by thepressures upon the high by that part which is eligible for federalaid through the school curriculum formore and more required courses. State Plan for Vocational Education.In 1961, for The tendency is further supported by thestrategic ability example, 41,347 high school students in565 high of the junior college, serving a larger geographic and schools were enrolled in bookkeeping. Another36,466 population area than the high school, to provide a wider were enrolled in shorthand in 547 high schools. Itcan- array and a deeper emphasis of occupational curricula. not be ascertained how many of the 150,218 students The tendency is also supported by theaxiom in voca- enrolled in the first year of typing in1961 were taking tional education that specific job preparationis best such a course for vocationalpurposes, but it is quite accomplished immediately prior to actual jobentry. certain that the great majority of the 43,857students 2. The increasing subject matter requirementsfor enrolled in the secondyear of typing in 563 high schools high school graduation have provided decreasing oppor- were being vocationally trained. None of theseoccu- tunities for high school youth to enroll in nonrequired pationally centered courseswere reimbursed from voca- courses. Some of these increased requirementsare of tional education funds. a legal nature, mandated by the State Legislature, such A considerable growth of "work experienceeduca- as driver education, an added year of social sciences, tion" has taken place in California high schools during etc. Some other requirements are imposed by local the last 10 years. Nearly 50,000are presently enrolled boards of education, or dictated by parentalpressures. in such school-connectedprograms, the majority of The net result is always thesame less and less time which are vocationally oriented. within the high school period to enroll in nonrequired Then, too, in hundreds of 'California high schools courses. advanced work in the "industrial arts" becomesvoca- 3. The increasing specificity of curriculum patterns tional in nature and purpose. In certain instances,high designed for students intending to qualify for admission school programs in vocational educationare being con- to post-high-school institutions has reduced to almost ducted in a manner that matches all requirementsfor negligible amounts the options students enrolled in such federal aid except for time requirements.These pro- patterns have for nonrequired subject matter. grams are designed for job entry in industrial, service, 4. Without question, the "postsputnik"urge for in- and distributive occupations, butnever appear as statis- creasing the academic subject matter requirements in tical credits for vocational educationunder reporting the public schools has invaded the thinking of curricu- procedures suggested by the United StatesOffice of lum designers, counselors, administrators,school board Education. members, and parents. The insidiousnature of this urge All this is not to say that there is sufficient attention has had a detrimental effect upon the expansion of being paid to providing vocational educationat the vocational education programs at the high schoollevel. high school level. There continues to bea dearth of 5. The reluctance of vocational educators tc design such offerings in many schools. Neithercan it be said, more modern curriculums for job entry has resulted in however, that little or no attention is being givento the necessity for nonvocational phases of the applied high school vocational education. arts to fulfill the mission of occupational preparation. Traditionaldependence uponvocationaleducation AT THE JUNIOR COLLEGE LEVEL standards suggested in the federal vocational education The California junior collegewas created more than acts has impeded the development of occupational 50 years ago for the purpose of placingsome missing preparation patterns that vary from provisions in the rungs in the educational ladder.It has proven to be a State Plan for Vocational Education. unique institution, and its popularity is universal.One 6. The relatively small size of the typicalthree-year of the significantreasons for its success and general high school, the lack of specific "invoices"for occupa- favor is the function itassumes for vocational-technical tional preparation from employes, and the risingage level education. This is a mission thatwas assigned to the of employment are factors that combineto complicate the junior college in California statutesmany years ago, task of vocational education at the highschool level. and it continues to bea significant purpose in more In short, it becomes a very difficult taskto determine recently adopted statutes tint determinethe allocation the desired nature of vocational education andto estab- of functions among all of the publiclysupported, post- lish and conduct economical units of such instruction high-school, educational institutionsof the state. at the high school level. The state statutes prescribe that the "course of study 7. Any natural inclinationsto combine efforts and for two-year junior colleges shall be designedto fit the needs for vocational educationon an area basis among needs of pupils of the thirteenth and fourteenth grades groups of high schools are either hindered or thwarted and may include courses of instruction designedto 100 prepare for admission to the upper division of higher adults for the office, the service, and thedistributive institutions of learning and such other courses of in- occupations. Preparation of technicians isa significant struction designed toprepare persons for agricultural, part of the curriculums. Programs in practical nursing, commercial, homemaking, industrial,and other voca- cosmetology, dental assisting, and electronic dataproc- tions...." essing operate side by side with trainingprograms for Under a statutory "Master Planfor Higher Educa- machinists,auto mechanics,draftsmen, and police tion" adopted in 1960, theassignment of responsibility science. to the public junior college includes "instructionthrough Through a system of interdistrictagreements, some but not beyond the fourteenth grade level including, junior colleges specialize in certain occupationalprepa- but not limited to, one or more of the following: (a) ration programs; other junior collegesconcentrate in standard collegiate courses for transfer to higher in- different offerings.Covering a large geographicalor stitutions, (b) vocational-technical fields leading to em- population area at the outset, these interdistrictagree- ployment, and (c) general,or liberal arts -courses." ments permit enlarged regional or area training services. The junior college in California has long been In addition to the development of "area" vocational recognized as the repository fora wide array of occu- education programs at the junior college level,another pational preparation programs. Many of suchprograms type of "area" service is provided atan increasing rate are eligible for the receipt of federal-state funds for by junior colleges for high school students.Again, vocational education.Although post-high-school in through interdistrict and intradistrictarrangements, a natureapproved vocational educationprograms in junior college may make available itsvocational edu- junior colleges can meet all the requirements ofthe cation facilities for theuse of 11th- and 12th-grade high federal acts since suchprograms are not designed or school students, whoare transported from the high conducted for baccalaureate degreepurposes. schools to the central junior college facilityfor labo- At least 25 percent of all enrollment,the course ratory and/or shop experience in vocational education. offering, the faculty, and the facilities ofCalifornia This dual area usage of the junior collegevocational junior colleges are devoted to occupation-orientedcur- education facilities provides fora wider variety of occu- riculums leading to immediate job placementor im- pational preparation opportunities, forgreater depth of provement ofjob performance.These vary from specific training, formore extensive equipment, and for short, concentrated programs to the fulltwo-year pro- a more specialized staff than would be possible under grams. They involve both men andwomen students, other arrangements. they are offered day and evening, and theycover all recognized occupationalareas that can be prepared AT THE ADULT LEVEL for in 2 or less years of post-high-school training. Classes for adults are maintained in connection with All junior colleges are comprehensive in composition day or evening high schools and dayor evening junior and purpose. A few, because of location, becomesome- colleges, with 80 percent of the state's high school and what specialized. Each provides for the acquisition of junior college districts maintaining suchprograms in an Associate of Arts degree that requires the completion year-round operation.Classes for adults, asis the of 60 semester hours of course work, tin, majorityof situation for other levels of the public school system, which is in the major area of study. Many occupational are jointly financed by state and local funds, are locally preparation areas lend themselves to the Associateof administered and controlled, and are tuition free. At Arts degree program, especially such occupationsas are any one time in the school year nearly 500,000 adults of a technical or semiprofessionalnature. Other occu- will be attending classes. In any one yearmore than a pational preparation programs are of such durationor million enrollments will have taken place. At least 50 such composition that they haveno affinity or relation- percent of all enrollments and course offeringsare ship to the Associate of Arts degree. based upon occupational needs. Courses are designed to The junior colleges in California, with 67now in fit the needs of individuals within theirown commu- operation and several others authorized, admit high nities.They vary from highly sophisticated, scientific school graduates or non-high-school graduates whocan content for employed workers in technical occupations profit from the instruction offered.Tuition-free, the to basic skill development for the unemployed. The California junior college is intendedto be a community range is wide, and the offerings are extensive. Whenever institution.Enrollments in extension and/or adult classes for adults qualify under the federal acts forvoca- classes exceed those of full-time day students. tional education, excess costsare reimbursed from The laws, policies, and traditions combine to preclude federal-state funds for vocational education ina manner the development of any California junior college intoa similar to arrangements for all-day classes. four-year institution. No California junior college has USE OF FEDERAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FUNDS ever evolved into a four-year college. California has always made full use of federal funds The typical junior college offersa wide variety of available for vocational education. State-level appropri- business education curriculums, preparing youth and ations originally matched federal fundson a dollar-for-

101 cost" are dollar basis, but in recent years theincrease in federal "teacher unit," although the factors of "excess formulas funds has been matched by a combinationof state and included in each formula. In 1960-61 these instructional pro- local district funds. Currently the ratioin matching all produced the following averages for federal allocations is approximatelyone-third state and grams: two-thirds local. Full-Time Students In addition to the support of thestate-level voca- Vocational education in agriculture $1,000 tional education staff, federal funds are used toassist Distributive education 650 local school districts with the conduct ofoperating Vocational homemaking education 700 programs. This assistance isdescribed as follows: Trade and industrial education 650 Reimbursement to the cooperating local school 1. Part-Time Adult or Extension Classes districts of not more than 50 percent of the excess costs Vocational homemaking education (per class)$ 20 that accrue to the development and operationof qualify- .(per class)140 ing vocational education programs.Excess costs may Trade and industrial education. . consist of the following categories ofexpenditures. The practice of reimbursement on thebasis of 50 a. Salaries of teachers percent of excess costs is based uponthe following b. Salaries of coordinators, supervisors, ordirectors theory. The state and the local schooldistrict share at c. Travel expenses forabove-mentioned staff mem- approximately a 50-50 ratio the costs ofinstruction in bers and for advisory committee members all subject matter areas.It follows, therefore, that a 2.Reimbursement to the cooperating localschool similar ratio should exist in the supportof vocational districts of not more than 50 percent ofthe costs of instruction.If the requirements for qualifying voca- equipment acquisitions. tional instruction entail expenses beyondthe normal 3.Partial to full support of research andstudies con- costs of other class work, itis reasonable to expect that ducted at the local level. state and/or federal funds shouldbe used to compen- 4.Partial to full support of pilot orexperimental sate for 50 percent of theadditional instructional costs. programs of instruction. Other than for the National DefenseEducation Act Any school district meeting theminimum require- Title VIII program, use of federal and/or state voca- ments included in the stateplan for specific vocational tional education funds for equipmentpurchase has been education programs is eligible forreimbursement. There generally discouraged. formulas for the allocation of each seg- are individual VOCATIONAL. GUIDANCE ment of the funds, but localschools are not guaranteed contains a unit, identi- formulas are The Department of Education specific sums. Maximums fixed by such Personnel Services, that there are no minimums because of fied as the Bureau of Pupil never exceeded, but provides consultation, leadership, andsupervision serv- the policy to recognize all applications.When funds ices for guidance and counseling.This unit was first are not sufficient tohonor the formula-producing alloca- formed to emphasize vocationalguidance and occupa- tions, a system of negative proration is used. through the use accord- tional information, and it was financed The detailed procedures of qualification vary The services of the unit essential of vocational education funds. ing to the occupational categories, but the and vocational funds werewith- ingredients are as follows: were later broadened, drawn from its support. Today itperforms as a depart- 1. A written agreement is exchangedbetween the levels and in all the ment-wide service unit for all grade local school district and appropriate members of work, including vocational vocational education staff in the State Departmentof areas of pupil personnel guidance. Education. Recognizing the extremedifficultyindeveloping 2.The written agreement describes the extent or information, an includes a currently authoritative occupational character of program to be conducted and with the State Department statement of acceptance of theprovisions of the Cali- arrangement has been made of Employment whereby"occupationalbriefs"are fornia Plan for Vocational Education. local school coun- 3. A final written report is submitted atthe con- widely and continually distributed to At present the series of such"occupational clusion of the program (end of year), givingaccomplish- selors. briefs" exceeds 300 separate descriptions.These briefs, ments, certain statisticalinformation, and qualifications based sometimes on statewideinformation, and at other of instructors. have general and 4. A final certified application for paymentis sub- times on regional or area needs, practical usage within the schools. mitted. guidance, how- Approval of the application for payment ismade The matter of adequate vocational 5. critical problem. With a current by anappropriate Department ofEducationstaff ever, continues to be a ratio of approximately 1 full-time counselor to 500 member. together with the Allocations to local school districts, made atthe students at the high school level, conclusion of each school year,are keyed tothe complexity of the task itself, a situationof inadequacy of 102 occupational information and vocational guidance is becomes increasingly complicated. While locally oper- quite evident. At present California high schoolsare ated vocational education programs have always as- reaching for a ratio of1 counselor to 300 students. sumed responsibility for such matters as determination Even when this ratio is attained, the complete task of of needs, recruitment, and placement, more and more vocational guidance will remain unmet. dependence is being placed upon these kinds of services available through the State Department of Employment. ADVISORY COMMIT TEES The use of local representative advisory committees PREPARATION OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS is traditional and almost universal in allareas of voca- Insofar as possible, the responsibility for the prepara- tional education in agricultural, business and distrib- tion of teachers for vocational instruction has been utive, homemaking, and trade and technical education. allocated to the state university and the state collegeS. In Some advisory committeesare continuing in nature; fact,allvocationalteachersare prepared through others are used for short durations of time. Someare participation of such institutions.In order to assist general innature; others are for specific purposes. in this activity, and in order to maintain essential stand- Tested experience over many years of operation has ards of quality in vocational teacher preparation, two demonstrated the value of representative local advisory devices are used: committees. When properly conceived, organized, and 1. A series of contractual agreements are made with used, they become indispensable to the successful con- teacher preparation institutions for the maintenance of duct of local programs of vocational education. specialized staff and services for vocational teacher prep- Statewide advisory committees are also traditionally aration. These contractual agreements involve the use a part of normal operations. In most cases, however, of vocational education funds for the support of excess such committees are appointed for specialized purposes costs involved. and for short periods of time. In only a few instances 2.Certain state vocational education staff members are there any continuing statewide advisory committees. are assigned, both by location and by responsibiliy, to There has never existed, nor does there now, a general, coordinate and assist in the teacher preparation process. statewide advisory committee for the total program of Some of this service is performed by staff located at vocational education. headquarters, and some by staff located on the campuses of the colleges. COOPERATION WITH OTHER STATE AGENCIES Although the state vocational education staff has not In full recognition that other governmental agencies abrogated its responsibility for teacher training, this have interest in and some shared responsibility for edu- function has been allocated more and more to the cation and training, systematic means have been de- teacher education institutions. Through the use of de- velopedtofoster communication and cooperation tailed contractual agreements between the cooperating among them.Within the state, the Department of teacher education institutions and the State Board of Industrial Relations contains units with legal responsi- Education, together with continual attention upon the bilities for the supervision of wages and hours in em- accreditation process, satisfactory patterns of recruit- ployment, of apprenticeship, and of laws affecting the ment, selection,training, and placement have been employment of minors. The State Department of Em- attained. ployment has responsibilities for the recruitment, place- In all cases, minimum requirements for vocational ment, and orderly deployment of the work force. Two teacher competence, as delineated in the State Plan for interdepartmental committees, continuing innature, Vocational Education, are recognized in certification assist in coordinating the activities of these govern- requirements, in subject matter coverage, in practice mental units. One such committee is identified as the teaching, and in occupational background. An essential, Interdepartmental Committee on Youth Employment, long-recognized, and uniformly accepted requisite for composed of four representatives of each of the Depart- any vocational education teacherissubject matter ments of Education, Employment, and Industrial Re- competence.Incertainareas suchsubject matter lations.Another such device for communication and competence can be obtained only through years of oc- coordination is the Interdepartmental Committee on cupational experience, as is the case in many of the Skill Development. Each of these committees contains trades.In other areas, a satisfactory depth of subject representation of the vocational education staff of the matter coverage in a college is acceptable, as in the Department of Education. case of certain phases of agricultural or homemaking There is a growing tendency within the program of education. vocational education to make full use of the specialized services of other governmental units. This "division of The State Vocational Education Staff labor" seems desirable since the total task of anticipating The professional staff assigned the state-level leadership training needs, recruitment of students, design of train- and supervision of vocational education comprises an ing patterns, training itself, placement, and followup integral unit of the Division of Instruction in the State 103 Department of Education.Itis organized into four education in California requires that such programs be units, designated as bureaus, with a bureau chief head- mentioned. During the past 20 years private business ing the functions of agricultural education, business and industrial concerns have come to accept more and education, homemaking education, and industrial edu- more responsibility for participating in and contributing cation; collectively it is known as the Vocational Edu- to job preparation. In almost every such case, however, cation Section.This staff operates under the general the training programs are keyed to and meshed with leadership of a State Director of Vocational Education, the programs of vocational education offered through who reports to an Associate Superintendent of Public the public schools. Instruction. The vocational education staff is assigned responsi- Training and Retraining bility for all areas of public school curriculums involving Current emphasis upon training and retraining as a the applied arts.These include other than vocational partial solution to the problem of unemployment re- education subject matter areas. For example, all phases quires a different educational approach. Although Cali- of industrial education become the responsibility of the fornia's problem of unemployment is no less than that Bureau of Industrial Education, including industrial arts of most other states, the fact that it is no worse is due, education, industrial technician education, preengineer- to a large extent, to the long-existing, wide array of ing education, as well as vocational industrial education. vocational education opportunities available to the work The vocational education staff, therefore, is supported force in the state. by both federal vocational education funds and state The past 30 years have witnessed a series of abrupt funds. A consultant for industrial arts, for example, is and complex changes that have produced prodigious supported exclusively by state funds. On the other and invigorating influences upon California's economy. hand, a supervisor of apprenticeship training is sup- A great depression, a World War, a postwar readjust- ported by both federal and state vocational education ment period, another war, and a series of bulges and re- funds. The entire staff is in civil service status. Selec- cessions in the economy; an in-migration of population tion and screening is done by the state agency that per- unmatched in the history of the world; the change from forms such services for all state personnel. an agricultural to an industrial economy; the develop- The size of the state has influenced the decentraliza- ment of vast enterprises of aircraft production, ship- tion of the total professional staff of some 60 persons. building, electronics, and missiles; ponderous efforts to Branch offices are located in "regions" of the state so build roads, hospitals, and schools all these haVe that services may be close to the operating programs and happened to California, and more. maximum travel economies may be obtained.In all It is surprising that, with all of these amazing changes, cases the branch offices include staff members from the only minor disruptions have occurred in the orderly several bureaus. deployment of California's work force. There is much The general organization of the vocational education evidence that one of the most significant influences in staff is illustrated on the opposite page. the orderly absorption of this series of shock waves in the economy of the state has been the continual and Vocational Education in Private Schools extensive contribution of the public schools in the area Private schools of many types abound in California. of assisting people to acquire an ever-expanding array At least 150 separate schools specialize in preparation of work skills. for a wide array of occupations from commercial art, aircraft, barber, and business to photography, nursing, PAST EXPERIENCE radio, secretarial, and watchmaking. For the most part, During World War II,California public schools these schools serve post-high-school training needs at enrolled more than a million persons in specific defense- less than the baccalaureate level. -- connected occupational training. New workers were All private schools in California that award diplomas prepared by the thousands for shipyard and aircraft or certificates of achievement are subject to review and production jobs. Other thousands of job holders were appraisal by a special unit in the State Department of retrained for higher priority skills.This one effort ac- Education. State licensure is not required. Thousands counted for one-seventh of all the persons trained of persons receive occupational preparation through for the war effort by the schools of the entire nation. these private institutions each year. Then, following World War II, came the necessity of adjusting the skills of the work force, including thou- Vocational Education in Business sands of returning veterans, to California's new econ- and Industry omy.Again the schools were called upon to make Although it is difficult to measure the number of per- extreme efforts, and in 1947 no less than 674,000 sons why are prepared for occupations through training persons were enrolled in adult courses that were or- program., conducted by business and industrial con- ganized, for the most part, to serve the readjustment cerns, the significance of this contribution to vocational needs of the economy. 104 STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION

EXECUTIVE OFFICER, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION (Superintendent of Public Instruction)

ASSISTANT EXECUTIVE OFFICER, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION (Associate Superintendent of Public Instruction; and Chief, Division of Instruction)

STATE DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND SUPPORTING STAFF

Chief, Bureau of Industrial Education Chief, Bureau of Agricultural Education

Assistant Chief Assistant Chief

Regional Supervisors Regional Supervisors

Teacher Trainers Teacher Trainers

Consultant Industrial Arts Education Special Supervisors

Special Supervisors Specialists

Traveling Instructors

Specialists

Chief, Bureau of Homemaking Education Chief, Bureau of Business Education

Assistant Chief Assistant Chief

Regional Supervisors Regional Supervisors

Special Supervisors Consultant Business Education

Teacher Trainers Researcher and Teacher Trainer

Specialists Specialists

LOCAL BOARDS OF EDUCATION

105 able.It will be assumed,therefore, that the policy These are examplesof two powerful,forced-draft administer, coordinate, de- of con- within the state will be to efforts, accomplishedwithin a span of 40 years federally aided programs of voca- of California's velop, and operate all sistent ceaselesseffort upon the part the existing staff organizations the training needsof the state's tional education through public schools to meet at both the stateand local levels.Insofar as possible manpower. and appropriate, thiswill be accomplishedthrough the RECENT EXPERIENCE facilities of the publicschools. the fact that California is With the changing ofjob requirements at anacceler- This policy is based upon the past few years,and with the blessed with the mostextensive and the mostmodern ated speed during found any place in theworld. Its shifting of the industrialeconomy to newactivities and public schools to be has been given to educational structure bothpermits and encourages wide new enterprises,increased attention Its of both employedand unem- flexibility in meeting anyknown training need. training and retraining its system of junior ployed workers.In 1961 morethan 4,300 separate time-tested adult education program, who were teacher licensure structure, classes were conductedfor employed workers colleges,its broad-based These and its high degreeof local autonomy all combine eitherapprenticesorjourneymen-craftsmen. responsive to the automotive mechanics towelding. to make itsfacilities and programs classes varied from in the They included morethan 3,000 journeymen needs of the state. mechanics, aircraft industry,4,000 journeymen auto Summary drafting craftsmen, 6,500 apprenticecarpenters, 4,000 services plumbing and pipe- California is a big state, andall of its essential 4,200 electricalapprentices, 3,700 technicians. All of these are sizable.For a number of yearsits program of fitting apprentices,and 30,000 largest number in the afternoon orevening public school educationhas enrolled the classes were conducted the other states. Thepeople of this through the means ofclasses for adultsorganized by of pupils among all relatively young statehave been generousin their sup- high schools or juniorcolleges. in both the pro- the story of recentand current port of publiceducation. Innovations This is only part of and its tax basehave not been hindered activity in the areaof training andretraining. The gram structure that its by tradition orprecedent.It follows, then, record in the area ofbusiness occupationsis just as ex- separate program ofvocational education isextensive. tensivr... Enrolled during1961 in some 3,600 education in who had as their The precedingdescription of vocational classes were morethan 125,000 adults colored by provincialpride and improvement of theirskills for jobs they California is, no doubt, purpose the influenced by itsaccomplishment and itsmagnitude. already held or theaddition of skills essentialfor new It must be specifiedthat this description,although jobs. or different accurate, has notincluded an assessmentof difficulties, problems CURRENT ACTIVITY failures, frustrations,deterrents, and other The pace of the pastfew years seems tobe quicken- that abound in acomplex of this nature.An objective, in which the program ing.Special, unique programshave been established adequate appraisal of the manner gainful employ- require treat- for preparingunemployed persons for matches the total needsof the state would in addition to thethousands of classes ment more extensivethan even thisabridged description ment. These are there- for employed workerswho must of its salient features.This descriptive statement, created and maintained of the acquire new skills, newknowledge, and newunder- fore, must include thestipulation that no part which it operates standings necessary tothe maintenance ofjob compe- program and no partof the setting in that tence. The adventof federal aid forthese efforts makes are flawless.There exist strengthsand weaknesses of from year to year. possible the developmentof many new programs vary fromschool to school and be made. instruction heretofore toocostly or too complexfor There are correctiveadjustments that need to local schools to operatewithout additionalfinancial There are new practicesthat need to beimplemented. need to be closed.There are assistance. There exist gaps that attitudes that need tobe changed. There areinnova- POLICY tions that need to beattempted. In short, the program The ability of theschools to absorb theincreasing in any other of vocationaleducation in California, as requirements for vocationalinstruction seems obvious, state, is neithercomplete nor perfect. especially when additionalfinancial assistance isavail-

106 iiti

XIII. Vocationaland TechnicalEducation in Illinois

Editor's Note At the request of the office of Superintendent of Public Instruction ofthe State of 'Illinois,a very fine two-year study of Vocational and TechnicalEducation in Illinois has been preparedby four staff mem- bers of the University of Illinois andChief, Emeritus, Bureau of AdultEducation, California State Depart- ment of Education. Because of the carefulnessand completeness of the study,we have requested and obtained permission to reproduce on the following pages the title page to the study, tableof contents, and Chapter VIII, Summary of Findingsand Recommendations, in its entirety.The reader should under- stand that this is a study, and that therecommendations embodied in the studyhave not yet been implemented.

107 PRECEDM PALL CLANIT-NOT IMAVIED Vocational and Technical Education in Illinois

TOMORROW'S CHALLENGE

WILLIAM P. McLuRE, Director Director, Bureau of Educational Research, and Professor of Education

GEORGE C. MANN Chief, Emeritus, Bureau of Adult Education, California State Department of Education

HERBERT M. HAMLIN Professor of Agricultural Education

M. RAY KARNES Professor of Education

P. VAN MILLER Professor of Education

Bureau of Educational Research, College of Education University of Illinois, Urbana, 1960, for the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of Illinois Springfield, Illinois 41111ffilftiteswitifi

FIRECEbING PAGE BLANK- NOT FIL61.4ED

Contents

CHAPTER

I.Introduction II.Occupational Trends and Their Implication for Education HI. The Nature of Vocational Education IV. The Nature of Technical Education V. Organizing and Financing Technical EducationBeyond the High School VI.Organizing and Financing Vocational Education in the High School VII. The Education of Teachers and Other ProfessionalPersonnel VIII. Summary of Findings and Recommendations

APPENDIX A. Procedures for Estimating Additional Workers andReplacements in Illinois from 1955 to 1965 B. Population Trends C. Procedures for Estimating Enrollments in Technicaland Semi-Technical Curricula, 1965-1970 Goal D. Distribution of Potential 1965 Enrollmentsin Technical and Semi - Technical Curricula E. Estimated Populations, 1965 F. Indexes of Tax Ability of Forty-Four IllustratedSubregions (Per Cent of State Total) G. Effort of Forty-Four Proposed Subregions in theUse of Property Taxes, 1957-58 H. Procedures for Estimating Costs of Technical andSemi-Technical Curricula

1 i 1 IPRECEDING PAGE BLANK- NM" FELF9,7F,r)

Summary of Findings and Recommendations [Reprint of Chapter VIII]

All of the social and economic trends in Illinois point calls for new ways of organizing and financing the total to a tremendous challenge for the education of citizens program of education. in the future. Every agency which has a part in this Technical education is the phase of education with great enterprise will have to re-examine its role to deter- specialized preparation for occupational work between mine how it can contribute more effectively than it has the high school and the four-year,college which prepares done in the past. Private educational institutions, busi- students mainly for professional work.Institutions of ness and industry, the various voluntary agencies, and higher education have concentrated largely on education the public school system all must re-examine their for so-called professional work.In recent years the contributions in the light of future needs for the welfare occupations have had an increasing need for workers of this state and the nation. with specialized talent and general knowledge superior To the members conducting this study, the evidence to what the high school can give and yet requiring less shows that government through the public school system time and different preparation from that which the senior must exercise an increasingly greater responsibility in the institutions of higher education afford. education of citizens. This study presents an estimate of Technical education is in a stage of piecemeal devel- the task, with particular reference to vocational and opment in Illinois.It consists of a collection of a few technical education, which this state should set as a goal special courses of study, operated by local school dis- for the public schools to accomplish by 1970. tricts through junior colleges in a few instances and as This task requires a comprehensive perspective of "special programs" attached to high schools in other education from elementary school through the college cases. The vast range of occupations is hardly touched. and university. The special phases limited to this study What is needed is a well-rounded program of education are the vocational and technical programs at the high of two years beyond high school with broad scope and school and post-high school levels, respectively. not just a collection of a few special courses. The pro- A review of the outstanding characteristics of the per- gram of the future must offer individuals a choice among spective for these two phases of education will provide a wide variety of special courses within a contextof a background for the specific findings and recommenda- general education for all persons. Moreover, such a tions which follow. program must be viewed as a part of higher education, Vocational education is described in this study as the requiring a special system for organizing, administering, instruction at the high school level which deals specifi- and financing. cally with preparation for occupational work.It is not Technical education, therefore, in reality is junior limited to youth in high school.It includes part-time college education. Since nearly half of the curricula in instruction for adults, for those who want to complete technical education consist of courses designed to pro- requirements for graduation, and for others who need vide education of general need for all citizens, a system further education to upgrade themselves on the job or of junior college education is needed which includes to train for new jobs. these curricula and those which lead students into the Vocational education is not limited to the courses of professions, requiring transfer to senior institutions of study which traditionally have been called "vocational higher education for completion. More than this, tech- subjects."It includes as well much of what is now nical education must be provided for large numbers of called "practical arts" and business subjects. The re- the adult population to upgrade themselves on the job or sponsibility of the public school system is to face the to prepare for new jobs as a result of technological challenge presented by a wide variety of occupations for change. which special occupational preparation is needed at the The specific findings and recommendations for im- high school level for youth and adults. This challenge proving vocational education at the high school level 113 and technical education at the post-high school level are 5.The high school should not be expected, even in as follows. the subregional school, to a_ rovide a complete vocational training. Students should receive a basic foundation in High School Level broad fields of occupational choice upon which they can 1. Two basic premises underlie the principles and build specialized technical trainingat the post-high procedures for improving vocational education in the school level. high school. The first is the assumption that the compre- 6. The special appropriation for vocational educa- hensive type of high school is the most suitable for the tion in high school should be transferred to the state American society.The second one isthat the high distributive fund and this fund should be increased suffi- school should provide some initial vocational study in ciently to allow for allocations as outlined in items 7 the eleventh and twelfth grades for substantial numbers and 8. of students whose occupational interests lead to immedi- 7. The financing of vocational education should be ate employment after graduation or to further occupa- broadened to strengthen the programs offered solely by tional preparation at the junior college level. local districts and to accommodate the consolidation of (sub- 2. Means to strengthen the public school program from special programs where feasible within areas Instead of elementary through high school should be continued and regions) comprising several local districts. the special vocational aids as they are now known, there stepped up at a faster pace. Plans should be established to complete the reorganization of small districts and the should be a general distribution formula with proper weightings to account for the variations in cost of the consolidation of small schools within the next decade. major components of the educational program.This The existence of reasonably effective administrative units principle should apply eventually to all phases of the and attendance centers (schools) is fundamental to the improvement of all phases of the educational program total program and not exclusively to vocational edu- cation. including vocational education. As the first step to move in this direction, it is pro- 3. A comprehensive approach is recommended in posed that the state distributive formula be revised to the planning of the high school program. The degree give local districts a choice of remaining on the old of specialization at this level is limited, but insofar as formula (present method of special aid on an "approved" possible the high school should provide for the maximum basis) or going on the new one.In this manner the development of students whose occupational goals lead state could simplify its fiscal policy by transferringthe (1) to further education for college graduation, (2) to special earmarked vocational aid at the high school level further education at the junior college level, or (3) to to the general distributive fund. The problem atthe state immediate entry into occupational work. level would then become a matter of making a division 4. A minimum high school population of 2,000 stu- in the computation between districts which choose the dents is necessary to provide organization of the cur- old formula or the new one. This arrangement would riculum for efficient and economical instruction to meet avoid jeopardizing the existing programs, yet it would the broad range of interests and needs. In view of the facilitate orderly adjustments in adapting to changing fact that only a few of the local school districts are likely needs. to have a high school population ofthis size, it is recom- 8. A new financial formula is proposed for allocation mended that immediate steps be taken to establish coop- of expense for current operation and capital outlay for erative arrangements in small regions whereby several vocational education as follows: local districts can consolidate certain specialized voca- a.Current Operating Expense tional work in the eleventh and twelfth grades. These The state funds available to each subregion for regions should be planned as subregions within large consolidated vocational programs at the high school ones which would be designed to operatethe post-high level would be the amount obtained by subtracting school programs of technical and semi-technical work. item (2) from item (1). The following curricula are recommended for initial (1) The total approved operating cost of the sub- consolidation on a subregional basis wherever this ar- regional programs including transportation. rangement can provide a better program than theindi- (2) The prorata share of constituent local districts. vidual district can offer alone: vocational agriculture, Each local district's share would be computed as trade and industrial work, business and distributive the district's average per pupil operating cost occupations, and homemaking. applied to the number of its students attending These schools would serve three purposes, providing the regional center in proportion to course load, (1) for part-time attendance (two days per week or not to exceed 50 percent of the cost per full-time equivalent) of students from the regular high schools, equivalent student. (2) for youth who drop out of high school to return for For example, a district with an average per a reorientation of their education, and(3) for part-time pupil cost of $500 sends 50 pupils to a sub- attendance of adults. regional center for specialized work where the 114 approved cost per full-time equivalent student general distributive fund and used in themanner is $700. (These specializedprograms including described for state funds. transportation may be expectedto cost about 40 b.Capital Outlay per cent more on the average than the regular It is proposed that the state finance outright ones.) The student's loadat the center is about the cost of sites,buildings, and equipment for high school 40 per cent of his totalcourse work. Hence, $200 per student (40 vocational and adult educationprograms organized per cent of $500) is con- on a subregional basis. tributed by the sending districtand $500 per student (the difference betweenthe approved 9. An administrative organization will beneeded to cost of $700 and the local district's share of operate the subregional programs.It might be a lay $200) is obtained fromstate funds. board consisting of designated representativesof con- stituent local boards. This body would be assignedap- This formula would also apply to resident dropout propriate functions of policy making wiih powerto students of each district. Assume that thesame dis- employ the necessary personnelto operate the programs trict as illustrated has 50 dropout students attending and services. the subregional center on a full-time basis for voca- 10. The level of the foundation tional and other high school level work. The local program in the pub- lic schools must be moved upward, withan increasing district's contribution per pupil would be $500 minus proportion of the cost to be borne from the regular state aid allotment state taxes. per pupil. If the latter While this study is directing attention were $150, then the district's share would be $350. to certain phases of education called vocational by definition andcustom, The state's share would be $350 including the $150 the total program must be kept in state aid which would have been paid to the local paramount. There is no solution to any part out of context ofa total wholesome district had the student remained in the regular high situation. school. This arrangement would require local districtsto Post-High School Level maintain a continuing responsibility for the educa- 1.In view of the critical, needs for increasingnum- tional rehabilitation of its youth who drop out of high bers of technically trainedpersons, the state should school. establish a forward-looking policy for the development In the case of part-time adult instructionon the of a program of post-high school technical and semi- high school level, which on theaverage amounts to technical education at publicexpense. A few curricula one-fifth of a full-time load per enrollee, the local require one year for completion, others threeyears; but district would contribute an amountper full-time the great majority require two years of full-time study. equivalent student equal to the yield of its qualifying 2.The state should undertake a ten-year program tax rate per student in the public schools for regular of development leading towarda goal of educational state aid. For example, assume that the local district opportunity which is in keeping with the state'seco- has an assessed valuation of $20,160 per regular school nomic and cultural status in the nation. pupil. The qualifying rate of 62 cents would yield 3. By 1970 the state should havean organized sys- $125 per regular pupil. The district would contribute tem of instruction in about 50 technical and 35 semi- $125 per full-time equivalent adult student (about technical curricula. Specific estimatesare prepared for $25 per enrollee) and the balance would be obtained 44 and 32, respectively.Technological advances will from state funds.This procedure would place re- require additional curricula as time goes on. sponsibility upon the local districts to develop planned 4.The program of development should make provi- programs of part-time vocational education for adults. sion for instruction of students in full-time and part-time This procedure would require that the Superin- attendance. tendent of Public Instruction prepare objective stand- 5.Reasonable estimates of annual enrollments which ards to be used in approving operating budgets of public institutions should have to relieve the critical subregional vocational programs. In due time experi- shortages (not the complete demand for additional work- ence would yield sufficient empirical data so that the ers and replacements) in 1965-66 are as follows: (1) "approval" procedure could be changed tba mathe- 14,429 full-time and 12,420 part-time enrollments in matical cost unit basis and incorporated in the general technical curricula, (2) 42,955 full-time and 40,180 distribution formula. This would then notmean that part-time enrollments in semi-technical curricula. The the state office should relinquish its general supervision grand total is 70,477 full-time equivalent students. To to assure minimum standards. supply half of the full-time enrollments in these two-year Federal funds as now provided could be kept curricula would require 23.6 per cent of the 1965 high separate from the distributive fund and used to stimu- school graduates. Another 2 per cent would be required late the development of subregional programs. Or if to meet half of the estimated enrollments of these cur- preferred, these funds could be transferred to the ricula in private institutions. In 1958, 1.5 per cent of 115 JO MOMS IMPOIRSOIlriNSMASO PHONY liar 3 7 I 6 4

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J4AL.SC., X 11 ILLINOIS IrawAssoniAL742 4415. SCALE IN MILES 42 I 1 43 0 102030 aroT"'"rom, Pore 44 I KEY Ite IX Regions 1 44Subregions

Figure2:Proposed Regions for Vocational and Technical Education Programs (Public High School and PostHigh School Levels)

116 rSra4=0.

high school graduates entered some of these curricula transfer curricula or both. No extension center should in public institutions and 1,8 per dent in private insti- be established with an enrollment of less than 500 full- tutions. time students. In 1958 the first-time enrollees in liberal arts and pro- 10. Each operating unit should have a campus that fessional curricula in post-high school institutions in is designed to serve the program to be offered and to Illinois amounted to 45 per cent of the high school be expanded to meet future growth. The central unit graduates in that year.In 1965 these enrollees are should be so arranged as to accommodate a central ad- estimated to reach 48.8 per cent of the high school ministrative staff for the region; classrooms, laboratories, graduates of that year. Thus, if the state could develop and shops for technical, semi-technical, and college programs to accommodate these estimates, a total of transfer curricula; and common space for library, food approximately 74.4 per cent of the 1965 graduates service, recreation, and parking. would enter post-high school educational programs of Seven of the proposed regions will have from 500,000 two years or more. This figure seems to be a reasonable to 600,000 population in 1965. A fully developed pro- goal within the next decade. gram will house potential enrollments of between 2,300 6. To accomplish this task with respect to technical and 3,000 full-time students in the central unit for tech- education, the state should organize a statewide system nical and semi-technical curricula. At least another 1,000 of comprehensive-type junior colleges. This is preferable or more would be expected for college transfer work, to a dual system of junior college education with one for giving a total enrollment of between 3,000 and 4,000 technical and semi-technical curricula and another for full-time students. An institution of this size will require college transfer curricula because of economy, better a campus of 120 to 150 acres. guidance of students, more systematic opportunity for About 19 extension centers in these seven regions student choice, administrative feasibility, and greater would be expected to have an enrollment ranging from institutional prestige to attract competent staff members. 500 to 1,500 full-time students in semi-technical and 7. A state board of education should be created and college transfer curricula. In each case about an equal assigned general policy making responsibility for the number of part-time students for evening classes may public junior colleges and the public elementary and be expected. high schools. The Office of Superintendent of Public 11. Each operating unit would have primarily a com- Instruction, a constitutional elective office, should be muting student body. But planning should take into replaced by an appointed state superintendent who would account that substantial numbers may be expected to serve as chief executive officer of the board of education. prefer living in residence on or near the campus. This is In the meantime, it is recommended that an interim particularly true for the main centers, where all of the advisory committee on junior college education be cre- technical curricula should be centralized. ated to advise the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- 12. A unified administrative idganization2 should tion and that the Superintendent be empowered to carry be established to coordinate the total program of the out developments of general policy established by law. region in the junior college. A regional lay board is 8. As a guide for implementing these goals, this study proposed for local policy and advisement within general recommends the establishment of ten regions in the requirements established by law and rules and regula- state strategically located with reference to population tions of the state office. distribution, means of transportation, and geographic and In keeping with the status of this institution, the chief sociological factors. A region should have an estimated executive officer of the region should have the title of minimum of 500,000 gross population or 30,000 high president.There should be a central administrative school enrollment between 1965 and 1970 to provide staff for finance, personnel, guidance, and other services an appropriate base for a broad program offering rea- for the whole region. Each operating unit should have sonable opportunity for individual choice and meeting an administrative dean, supervisory and instructional other criteria. personnel, and other staff. 9. The largest population center of each regions 13. Costs for the estimated enrollments in technical should serve as the location of a junior college with education which the state will need in 1965-66 are technical, semi-technical, and college transfer curricula. based on 1959-60 prices, assuming an annual increase All technical curricula for the region should be cen- of 3 per cent (the long-term trend) in living standards tralized there.It is estimated that from two to three but no allowance for increase in cost of living (inflation). smaller cities in each region would serve as appropriate An average annual professional salary of $10,000 extension centers for either semi-technical or college will be needed in 1965. The total cost of operation will 1Because of the density of population in the Chicago metropoli- be $1,000 per full-time student and $625 per full-time tan area, the methods of organizing operating units in Regions I, II, and IV would not follow the pattern for the other regions de- 'Such an organizationisalready available in Region I scribed in items 9, 10, and 11. (Chicago). 117 equivalent student on a part-time basis. The total annual them alone to yield the estimated netcost of $54,995,- operating cost for 70,477 full-time equivalent students 575 for technical and semi-technical curriculaare as estimated at -$65,567,125. follows: (1) retail sales, 0.32per cent; (2) net personal Among the comprehensive-type junior colleges de- income, 0.16 per cent and (3)property, 14 cents per veloping throughout the country, there isa trend to $100 of assessed valuation. establish tuition policies thatare comparable to policies The second method is a combination ofstate and for the freshman and sophomore students in the public regional taxes.In principle thisis the same as the senior institutions. A similar policy wouldseem reason- present method of financing the public elementaryand able in Illinois, with a maximum annual charge of $150 secondary schools.This procedure has serious disad- for each full-time student. At this rate the net operative vantages with the fairly heavy burdens already carried cost for the development proposed in this study would by property and general salestaxes. To earmark a be $54,995,575. regional tax leeway from eitherone of these bases would 14. Costs of capital outlay fora properly designed hardly seem to be judicious when each formis already campus, including site, buildings, and equipment, will near the point of requiring relief by shifting some burden cost at least $3,000 per full-time student, or a total to other tax forms. This is especially true of the property amount of $172,000,000. This includes space for ad- tax. However, the establishment of a state incometax, ministrative and special service personnel, library, regular which all informed persons realize will haveto be done classrooms, laboratories and shops, food service, and eventually, would make it possible eitherto earmark a recreation (not interscholastic athletics). This does not regional income tax baseor to use this form as a state include facilities for residence. tax to relieve one of the other forms which could be 15.Estimates of enrollments and costs for students earmarked for this purpose. in academic (college transfer) curricula in junior col- The first method seems preferable to the second. This leges are not included as a part of this study.It is program of education possesses such a high degree of generally known that the junior college willcarry a complexity that citizens probablycan express a more significant share of the task of educating these students. effective voice for its support through stategovernment. Analysis of expenditures in a number of junior colleges However, if the state-regional procedure is viewedas an reveals, however, that the average costper academic essential means to stimulate vital interest and partici- student for operation and for capital outlay will besome- pation of citizens, it should be adopted. where between 80 and 90 per cent of the costper student 17. Four general steps for implementing thesepro- in technical and semi-technical curricula. posals are recommendedas follows: 16. Two methods of financing junior college edu- a. Create a state system of junior college education. cation are proposed for consideration. b. Empower the State Superintendent of PublicIn- The first one is outright state support basedon budg- struction to employ thenecessary technical staff to et approval by a state 'board of education (by the state plan and supervise the development of theprogram. superintendent until such a board iscreatedj.The c. Create an advisory committee to the Superintend- board (or the state superintendent) would haveat its ent of Public Instruction on junior college education, disposal technical assistance toprepare objective criteria pending the establishment ofa state board of edu- for making such approvals. cation. The three major tax bas4 s have been projectedto d. Set a ten-year goal for full development of junior 1965, and the respective rates required for eachone of college education.

118 XIV. Vocational Education in Michigan BY LEON J. ALGER1

Introduction should also be instruction designed to provide informa- tion, to develop understandings, to illustrate the applica- PHILOSOPHY AND OBJECTIVES tion of principles, and to motivate and develop socially The program of vocational and technical education in desirable attitudes for the person preparing for entry or Michigan is geared to an area of service related to the advancement in an occupation.Such organized in- nature of the state's economy one heavily oriented struction should be given by a person or persons who to the production of the nation's most widely used possess competence and experience inthe occupational consumer goods. The trend toward use of greatertech- field involved. Student activities contribute to vocational nical skills in agriculture, business, industry, and home education when based upon students' interests in the economics occupations places added responsibility upon occupation and when related to the occupation. Student- the educational program to provide these worker skills. teacher-employer-parent planning of such activities and It should be emphasized that the program of vocational experiences contributes to the appropriateness and effec- and technical education is not a separate adjunct of tiveness of these. public education:itis an essential part of the total Effective programs of vocational education may be program of education in a single,comprehensive effort organized (1)to prepare individuals for entry into to meet the greatest number of needs of the largest employment; (2) to upgrade, prepare for advancement, possible number of Michigan children, youth, and adults. or retrain for another occupationthose already engaged The goal of programs of vocational education should in an occupation; and (3) to provide basic preparation be to contribute in a unique and specific manner to the for additional specialized vocational or professionaledu- development of individuals who will possess the neces- cation. sary competenceforchosenoccupations.A con- Comprehensive education needed.Preparation for comitant goal should be the economic improvement of work has always been an important part of education. society. Success at work is essential for survival and for the A broad concept. Vocational education means edu- development of useful citizens. To provide one's share cation that is needed to engage in socially useful work. of the goods and services needed by. mankind is a It is conceived of as that portion of education which recognized attribute of citizenship. Vocational education goes further than general education bydealing in a more increasingly has been included as a part of a total edu- specialized manner with the development of occupational cational program in the public schools. One educational competence. The concept as such is not restricted to goal toward which the public schools have worked is those programs that are reimbursable through the federal the development of systems that are comprehensive in vocational educationacts, but this paper will deal character.' Present and prospective workers for all walks primarily with those programs that are. of life need to attend comprehensive schools where they Vocational education involves a variety of student may learn both to live and to make aliving. Although experiences or learning activities. Included among such it is recognized that not all vocational education needed experiences should be supervised work experience in by people can be given in community schools, the cur- and relating to the occupational field to which the indi- ricula of such schools should reflect as far as possible vidual aspires or in which he is already engaged. There the needs of the students for specialized education and 1Research Consultant, Divisionof Vocational Education, for occupational competence. Michigan Department of PutIlic Instruction. Vocational guidance essential. Vocational education 2The material in this section has been adapted from the is most effective when it is preceded, accompanied, and Michigan Vocational Education Evaluation Project Report followed by vocational guidance. When youth are pro- of the Task Force on Philosophy and Objectives, 1962. 119 vided with continuous, adequate guidance services, they a number of states since 1938 to maintainguidance are better able to know their occupational interests, services, the practice was made passible by an adn,;n- abilities, and aptitudes and to formulate occupational istrative interpretation of the Smith-Hughes and George- plans. Programs in vocational education offered in a Deen Acts rather than by specific inclusion as in the school should reflect the vocational interests, the em- case of the George-Barden Act. In 1958 theNational ployment opportunities, and the training needs of youth Defense Education Act was passed.Its Title VIII and adults.Specialized courses for development of amended the George-Barden Act to include funds for the specific occupational competence should be available to training of highly skilled technicians in fields essential to those persons who want, need, and can profit from them. national defense. Finally in 1961 and 1962, two acts A good program of vocational education, like any were passed providing for the retraining of unemployed other program in a comprehensive school system, will, of workers. These were the Area Redevelopment Act and necessity, involve individuals of varying general and the Manpower Development and Training Act. special aptitudes and aspirations. Vocational education Financial support. The readiness of Michigan schools has a place in the total school program; it helps youth for an expanded program of vocational education is to make and substantiate vocational choices and to relate indicated by the fact that the Legislature began regularly educational plans to these choices. It also should provide appropriating state funds to match federal vocational motivation for other school work, and indeed it could be education funds after passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. Financial support of vocational education by used as a focal point toward which many of the total .:P educational experiences or activities may be directed. the Legislature through special appropriations has been continuous for over 40 years. The number of school BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH districts taking advantage of federal and state funds for The schools of Michigan have offered vocational edu- the development and improvement of vocational educa- cation classes for more than half a century, beginning tion for youth and adults has grown steadily from year with the teaching of handtool trades and continuing on- to year since 1917. ward to teaching the use of today's complicated machines Growth of programs. Although some start had been in the factory, on the farm, in business establishments, made in the direction of preparing youth through voca- and in the home. The level of excellence of vocational tional education to become productivecitizens, the education has improved steadily, and there is every advent of state and federal grants-in-aid encouraged reason to believe that it will continue to do so. Michigan to set herself earnestly to the task of meeting With the advent of power machinery, the cost of the educational needs of youth not planning to enter equipping school shops was greatly increased.The college for further formal education. The program of coming of power equipment into the home increased the vocational education in local schools has grown from cost of the school's homemaking program. New develop- one serving a few hundred boys and girls prior tothe ments in the field of business machines markedly in- 1920's to one now serving more than one out of every creased the cost of preparing high school youth for jobs five enrolled in the secondary schools of Michigan. It is in offices and retail establishments. significant that while enrollments in grades 9 to 12 have Legislador. Recognizing the burden that was placed increased 40 percent since 1940, enrollments in voca- upon many secondaryschools as they sought to keep tional classes have increased 99 percent. In the same abreast of the times in preparing youth for jobs in agri- period the number of adults enrolled in vocational edu- culture, business, industry, and the home, Congress cation classes increased by 75 percent. came to their aid. In 1917 theSmith-Hughes Vocational Over 78,000 out-of-school Michigan youth and adults Education Act was passed for the purpose of providing were enrolled in reimbursed vocational educationclasses continuing grants-in-aid to schools desiring to offer last year. Employed workers in agriculture, distributive programs of vocational agriculture, trade andindustrial, businesses, and industry, as well as homemakers, en- and homemaking education. The George-Reedand the rolled in these classes for the purpose of improving their George-Ellzey Acts were passed in 1929 ''Ond 1934, occupational competence. respectively, for the further development of vocational education. In 1936 Congress granted further aid to the Operation of Programs program of vocational education through passageof the George-Deen Act, which provided additional aid for the ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION programs mentioned above and, in addition, fundsfor Two state boards. Michigan has two state boards for distributive education. In 1946 the George-Barden Act the administration of educational programs. One, the supplanted the George-Deen Act. This Act increased State Board of Education, is composed of four elected funds for vocational education and authorized the states members and the Superintendent of Public Instruction to use a portion of the appropriated funds for thede- who also serves as secretary to this Board. The State velopment and improvement of local guidance programs. Board of Education has general supervision of the Mich- Although vocational education funds have beeu used in igan Rehabilitation Institute and the four former state 120 teachers collems, namely: Centrn1 Michigan nnivPrsity. arrangement through committees, Eastern Michigan University, Northern Michigan Uni- interested individuals, and other voluntary and official versity, and Western Michigan University. agencies work to improve Michigan's schools.This The Superintendent of Public Instruction is vested program has been in operation for almost 25 years and with power of supervision over all public instruction has been rather unique and highly successful in involving within the state, except that the public colleges and people in the improvement of educationon a statewide universities, other than the four mentioned above, have basis.The curriculum committees that makeup this separate administrative boards which are responsible program are advisory in nature. Several of these com- for the supervision of their respective institutions. mittees deal with specific curricular areas in vocational The second state board is the State Board of Control education.Included are committees on agricultural for Vocational Education,This is the policy-making education, businesseducation, guidance, home and body for reimbursed vocational educationprograms in family living, industrial arts, trade and technical edu- public schools and institutions. This Board is composed cation, and school holding power. of seven members as prescribed by the Legislature: the presidents of Michigan State University and The Uni- THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL versity of Michigan, the Superintendent of Public In- Mention is made of the junior high school only to struction, the chairman of the State Board of Education, show its relationship to vocational education. No reim- and three members' appointed by the Governor repre- bursed vocational classes are operated at the junior high senting employers, employees, and agricultural interests. school level with the exception of a few ninth grade The Superintendent of Public Instruction is executive home economics courses; however, severalprograms do officer of the State Board of Control for Vocational make a vocational contribution in terms of exploratory Education. values. Most junior high school curriculums offersome The Division of Vocational Education, within the practical arts courses in the area of industrial arts and Department of Public Instruction, is composed of the home economics. In a few cases, the vocational home AssistantSuperintendentforVocational Education economics teacher also teaches a junior high class when (StateDirector),fiveservicechiefs,a financeac- the grade structure is such that the ninth grade is found countant, a research consultant, and a number of addi- in the junior high school. tional consultants in the various services. These classes can play a significant role in helping the Advisory groups. One of the unique features of the boy or girl explore a number of occupational fields. administrative organization is the Michigan Council for Many students are beginning to think constructively Vocational Education Administration.This advisory about their life's work at this time, even thougha firm group is made up of 18 local school superintenhnts, 1 vocational choice may not be made for a number of from each of the Michigan Education Association regions. years. Each is elected for a period of 2 yearS by superintendents THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL in his geographical region who operate one or more reim- bursed vocational education programs. The Council Public school statistics indicate that from two-thirds serves in an ads isory capacity to the Division of Voca- to three-fourths of all Michigan students entering the tional Education. ninth grade terminate their formal education at or before Because the Council is selected on a geographical high school graduation.Current statistics reveal that basis, the membership tends to represent those vocational approximately 28 percent of those entering the ninth education programs that are present in smaller school grade fail to graduate from high school. systems, the majority of which have only agriculture Significant trends. Many trends in our society today and/or homemaking programs. Local directors of voca- emphasize the need for schools to prepare students for tional education are also frequently consulted regarding the world of work. Never before has the need for our the administration of vocational education programs. schools to assume this responsibility been more essential These local directors are generally found in the larger and urgent. Unskilled and semiskilled jobs are rapidly school systems, which tend to have more comprehensive disappearing. According to the Michigan Employment programs. Security Commission, the city of Detroit alone loses over Two other state-leve; advisory groups serving the 2,000 entry jobs annually. Most of these are in the Division of Vocational Education should be mentioned. unskilled or semiskilled categories. One, the Advisory CoMmittee on Title VIII of the Technician and highly skilled occupations are increas- National Defense Education Act, was pppointed to assist ing at a tremendous rate. The ratio of occupations the Division of Vocational Educatiotin in establishing requiring specialized training to occupations requiring _principles and policies in connection with the provisions little or no training is increasing. More jobs are be- of the Act. The other is the Michigan Curriculum Pro- coming more interesting, but these jobs are also requiring gram. more education, more imagination, and more technical The Michigan Curriculum Program is a cooperative capability.

121 Perhaps one of the most significant facts facing Mich- tional competence. Much controversy and confusion iga n educators is the number of p_nrqons reaching 18 each has arisen in recent years regarding this second objective. year, ready to enter the labor force or go on to college. As many of the operations in the business of farming The Michigan Employment Security Commission reports have moved off the farm and are now being performed that this number will increase in Michigan from 115,600 by someone other than the farmer, the question has been in 1960 to 173,200 in 1970. Even more startling is the raised regarding the kind of training needed by persons 27 percent increase in 18-year-olds between 1964 and in these "farm-service occupations." It should be evident 1965 from 121,000 to 165,700 in 1 year! To pre Ade that they need knowledge and skill in both agriculture adequate schooling and educational facilities for these and businesS and even some industrial skills rather than people is a major concern. Indeed it is likely one of the any single skill. most pressing problems to be faced by Michigan's This is but one example of an overall problem in economy during the sixties. vocational education today. Provision must be made for At the present time, reimbursed vocational education the kind of occupational training that requires skills and programs in Michigan are providing training for approxi- abilities from several of our traditional vocational edu- mately 68,000 high school youth. When this figure is cation fields. Vocational educators must recognize that compared with the more than 347,000 high school youth we live in a society in which the occupational structure enrolled in Michigan high schools, we must recognize is rapidly changing. As the scope of many occupations that our efforts to date have not been adequate. Only expands and as that of others becomes more specific, about one-fourth of our young people who must acquire entirely new types of educational programs must be a salable skill before they leave high school are enrolled developed.In many cases, new "packages" encom- in reimbursed vocational education programs. passing parts of our traditional programs in agricultural, Reimbursed versus nonreimbursed programs. Voca- business, and industrial education must be developed. tional education programs, because they are reimbursed The emergence of entirely new occupations and the with state and federal funds, must meet certain stand- chanbing importance of existing ones must also be con- ards. The teachers in such programs must have com- sidered in the planning of comprehensive educational pleted minimum educational and occupational expe- programs. rience qualifications. There are also certain requirements Home economics. The preparation of young people in regard to length of classes, selection of students, and for establishing and maintaining a desirable family life facilities. Consultants are available from the Division of isanother responsibility that the public school has Vocational Education to advise in regard to curriculum accepted. Here again many changes in our society have development.Curriculum development is a local re- greatly increased the importance and the complexity of sponsibility with assistance from the state level. the job of the homemaker. The marked increase in the Nonreimbursed programs do not have to meet these percent of wives and mothers working, the pressures of minimum requirements.Nevertheless, many nonreim- a complex society, the problems of child care, and a host bursed vocational education classes are operated with of other related problems cannot be ignored by educators high standards and do a good job of preparing students if they are truly to provide an education for young for entry into an occupation. Confusion and misunder- people that adequately prepares them for life. Vocational standing arise when courses such as industrialarts, home economics programs are offered in 63 percent of general agriculture, and general business are referred to Michigan's high school districts. as vocational courses. These courses usually have gen- Business education. High school preparatory classes eral education objectives and are not designed to pre- in business education are an integral part of most high pare for occupational competence. school programs in Michigan; however, the degree to Vocational education at the high school level i:; in the which high schools provide a well-rounded preparation form of preparatory classes for entry into an occupation. for entry into the business world varies considerably.It In Michigan such classes are offered in the broad occu- would be difficult to find a Michigan high school that pational fields of agriculture, business, homemaking. does not offer such classes as typing, shorthand, and and industry. bookkeeping. These courses usually serve a dual purpose Agriculturaleducation.Vocationalagricultureis to provide general education for many studentsand offered in 43 percent of Michigan's high sek;:)! districts. to provide basic vocational skills for others. Thesebasic. Agricultural education at the high school level has two courses are an essential part of preparationfor office rather broad objectives:; I )to de.,, clop abilities, atti- occupations. Beyond these courses considerable variation tudes, skills, and understandings that enabie a student is found, but little attention is given to courses preparing to make a beginning in the occupation of farming; and for the distributive occupations. MA. (2)to develop those agricultural abilities,attitudes, Cooperativeeducation.Reimbursedcooperative skills, and understandings needed by student plat, work-study programs are offered by less than one-fifth to enter those nonfarm occupations in which agt, ural of Michigan high schools. Such programs may provide competence is required in addition to other occupa- training for office, distributive, or industrial occupations. 122 Work-study programs utilizebusiness and industrial Homemakers of America as part of home economics; establishments in the community for on-the-job training and the Future Farmers of America -- as part of voca- together with the necessary in-school related instruction. tional agriculture programs. These three organizations When properly conducted, these cooperative arrange- provide youth with an opportunity to develop leadership ments can enable the school to provide occupational and other human relations skills as an integral part of preparation opportunities that would be impossible if the their education for an occupation. In many cases they school had to provide the work situation. Many more also serve as a vehicle for the teaching of subject matter. Michigan school districts could come closer to providing The Future Farmers of America is a good illustration of comprehensive educational programs if they would make this. Many local chapters of the FFA conduct group greater use of the work-study concept. projects and operate land laboratories, thereby providing Trade an4, industrial education:In trade and in- the teacher of vocational agriculture with unique teach- dustrial edtt6ation two distinct programs are offered for ing opportunities. high school youth: (1) trade preparatory classes, and Vocational guidance. Thereislittleevidenceof (2) cooperative education programs. Trade preparatory adequate vocational guidance in Michigan high schools classes are offered for such skilled occupations as print- today. This is surprising in that guidance services started ing, welding, automotive mechanics, foundry work, and out in this country to be vocational in character. Frank machine shop. Cooperative work-study programs operate Parsons, in his book, Choosing a Vocation (1908), similarly for both industrial and business occupations. introduced the concept of vocational guidance. He de- Reimbursed trade and industrial education programs scribed it as a process designed to "aid young people in are offered in only approximately 100 Michigan high choosing an occupation, preparing themselves forit, schools. This is less than one-fifth of all high schools. finding an opening in it, and building a career of effi- Thzre are several reasons for this. Such programs are ciency and success." The present-day concept of voca- relatively expensive to develop and maintain. The re- tional guidance is little changed from this early one. quired three-clock-hour periods for preemployment day As guidance services developed in the educational trade classes may also be a factor, and some high school process in this country, counselors were increasingly administrators say that such long class periods make it selected from the ranks of those educators in the so- impossible for the student to meet other requirements. called academic fields. This came about following World This relates to the disproportionate emphasis on college War I with the development of group tests designed to preparatory courses in the high school program.If measure capacity for mental achievement. Consequently, schools are to meet the educational needs of each counseling moved into the college preparatory phase of individual- student, however, an individualized curric- modern-day guidance services.The guidance services ulum must be developed for each student based on his pendulum had swung from being exclusively concerned specific aptitudes and interests.Although there are a with vocational guidance to the other extreme, and to a number of schools offering nonreimbursed industrial large degree the guidance program in our high schools education classes,itis evident that many high school has never recovered from this overemphasis on college students do not have an opportunity to acquire sufficient preparatory guidance to the relative exclusion of voca- industrial skills to compete successfully in today's job tional guidance. market. A recent study indicates that counselors spend more Most Michigan high school programs include courses time on college preparatory counseling and consider it in industrial arts. Although these courses do not have to be more important and more enjoyable than counsel- vocational objectives, they do contribute to the industrial ing regarding vocational problems. . education programs of the schools. These courses serve With the background that most counselors have, it to acquaint the student with industrial processes and is not surprising that many feel more secure in counseling provide exploratory experiences. the academically inclined student. We can also see why A few high schools, located principally in industrial many counselors guide the superior student toward areas, are offering classes for the preparation of highly college and tend to reserve vocational courses for the skilled technicians; however, most of the technician less able hence the criticism by vocational teachers training programs are operated at the community college that their courses become "dumping grounds" for the level. Many people consider it difficult to develop the poor student. rigorous type of training required of the technician at This paradox is not without hope. All too often. com- the high school level. Area programs or schools could munication between counselors and vocational teachers provide such educational opportunities. has not been all that might be desired.In too many Youth groups. Three youth organizations are oper- cases, neither has understood what the other was trying ated in conjunction with high school vocational education to do for boys and girls. At least one Michigan school programs in Michigan: the Cooperative Education Club ';Michigan Department of Public Instruction, Division of of Michigan -- as a part of cooperative programs in the Vocation 11 Education. The WorA of the ('ounAclor in Michigan fields of business and industrial education; the Future Secondary .S'chools (Lansing: The Division, 1957 ).

123 system has employed a counselor whose only respon- Eleven of these two-year colleges are offering pro- sibility is that of v0Pntinnal guidance_ This person has grams for the training of highly skilled Wehrticintic been instrumental in acquainting other counselors in the through the provisions of the National Defense Education system with the needs of business and industry. Highly Act of 1958. Technician training is available in such successful counselor visitsto various industries and occupational areas as civil engineering technology, elec- businesses have been arranged. This vocational coun- tronics, industrial chemistry, hydraulics, industrial tech- selor has become deeply involved in assisting students nology, tool and die design and manufacture, drafting from both the high school and the community college in and layout technology, aspects of supervision and man- job placement. He has also served to improve communi- agement, and metallurgy.In addition,allof these cations between the vocational teachers and the coun- institutions offer programs in the business and secretarial selors within the various schools of the system. fields. The extent and quality of these vocational educa- Worth of the individual.If all educators, including tion programs vary considerably among the several counselors, believed that each student should be pro- institutions.In fact, only four offer what might be vided with the opportunity to develop his abilities and termed a comprehensive program for students desiring interests to the maximum and if they practiced this to enter a vocation immediately after graduation from belief, the problem regarding which courses certain stu- the community college. dents should take would be greatly reduced. Vocational Purposes. According to their catalogue statements, teachers must recognize that each student should under- Michigan community colleges accept the fiveusual take as rigorous an educational program as his ability community or junior college responsibilities in a general may warrant. Counselors, on the other hand, must way. These responsibilities are (1) providing a general recognize that many students who are above average in education for all students, (2) offering courses parallel academic ability should be enrolled in vocational courses to the first 2 years of regular college or university pro- in order to gain a foundation for advanced work on the gams, (3) providing programs for persons interested in post-high-schoollevel.Highly skilled technicians in employment immediately after attending the community agriculture, business, home economics, and industry college, (4) offering adult and community service pro- must come from the ranks of the so-called academically grams, and (5) providing a full program of student talented. personnel services. An analysis of their course offerings It is hoped 'that in the near future educational pro- reveals, however, that they are still placing major em- grams can be developed that will meet the needsof the phasis on the preprofessional and regular.lower division less able students much better than do the kinds of college offerings. _They need to strive for a better balance programs now available. Very few high schools offer between programs designed for students wishing to programs that will motivate the less able students to transfer to four-year institutions and programs designed develop fully the talents that they possess. At the present for those who will seek employment immediately after time, vocational courses offer the best and usually the leaving the community college. only place in the curriculum where the low-ability stu- Technical education. The dire need for expanding dents can satisfy their educational needs to any signifi- the technical occupational curricula in Michigan's com- cant degree. munity colleges is evidenced by the fact that a high per- THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE centage of students in the present technical education At the present time, there are 16 community colleges programs are accepting positions in their fields of train- operating in Michigan. Provision is made in Michigan ing even before the completion of the training program. for four types of legal control. A community college may This would seem to indicate that employers feel that be established(1) by any school district having a because of their acute needs for technicians they cannot population of more than 10,000 and operating grades afford to wait for these students to complete their train- K-12; (2) by 2 or more school districts by means of ing, but would rather hire the "unfinished products" mutually agreeablepolicies and administrative pro- with the hope that they will complete their training while on the job. Many students in this situation will, no doubt, :. cedures with the approval of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, or by the voters if the combined return for further training in the future, perhaps at their population is less than 10,000; (3) by the formation of a employers' expense. separate community college district comprised of one or It should be noted that even though Michigan com- more contiguous counties subsequent to approval by the munity colleges are not adequately providing for organ- State Board of Education and with a favorable vote by ized occupational programs, they are one of the chief the electors in the county or counties; or (4) by the for- sources of supply for technicians and semiprofessional mation of a separate community college district comprised personnel in the state. Martorana points this out in his of two or more K-12 grade school districts with the study of The Community College in Michigan. He approval of the Superintendent of Public Instruction and found that, when compared with the state colleges or the voters in each of the constituent districts. the private institutions of higher education, community 124 colleges have more students enrolled in andgraduate vary in length from 2 weeks to 2 years and provide more students from semiprofessional and technicalpro- intensive and highly practical training for theyoung grams than either of the others.4 farmer and for those students wishing toprepare for or In the past a contributing factorto the failure of to acquire additional training in one of several agricul- community -colleges to develop adequate occupational tural industries.Several of these short courses.utilize curricula has been the lack of adequate physicalfacilities the cooperative work-study concept of education. Stu- and equipment. At the present time, however,seven dents alternate quarters in college with workon the job. institutions have embarkedupon long-term building Such off-campus placement training is under thesuper- programs with facilities and sites distinctly separated vision and guidance of the University. Theseprograms from elementary and secondary schools.These new include commercial floriculture, elevator and farmsup- facilities include provision for vocational-technicalpro- ply, farm equipment service and sales, andnursery and grams. landscape management. Beginning in 1956, the Legislature has annually Northern Michigan University is presently operating appropriated an amount for building purposesto the a retraining program for unemployed workers under the Superintendent of Public Instruction for distribution to provisions of the Area Redevelopment Act.Classes districts operating community colleges. These appropri- are being offered in several office and secretarial occu- ations have totaled $6,400,000 since 1956. During that pations, welding, and machine operation.It is possible time, the local districts will have spentan additional that this program could develop intoa high-quality amount from local sources of almost $18 million. training center for a large number of technicaloccupa- In view of their stated objectives and recent efforts,we tions in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. can confidently look forward to the time when our The Michigan College of Mining and Technology community colleges will meet their responsibility for provides opportunities to study andearn degrees in many providing high-quality programs that will enable students areas of technology 10 fields of engineering, 7 fields to acquire occupational competence, in the technical and of science,forestry,engineering administration, and semiprofessional fields. business administration.In addition to these degree programs, this institution also offers a program of less- FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES than-degree level for the training of technicians in metal All of Michigan's public four-year colleges and uni- processing. Michigan Tech is one of the larger colleges versitiesofferspecialized programs of a vocational of engineering and science in America. character that do not carry college credit leading to a Western Michigan University offers cooperative work- degree. In some institutions these courses are offered study programs in the fields of food distribution (super- through the adult or continuing education division of market management) and petroleum distribution. the college or university; in others they are offered by one of the regular academic divisions. Other examples of similar programs would include sales and management workshops for small business Ferris State College is a unique institution in Michigan personnel by Northern Michigan University; supervisory higher education. This state college places primary, and management training programs by The University though not exclusive, emphasis upon practical vocational of Michigan and Wayne State University; school bus- and technical education.It provides also professional- driver training courses at Central, Eastern., and Western degree programs in pharmacy, commerce, and teacher Michigan Universities; and a custodial training education. program It has the further purpose of offering and at Michigan State University. maintaining general educational programs for mature adults. OUT-OF-SCHOOL ADULT PROGRAMS Ferris State College has, without question,one of the Apprenticeship training.Apprenticeship training is most outstanding trade and technical programs in the conducted in Michigan through a cooperative relation- country. This institution provides post-high-school train- ship between the Division of Vocational Education and ing in a number of industrial areas which require less the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training of the United than 4 years of college. Since 1946 these tradeprograms States Department of Labor. Related instruction for the have flourished and presently total 16 separate curric- various tradesisoffered throughout the stateina ul.im offerings. number of public schools. Since 1894 Michigan State University has provided Related instruction for apprentices in the building several short courses in the College of Agriculture for trades is taught by nine itinerant teachers whoare em- the persons who, for variousreasons, do not choose to ployed by the state but work under the direction of local enroll in the regular four-year program. Thesecourses schools. These teachers travel throughout the state. The basic trades in which training is being given through 4S. V. Martorana, TheCommunity College in Michigan,Staff this itinerant program are plumbing and steamfitting, Study No. 1 of The Survey of Higher Education in Michigan (Lansing: The Michigan Legislative Study Committee on Higher carpentry, industrial electronics, bricklaying, and iron- Education, 1956), p. 4. work.This program is rather unique and involves 125

4 nnly pore=of the total apprenticeship pro ram in One of the most significant outgrowths of thPse two Michigan. acts has been the establishment of new working rela- There are approximately 7,500 registered apprentices tionships between the Department of Public Instruction currently receiving training in Michigan, which compares and the Michigan Empliiyment Security Commission. with about 112,000 in the United States.Michigan Responsibility for the determination of occupations in ranks third, behind California and New York, in the which workers are needed and the selection of trainees number of apprentices in training. Apprenticeship train- rests with the Employment Security Commission. The ing, however, has declined from its peak in 1957. Many Division of Vocational Education, through the public people feel that greater use could be made of the ap- schools, is responsible for the training of those selected, prenticeship method of training skilled workers. The and finally the Employment Security Commission is present program involves only a token number of those responsible for the placement of those completing these who could profit from such training. programs.Itis anticipated that this new relationship There is a trend in Michigan toward offering more will enable both agencies to be more effective in dealing of the related instruction for apprentices through the with the problems inherent in the retraining of the community college programs. The reaction to this grad- unemployed. ual transfer of responsibility seems to he very favorable, Training of practical nurses. Another significant part and it is anticipated that this trend will continue. of Michigan's adult vocational education is the training A comprehensive two-year evaluation study of ap- offered for practical nurses. This program is designed prenticeship training in Michigan is now under way. for out-of-school youth and adults and includes students This projectinvolvesthe Bureau of Apprenticeship of various agesThe trend, however, has been toward Training of the United States Department of Labor, the a younger age of those enteringthe program, many State Division of Vocational Education, management, entering immediately after leaving high school. Most of and labor. these programs are offered through the community col- Training for the unemployed, One of Michigan's most leges. There is still a serious shortage of trained practical pressing economic problems has been its relatively high rturscs, and these programs need to be expandedand ex- rate of unemployment. The phenomenon of unemploy- tended to a number of additional Michigan communities. ment can no longer be considered as temporary -- the Practicalnurse programsare sponsored by local plight of the unemployed worker is indeed a serious one. boards of education in cooperation with the State Board The skillsof many persons have been rendered of Controlfor Vocational Education, the Michigan obsolete by dislocations in the economy arising from Board of Nursing, and the participating hospitals. At automation or other technological development, foreign the present time, there are also five private or parochial competition, relocation of industry, shifts in market de- schools of practical nursing. (Federal-state funds are mands, and other changes in the structure of the econ- not used for these private schools.) The MichiganBoard omy. Some writers predict that a sizable percentof of Nursing has the responsibility for approving local our labor force will be in the position of having to pre- programs and establishing minimum standardspertain- pare for three, four, or five different occupationsduring ing to curriculum, facilities, and teaching personnel. their working lives. State and federal funds for the support of these programs Until recently we have depended upon the regular are administered by the State Boardof Control for Voca7 adult vocational education classesfor the retraining tional Education. needed. Such classes, however, do not truly meet the Adult education for the major occupational fields. needs of the unemployed. Persons who are unemployed Adult programs in agriculture are offered to both the need relatively short-term, intensive kinds of instruc- young farmer and the well-establishedfarmer who-desires tional programs that are directly related to employment to improve his efficiency and productivity. opportunities, Classes for adults employed insales and service The development of retraining programs for the un- occupations arc offered throughout the state by many employed has received considerable emphasis in recent local schools.These classes are designed to improve months, The Division of Vocational Education and the techniques and technical know-how of management and Michigan Employment Security Commission have co- sales personnel in fields such as. retailing, wholesaling, operatively developed a number of programs for the insurance, real estate, and other distributive endeavors. training of unemployed workers. The Area Redevelop- Upgrading employed personnel for the job ahead is ment Act and the Manpower Developmentand Training major purpose in these classes, Successful business ex- Act are manifestations on the part of Congress ofthe ecutives from the various areas of distribution serve as seriousness of unemployment in many sections of the instructors of these ela;ses, many of which are held in country, Training programs are now beingdeveloped smaller communities. and conducted through the provisions of these acts. Adult classes in homemaking education cover a wide 126 range of subjects related to home and family living. It for debt service purposes. Money for these purposes is interesting to note thata sizable number 0f , men enroll must be votPA by the electors of the 1,-,cal in these courses. Homemaking and family life education VOCATIONAL EDUCATION has changed from teaching only foods and clothingto providing both in-school youth and adults witha broad Funds for the support of vocational education come range of educational experiences related to maintaining from local, state, and federal sources. As previously a home and family. mentioned, federal funds are derived from the various In addition to the apprenticeshipprogram mentioned national vocational education acts, the National Defense above, adult trade and industrial classesare offered in Education Act, the Area Redevelopment Act, and the most of the major industrial centers of the state. Through Manpower Development and Training Act. State funds these classes, employed workersare able to improve are granted by the Legislature through annual special their occupational efficiency in almostany of the recog- appropriation. Local funds are obtained through taxes nized trades. One of the fastest growing adult trade and assessed within local taxing units. industrial programs is that of foreman and supervisor Over $9 million is being spent in Michigan each year training. A program for training service workers offers for vocational education.This figure represents the training for a variety of workers, including fire fighters, money spent for administration, teachers' salaries and school custodians and busdrivers, and workers in other travel expenses, and teacher training. This figure does public service occupations. not include the cost of such items as buildings, equip- ment, and supplies. The cost of these latter items, were Financing of Programs the amount known, would add significantly to the above figure. ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS Relative support. It is interesting to note that in the About 57 percent of the budget of Michigan school past 10 years, while the local share of the cost of voca- districts comes from local funds and about 39 percent tional education has risen by 86 percent and the federal from state funds. The remaining 4 percent comes from share by 134 percent, the state contribution has in- federal funds and miscellaneous sources.In Michigan, creased by only 29 percent. local tax funds for the support of public education come On the statewide basis, combined federal-state voca- entirely from local property taxation. State funds are tional education funds make up less than one-half of I obtained from statewide taxes primarily the sales tax. percent of the local school district budget. State appro- Other tax sources for education include corporation priations for vocational education slightly exceed $1.5 franchise taxes, taxes on cigarettes and distilled spirits, million, while the total state appropriation for elemen- taxes on telegraph and telephone services, and the tax tary and secondary schools is more that, $292 million. on insurance companies doing business in Michigan. In making such a comparison, it should be noted that State support for public elementary and secondary most of this money is spent in Michigan (and in every education in Michigan is obtained from two sources, the other state) on providing a general education program Primary School Interest Fund, and state aid. The Pri- for youth. This happens in spite of the fact that the mary School Interest Fund is obtained from interest on comprehensive school has two main roles, both of which money received in the past from the sale of public land. are of equal importance. The comprehensive high school Certain of the taxes listed above are also earmarked for should provide a broad general education for all youth, this fund. The amount of state aid that a district receives and for each youth that form of specialized education is based upon a rather complicated formula. Briefly, the which will best serve his vocational interests and needs. State Aid Act specifies a gross allowance per pupil, or For those going on to college, a college preparatory cur- membership allowance, which shall be financed on a riculum best serves the second purpose; but for those partnership basis by the local school district and the who will seek employment immediately after high school state.(It was $205 per pupil in 1961-62 and is $224 graduation or before, some other form of vocational for 1962-63.) To this membership allowance is added preparation must be provided. The truth is that we are the financial need for tuition aid, transportation aid, doing very little to meet the needs of this latter group. special education, and aid for financially distressed or With the rapid changes taking place in our society hardship districts. The difference between this total and today, we must seriously face the question of whether we the amount the district receives from local taxes and are adequately financing all phases of education. from the Primary Interest Fund is the amount of state Vocational education funds, state and federal, are aid it receives, provided that it meets certain require- distributed to local schools through the Division of Voca- ments regarding local tax effort. tional Education of the Department of Public Instruction.

State school funds in Michigan may not be used for Table 1 shows the total state and federal vocational elementary or secondary school building construction or i:education funds distributed in 1961-62. 127

r_ Table 1 rently approved to offer vocational teacher education programs. Over the years, the policy of the State Board Distribution of Vocational Education Funds of Control for Vocational Education has varied regard- in Michigan ing the designation of teacher training institutions. Cur- (Federal and State) rently several institutions are approved to offer programs for the same field of study. For Year Ending June 30, 1961 The following publicly supported colleges and uni- Percent versities are designated as vocational teacher education Occupational Group Amount of Total institutions by the State Board: Agriculture $ 571,877.95 19 Homemaking 534,399.34 18 Type of Education Institution Distributive and office 290,355.74 10 Teacher education and Agricultural Michigan State University research 229,668.83 8 Trade and industrial (in- Distributive Michigan State University cluding practical nurse). 1,346,471.57 45 The University of Michigan Wayne State University Total $2,972,753.43 100 Western Michigan University tt Basis for reimbursement. Due to an increasing num- Office Michigan State University ber of programs, reimbursement rates to local schools The University of Michigan have gradually declined over the years to the point where Wayne State University they now average roughly 30 percent of the teacher's salary and 45 percent of his tral,e1 expenses. In order Homemaking Central Michigan University to receive reimbursement, schools must meet certain Eastern Michigan University general criteria in addition to those that pertain to the Michigan State University specific type of occupationd training. Northern Michigan University These general criteria are: Wayne State University 1.That such education will be under public super- Western Michigan University vision or control Trade and 2. That the controlling purpose of such education Industrial Ferris State College will be to prepare individuals for useful employment Michigan State University 3. That such education (other than teacher educa- Northern Michigan University tion) will be less than that which leads to the bachelor's The University of Michigan degree Wayne State University Western Michigan University 4.That costs of instruction supplementary to the vocationalinstructionnecessaryfor a well-rounded Counselor Central Michigan University course of training will not be paid from federal or match- Eastern Michigan University ing funds Michigan State University 5. That space and equipment for vocational instruc- Northern Michigan University tion will be adequate The University of Michigan 6.That courses of study will be adequate Wayne State University 7. That methods of instruction will be appropriate Western Michigan University for vocational subjects The State Board of Control for Vocational Education, In addition to these eight publicly supported colleges through the State Director and his staff, is responsible and universities, two private institutions, Mercy College for the development of a system of reporting and ana- and Albion College, are approved to train vocational lyzing programs, as well as for periodic surveys through homemaking teachers. These two institutions, however, visitation, to make sure that the program of vocational do not receive federal or state vocational teacher edu- education meets the conditions as required by the federal cation funds. vocational education acts. FINANCING Teacher Education A total of $225,000 was paid to institutions of higher INSTITUTIONS education for vocational teacher training in 1961-62. There are ten institutions of higher education in Table 2 shows the percentage of teacher education funds Michigan, eight public and two private, that are cur- expended for each service. 128 Table 2 instruction. Vocational teachers in the community col- leges will still have to meet the minimum qua.ifications Distribution of Vocational Teacher in their respective teaching fields for initial employment. -Education Funds in Michigan However, additional professional course work. which For Year Ending June 30, 1961 is required under the certification procedure, is no longer required of .community college teachers. Service Amount Percent._ Types of certificates. Ill the case of secondary teach- Administration $ 4,587.17 2.0 ers, it is the responsibility of the individual teacher and Agriculture 29,693.27 12.9 the local board of education to maintain the validity of Distributive 15,915.10 6.9 vocational teaching certificates. Tlifee types of certificates Guidance 41,577.27 18.1 are issued by the State Board of Education for vocational Homemaking 37,032.64 16.1 teachers: the vocational secondary provisional, the voca- Office 12,416.44 . 5.4 Statewide evaluation project25,000.00 11.0 tional secondary permanent, and the vocational special. The vocational secondary provisional is issued to qualified Trade and industry 63,446.94 27.6 individuals upon graduation from college and entitles the holder to teach in the public schools. Upon completion of Total $229,668.83 100.0 three successful years of teaching, within 5 years after is- During the past 3 years, $25,000 of teacher training suance of the vocational provisional certificate, and after funds has been used each year to finance a statewide having taken additional professionalcourse work, a evaluation study of vocational education. One of the teacher is eligible for the vocational secondary perma- responsibilities assigned to the Vocational Education nent certificate.The permanent certificate is valid as Evaluation Project by the State Board of Control was long as the holder teaches successfully 100 days out of to study the use of vocational education funds in Mich- every 5 years. Vocational special certificates are issued igan. As a part of this study, a recommendation may to vocational teachers who do not fully qualify for the be made to the Board that reimbursement for on-campus provisional or permanent certificates provided that they teacher education courses be gradually withdrawn. These meet certain minimum qualifications. The vocational spe- funds could then be used for such thingsas research, cial certificates are designed to provide foremergency in-service education, preparation of instructional mate- conditions or for teachers of adult classes who are skilled rials, and other special projects that the institutions would intheir occupational fields, but lack the professional not ordinarily undertake without extra financial assist- teacher education courses. ance. These recommendations are based upon a study Individuals obtain certification from the State Board in which the institutions were asked to indicate which of Education through the institution with which they teacher education responsibilities they would assume wish to affiliate.The institutions advise their students depending upon reimbursement practices. regarding certification requirements.Individuals who If these recommendations are adopted and put into con c to Michigan after having received their training in effect, they could have a profound influence on the future another state are assistedin securing any additional of vocational teacher education in Michigan.It seems course work needed. likely that a great deal could be accomplished that here- tofore was impossible due to lack of financial support Research for special activities and research. DIVISION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS The Division of Vocational Education has a small In addition to the regular Michigan teaching certifi- research section headed by a research consultant. The cate, teachers of reimbursed vocational courses must hold position of research consultant for vocational education valid vocational certificates covering their specific teach- is not unique with Michigan. but few states have such ing fields in order that local boards of education may a position. receive reimbursement on teachers' salaries from voca- The primary purpose of the Division's research activi- tional education funds.Qualifications for vocational tiesis to stimulate and to help coordinate vocational teachers include both educational and work experience education research throughout the state. The activities requirements. Until recently teachers in both secondary may assume a number of forms. Technical consultative school and community college programswere required assistance for vocational education research is made to be certified. However, a recent opinion rendered by available to local public schools upon request. A limited the State Attorney General states that teachers in com- amount of basic research is conducted in the field of munity college programs no longer need to hold teaching vocational education by the research consultant, and the certificates in Michigan. consultant staff may and often does conduct studies of As far as vocational educationis concerned, this its own. These studies are not only valuable in them- changed policy will have little effecton the quality of selves, but they may help to stimulate and encourage 129 the universities and colleges of the state to conduct funds, a study of technicians in industry, was recently needed research in vocational education. completed by Michigan State University. Perhaps the most outstanding example of vocational education research in which the State Department of LOCAL SCHOOLS Public Instructionis performing a major roleis the It has been the policy in Michigan to search continu- study known as the Michigan Vocational Education ally for new knowledge and new applications of existing Evaluation Project going on at the present time. ,This knowledge in the of vocational education pro- project was undertaken at the request of the State Board grams.In keeping with this philosophy, the Division of Control for Vocational Education. The purpose is to of Vocational Education encourages and assists schools make a complete evaluation of vocational education in developing pilot or programs. Currently, being taught in the Michigan public schools today. Major three such programs' areare being operated. One isan ex- responsibility for the project was assigned to Michigan perimentalstudy comparing the accomplishment of State University, but almost all of the major universities students in a two-hour machine shop class with those in of the state have been assigned significant responsibilities a three-hour class.Another project is attempting to for various phases of it. Over 200 vocational educators, develop a work-study program for students with less than administrators, and general educators have been involved average mental ability. The third is a work-study experi- in it.Indeed, involvement of such a large number of mental program for students desiring to enter those farm- people is viewed as one of the major values of the service occupations in which knowledge, skills, and project. understandings from business, agriculture, and trade and The cooperative relationships generated by this project industry education are needed. have been heartening. The executive committee for the project has been able to mobilize resources from many The Future sources and to view the critical problems facing voca- We must never be satisfied with our present" educational tional education from a perspective that utilizes the best program. We should maintain a healthy attitude of dis- in vocational education leadership that the state has to content, but with the secure feeling that our attempts to offer.It would be unfortunate to lose the "head of meet constantlychanging vocationalneedswillbe steam" which this project has developed. Probably it successful. can be safely said that at no prior time has vocational There are vast areas of unmet training needs. Rela- education in Michigan had a more favorable climate' for tively few programs have been directed to the unem- progress through research. ployed, to women workers in occupations other than If, as was previously mentioned, a portion of toacher sales or clerical, to early school leavers, to workers in education funds could be continually used for research, many of the service occupations, and to retarded or slow then it would seem that some type of advisory group learners. As was previously observed, our school pro- would be needed to suggest priorities. grams have been directed primarily to the college-hound boy or girl. There is a growing awareness on the part COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES of educators that we must also meet the needs of employ- Research has always been one of the major functions ment-bound youth. and strengths of our colleges and universities; Michigan is blessed with some of the outstanding educational re- UNEMPLOYED WORKERS searchers in the country. Most of the research in voca- Training programs now being developed through the tional education in Michigan, asin other states,is Area Redevelopment Act and the Manpower Develop- conducted by ow- colleges and universities. The staffs of ment and Training Act should be considered as mere these institutions do considerable research and, in addi- beginnings in providing for the retraining needs of the tion, they advise graduate students in their research unemployed.Ideally, we should not be in the position activities. of having to wait for a worker to become unemployed Because of their resources and research experience, before he', is retrained for another occupation. We must the colleges and universities are often able to secure develop techniques and procedures to determine in ad- fundS for research that are not readily available to other vance the future employment needs arising from auto- educational institutions. An example of this is a recent mation and technological progress. The nature of the grant of $25,000 from Cooperative Research Program Michigan economy is such that unemployment will he funds through the United States Office of Education to prevalent in the state for some time to come. We must The University of Michigan for a study to deterthine the develop a long-term retraining program that will reach way in which various groups, such as labor, manage- the majority of those needing it. ment, agricultural, and other lay persons perceive voca- Retraining classes developed under the ARA and tional education.Incidentally, this study isa direct MDTA programs will reach relatively few of the unem- outgrowth of the statewide Evaluation Project. Another ployed.It has been estimated that, in Michigan, about

study, also financed from Cooperative Research Program 1 out of every 40 unemployed workers will be enrolled 130 in such classes. In order to reach the others,consider- We should provide guidance, counseling, and place- ably more effort will have to be expended. We willalso., ment services to young persons at least through the age have to gain a much better understanding of the psycho- of 21. Most counselors do a pretty good job of helping logical and sociological problems of the unemployed those who go to college secure admittance to the insti- worker. For some,. we no doubt must think interms of tution of their choice.Rare indeed, however, is the providing basic educational skills priorto training them counselor who does a thorough job of helping employ- for occupational competence. ment-bound youth secure placement in the occupations TECHNICIANS of their choice. Highly skilled techniciansare found in all .fields Every school should have accurate up-to-date infor- agriculture, home economics, and business,as well as mation on former students. Schools must improve their industry. The National Defense Education Act of 1958 followup techniques.Effective followup studies are a stimulated the development of programs for the training must for a sound guidance and counseling program. of technicians in industry and, tosome extent, techni- A high school diploma is not an automatic ticket to cians in business occupations. Relatively little, however, a job.Itis often easier to gain admission to college has been done to develop training programs for techni- than it is to secure a job. Young people are in need of cians in the other fields. The great need for theprepara- assistance in deciding on a vocation, in preparing for it, tion of large numbers of technicians is evident. Michigan and finally in securing satisfactory placement. must meet this challenge of our changing society. RESEARCH Some kind of cooperative planning is needed in regard to the development of technical training programs in Michigan vocational education research efforts have Michigan: High quality technical occupational curricula increased markedly in recent years. The Michigan Voca-, are extremely expensive to develop and maintain. A tional Education Evaluation Project has resulted ina mobilizing of research effort never before attained. Plans coordinated plan should be developed in which thecom- munity colleges and other state-supported institutions of must he made to continue the cooperative effort which higher learning would agree on the need for the various this project has aenerated. technical curricula and on the institutionor institutions It is hoped that certain funds will be available for in which such curricula should be developed. use by teacher education institutions for special projects Those institutions that are nowor will he providing including research.Criteria will have to be developed training opportunities for technicians need to examine for the selection and funding of projects. Some type of critically the existing curricula, to determine needs, and committee should be developed to represent the teacher to develop cooperatively the programs that will not leave education institutions and to act in an advisory capacity Michigan "shortchanged" in its pool of highly skilled concerning priorities for the use of funds. Sucha group manpower. might also perform a coordinating function in determin- ing needed researchand insharing theresults of VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING research. All evidence seems to indicate that the status of voca- It tional counseling in Michigan high schools is anticipated that vocational education research isat an efforts will be considered by the recently formed Mich- all-time low.Many counselors come from academic igan Educational Research Council, which will help backgrounds. They have had relatively little work ex- coordinate all educational research efforts in the state. perience outside of the schoolprogram. As a result, they do a good job in that aspect of thcir task with which WOMEN WORKERS they are most familiar guidance for college-bound By 1970 nearly one-half of all women aged 35 to 64 students; they do a poor job in that aspect with which in the United States will be in the labor force, with the they areleast familiar guidancefor employment- largest increase coming in the 45 to 54 age group. One bound students.In view of our shortage of technicians out of every three workers will be a woman. Mothers and skilled manpower, it wouldappear that somehow we now number almost half of all employed women. Ac- must remedy this situation. cording to the Michigan Employment Security Commis- Existing training programs for counselors inour insti- sion, it is expected that about 30 percent of Michigan's tutions of higher education donot reflect much concern work force will be women. The average workingwoman for guidatice responsibilities in terms of employment- enters the labor force in her late teens or early twenties; bound youth. Thisistragic when we consider that she works about 4 years and then retires temporarily roughly three-fourths of all Michigan students entering following marriage and the birth of children; at about the ninth grade complete their formal educationalprepa- age 35 she w ill return to the labor market. This situa- ration at or before high school graduation. High school tion produces an increasing need for retraining andup- and post-high-school counselors should be familiar with grading programs. Working women also need assistance the many opportunities availableto students through with home management problems as they fill their dual vocational education. role of worker and homemaker. Muchmore emphasis

131 is needed upon adult training, particularly in office, vast majority of Michigan school districts do not offer sales, and service occupations, if we are to meet the truly comprehensive educational programs. Most dis- needs of our women workers. tricts do not have sufficient financial resources or stu- dents to afford comprehensive programs. EARLY SCHOOL LEAVERS At the present time there are 537 high school districts With the increased emphasis upon acquiring a college in Michigan.If we consider the offering of reimbursed education in recent years, the persons who have not vocational education classes as one criterion of compre- received much consideration are the boys and girls who hensiveness, then it should be noted that only 12 school are not going to college. Alarge number of young districts offer programs inall 4 fields of agriculture, people must be provided with some type of specific and homemaking, business, and trade and industry. useful occupational training befOre high school gradua- If school districts are to provide students with the Present high school programs are not adequately tion. opportunity to become competent in the occupation of meeting the needs of a substantial proportion of youth-. their choice, a way of combining district resources will Vocational educators and general educators must work have to be found. Consolidation of high school districts together to determine the kind of educational program may be a possible answer; but itis doubtful whether that will meet the needs of those boys and girls who are most Michigan school districts will ever attain sufficient not being me ivated by present programsbecause the different kind of voca- size to he able -to meet the educational needs of all their answer is not entirely more or a students. This is particularly true if districts continue tional education. to operate vocational education programsindividually. CONTACTS WITH INDUSTRY AND BUSINESS The concept of area vocational education has been One of the characteristics of outstanding vocational present in the United States since the passage of the education programs is the involvement of agriculture, Smith-Hughes Act in 1917.Itis based upon the phi- industry, and business.in the development and operation losophy that all qualified persons should have an equal of such programs. In fact, leaders in vocational educa- opportunity to participate in vocational education pro- tion implore local communities to make extensive use of grams of their choice regardless ofthe geographical advisory committees made up of employers and workers. location in which they reside, and regardless of their The use of advisory groups from industry and business economic status or that of the region in which they live. is just as important on the state level as on the local level. Michigan has a number of area vocational education The use of industry-wide advisory committees or joint programs being operated on a post-high-schoollevel vocational education-industry groups can result in im- through community colleges and other institutions of proved and more meaningful state-level assistance to higher education. Perhaps our secondary sr aoofs should local schools. Such groups can be instrumental in pre- consider the advisability of establishing art a vocational paring instructional materials, helping to sponsorin- education programs of their own. service teacher education programs, assisting inthe determination of training needs, and setting an example USE OF FUNDS for local schools to follow in working closely with busi- Michigan is seriously studying the current use of voca- ness and industry.Even though Michigan has made tional education funds. The statewide Evaluation Project use of such industry-wide groupsin the past, considerable has addressed itself to this problem, and vocational edu- additional use of them is needed at the present time. cators have been givinL, serious thought to the manner in which the very limitt.d funds available can be used MULTISERVICE PROGRAMS to maximum advantage. Many occupations have grown or changed in such a The use of vocational teacher education funds is re- skills, and under- way that they now require knowledge, ceiving careful consideration.Is there any reason why standings in not only one but several of the traditional we should reimburse those regularteacher education vocational, education fields. As was pointed out earlier, courses that the institutions would continueregardless agrietilture and business are two fields that have a con- of reimbursement? Could these funds be better used tribution to make to many of the same occupations. In for those teacher education functions that the institutions addition, new occupations that do not fit readily into would not perform without extra financial assistance? fields are one of the established traditional vocational Rather than reimbursing regular courses, these funds constantly appearing, and vocational education will have could possibly he used to reimburse more adequately to develop new programs based upon the educational vocational teacher educators in providing consultative requirements of these new and changed Occupations. services through visits to local programs, developing and AREA PROGRAMS distributing instructional materials, conducting special It has been implied throughout this paper that our workshops and conferences for teachers, and conducting present vocational education programs fall farshort of research and special studies. Procedures for the useof meeting present-day occupational training needs. The teacher education funds for these purposes mustbe 132 developed, and priorities must be determined. The insti- POST-HIGH-SCHOOL PROGRAMS tutionsthemselves should help determinethese pro- cedures and priorities. Vocational education at the post-high-schoollevel is at a critical point. There isno question of need. We The federal vocational educationacts were originally must de'velop the skilled arid technical designed to stimulate the manpower so development of vocational desperately needed in modern society.Our community education programs. This originalpurpose has been colleges are the most promisingtype of institution to lost in the practice of maintaining programs within a meet most of the, increased need forpost-high-school fixed pattern. Some vocational educatorsare asking vocational education.If our community collegesare to whether we should placemore emphasis on stimulation fulfill their role, they must becomelarge-scale units and and development. function as parts ofa statewide coordinated system. Many crucial questionsare being asked concerning These institutions mustassume, on a broad basis, their high school vocational educationprograms. Should not responsibility for technicaleducation. vocational educationcourses be as basic as college pre- We cannot place the burden ofdeveloping high-level technical programs paratory courses in our high schoolcurriculums? Should on already financially strapped local vocational courses be limitedto the1 1 th and 12th school districts. Since thestate and, in many fields, the nation, make up the "community" grades? Can subjects below thislevel be justified as for which such pro- grams are provided, the local community anything except generalor basic education? Should we cannot be expected to bear the taajor shareof the financial burden continue to reimburse establishedprograms? Should we for providing them. We needgreatly increased state use funds only for the development ofnew programs? support for vocational educationprograms at all levels, Should we use funds for the purchaseof equipment? We and the development of high-quality will have to find satisfactory programs in par- answers to these and many ticular must not dependupon the wealth of individual related questions. school districts.

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XV. An Analysis of Vocational-Technical Training in Minnesota BY WILLIAM C. KNAAK'

Objectives today the unskilled worker who carries his lunch is an optimist. A summary statement of the objectives of vocational education in Minnesota might be: to provide oppor- Training must be provided for the unemployed whose tunities in all phases of vocational-technical education skills have become outmoded or who live in chronically for persons who are of sufficient age and maturity to "depressed" areas and must qualify for employment profit from specific occupational training. elsewhere. This means to provide training for boys and girls 16 Welfare cases should be trained to become self-sup- years of age or older and to make it available to them porting whenever possible.At a recent state welfare for the rest of their working lives. conference in Minnesota, the Governor challenged the It means to provide training for individuals ranging group to abandon its 'caretaker role and concentrate on from those who are barely above institutional care to rehabilitation. At the same conference the Commissioner those who could rank high in regular college courses of Welfare cited the need for helping the "vocationally if their interests and orientation had so directed them. handicapped" persons with physical, mental,- or emo- tional handicaps who cannot get jobs. Training must be provided for all trade, technical, distributive, office, agricultural, and homemaking occu- Women make up a substantial part of the labor force pations. The level of training must range from simple today, and all indications are that they will continue to operator skills for those with limited abilities to highly do so. Women are to be found in large numbers in light technical subject matter for those capable of making metals and fiberglass fabricating plants as well as in broad application of basic knowledge. office,distributive, and service occupations. Women All vocational-technical training must be occupation tend to work a few years, drop out to raise a family, and oriented.Training that is not so oriented will lose its then reenter the work force again.This may require objective and not.be worthy of the name. Some tech- refresher training. The new dual role of homemaker nical training is now provided that has employment in and wage earner presents some difficult problems for "clusters" of occupations as its objective. When this is women to face, and it presents the vocational home the case, care must be taken to determine that the basic economics educator with a real challenge to help the "core" of training given will, in fact, qualify the trainee homemaker-wage-earner understand her dual role and for employment. function properly in it. Training must meet the needs and requirements of both existing industry and new industry. In Minnesota, Education System not a large market area, industrial expansion is occurring Minnesota's public school system is under the jurisdic- largely in the "brain industries," such as electronics. tion of three separate governing boards. The State Board Training must anticipate this trend. of Education is appointed by the Governor with con- Employed adults must have the opportunity to take firmation by the State Senate. The State College Board training in order to advance in their occcpations and is appointed by the Governor with confirmation by the keep abreast of the times. A special effort needs to be Legislature, and the University Board of Regents is made to encourage the unskilled worker to take training elected by the Legislature from specified areas in the because his position is precarious.It has been said that state. Each board chooses its own executive officer, and _ . each board functions independently of the others. Al- 1Director of Business Affairs, White Bear Lake Area Schools, Minnesota; formerly Assistant State Director of Vocational though it has never been a publicized problem, the three Education, Minnesota State Department of Education. boards are, in effect, in competition with each other for 135 4 funds in the Legislature. The Legislature recognizes this THE HIGH SCHOOL NND VOCATIONAL- competitive situation; it also recognizes that there k a TECHNICAL TRAINING possibility of duplication of services since all three boards A reorganization of school districts into larger dis- are responsible for some highereducation. tricts has been strongly encouraged in Minnesota on the Because of the duplication potential, the 1059 Legis- theory that districts should be large enough and have lature authoriied the appointment of the State Liaison enough resources to provide complete education, includ- Committee on Higher Education, made up of three ing vocational education, for youth from kindergarten representatives each of the State Board of Education, .the through the 14th year, As a result, there has been con- University Regents, and the State College Board. This siderable reduction in the number of ungraded elemen- committee is responsible for resolving such differences tary school districts in the state, but actual progressin and duplications as may tend to develop, with the under- redistricting secondary schools has not been significant. lying implication that, if it cannot do so, the Legislature The number of small secondary schools without sufficient will, through legHation. resources or students to support acomplete program, particularly a complete vocational education program, THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION remains high.Attempts by the Department of Educa- The State Board of Education, the Commissioner of tion to formulate ar d enforce rules and regulations Education, who is appointed by the Board, and his staff designedto compel high schooldistricts with small make up the State Department of Education. The pres- enrollments to join with other districts 'rive been largely ent format of the Department had its beginnings shortly nullified through action by the Legislature. after the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917, High school classification requirements for state aids when a State Board for Vocational Education was ap- provide some "encouragement" for vocational education. pointed.After the State Board of Education was or- Foundation aid is paid to the local snool district on the ganized, it became also the State Board for Vocational basis of pupil units.It is the difference between what Education, and the functions of the two boards became the local district can raise per-pupil unit with 19 mills merged. On its adjusted assessed valuationand the average ex- The jurisdiction of the Board ranges from kindergar- penditure per-pupil unit in the state.Pupil units are ten through junior colleges and area vocational-technical determined as follows:Kindergarten students, one-half schools. To make intelligent policy decisions in such a unit; elementary students, one unit; secondary school broad spectrum of educational institutions with varied and area vocational school students, one and one-half objectives requires considerable depth of experience and units.If a school district has a recognized junior high much conscientious study. school program with three "special" departments selected from agriculture, home economics, business, or industrial The Department of Education carries on all business arts,it may qualify for the one and one-half unit rate with local school districts through the school superin- for foundationaid.The "encouragement" for voca- tendents, who are the legal officers of the local boards of tional education is the payment of aids on the basis of education. Each local board has broad powers to pro- onand one-half units per student in "approved" high vide for the education of the youth in its district. Some schools and in junior high schools with special de- local boards are responsible for the education of children partments from kindergarten through junior college and area The equalization factor in the per-pupil aids has not school, including thousands of adults in vocational eve- been substantial enough to bring about significantbal- ning extension classes. With such a breadth of educa- ancing of the amount of money available to all schoo' tional responsibility, many local hoards have to rely districts.Furthermore, no stateaidis provided fe: quite heavily upon advice from school administrators plant construction and debt service, and this penaliz' s for decisions concerning vocational education.Local vocational education because the cost of constructs ig boards are elected by the legal voters of their respective vocational education facilities per-pupil unit issignifi- districts, and they reflect the attitudes of the electorate. cantly higher than is the cost of constructing most other IC is not uncommon, therefore, to have persons on a local school facilities. hoard who are indifferent to,if not actually hostile Direct reimbursement for vocational salaries, travel, toward, vocational education or certain areas of it. and, in some programs, equipment has been more influ- The Minnesota Legislature adds substantially to the ential than foundation aid inthe encouragement of amounts of federal aid available for vocational education vocational education.. The amount of money needed under the provisions of the federal education acts.In during the biennium for the customary aids for voca- fact, the legislative allowance for 1961-62 was more tional education is estimated by the State Director and than $3 million. The specific distributions of these aids, submitted to the Commissioner and State Board.After made by the Board of Education, will be discussed in their approval, the estimate becomes a part of thetotal connection with specific vocational curriculum areas. state aid request. The MinnesotaLegislature has con- 136 sistently supplied all of the funds requested forvoca- about as many studentsas can a regular academic class. tional education.In recent years there has not been .The last factor helps to keepcosts down even though any arbitrary cut in or even .quibblingover the amount equipment costs are somewhat higher to be spent for vocational education. than those for other classes.AVailability of office education teachers The net result of the describedaid policies is that the has never beena problem. amount of vocational education being provided by high The field schools varies considerablyamong high schools and of office "education, however, hashad several handicaps. The lack of among services. The "comprehensive" highschools, in federal' recognition and general, have not been able federal funds has made itdifficult to obtain and keep to provide adequately for an adequate state supervisory staff. vocational-technical training inall fields. Their partici In fact,at the pation in approved reimbursable present time, there is no consultanton the state staff vocational-technical who has office training programs in 1961-62 was as follows: technical,0 per- as a major responsibility. Be- cent; trade and industrial, 4 percent; cause of this, attention to curriculum revisionand stand-. distributive and ards has lagged. other cooperative part-timetraining programs, 18per- cent; agriculture, 58 percent; office, 72percent; and High school teachqs in officeeducation have never home economics, 88percent. had to meet occupationalexperience requirementscom- Hoene economics education. More highschools teach mon in other vocational fields, andmany of them have home economics thanany other vocational subject. not had office experience. Asa result, these teachers tend to align themselves with There are several identifiablereasons for this and academic teachers, stress- perhaps other reasons notso readily recognized. The ing the general educationvalues and minimizing the need for training in homemakingis universally re- vocational "bent" of theircourses.It also means that spected. The objectives of theprogram are easily un- the instructor often isnot able to supply relevantoccu- derstood by local boards ofeducation. Furthermore, pational information to ti-e students.Offerings in small high schools home economics is required ofan approved junior high are frequently limited to oneor two school, and witha little additional effort, as observed courses, not enough to qualify graduatesfor job entry. earlier, the schoolcan qualify for senior high school In general, although officeeducation is the secondmost prevalent vocational state and federal vocational aids. Theone-hour block course in Minnesota high schools, of time required for classes alsofits readily into a stand- there is still much to be desiredin terms of meeting the needs, especially since ard secondary school class schedule.Itisa well- there is an increasing need for accepted elective for girls planningto go on to college trainedoffice workers,as Employment Security as well as for girls who will enter employmentor be- research figures indicate. come homemakers. Vocational aids offeredare typically Agricultural educat'on. Minnesota has probablycome 50 percent of the day instructor'ssalary and travel rind closer to meeting th: vocational training needsof the 75 percent of the adult eveninginstructor's salary and state in agricultural education than inany other voca- and travel.State money spent for home economicsin tional field. A maiJrity of local schoolboards in the 1960-61 totaled $751,985,as compared with $168,321 state are made up .)f, farmersor of townsmen who are of federal funds. Home economicshas had the benefit responsive to farm voters.It has been fairly easy for of strong state leadershipover a period of years, and a them to see thealue of agricultural training in their solid majority of the departmentsare physically well home areas.It lv.s also been to the farmers' advantage equipped according to state standards. to participate in the adult vocational agriculturepro- A strong Future Homemaker ofAmerica program, grams. Usually, only its small size or lack ofresources highlighted by statecamp activity, district meetings, and keeps a rural community from developinga vocational a state meeting, provides excellent opportunitiesfor agriculture program. Aids provided include 50percent leadership development. It has alsoserved as a proving of day instruc.ors' salaries and traveland 75 percent ground for future home economicsteachers. of adult instr ictors' salaries and travel.State money Office education. Office training gainedan early start spent on agricultural education in 1960-61 amounted in Minnesota high schools. Thefact that many high to $886,851 supporting $354,394 of federal funds. school graduates enter officework, both at home and The Min, esota Future Farmers of America elsewhere, in has had "prestige" white-collar occupationsis excellent le idership, and itserves several purposes.It readily understood by schooladministrators and par- provides a club medium through which enriched ents. in- Administrators are also somewhatfamiliar with struction nay be carriedon. Through .contest, camp, basic office occupations. Many of the courses, suchas and local activity, it has providedmany opportunities typewriting and bookkeeping, haveconsiderable general for F.F.A. leadership training.Finally, F.F.A. is of educational value, so that there is little concern about tremendous public relations value to vocationalagri- whether a student profits fromtaking such courses. For culture. At local, state, and national levels, the the most part, office education blue- classes fit nicely into jacketed, well-spikenF.F.A.representatives gather the academic schedule. and theycan accommodate solid support from industry,commerce, and agriculture

137 for the vocational agriculture program as a builder of ofallcooperative part-dine training programs was men, as well as for instructionin agriculture. 1,624. All of these programs are under the supervision More than 90 percent of the teachers of vocational of the State Distributive Education Supervisor, although agriculture in the state are.graduates of the University the trade and industrial state staff gives some help with of Minnesota. This commonality of alma mater has miscellaneous trades. provided the basis for a tightly knit state organization The part-time training program has many educational of teachers of vocational agriculture that is effective advantages.It gives students the opportunity of career when working on state and national legislation for exploration in a meaningful way.It gives students an vocational education. opportunity to apply the knowledge and skills learned Agricultural education in Minnesota is faced by one while in school.It provides earn-while-you-learn ad- gnawing, persistent problem the decline of interest vantagesfor students with parents of very limited in agriculture by some rural youth.In poor o: "mar- means.It may help reduce dropouts. The program ginal" agricultural areas, some principals and counselors may reduce school costs because some ofthe "labora- report difficulty in convincing farm boys that itmight tory" facilities are provided on the job, and classroom be advisable to take agriculture subjects. They and space may be released for other uses.Available evi- their parents may be reacting to national publicity on dence seems to show that students who choose distribu- the decline of opportunities in agriculture and to their tive education in high school and later erect to continue own farm income situation. Thisdifficulty usually ap- their formal education do as well in college as other pears in vocational agriculture programsthat have weak students of comparable ability. instructors or poor facilities.But in some poor agri- However, distributive education is not always readily cultural areas, even good instructors are having difficulty accepted as an educational program by school admin- holding a minimum number of students. The small istrators. The academically trained administrator some- school experiences the most difficulty. times rebels at the thought of giving school credit for The first step in meeting the situation is usually to work carried on away from the school. Furthermore, combine the various grade levels of agriculture in order regular academic classes for part-time students must to make a suitable-size class, and to assign the instructor ordinarily he scheduled in the morning, thus curtailing to some teaching duties other than agriculture.With a the principal's scheduling freedom. -"here is also some part-day program, pressure then mounts to convert the reluctance to recognize such training as a bona fide agricultural shop facilities to industrial arts and other program for persons of above-averageability, even uses.It is not reasonable for a State Department of though their interests and talents may orient them Education to insist that shop and classroom facilities toward distributive education. Some school administra- be held open and available for agriculture when there tors believe that this program should heonly for the are not sufficient agriculture students toutilize them. potential dropout or for those who do not have col- Agriculture is still a substantial and influential indus- legiate ability. try in our state, and there are still opportunitiesin The primary restrictive factor for high school part- farming.But the indications are that the number of timetraining programs in Minnesota has been the individuals needed in farming will continue to decline. limited number of cities' large enough to provide on- On the other hand, the caliber of individual needed, the-job training stations for this type of program. This particularly in management areas, will rise.There is has led to approval of "diversified" training,which also an expanding need for adult training, so that those combines distributive,office, and trades occupations presently in the farming business may keep up in the into one program. Such programs meet some ofthe industry. objectives of cooperative education, such as career As for preparatory agricultural programs in high exploration, but they can scarcely provide meaningful schools, it would seem that fewer programs, generally related training to such a heterogeneous groupof stu- located in the larger centers, with emphasis on agricul- dents. In the judgment of the state supervisor, if acity turally related programs, might be a partial answer. is large enough to support a "pure" program,diversified This will be discussed further in the section on area programs should not heapproved.Cooperative part- vocational-technical schools. time training programs are ordinarily reimbursed tothe Distributive and other cooperative part-thne training exten of 50 percent of the day instructor'ssalary and programs. The first cooperative part-timetraining pro- travel and 75 percent of the evening distributive salary. gram in Minnesota was organized in 1945.At present, Reimbursable part-time training programs in 1960-61 there are 87 such programs, classified as follows: dis- received $232,458 in state and local funds and$26,772 tributive, 32; office, 26; miscellaneous trades, 8; diversi- in federal funds. fied, 21. Using state funds only, Minnesota has reimbursed Enrollment inhigh school distributive education part-time cooperative office training programsin .a programs in Minnesota has grown modestly,but stead- similar manner. These programs haz proven to be the ily, to a 1960-61 enrollment of 682. Total enrollment most "solid" of part-time training progra nsin terms 138 of the availability of good training stations (especially gradually into post-high-school programs in most trade in metropolitan .areas), the development of meaningful areas. Trade programs in comprehensive high schools, related training in school, and the high percentage of with a few exception's, have not been very successful. trainees remaining in the occupation after graduation. In fact, there were only 12 comprehensive high schools It is particularly effective in the of clerical occupa- offering such programs in 1960-61. tions.This isa- vocational program that should be The identifiable reasons fol. failure by local bOards expanded in Minnesota and, we believe, is deserving education to adopt trade programs are varied, as might of federal encouragement and support. be expected. One is undoubtedly the confusion that 'Lie miscellaneous trades part-time training program exists in the minds of many local board members and in Minnesota has never been extensive, and itis not some educational administrators as to the difference expected to grow subStantially.In metropolitan areas, between trade and industrial training and industrial arts. apprentices are not permitted to enter most "organized" It is not uncommon to talk to local board members who trades until they are at least 18 years old. This limits are convinced that they are fulfilling their responsibility the availability of trade training stations and also the for providing vocational trade training by offering a variety of occupations in which training may be given. good industrial arts program. This is certainly under- The Minnesota part-time training program also has a standable, particularly since industrial arts teachers are state club organization known as the Minnesota Diversi- supervised by the state trade and industrial staff, and fied Vocations Club, which serves the same function as many of the industrial arts teachers are active members the F.F.A. and F.H.A. in providing opportunities for of the state vocational association. Furthermore, to a leadership training and social growth. lay person or a general educator, the instructional The teacher is a critical factor in the success of all equipment looks much the same as that found in a vocational progranris, perhaps even more so in coopera- trade shop. The point is that industrial arts does not tive part-time programs. The coordinator teacher must prepare a student for job entry, as vocational educa- be effective in working with the "downtown faculty" as tion must. well as in instructing and counseling students. When Once local school officials understand what a - trade coordinator teachers have been well trained, meet all program is, there are other problems.A three-hour qualifications, and are selected on a competitive basis, block of time may make scheduling of academic classes they tend to do a better job- than persons of limited, difficult. The thought of paying a tradesman without a minimum qualifications who are "promoted" to the degree a salary comparable to, or better than, that paid position. astaff member with a degreeisoften unpalatable. Twenty percent of the persons employed in Minne- Instructional equipment and supplies are expensive, and sota are in distributive occupations. The 7 percent of space requirements may seem fantastic to a general the state's high schools offering training in distributive educator. occupations are not enough. It has been estimated that There are educational limitations to high school trade there are still at least 20 communities large enough to and industrial programs. One of these limitationsis support distributive education programs which do not the lack of breadth to the program. If school resources presently have them. A concerted effort to alert these are limited to one trade program, should it be auto cities to the needs of their youth is planned for next mechanics, or something else?Does this mean that year. everyone in the school who wants to learn a trade A field instructor in distributive education is. em- should he an auto mechanic? The result is that the ployed by the State Department of Education to help enrollment in the course consists of boys who want to small communities meet their adult distributive educa- learn a trade, but not necessarily the one being offered. tion needs. This instructor travels extensively, organizing Decisions as to who will he enrolled in the class are and teaching distributive classes throughout the state. often made by principals or counselors with little knowl- Trade and industrial., Most of the vocational trade edge of the criteria for selecting students who can profit and industrial training in Minnesota is offered in the 12 most from the course. area vocational-technical schools, more specifically dis- Some of the limitations of a single trade program in cussed later. On the average, these area schools are the comprehensive high school revolve around the in- now offering about half of their programs at the high structor.He will often work a six-period day one school level and half at the post-high-school level. More period longer than a normal teaching load.If he is specifically, outside of Minneapolis, more than 60 per- paid extra for the extra period, staff resentment may cent of the trade and industrial enrollment isat the follow.If he is not paid extra, the teacher may resent post-high-school level, while Minneapolis, offering a the extra time required. Working with vocational ad- variety of 30 trade and industrial courses, and having visory committees and seeking placement opportunities the advantage of a large metropolitan labor placement for the graduates are two very important aspects of his market, has had continued success with high school job. Yet the importance of these aspects is usually not trade and industrial programs.But it, too, is moving fully understood by his superiors or teaching colleagues. 139 His in-school load will be as large as or larger than of one year of work experience outside of education; that of the academic instructors, and the temptation to and at least one year of successful teaching experience. pass lightly over advisory committee and placement The results of this rapid increase in the number of responsibilities is considerable. counselors are becoming apparent.Although no re- Furthermore, Minnesota is experiencing a rural-to- search has been conducted to determine whether coun- urban youth movement common in many agricultural selors are actually becoming more vocationally oriented, states.Many of the jobs for which trade training is we do know that they now request a great deal more needed are found only in urban areas.It thus becomes vocational literature, invite vocational directors to their virtually impossible for a trade teacher to carry a full schools more frequently, and refer more students to area teaching load and still carry on advisory committee and vocational schools.The counselors built their April placement activity away from his local community. 1962 annual state conference program around non- It has become the general conclusion of the state college-bound youth. staff that one-teacher trade programs in outstate high This is not to imply that Minnesota counselors are schools. are not generally effective, and no great effort neglecting the precollegiate students. Nor should it be is being made at this time to promote such programs inferred that there are no longer counselors in the state in additional high school districts. Going programs are who put their total effort on academic educational coun- provided with supervisory and consultative services, but seling and neglect vocational counseling.It does imply unless the school district has adequate resources to offer thatprogressingetting well-trainedcounselorsin at least three trade programs with a full- or part-time Minnesota high schools has been made, and that, based coordinator, the chances for quality trade and industrial on initial indications, the results will be favorable to courses are not good. There are relatively few high youth needing vocational guidance and training. school districts in the state capable of operating three Summary of vocational training in high schools.In trade programs without obtaining assistance under the summary, a number of variable factors determine the area school law. establishment and success of vocational training in the Successful high school trade programs are conducted comprehensive high school. Essentially, these variables in the area vocational-technical schools, which will be are (1) the size and wealth of the school district, (2) discussed a little later. At these schools there are quali- theorientationor"enlightenment" oflocalschool fied directors and coordinators as well as instructors boards and school administrators concerning vocational who carry on the liaison work with industry.The education, (3) the local need for the program, and (4) school director, who is usually the immediate super- the ease with which the program can be worked into visor, understands the needs, problems, and responsi- the regular academic schedule by school administrators. bilities of the trade teacher; and he is able to provide It does not seem likely that the desired objective of much instructional assistance. having allschooldistricts become large enough to Trade programs in high schools are usually reim- accommodate kindergarten through the 14th year, in- bursed for 50 percent of the day instructor's salary and cluding comprehensive programs of vocational training, travel and 75 percent of the evening instructor's salary. can be reached soon enough to meet the accelerating In 1960-61, the trade and industrial programs received job-training needs of youth. Nor does it seem that there $766,797 in state funds and $79,711 in federal funds. is any hope that even a significant minority of high These amounts are for both high school and post-high- schools will provide trade or technical occupational school programs. Federal money for trade and indus- training. In Minnesota it appears that we will lean even trial education is very inadequate, and without con- more heavily upon area schools for high school and siderable state aid there would be substantially fewer post-high-school trade and technical training. programs. A team of 12 trade and industrial field instructors THE AREA VOCATIONAL-TECHNICAL SCHOOL operating under the supervisors in the state trade and The area vocational-technical school, the newest in- industrial vocational unit bring instruction in electrical, stitution in public education in Minnesota, was author- fire, and steam boiler safety to many outstate com- ized by legislative act in 1945. Since then, 12 area munities. schools have been approved by the State Board of Guidance in the secondary schools.The National Education, two districts have completed surveys pre- Defense Education Act of 1958 provided a tremendous liminary to securing Board approval, and inquiries boost to guidance in the secondary schools. regarding requirements for area school designation are One of the most significant aspects of the improved increasing.Initially the area schools were largely high counseling program is the increase in the number of schools, but increasingly they are becoming post-high- certified counselors. Qualifications for a counselor's cer- school institutions. tificate include a valid teaching certificate based on a Area vocational-technical schools had their inception bachelor's degree, a master's degree, or its equivalent, in the failure of other institutions to provide the voca- with course work in specified course areas; a minimum tional-technical education needed by youth and adults. 140

. =ZI" tr. T. Specifically, when the Legislature passed thearea school 3.Cooperative part-time distributive programs have law in 1945, the following conditions prevailed. been made available to area students. Two area schools, 1.Only six high school districts outside the three Thief River Falls and Winona, are staffing post-igh- cities of the first class offered preparatory tradepro- school distributive programs to start in the fall of 1962. grams.Ninety-three percent of the total enrollment in 4.Nine of the area schools have developed voca- trade and industrial programs was in Minneapolis, St. tional agriculture programs. They employ a full-time Paul, and Duluth. Rural and small town youth hadno vocational agriculture coordinator who workson an opportunity to obtain trade or technical training unless area basis, preparing farm management analyses and their parents could finance them ata private trade instructional materials based on these analyses. One school in the Twin Cities. area school has developed a one-year post-high-school 2. War production training had slackened, andregu- training program for boys going into farming that in- lar evening extension trade and industrial trainingwas cludes a plan for financial assistance in getting started at low ebb only 660 such students were enrolled in in farming. the state. This was a serious situation because itoc- 5.Six area schools offer one-year post-high-school curred at a time when Minnesota's economy hadswung business training courses designed to enable the office toward industrial emphasis, and the employment effects traineesto become vocationally competent.These of automation were becoming evident. Apprenticeship courses fill a particular need created by the inadequate training was inadequate in many areas. The World War business education departments of thesmall high II years had seen a movement of skilled people out of schools. Minnesota to the West Coast, and skilled manpower 6.All area schools have extensive evening programs was in short supply. in home economics. They offer a broad range of courses 3. The postwar market was about to be flooded with attended by homemakers from as far as 50 miles away. a host of new consumer products including automobiles, 7.Technical training under the National Defense appliances, and other electrical-mechanical devices, Education Act of 1958 has been authorized in area which we were ill equipped to service and repair. Many vocational-technical schools and more recently in junior occupations were demanding more exacting degrees colleges. At present there are NDEA Title VIII pro- of skill and greater technical knowledge. grams in only the area schools, but two junto ;colleges 4.The holding power of the secondary schools was have programs under consideration. considered unsatisfactory, with only 63 percent of those Primary efforts in the development of technical edu- enrolled in grade 5 completing grade 12. cation have been exerted in the area schools where Out of the foregoing conditions came the language of sympathetic administration and established liaison with the area school law."It is the purpose of this section industry already exist. Nearly all of these programs are to more nearly equalize the educational opportunities in on the post-high-school level. Two area schools, how- certain phases of vocational-technical education to per- ever, allow high school seniors to start in electronics sons who are of the age and maturity to profitably with the expectation that the students will continue at pursue training for a specific occupation." the post-high-school levei.2 In the years since 1945, considerable progress has 8. New courses are developed and added where been made toward fulfilling the objectives of the law. there is occupational demand. This has occurred most I. High school and post-high-school preparatory recently in industrial electronics and tool design. Other trade and technical enrollment has increased by over occupational fields currently under analysis in which 100 percent. 2. By 1961, high school and post-high-school day 2It has been the opinion of the writer that high school gradua- enrollment in trade and technical classes outside Minne- tion and a solid mathematics background should be prerequisite. My recent observations have been that it may actually be apolis, St. Paul, and Duluth had increased from 7per- easier for a large high school to carry on technical training than cent to more than 50 percent of the total enrollment. trade and industrial training. Space requirements are not signifi- Adult evening school trade and technical enrollment cantly greater .than those for a chemistry or physics laboratory. Equipment is expensive, but reimbursements under Titles III increased more than 10 times. Area schoolsare coop- and VIII of the NDEA have lightened that burden. Technical erating with joint apprenticeship committees in provid- education has academic respectability, and block scheduling is ing related instruction for apprentices through allareas not mandatory for successful instruction. A large high school may have a sufficient number of qualified students. The nature of the state where area schools are located. In 1960-61 of the work in electronics is such that a bright student may there were 2,522 trade and industrial apprentices en- move at a tremendous pace and not be hindered by the speed rolled in vocational schools and 12,428 other tradesmen of a machine or by the limitations of other classmates. In brief, a high school that graduates more than 200 students in extension training. Of these, 3,633 were enrolled in annually probably could, with careful screening, produce 15 technical extension courses.Industrial advisory com- bright non-college-bound technicians each year. But the typical mittees are assisting in keeping courses and equipment high school could not do so.Furthermore, the typical high up to date so that employed persons can keep up with school is not likely to have personnel qualified to teach indus- trially oriented courses, to have available the necessary industrial their occupations. advisory committees, or to be able to provide placement services. 141 courses are expected to beorganized include chemical may then collect the foundationaids just as if the stu- laboratory technology, instrumentation,reproduction dents were in local attendance. Most small high school technology, medical laboratory assisting,dental assist- boards will not give this consent since they are anxious ing, and data processing. to keep their enrollments up. This does not concernthe The previous statements reflectthe progress and area schools greatly because in most casesthey prefer maturity growth of area vocational-technical schoolsin Minnesota, to enroll high school graduates with their added but there is a need for more areaschools for a number and better scholastic background. of reasons. A more serious problem is the high school dropout. If a student drops out in the 10th grade and later seeks 1.Technical, trade, and industrial trainingisstill lacking in comprehensive high schools. In1960-61 only to enroll in the area school at the age of 19,for instance, 4 percent of senior secondary schooldistricts other than he is still not a high school graduate and must solicit the is usually area schools offered daypreparatory technical or trade consent and financing of his local board. This attend unless training. No junior colleges offeredtechnical or trade not forthcoming. and the student cannot training that met the standards of theMinnesota State he is willing and able to pay his own tuition as anadult. Adults (those over 21) pay tuition based on area school Plan for reimbursed programs. 2. An increasing number of youngpeople will be costs, ranging from $30 to $55 per month. graduating or leaving our high schoolsand seeking em- Area schools exercise admittance prerogatives based and work record, aptitude ployMent.In 1962, 38,000 graduated;in 1964, the on the applicant's past school number will be 43,000; and in1965, 48,000. And and ability tests, and personal interview. Areaschools against this outpouring of high schoolgraduates,all need not accept students who cannot be expected to indications point to a decreasing demandfor the un- profit from training in the occupation of theirchoice. possibili- trained and the unskilled. Such students are usually counseled regarding ties in other occupations, or they may be enrolled on a 3.Reliable sources indicate that most futureindus- trial development in Minnesotais likely to be in the probationary basis. decided trend "brain industries" such as electronics,tool design, and Area schools have been experiencing a increase data processing. At present the areaschools are the only toward post-high-school attendance. In fact, the of institutions staffed and equipped to train youngpeople in post-high-school attendance has been at the rate The reasons for the in- for nonprofessional technical jobs. more than 20 percent a year. been achieved crease include the mountingdemands of occupations, Area school accomplishments have "home" high with maximum local district participationin survey of students' desires to graduate from their law favors needs, planning, financing, andconstruction of facilities. schools, and the fact that the area school high All construction cost must be borneby the local district, nonresident post-high-school attendance. Although None of the 12 area school trade graduates have been placedin trade work that is, the regular school district. in certain schools enlarged its district immediatelybefore or after regularly by area school directors, especially choice, will receiving area designation. Allequipment costs, except occupational areas, employers, when given a for practical nursing and NDEAtechnical, are paid by nearly always choose the more maturepost-high-school school districts trade and industrial graduate. Hence,when high school the local community. However, area competition for for serving nonresident post-high-school and post-high-school students are in are assured costs the case, students, which costs include a proportionateshare of the training stations in the school, as is increasingly When the area cost of debt service onbuildings and equipment. We the high school student may lose out. merit, since it schools were primarily high schools, thegeneral educa- believe that this system has considerable handled by relieves the local district of responsibilityfor educating tion subjects such as social studies were This procedure isstill trainees from other districts, and it alsomakes it finan- regular secondary school staff. for the most cially expedient for area schools to recruitnonresidents. followed for area high school students. But available to In 1960-61, $225,000 in differentialaid was paid to the part, general education subjects are not therefore have amountfor1961-62exceeded post-high-school students. Area schools areaschools;the for being too tech- $315,000.Since the foundation aid given varies ac- been criticized by some educators cording to the wealth of the district and isbased on both nical, offering only skill courses, technical courses, re- in some cases, high school and post-high-school students,it is not possi- lated mathematics, related science, and state aid is being related communications, but no humanities. ble to state categorically how much replied that given per pupil in all of the area schools.Foundation aid Area school directors and others have post-high-school students have had 12 yearsof social for post-high-school students in1960-61 was $99,000. humanities that Of all vocational aid to area schools,the portion that is studies, history, English, and other they should expect to continue suchstudies formally federal money varies from 18 to 35 percent. lives. The area Since nonresident high school age students may'attend and informally throughout their entire if their local districts give consent school point of view is that anindividual should expect an area school only his life to learning the rudi- and pay their 'tuition, based on costs,the local district to devote 1 to 2 years of 142 ments of an occupation. It isthis occupational training practical knowledge,as a basis for making content that the area schools take as their bailiwick. They con- decisions. Perhaps this practice should befollowed in tend that the membersof the vocational school staffare many other fields. expert only in occupational training. Convinced that a Certification requirements for directors include5 great deal in theway of desirable attitudes and human years of experience as a teacher, supervisor, relations or coordi- isabsorbed through occupationaltraining, nator in a vocational program with at least 1year of most area school personnel believe that the limitations supervisory experience, 3years of work experience out- of time necessitate the elimination of purely academic side of the educational field,and a bachelor's degree. subjects from the post-high-schoolcurriculum. Most directors have master's degrees. Area All area school administrative, school, direc- supervisory, and in- tors have become skilled in theart of public relations structional staff members in all of thevocational' fields and occupy apart of their time incareer days, calls on are required to have at least 3 years of noneducational schools, news media Contacts, developingbrochures, work experience beyond thelearner level. For a time, and other promotional activities. this created a problem in obtaining instructors with de- At the state level, the Assistant StateDirector of grees, especially in the trade and technical fields. When Vocational Education is specifically chargedwith spend- it came to a choice between adequate experience and a ing 50 percent of his time in theadministration, super- degree, experience was considered themore significant. vision, and promotion of thearea voLational-technical to the past 2 years, however,we have noted an increas- schools. His area school activities include: ing availability of instructors who have both thedegree 1.Conducting area directors' conferences,at which and the occupational experience. This hascome about policy and philosophy ofarea schools, in addition to partly because of an' increasedawareness of the area administrative matters,are frequently the discussion vocational programs and also becausean increasing topics. number of area school graduatesseem to be getting 2. 'Reviewing thearea school requests for founda- industrial experience, acquiring degrees,and coming tion and differential aids and makingrecommendations back into vocational teaching. Weare now in the proc- to the State Director therefor. ess of working out a sustained teacher recruitment 3.Coordinating the efforts of the other supervisory program to be directed at past a..ea school graduates staffin providing consultative servicesto the area now in industry. schools. The Minnesota State Plan provides for thereimburse- 4.Providing consultative services toarea school ment of the cost of area vocational counselors. At directors and superintendentson matters of new pro- present only 3 of the 12 schools are utilizing the plan. grams, advisory committees, finances, legalmatters, Most of the other schools dependon the director or and promotional efforts. coordinator for counseling,or utilize the secondary 5.Providing consultative service to communities school counseling services. Area vocationalcounselor seeking designationas area vocational-technical schools. requirements are stringent. They requirea regular state 6.Serving as area school consultantto various state counselor's certificate plus credits in the philosophyof advisory committeeson youth. vocational education and 2years of noneducational 7.Speaking for the area schools at state levelmeet- work experience. ings, such as the state welfare conference,superintend- A pilot project is now underway to measure the ents' meetings, and counselors' gatherings. validity of entry tests being given to electronicsand auto 8.Providing leadership for the continuing improve- mechanics students. If this projectappears meaningful, ment of selection procedures, instruction, teacherre- it may lead to an IBM system wherebyevery student cruitment, and job placement. entering an area school will have histest and interview 9.Keeping localdirectorscontinually informed data recorded on an IBM card for later comparisonwith about new developments and opportunities forvoca- first-year grades, second-year grades, and followupdata. tional education at the state and national level. Over a period of time, these data could shedmuch light 10. Making 'recommendations to the State Director on the validity of aptitude and ability testing in the state. regarding requests to the State Legislature. Course content in area schools has beentypically Regular supervisors in the various vocational fields worked out by the local instructor in consultationwith also supervise courses in their service unit in thearea a local advisory committee. Increasingly, however, we schools. In fact, a large majority of the trade andindus- see less justification for curriculum differences between trial programs in the stateare in area schools. The schools, since all recruit froma common student market same is true of adult home economics programs. and place graduates in comparable jobs throughoutthe Area schools are well qualified to handle the kinds state. In technical areas, suchas electronics and tool of specialized training required under theManpower design, curriculum content is determined bya state Development and Training Act. They have well-estab- advisory committee whose members have available lished lines of communication with industryand are course material from other states, in addition to their experienced in working with industry. Area schoolsalso 143

7.72.Z.:14.111, occupational training to youth concept of vocationaleducation. Some of the area school have experience in giving limited too much to traditional trade and adults of all ageswith widely varying educational programs have been courses. It is not easy tobe critical of such programs, and experience backgrounds. particularly when a superior jobof training is being SOME PROBLEMS done, but efforts are beingmade through state leader- Discussion of the area schoolswould not be complete ship to broaden the areaschool program. without including somethingabouttheir shortcomings. Lack of trained guidancepersonnel. Only 4 of the In about 5 years, the areaschools, which were primarily 12 area schools employspecialists in counseling. In the high schools, have becomemainly post-high-school in- other schools, selection andcounseling are carried on stitutions. This rapid transitionhas created some prob- by the directors orcoordinators. Time commitments lems in dealing withpost-high-school students. Some often do not permit the areadirectors to spend adequate they have not had a of these problems are: time in counseling. In most cases work in counseling. Housing. It was originallythought that most students great deal of professional course and that the area schools However, experience withthe needs of industry and would be commuting students, inw would not be involved withstudent housing. However, with students has giventhem considerable insight many students comefrom considerable distanceand screening students for thevarious courses. must find housing inthe area school city. Thesestudents The lack of counseling personnelin outstate schools has are being housedin private homes a situationwhich been partially compensatedfor by extensive cooperation Department of EmploymentSecur- most communitiesinvolved have found desirable because with local offices of the of the economic benefits tolocal home owners. Avail- ity. In five of the areaschools all entering students are ability of rooms has not been aproblem and, to date, tested by EmploymentSecurity and are registeredwith it the no serioussupervisory problems have arisen.The neces- for placement uponcompletion of training. However, sary precheckingof student residences,making house schools do not abdicatetheir placement responsibility; rules and regulations, andchecking the rent to be the Employment Securityhelp is regarded only as an charged are all questionspresently being resolved more added service. In mostinstances, EmploymentSecurity or :ess individuallyby the schools involved.Differences has been of considerablehelp to the area schools, pro- among the schoolsin the amount ofresponsibility ac- viding perhaps the equivalentof a half-time counselor. the cepted for supervision ofstudent living quarters has Some difficulties havedeveloped, however, in that been a subject of some concernto parents and coun- state office ofEmployment Security objects tothe local student test scores to the selors.Area school directors whoadvocate minimum offices' practice of giving the supervision point out that mostof these post-high-school area schools.Where local offices test andinterview, but students would be. living awayfrom home on their own do not give out test scores,the school directors are in any case if not at the areaschool. The housing topic likely to abstain graduallyfrom making referrals. is discussed frequently at areaschool directors' meetings. In summary, the areaschools of Minnesota are pro- and it is likely that moreuniform policies will be forth- viding high school andpost-high-school vocationaltrain- coming in the next few years. ing needed by students,industry, and government. Student social life. During the pastseveral years, the Although all existing facilitiesarid operational procedures still too courses offeredin area schools have become moretech- are not perfectand some areas of the state are in nical, and the schools' reputationfor quality training is distant from area schools,substantial improvement becoming widespread. The resulthas been the attraction facility expansion, curriculum progress,and operational to the schools ofhigh-ability students whoappreciate procedures is currentlybeing made. and desire social experiencesin school in addition to These schools are meeting atraining need that was law was training activities.Area school directors havesensed not being fulfilled atthe time the area school in the the need and have beenadding such activities as school passed and that noother educational institution dances, athletic teams, and studentcouncils. However. state is now prepared tomeet. There is noevidence that these efforts would be regarded assomewhat amateur by area schoolgraduates are less competentcitizens because collegiate institutions that havebeen carrying on such their school training hasstressed occupationallearning. activities for many years.Furthermore, the director does Till: JUNIOR COLLEGE not have unlimitedtime, and itis difficult for him to teachers whose ability The general aims ofMinnesota junior colleges, as delegate social assignments to in Minnesota," are prepa- student social affairs were not stated in "The Junior College and willingness to handle vocational education, general considered when they were employed. ration for advanced study, education. The voca- education, and communityservice. Limited concept of vocational that the junior collegesof schools is just as im- Recent evidence indicates tional leadership function in area satisfactory job ofproviding functions in other educational Minnesota are doing a portant as are similar degree programs. Students, director is a qualified transfer courses for four-year institutions. The fact that an area tend to do as well as or vocational educator does notalways assure a broad completing the transfer courses 144 better than those who take all of their collegiate work in Objectives of the nontransfer courses have usually the degree-granting institution. But the junior colleges centered around providing "something for the transfer have not been significantly involved in post-high-school dropout" rather than around the needs of the occupation vocational-technical training. Some of thereasons are for which the training is proposed. Inone technical aid historic. program, the transfer dropouts who started the vocational The junior college movement in Minnesotawas courses generally dropped out of the entire program. started in 1914. But state buildingmoney has never Only a few ever completed the program. Some of the been provided, and it was not until 1957 thatany state factors involved were:(1) No selectivity was exercised support for maintenance of junior college studentswas other than that this was a program for those who failed voted by the Legislature. in preengineering.(2) Students who had engineering Typical picture. Junior colleges have been limited to capability but who preferred the technical aidcourse the larger, wealthier school districts, or to districts ob- were "pushed" to transfer into the preengineering pro- taining a large portion of their income from nonresi- gram. (3) At the beginning of the program several un- dential properties, as is the case on the Iron Range. State related industries were consulted, and the decisionwas law provides that school districtsmay combine to form made to train a general technician. The student, there- a larger junior college district. But in no instance have fore, was given courses in surveying, electricity, forging, communities or districts made any serious attempt to welding, woodworking, machine shop, and sheet metal, take advantage of the law and form a large junior college as well as courses in mathematics and liberal arts. The district. One important reason for this is that there is net result was that the student did not get enough an economic advantage to the community in having the training to be qualified in any onearea, and he was not college located in its midst. Because of this advantage, readily employable on the basis of his training.(4) the adjoining communities have been unwilling to tax Little effort was expended on placement, andno place- themselves for the support of the college. ment records were kept. Junior colleges have typically started by "finding" At present, none of the junior colleges offer trade and space in an existing high school or elementary building industrial or technical programs that meet the standards "pending" the time when building funds would be avail- of the State Planfor Vocational Education. They do able. Of the 11 junior colleges in existence in Minnesota, offer,however, some quasi-vocationalprograms for not one has been built on a campus separate from the which they receive the state junior college student aids. high school and with collegiate-type facilities. Thespace These aids consist of $300 per pupil annually. This puts "available" did not ordinarily include trade and indus- theState Department of Education in thecurious trial facilities. position of providing funds for the support of substandard Just as the physical facilities have been limited,so vocational programs which cannot be supported with also the staff has been limited. Usually the first dean has regular vocational aids because they do not meet state been selected from the high school academic teaching vocational standards. staff,and initially has taught college subjects while If a junior college is to qualify for student aids fora serving as part-time dean.The dean often has had "vocational" program, its teachers must meet theact:- little training in general school administration andno demic requirements of the transfer program, including training in vocational educationor its concepts.His at least a master's degree.Itis very difficult for the responsibilities have been similar to those of the high junior college to secure instructors who have trade and school principal, and have not included broad financial, technical competence in addition to the degree. construction, and program planning for the junior col- Successful programs. The vocational trainingareas in lege.Although most of the junior colleges now have which junior colleges have achieved some degree ofsuc- full-time deans, local boards often have not provided them cess are office and distributive training. The office train- with the administrative and counseling assistancere- ing programs lend themselves nicely to the junior college quired to keep pace with the growth in the pretransfer pattern of operation. Single-period classes are accept- enrollments.This has made itdifficult for the deans able; degreed teachers are available. Office education to devote the time needed for the development ofnew trains for white-collar employment, which provides status vocational-technical programs. for the students. Many students in the office program A lack of understanding by the deans of the needs adapt very well to taking regular transfer courses as the of vocational education, especially in the trade and tech- general education part of their training. nical fields, has been a handicap to the vocationalpro- On the other hand, a considerable number of students grams. Where attempts have been made to establish do not adapt well to the transfer classes, andsome who trade or technical programs, theprograms have often could perform quite capably in office skills drop out been based on the availability of facilities, staff, and because they are unwilling or unable to complete all of existing courses, rather thanon the needs of the occu- the collegiate requirements. An analysis of the office pation. The occasional contacts with industry have been curriculum shows that the amount of actual practical cursory rather than analytical in nature. skill and related training given in 2, years in the junior

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college is comparable to the amount of practical work 1.In July 1962, the administrative regulations of the given in 1 year in the area of vocational-technical school State Department of Education w;re amended to pro- or in the privatebusiness school. Furthermore, in some vide for a vocational coordinator in junior,colleges offer- of the junior colleges, a majority of thetwo -year office- ing three or more vocational programs. The philosophy training students leave to seek employment after the first behind the amendment is that experience has demon- year, having acquired onlyone-half of the skill and strated rather clearly that vocational programs can be related training that a typical area school or private successful only if they are under the direct supervision business school student would have had. of a qualified vocational educator. Office-training equipment in the junior colleges has 2.In Austin, the only school district in the state generally been as good as that found in the larger com- presently having both a junior college and an area prehensive high schools.In two of the junior colleges school, the junior college started an engineering assistant a regular cooperative part-timeoffice training program training program in the fall of 1961 which utilizes the is being carried on successfully.For other than the area school electronics and machine shopfacilities dur- cooperative program, placement data are not available; ing late afternoons.This training program, however, but placement is quite good, since the demand for office does not meet the standards of the state plan, and the workers is high at nearly all advanced levels of training. curriculum structure is not highly regarded by the Voca- Distributive education programs in 2 of the 11 junior tional Section of the Department of Education.But.,it colleges have also been successful in terms of the success does represent an effort on the part of a junior college to of graduates and the general reputation of the programs. add comprehensiveness to its program. In both instances the programs were organized and car- 3.The Hibbing Junior College has initiated plans for ried on by competent, well-trained vocational distributive offering industrial and other vocational programs. It has coordinators. hired a qualified man in an instructional capacity with Fairly extensive vocational evening trade extension the idea of using him later as a coordinator. Thedean programs are conducted in three junior collegedistricts. has been consulting frequently with the StateVocational Each of these districts has a qualified vocational coordi- Section and the Department of Employment Security nator.In two of the districts the coordinator reports regarding "demand" occupations. He has set up several directly to the superintendent with no responsibility to meetings with industry and other groups to determine the dean of the junior college; in the other, thevocational course content with intent toplan courses based on coordinator reports to the dean. occupational needs. The dean's previous experience as Progress. There is in Minnesota a strong junior col- a mathematics teacher in avocational-technical school is lege "movement," comprised largely of educators,but helpful in enabling him to understand the needs of a with some lay support. It is the contention of this group vocational program. that junior colleges should provide the bulk of the 13th The Hibbing School Board is concurrently considering and 14th years of education in Minnesota in the general the establishment of an area school instead of placing categories listed previously as junior college aims. the vocational programs in the junior college structure; The supporters of the movement have not looked with hence, it is not yet fully determined that theHibbing favor on the development of area vocational-technical vocational program will "enhance" the junior college schools in the state.It has been their contention that movement. the scope of the area school training is too narrowsince 4. The first modern community college in Minnesota superintendent itlimits the student to occupational training and does has just been organized at Willmar. The not nuke it possible for him to switch readily tothe of schools has exerted Major leadership in thedevelop- collegc;' transfer program without loss of credit or time. ment of the college and will serve asits president. He Furthermore, it is contended that adequate general edu- was formerly a high schoolprincipal and is presently catimi is not available in the area school. They believe completing doctoral work at Columbia University,Since that:most of the area -schools should be merged into the Minnesota does not have a community college law, the junior college pattern, thus making the area schools Willmar Community College is being organized as an more comprehensive institutions.At the same time, area vocational - technical schooland a junior college. they maintain that existing junior colleges should become To the general public and attending students, however, more vocational, and thus morecomprehensive, by offer- it will be known as a community college. Thecollege is ing more occupational training courses.Local junior located on a campus site 3 miles outside of the cityof colleges and area schools have been under some pressure Willmar (population 10,400), which site was formerly for a number of years to work toward the implementa- vn Air Force Radar Base.Air Force buildings were tion of this objective of increased comprehensiveness. adapted for five vocational areas, and classesstarted No attempt will be made here to analyze the wisdomof with a full enrollment in the fall of 1961. College trans- this objective. If itis assumed for the moment that fer courses will be added shortly. comprehensiveness is a desirable objective, the following Application and registration procedures will bethe actions represent "progress" toward that objective. same for both vocational andtransfer students. Both will

146 be on a quarter basis: Transfer students willpay tuition in the same classes intended and fees based to serve objectives of both on junior college law. Vocational students groups. Such classes soon lose theirpurpose. will pay, fees based onlyon area school law. Both groups 4. Vocational-technical will participate jointly courses in a college must stand in athletic and other collegeac- on occupational training and cannot exist for the pri- tivities. Vocational students must take all of their pre- mary purpose of accommodating the transfer dropout. scribed course work in the classes designed for their Such dropouts must qualify throughregular selection occupational training. However, itis planned that they procedures, or theprogram will rapidly become a re- may take additional college work on a late afternoon puted "dumping ground" witha corresponding drop in basis if they so desire. Transfer students may makesome enrollment, in the quality of enrollment, and inemploy- late afternoon utilization ofvocational facilities if sched- ment demand. uling can be worked out. 5. Full-time state direction' withinthe State Depart- The academic dean and the vocational director will ment of Education is needed. This has beenrequested report to the president of the college. It is anticipated from the Legislature several times.The request will be that at some time in the future, growth of the college repeated, and probably eventuallywill be granted.If will require a full-time president. the junior college "movement"wishes to continue to Although the experiment might be more meaningful place emphasison comprehensiveness through broaden- if better buildings were available, the Willmar Com- ing of vocationalprograms, the specifications for this munity College is the first full-fledgedattempt in Min- job will be important. If thestate junior college director nesota to combine an academic transferprogram with should be an academician, he is likelyto place emphasis a vocational-technical program, and it will be watched on the development of academic excellence with with great interest. con- tinued curtailment of vocational-technicalprograms. The four illustrations just givenrepresent "progress" On the other hand, if he should bea person with broad toward the assumed desirable objectiveof making administrative training and experienceand with voca- junior colleges more comprehensive by adding voca- tional understanding, he might energizethe vocational- tional-technical courses and by graduallymerging area technical program in the junior colleges. vocational programsintocollegiate-typeinstitutions. 6. Provision of stateor federal money for building Considering that this has been an objective of the junior and equipment would beone specific step toward which college movement for the past 30years, the progress the junior college state director would seems quite minute. work. Unless such If junior college or community money is forthcoming, itis unlikely that many of the college vocational-technicalprograms are ever to be a present junior college districts will provide significantly significant factor in Minnesota education,several axioms, for formal or other vocational educationcourses; itis in the opinion of the writer, must be recognized. unlikely that they willgo deeply into debt to provide 1. The vocational-technical programs must be organ- vocational junior college facilities for ized and supervised by "area" students. a person who has had vocational- We have noted that towns have beenreluctant to tax technical education training and experience.We have themselves to build a junior college in no record of any vocational a neighboring - technical program being town, often a. commercial competitor.Federal aid or successful without that ingredient. If the supervisor is new state tax sources, such as a sales tax, wouldseem qualified and competent, matters ofinstructional staff, necessary. instructional equipment, curriculum, facilities,and other 7. If it is desirable that area vocational schools and standards fall into place somewhatmore readily. 2. The head college administrator junior college programs be merged, it couldmore readily must be broadly be accomplished under trained in general educational administration a new name such as "area com- and have munity college." As itrelates to vocational-technical an understanding of vocational education gained from training, the name "junior college" has experience or course work. This is acquired an necessary so that he unfavorable connotation with will understand and support vocational some educators and others program budget, in the state. The record ofarea schools has found favor staff, and curriculum requests. One of theunderstandings with many lay persons, joint apprenticeship that must come to college administrators committees, is that the labor groups, and legislators, and it is unlikely that flexibility of vocational-technical area programs has limita- vocational-technical schools could tions. The last-quarter dentistry student ever he forced to cannot expect yield their name, with its reriutation for quality training, to transfer all of his credits towarda physician's degree. By the same token it to the junior colleges. The union, if it is tooccur, would is impossible for the technical have to come under a new institutional title. electronics student to expect to transfer allof his course worktoelectrical 'engineering.Vocational-technical THE STATE Conams courses must continue to be based on occupational needs. The five state colleges started as state normal schools 3. Although individual studentsmay profit from ex- teacher-preparing institutions. Subsequently, they be- tra courses on an extended day basis, therecannot be came four-year, degree-granting* institutions andnow any wholesale mixing of vocational and transfer students offer a master's degreeprogram in subject areas and

147 guidance. They serve as junior colleges fortheir areas, credits are acceptable if the individual laterdecides to offering preprofessional and liberal arts coursesthat may try for a degree. be transferred to the University of Minnesotawithout Retraining the Unemployed loss of credit. State college participation in somephases of vocational education now appears imminent.Each of Minnesota had some experience inretraining unem- the colleges has the capacity to supply all of thereplace- ployed workers prior to the enactment of theManpower ment needs of the state for industrial artsteachers. This Act. Although the Area Redevelopment Act waspassed situation has caused state college presidentsand in- in May of 1961, funds were notprovided until early in dustrial arts department heads to give thought toother 1962. In order to start trainingearlier, the Minnesota outlets for their graduates. Some are planningfour-year "Governor's Plan for Retraining" wasconceived. Under industrial technology programs leading to a B.S.degree. this plan the unemployed received 16weeks of free Others are considering two-year technical programs. training with tuition paid by the IronRange Resources Such an. expansion would result in an .unfortunatedupli- Commission. Those who were drawingunemployment cation of programs in those cities wherethere are both compensation were allorwed to continue to do so aslong state colleges and area schools.The potential duplica- as they were not calledback to work. The principal tion of programs is of great concern tothe Vocational stumbling blocks were:(1) many workers had ex- Education Section of the Department ofEducation, but hausted their unemployment compensation andcould not it does not have the jurisdictional authority orthe advisory afford to be in training; and (2) there ,.v2s no area capacity to do anything about it. vocational-technical school or other good trainingfacil- ity in the Iron Range area, Minnesota's"distressed area." THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA Consequently, training was conducted in areaschools The University of Minnesota has branches atthiluth away from the "Range," andtrainees had to move for and Morris. The University is involvedin vocational training.As a result, only 22 persons were actually education through its Schools of Agriculture andthrough enrolled in electronics, baking, machine operation,and its General Extension Evening ClassProgram. The auto tuneup. A followup revealedthat the sixteen-week Schools of Agriculture are remnants of a needidentified period was not adequate for most persons in the occupa- many years ago foragricultural training at the secondary tions for which training was offered. Decisionsregard- level on a less-than-full-year basis.The schools were ing the areas in which training was given weremade by established for farm boys who attended 6 monthsduring the State Employment Security ResearchDepartment. the winter leaving them free for summer work to Following this state program, training under theArea learn the "basics" of agriculture. Since thattime 300 Redevelopment Act began inFebruary of 1962 at approved vocational agriculture departmentshave been Duluth., Eveleth, and Virginia on the Iron Range.Based established inpublic school systems throughout the on earlier experienceinvolving the moving of trainees, state. Most rural youth nowprefer to attend regular high a new center wasestablished at Eveleth, and an existing schools on a full-year basis. Credits in theSchools of program at Virginia wasupgraded. About 100 persons Agriculture have somewhat limited acceptance sincethey are presently trainingin electronics, welding, diesel me- do not represent a full school year ofattendance. The chanics, and cooking. They were selectedfroth about attendance at these schools has been diminishing,and 400 who requested the training, sothat their quality it appears that this program will be phased out.Utili- has been high. Many have had someexperience in the zation of these facilities by the Universityis still unde- occupation for which they are being trained.The weld- along for place- termined. ing trainees, the only group far enough difficulty in getting jobs. Through its General Extension Evening Program, the ment, have experienced no University offers nondegree certificate courses in avari- Rules and regulations for training underthe Man- ety of fields such as interior design,public administra- power Act are presentlybeing written. It is anticipated under the auspices tion, secretarial services, industrial relations,business that most training will be conducted administration, accounting, engineering science, andall of existing or newly organized areavocational-technical Minnesota will be to kinds of engineering. Although these courses are"col- schools. A primary objective in facilities that will lege-level," and the vocational evening school coursesin spend the Manpower Act money on Minneapolis and St. Paul are not recognized assuch, be available for training and retrainingunder regular federal reim- many of the same faculty areutilized, often teaching vocational administrative structures after much the same content in both institutions.The voca- bursement has ended. tional schools have the adVantage of greaterflexibility, Teacher Training closer contact with industry through advisorycommittees, vocational fields frequently better instructional equipment, and lowerfees. Teacher-training institutions in all of the The University has the advantages of prestige,college must receive the approval ofthe Vocational Section of Home economics, credit, and a certification program. Furthermore,the the State Department of Education. 148 office, and guidance services have givenapproval to especially the age group 16-21. Thereare some geo- several teacher-training institutions; but agriculture,dis- graphic limitations, which additional schools wouldpar- tributive, and trade and industrial serviceslimit teacher tiallyrectify.However, we are being forced to the training to the University of Minnesota. conclusion that itis not economically feasible to have Except for trade and industry, nearlyall of the a comprehensive vocational program within commuting teacher training takes place oncampus.It is the con- distance of every potential student in the state. Because sidered opinion of trade and industry supervisorsthat of the high cost of facilities and instructional equipment, the off-campus instruction is themost effective means at some point it becomes more economical topay the for upgrading trade instructors and givingnew instruc- board and room of students at established institutions tors preservice training, and reimbursement policiesare than to construct and operatea school. established accordingly. We have two principal shortcomings. First,we have not been entirely successful in getting adequate informa- Private Vocational Schools tion to the students about occupationsand available Dunwoody Industrial Institute in Minneapolis,a non- training. Second, our offerings at the extremities ofvoca- profit, endowed institution which enjoysan international tional education are lacking in breadth. It is the opinion reputation as a high-quality trainingcenter for men, is of this writer that we need a greater variety ofcourse the most significant private vocational school in the offerings at the technical level. This opinion is supported state. Annual enrollment at Dunwoody is usually about by the Employment Security Research Department.We 1,600 day students, withan additional 2,400 in evening are lacking also in variety of course offerings for low- classes. Instruction at Dunwoody is considered free: the ability students. As vocational-technicalprograms have $34 charged per four-week period is fornonteaching become more technical and more post- high-school, we expenses; the actual instructional costs are covered by have been shutting out more andmore of the lower endowment income. Dunwoody directors and personnel ability students those who are becoming a state and have been active in the state .vocational organization national problem. Vocational education hasnot really and have supported public vocational education. The begun to tackle this situation in Minnesota. present director of Dunwoody is a member of the State There has been available a considerable varietyof Board of Education. adult vocational training programs at lowcost to the Minnesota has a substantial number of private trade participants.But keeping the adult publicaware of schools, especially in the Twin Cityarea. The state has vocational training opportunities has beenone of the a private trade school law of somewhat limited effective- weakest facets of the programs. Another need is the ness. These schools advertise heavily out of state, and organization of some of the individualcourses into more most draw a majority of their students from out ofstate. meaningful, sequential certificatecourses. State Vocational Association MEETING THE NEEDS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND INDUSTRY The Minnesota Vocational Association hasbeen a main- As previously indicated, agricultural education, stay for the vocational teachers in the state in providing through the University, high schools, andarea schools, meaningful state conventions, a good professional publi- has been extensively provided. The prominence ofour cation, and opportunities to carry on necessary public state as a top producer of meat and crops and itsrepu- relations and legislative efforts for vocationaleducation. tation as a leader in farm management instruction give Conclusions some evidence of the success of the program. Although we have adequate numbers of office training Some appraisals of institutions and of specificprograms departments, lack of state leadership has hindered their of vocational education have already been included in quality and contributed to their failureto be used to the general content of this report. A brief review of the 'capacity. We have a. continuing shortage of trained total program is difficult because standards ofmeasure- office workers in our state. Oneprogram that was offered ment for a total state program are not firmly established. in an area vocational school for trainingwomen over 45 Howevel, an attempt will be made to evaluate the total in office skills has been successful, andwe may consider program on the basis of (1) meeting the training needs other such adult programs. Distributive training isfar of the people of the state; (2) meeting the training needs from realizing its potential in the state, butrecent meet- of agriculture, commerce, and industry in thestate; and ings with trade associations, suchas furniture dealers (3) efficiency of operation. and wholesale furniture salesmen, indicatean increasing MEETING THE NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE understanding and appreciation of the potential of dis- tributive education. Through the high school,area vocational, junior Minnesota's industry is heavily orientedto the tech- college, and universityprograms described, vocational nical and highly skilled (Le., Univac, Honeywell, Minne- training is available to mostyoung people in the state, sota Mining), but there is no critical shortage of workers

149

rt.. 4.1. for these industries. In fact, we are constantlysubject ment of Education there are differences ofopinion as to to recruitment from the WestCoast and other industrial whether vocational education can be developed in the centers for our technically trainedpeople.This is a junior colleges or whether it should continue to beoffered credit to the day and evening technical andtrade pro- primarily in the area schools. There is continuing pres- grams. The principalweakness is the failure to offer sure for the junior colleges tooffer more vocational training in certain important skills for whichthe demand training, although, for the most part, they do not have the facilities, equipment, or staff to carry on the program. is small. Under these circumstances, it is virtually impossible EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION for vocational education to be organizationally efficient. As indicated in this report, theUniversity Regents, To what extent itis financially efficient is exceedingly the State College Board, and the StateBoard of Educa- difficult to determine, but it seems reasonable to expect tion all administer some phases of vocationaleducation. that it could be more efficient if there were anoverall Within the Board of Education and within the*Depart- guiding agency for vocational education in the state.

150 XVI. Reporton the System of Vocational Education in Ohio BY BYRL R. SHOEMAKER'

Basic Principles Underlying the Program high-school level. The leadership in vocational educa- tion believes that all other vocational courses should be In discussing the vocational education program in Ohio, offered at both the high school and the post-high-school we are concerned with the total program of voca- level.It believes that such programs should be strength- tional education involving agriculture, home economics, ened and improved, and that additional services should distributive education, business education, and trade and be extended to many young people not now being served. industrial education.Vocational education leadership Local educational leadership has supported a strong believes in ciLveloping the best possible program within state leadership in the area of vocational education with each of these areas of vocational education rather than close coordination of the various service areas under the trying to develop one general vocational education pro- State Director of Vocational Education.It is our belief gram for all areas as though they were one. that all functions of supervision, teacher education, and Each area of vocational education contributes to the special services within the various areas of vocational basic or general values of education. Each area, how- education must be coordinated by the state supervisor of ever, has a unique contribution to make in the prepara- each service.Policies of the Division of Vocational tion of people for the world of work and/or worthy Education encourage persons involved in the above-listed home membership. Leadership in vocational education services to view themselves as a part of the team, regard- is interested in discovering ways in which the various less of the location of their place of employment. services can cooperate to provide better services to young The location of personnel of the various vocational people, without minimizing the unique contribution that services is decentralized through contracts with univer- each of the areas can make to the total educational sity centers. All teacher education personnel, as well as program, most of the specialized service personnel (such as coor- Those of us in public vocational education are aware dinators in Fire Service Training and Industrial Leader- of the various groups that are working in the field. ship Training), are located in such centers.In a few Industry, private schools, business, parochial schools, cases, supervisory personnel serving areas of the state and other groups all make a great contribution to the also are attached to university centers for purposes of total vocational education effort. We believe, however, providing better services to such sections of the state. that the public education agencies have a continuing The contracts with the universities state clearly the responsibility in the vocational education field. Industries responsibilities to be assigned to each individual, the and businesses cannot own people. They will be hesitant, amount of reimbursement that will be made to the uni- therefore, to invest large amounts of money in the versiiy center, and the fact that all work of the indi- training of youth and adults for basic vocational educa- viduals will be under the general direction of the state tion,particularly as competition increases within the supervisor of the special service, in accordance with the various areas of our industrial economy. As companies provisionsofthe Ohio State Plan for Vocational become involved in greater competition, they tend to ask Education. public education agencies to accept a greater responsi- To date, there has been no conflict of interest between bility for the basic vocational training of youth and the universities in which pei.sonnel have been located adults. and the leadership in the State Department of Educa- Technical education, designed to prepare persons as tion. The relationship between the State Department of assistants to professionals, is offered only on the post- Education and theuniversities has been such as to 1State Director of Vocational Education, Division of Voca- strengthen the efforts of both groups, to the benefit of tional Education, Ohio State Department of Education. the vocational education program. 151 The various vocational education services have pre- in addition to the amount the school district would pared written manuals of operation at the statelevel in receive if it did not offer any vocational education. This order to provide uniformity throughout the state and to is accomplished as follows. The foundation units allowed enable local programs to have available the writtenrules under the state foundation program for the vocational and regulations that must be followed inorder to estab= classes are in addition to the units allowed the school lish sound programs at the local level. on the basis of studentenrollment, administrators, and Our experience has indicated that statepersonnel must special service personnel. Each of the vocational serv- be selected on the basis of capabilities andexperience ices has criteria for approving the additional vocational obtained from leadership of successful programsin the units requested by the local communities. The amount local communities, rather than on the basis ofproviding of state funds allotted to a local community on the basis state personnel experience thatwill enable them to re- of the additional vocational unit will vary between turn to local community jobs as soon asthey have gained $2,150 and about $6,000 depending upon the wealth acceptance and recognition. of the district per pupil served. Federal vocational funds Each of the programs of vocationaleducation in are used at the high school level to assistonly the several Ohio isso organized thatgraduates from vocational school districts in the state that cannot qualify for assist- programs are eligible to enter stateuniversities, since ance from the additionalvocational unit allowed under they graduate from high school withfirst-grade diplomas. the state foundation program. The vocational programs, however, are planned to pre- The state foundation program provides for expansion pare persons for entranceinto certain areas of work of vocational education in accordance with the needs factor upon graduation, and studentsenrolled in such programs of students and communities without the limiting will miss some subjects that are normally partof a of a set amount of money voted for vocational educa- tion. A total of $325,000 of state money still is appro- college preparatory program. As new areas of vocational education serviceshave priated to the Division of Vocational Education to been encouraged by the state and federal governments match, in part, federal funds used to assist with the costs service to through legislation and finance, such services havebeen of teacher education, state supervision, and assigned to the established vocational service groups out-of-school youth and adults. An additional $200,000 for rather than to new vocational groups createdfor them. of state money is appropriated as matching money funds This practice has been followed for such areas asthe the federal George-Barden Title III funds, which Practical Nurse Education Act, establishingGeorge- are used for thedevelopment of the post-high-school Barden Title II funds; the National DefenseEducation technical education programs. Federal vocational education funds are used to reim- Act, establishing the George-Barden TitleIII funds; the Ohio Worker Training Act, providing funds forretrain- burse schools for supervision of instructional programs Adult extension ing programs; and the national ManpowerDevelopment at both the high school and adult levels. classes in the various vocational areas arereimbursed and Training Act of 1962. from area to area. In Each vocational service at the state level is encouraged on an hourly rate, which varies for its total vocational agriculture the total cost of instruction for to make good use of advisory committees funds. vocational program and for special serviceswithin the adults is covered through the vocational education Trade and Industrial In trade and industrial education, the reimbursementis program. As an illustration, the with the local Education Service has the following activeadvisory made at the rate of $2 to $2.50 per hour, community or individuals absorbing the additional cost. committees: Fire Service Training; Rural Electrification Lineman Training; Law Enforcement Training; Cus- No assistance is provided from the state or vocational education funds for such items as equipment, supplies, todial Training; and Practical Nurse Training,The local for programs conducted communities also are encouraged to use advisory com- rent, and janitorial services mittees to assist them with program organization and within the local communities, except for practical nurse training.Practical nurse training programs for adults operation. receive assistance from federal funds voted forpractical Financing nursing to help with the cost of instruction,equipment, Prior to the establishment of the present statefoundation and coordination. program to provide statefinancial aid to local com- Post-high-school technical education classes receive munities, the Division of Vocational Educationreim- assistance from federal vocational education fundsmadc bursed a percentage of the cost of the instructors'salaries available through Title VIII of the National Defense and for approved vocational programs.Because of the growth Education Act (Title III of the George-Barden Act ) of vocational programs and the increase in salaries,the matching state funds. Financial assistance isprovided percentage of reimbursement, for instructionalsalaries to two-year post-high-school technical programs onthe declined under this system to about 25 percent. The basis of two-thirds of the cost of instruction,two-thirds two-thirds of the present state foundation program,established in 1957, of the cost of supervision, and half to makes provision for assistance for vocational programs cost of equipment for such programs. 152

.1", ,,""k General Organization ofPrograms trial, distributive, and businessoccupations within the in Local Communities same class under the same teacher, proved that the coordinators tended to place students inthe business or Ohio has a large number of smallschool districts within sales occupations rather than intrade and industrial the state, a condition that hashandicapped the develop- occupations, since jobs in the latterwere the most diffi- ment of adequate programs of vocationaleducation. There is not an adequate cult to obtain. In thissame type of program, empiiasis program of vocational educa- tended to be placed tion to serve all the youth of Ohio upon the business or distributive who desire and need education phases, depending vocational instruction. On the basis upon the orientation of the of the national coordinator. Following these experiments, average for the 1960-61 school year, Ohio should have the programs 20.3 percent of its high school were separated,43d no program is approved whichmixes students enrolled in the three goals in terms of student employment. vocational programs. Diversi- Only 8.9 percent of the high fied cooperative programs for trade and school students in Ohioare so enrolled. industrial edu- cation placement alone have continued A series of 59 community to grow. surveys, conducted by the Seven years ago the leadership in the Division of Vocational Educationin cooperation with Division of local communities, includedas a part of the survey the Vocational Education recognized that theever-increasing administration of a "Vocational Planning number of students enrolling in the highschools would Questionnaire" require an expanded building to students.This questionna was administered to program.It was antici- 31,638 students in 113 schools. The pated that the buildingprogram would cause local boards results indicated of education to ask for help in determining that 20,985, or 66.3 percent of thestudents, were in- the areas of vocational education, ifany, which should be provided terested in enrolling in vocational educationprograms. for in buildingprograms. To meet such requests, the More definitive informationon student interest can Trade and Industrial Education Servicedevised a pro- be gained from the, surveys conductedduring this school cedure for conducting asurvey in local communities to year 1961-62. Sixteen surveys were conducted, involv- determine the need for trade and industrial ing 69 schools and 18,179 students. programs or The results indi- a revision or expansion of existing cated the following: programs. The survey procedure involved a study of studentinterest by means 46.1 percent were interested in preparation for a voca- of a vocational planning questionnairedeveloped and tion and did not have plans to go to college; administered under the direction of theGuidance Testing 22.6 percent planned togo to college but also wanted Services within the State Department,a gathering of some vocational preparation while in high school; statistical data from selected employersrelating to the 22.1 percent planned togo to college and did not want limited number of occupationalareas included in the any vocational education in high school; and survey, and the gathering of opinions and reactions. from 8.6 percent were undecided about theirfuture voca- the representatives of these businessesand industries tions or educational plans. regarding the areas of vocational educationneeded at both the high school and the adult level. Students are interested in preparing fora vocation while in high school. Administratorsseem to be in favor About 8 to 10 surveysper year have been conducted, of the expansion of vocational educationservices to high and in the past severalyears, these surveys have been school youth. The school district organizationin Ohio extended to include allareas of vocational education as seems to be the biggest drawback to the expansion of well as trade and industrial education. Fivecountywide vocational education. surveys were scheduled in the spring of 1962 involving all of the areas of vocational education. Trade and industrial education, businesseducation, Briefly, the steps involved in a survey and cooperative office practiceprograms are available are as follows: generally in the large cities, with adequateprograms of 1.Orientation and planning meetingbetween the trade and industrial education availableonly in the representatives of the Division of VocationalEducation largest cities. Training in agriculture isfound generally and the administrators of the schoolor schools involved in the rural areas of the state, but it is deniedto many in the survey. rural youth whomay live only 10 miles from an adequate 2.Orientation of the students in those grades selected program. Few city youth have any opportunity to enroll for the administration of the vocational planningques- in vocational agriculture. Homeeconomics (vocational tionnaire. or general) is available in all schools. Many general 3.Selection of representatives of business andindus- home economics programs, however, donot provide for try to be included in the survey. the breadth of offerings desirable foran adequate home 4.Administration of the vocational planningques- and family living program,as encouraged by vocational tionnaire. home economics leadership. 5.Letters to the persons selected invitingthem to Experiments made several years ago with a coopera- participate in a survey dinner. A form is includedin the tive-type program, enrolling studentsfor trade and indus- letter asking for statistical informationon employment. 153

-,,,,,;*'" ,, 6.Survey dinner meeting with the following activities: by the county board of education.Five countywide a. A report is made to the total group concerning surveys of the type mentioned earlier are scheduled in results of the vocational planning questionnaire. order to provide the counties with information that will b. The total group is divided into groups of special help them determine what areas of vocational education interests (agriculture, home economics, business, dis- should be offered if and when they organize vocational tributive, and trade and industrial education). education programs under the provisions of the act. We c. In each of the group meetings, the purpose and believe that this act provides a great opportunity for the organization of the vocational program are described, extension of services of qualified programs of vocational and opinions and recommendations of the representa- education to youth and adults in rural and suburban tives are requested. areas of our state. 7. A written report to school administrators, includ- Prior to the passage of the NDEA Act of 1958, those ing recommendations, prepared by the survey personnel of us in vocational education in Ohio, with the assistance from the Division of Vocational Education, State De- of the Trade and Industrial Division in the United States partment of Education. Office of Education, had been studying the possibilities It has become obvious to the leadership in vocational for establishing technical education programs. The term education that the only possible means of providing the "technical education," as used here, is limited to the type youth who live outside the large city areas with an ade- of post-high-school program that trains as3istants to quate program of vocational education is through the professiont,1 personnel in occupations dealing with de- establishment of area vocational schools.Four years sign, development, and testing.Standards developed ago we were able to assist Pike County in establishing and approved by the State Board of Education require the first countywide area vocational school center. The that 15 percent of the instructional time be spent on task was accomplished through the cooperative efforts of basic manipulative skills, 50 percent on special labora- the many persons responsible for the operation of edu- tory instruction and technical subjects such as mathe- cational programs within the county. matics and science, and 20 percent on communications instruction; the remaining 15 percent of the time may At the time the Pike County Area school was organ- be spent. in any way seen fit.Programs are required to ized, there was no provision for state assistance for the run for 2 years with a minimum of 25 hours of class and development of area schools. One school district, how- laboratory attendance per week for 36 weeks per year. ever, was able to provide the building and equipment. These programs operate in cooperation with the public Others agreed to participate on a service charge basis, schools under regulations which permit vocational edu- since the students remained members of their local cation to be organized and operated as post-high-school school districts. Formerly, there had been no trade and preemployment training programs. industrial programs in the county, and only a part of the students had had access to vocational agriculture. The first Ohio program of this type was initiated in Now all students in the county have an opportunity to Barberton 3 years ago. The first graduating class (1961) enroll in vocational agriculture and/or in one of three was placed without difficulty in positions at the assistant- trade areas: machine trade, electrical trade, or cosmetol- to-the-professional level.Programs were started two ogy. This program, including the transportation of stu- years ago at Salem, Cleveland, and Lorain; in the fall of 1961, at Canton and Mansfield; and in the fall of dents to the vocational center, has operated successfully. Trade and industrial education students remain at the 1962, at Springfield, Willoughby-Eastlake, Ashtabula, vocational center all day and take their required aca- and Hamilton. Each of these technical education centers demic courses at the center. Agriculture students attend offers two to three technical programs, except that Wil- the vocational school for two periods each day and loughby-Eastlake started with four. All of the technical return to their home high schools for their academic education centers offer mechanical technology, and all courses. Students go to their local schools in the morn- but one offer electrical technology. Chemical technology ing on the regular bus routes and are then transported is offered in three schools, and business data processing to the vocational center. They participate in athletics has been included in two programs .started in the fall and other curricular activities at the home high school, of 1962. and graduate from the home high school. A program These technical programs are made possible largely similar to this will be initiated in Licking County next by National Defense Education funds and the matching fall to serve the entire county, with the exception of $200,000 of state funds provided by Ohio. the one sizable city within that county. The state and federal funds are used to assist local The obvious success of this very limited effort towards communities with the cost of instruction, supervision, area vocational schools brought about the revision of and equipment. The local school system sponsoring the the state law, House Bill 620, which makes it possible program must supply the building and much of the for two or more districts within a county to join together equipment. The students pay a fee ranging from $70 to to establish a joint vocational school, to be administered $100 per quarter. The school districts sponsoring the 154 programs agree to enroll students withina radius of 20 limited to a cooperative-type to 25 miles, and they program at the senior level, may accept students from any in which the students spend halfa day in school and place in the state. half a day on the job. During thehalf day in school, one hour and a half is spent Organization and Development on instruction related to the field of distribution, and the otherhour and a half on Within Services regular academic requirements. Thereare a growing The following is a brief overview ofthe organization number of distributive educationprograms being organ- and operation of the types ofvocational education pro- ized throughout the stateat the high school level to grams offered in the vocational high schools,compre- serve youth interested in entering the field of distribution, hensive high schools, andarea vocational schools in the but perhaps the greatest emphasis inthe field of distribu- state. The school organization in which thevocational tive education is at the adult level.Many cities through- education program is offered willvary depending on out the state organize courses locally for theiremployed local city or community conditions. Theminimum state sales personnel. Any community in thestate can request standards for the programs, however,are met in each assistance in the organization andfinancing of such type of school organization. courses. The distributive education service VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE also employs spe- cialized field personnel to assistcommunities in organizing Most of the vocational agricultureprograms in Ohio courses in such areas as management training,, waitress are organized on the basis of two periods per day being training, and insurance training.The specialized per- assigned to the vocational agriculture instruction in sonnel go into a community and conductcourses for grades 9-12. Provisions have been made,however, for a personnel in business and industryin these areas of program providing for 1 hour per day of instruction. instruction.The distributiveeducation servicealso Students may take 2 or 3 years of vocational agriculture provides institutes at the university forspecialized train- and then during the last years in high school also enroll ing of sales and distribution personnelin such areas as in another vocationalprogram such as trade and indus- hardware store management. trialeducation,distributiveeducation,orbusiness The distributive education center education. at Ohio State was selected as a place for the developmentof a two-year The vocational agriculture program in Ohio is ex- cooperative technicalprogram in wholesaling.Tech- perimenting with the addition of specializedagriculture nical education can be defined rathereasily in the field programs in such areasas landscaping, greenhouse of trade and industrial education,' butexperimentation operation, and nursery operation. There isa movement was needed to identify the technician level in the field to develop land laboratories in cooperation withthe high of distribution. Thisprogram is now in its second year, school program for purposes of demonstrationprojects and it has the full support ofa broad advisory committee and for use in cooperation with otherscience programs in the field of wholesaling.It is anticipated that this in the high school. Recognizing the interestin certain pilot program will continueon an expanded basis, and areas of agriculture, even in the large cities,a program that additional programs of thistype will be added to in specialized areas suchas landscaping and gardening the technical centers developing throughoutthe state as has been established in Cleveland in orderto enable its funds are made available. youth to get instruction in suchareas of work. This program is approved as an additional vocational unit BUSINESS EDUCATION under the foundationprogram. The state leadership for business educationprograms When a joint vocational school districtis organized, is included in the Division of VocationalEducation, but vocational agricultureprograms may be offered at the at present it is limited to one professionalperson. Addi- joint vocational school for thoselocal school districts tionalvocational foundation units have been made that do not have suchprograms or are operating pro- availableforbusiness educationinthefoundation grams with too few students. Specializedareas of voca- program.Business educationprograms that receive tional agriculture suchas landscaping or greenhouse foundation program assistanceare limited to the co- operation may be offered at the jointvocational school operative type programs at the seniorlevel, similar to to serve all school districts in thecounty. It is anticipated those for distributive education. that local districtsthat have strong vocational agri- The cooperativeprogram in business educationis culture programs will retain theseprograms when the dependent upon a sound business educationprogram districts becomea part of a joint vocational school operated in the 9th and 10th grades. Thisbasic in- district. struction is necessary to provide thestudents with the basic business skills by the time they DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION are enrolled in a cooperative program at the 12thyear. Trends would The high school program in distributive education, point, however, to the need for adjustmentin the busi- for which an additional vocationalunit is allotted, is ness education programs since there is a growing need 155 for the introduction of elementary business-data-proc- TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION essing procedures at the high school level.Such in- The trade and industrial education programs at the struction may require in-school vocational instruction high school level are limited to the 11th and 12th years. in the 11th year, prior to the cooperative program at the Sixty-one different trade areas are offered in the day 12th year. Instructions in such items as card punch and trade programs in the public schools, and an additional accounting machine operations would be included in 29 trade areas are offered in the diversified cooperative the program. training program. Toledo has the broadest trade and Leadership sees clearly the place of business education industrial education program in the state, offering 21 in the joint vocational school program. There it will be trade areas for boys and girls. possible to provide certain instruction at the 11th -year In both the rural and the suburban areas, trade and level that cannot be made available within each of the industrial education is almost nonexistent. This is be- local schools because of the limited number of interested cause many of these schools are too small to support students and the high cost of equipment for adequately in-school trade and industrial education programs and organized programs. In many cases the cooperative pro- there are not enough industries and businesses suffi- gram can best operate at the joint vocational school ciently close to the school to offer job opportunities in the center. cooperative education area. As indicated previously, two programs in the area of Experience in Ohio indicates that the need for ade- business data processing or computer programming were quate programs of trade and industrial education at the initiated on a post-high-school basis in the fall of 1962, high school level is growing rather than diminishing. In one in Springfield, and the other in Willoughby-Eastlake. view of the high dropout rate from school and the large These programs are organized to prepare computer number of young people walking the streets after gradu- programmers and technicians for business and industry. ating from a general high school program, we see no They come under the leadership of the business educa- justification for denying trade and industrial education tion supervisor and are eligible for assistance under the to high school youth. National Defense Education Act. As an example, only 62 students graduated from high school this spring for every 100 who entered the first VOCATIONAL HOME ECONOMICS grade 12 years ago.Of the 62 students graduating, The state leadership in the field of vocational home about one-third will start to college, and only 12 will economics has provided for a very flexible home eco- graduate. nomics program in regard to the number of years the Our experience, therefore, points toward the need for students are enrolled and the number of periods per day area vocational education schools. The joint vocational of instruction required.For example, girlsare en- school district law (House Bill 620) provides a real couraged to consider enrolling in 2 or 3 years of home means of expanding the services of trade and industrial economics and also in other vocational areas in order education to more youth in the small cities and the rural to gain skills for earning a living. and suburban areas.Perhaps the trade and industrial All of the areas of vocational education recognize the education program is the one most affected by the small importance of home economics in preparation of stu- size of schools and the lack of adequate physical facil- dents for home and family living. In planning for joint ities. The professional personnel in trade and industrial vocational school districts,itis anticipated that basic education are working diligently to gain acceptance for home economics will be retained in each of the local the joint vocational school district principle. schools for the benefit of all girls, and that only spe- In general, the physical facilities for trade and in- cialized areas of home economics instruction will b, dustrial education in Ohio have been improving. The offered in the joint vocational schools for a selected new schools now providing trade and industrial educa- number of students. tion programs have very adequate facilities for the A very extensive program of adult classes for honie- programs.It is obvious, however, that continued im- makers is being maintained in cooperation with the provement of instruction must take place if graduates public schools of the state. Financial assistance is pro- of trade and industrial education programs are to be vided from vocational education funds for approved accepted into modern industries as the industries and classes offered for homemakers within any community. trade areas become more technical in nature. One very forward-looking adult program is the Family In order to point toward a program of improved Life Program provided in several large cities, such as instruction, trade achievement tests are being developed Toledo. One or more full-time persons are employed at the rate of one trade a year. Such tests will enable us in each of these cities for the organization and operation to evaluate the achievements of the students in the trade of a family life program that trains leaders in skills and areas in which they are enrolled at the completionof technical knowledge required for working with people in both the 11th and 12th years. To date, testing programs their natural groupings throughout the city. have been developed for machine trade, auto mechanics 156 trade, basic electricity, basic electronics,and drafting. to assign to students periods of, related technical in- The testing program involves theuse of an intelligence struction separate from and in addition to the periods test for both verbal and nonverbal abilities anda basic for shop instruction. The related technical instruction mathematics test, and a trade achievementtest.The must include a study of the principles of mathematics achievement test itself is basedon the skills, technical and science related to the trade. More research, how- knowledge, and principles of mathematics and science ever,is needed on methods of instructing students in related to the tradearea which the student is studying. technical information related to their trade. This testing program is conducted in the spring of Teacher education for the trade and industrial edu- each year. The tests are graded atour Instructional cation field provides a particular problem.It is often Materials Laboratory, Ohio State University, through necessary to employ a teacher without a coll-ge back- the use of IBM equipment. Normsare established for ground in order to secure one with the necessary skills the entire state, and reportsare sent back to local and technical knowledge in a particular trade area. Al- schools indicating the scores of each studenton each though about 60 percent of our teacherspossess bacca- section of the test. On the basis of this information, the laureate degrees, a large majority have attained the individual schools can chart the schoolnorms in com- degrees while teaching. parison with the state norms, and the achievement of A strong in-service teacher educationprogram makes each student can be compared with the school and state this possible. A teacher employed withouta college norms. degree attends a one-week preservice instructionalpro- Experience with these tests over the past 4 or 5years gram and is visited every other week during the first shows that they can indicate clearly to a local school 4 years he is on the job by a teacher educator fromone the weaknesses in its instructional program. Also, they of our teacher education centers for trade and industrial have stimulated the local centers to improve not only education. In addition to the in-service program, teacher their instruction but also their curricula and facilities. education courses are offered in the evenings and during Another fact brought out by the tests is that certain the summers at the university centers. The cooperating school systems were enrolling in vocational education university centers in which teacher education personnel courses a preponderance of students with less-than- are located are Ohio State University, Kent State Uni- average ability, and that such students, as a general rule, versity, the University of Toledo, and the University of were not able to achieve in accordance with the norms Cincinnati. Each center serves an assignedarea of the of students in the state a. a whole. Such studies haVe state. A total of nine, persons are employed on a full- led to the enrollment of better students in tradepro- time basis for teacher training in trade and industrial grams, students who can qualify for employment upon education. completion of the two-year program ofinstruction. The teacher educators are employed by the university, We find a trend in Ohio towards increased employ- but a portion or all of their salaries are paid from trade ment in the service trades and the very highly skilled and industrial education funds, and they are members of trades as the number of persons employed in the field of the trade and industrial education staff of the state. manufacturing decreases. As examples, we findan in- theSe teacher educators meet with the total trade and creased need for instructional programs for girlsin industrial education staff several times each year, and health areas and in such service areas as cosmetology; sonic of them are on the service policy and planning and for boys, in such trade areas as electricity, elec- committee. Instructional materials for the individualized tronics, drafting, and auto mechanics. There is alsoa teachereducationin-serviceprogramareprovided movement to develop instruction in other occupations; through our Instructional Materials Laboratory. such as pressing and dry cleaning. Further information concerning the teacher education Throughout the skilled trade areas, increased emphasis program can be gained from the Ohio Manual of Opera- is being placed on quality instruction in mathematics tion for Trade and Industrial Education. and science as related to the trade being taught. It isour The only shrinkage that has occurred in the trade and experience that many students who cannot achieve in industrial education adult area is in the apprenticeship- college preparatory mathematics and science stillcan related instruction programs. This shrinkagemay be master the functions of mathematics and science as caused by the slowdown in industrial activity, by changes applied to their trade areas. in the employment patterns due to technological develop- Research on the results of the machine trade achieve- ments, or by changes in labor-management attitudes ment test indicates that students who arc enrolled in 3 toward the apprenticeship system. The apprenticeship hours of manipulative instruction plus two periods of program is controlled by labor and management, and the related instruction do better in the achievement tests future of the program is in their hands. We anticipate, than do those who are enrolled in 3 hours of manipu- however, that the related instruction for apprentices will lative instruction plus only one period of related in- increase as business activity regains its proper momentum. struction. A study of the information gained from the Adult trade extension classes are growing in number. achievement testing program indicates that it is desirable To a large extent, we attribute the success of thispro- 157 °

gram to the fine leadership personnel assigned at the are assigned to the Division of Vocational Education in local and state levels. Communities that have employed the State Department of Education; and the funds made local supervisors of trade and industrial education have available under the act are assigned to the Department enjoyed a growth of services to both employed and un- of Education for administration. employed adults. Communities that employ only teach- The Ohio Worker Training Committee has estab- ers for selected areas of trade and industrial education lished procedures and policies for the operation of the do not generally develop adequate adult extension training programs they will assist. The committee has programs. established rates of a maximum of $5 per hour for in- We find growth also in those areas of instruction for struction; $3 per hour for heat, light, building, and which we have employed specialists at the state level. maintenance; and $2 per hour for instructional supplies. Specialized personnel have been employed as follows: It is not intended that these funds cover the full cost five persons in fire service training, including emergency of instruction, but rather that they should helpa local rescue squad training; four persons in industrial leader- community to meet its own obligations in retraining the ship training; two persons for rural electrical lineman unemployed. The act also provides that the vocational training; one person for a new custodial training pro- education services within the state will assist in bearing gram; and two persons for a law enforcement training the cost of instruction for such retraining programs to program. These persons are employed as a part of the the extent that their budgets permit. trade and industrial education staff within the state, but Projects for retraining unemployed persons have been they are employed through university centers in order approved under the National Area Redevelopment Act to serve better the various sections of the state. Again, for instruction in electronics at Cambridge and in ma- these persons are employed by the university centers on chine operation at Martins Ferry. Other requests for contracts with the State Department of Education. The training programs have been submitted through the De- State Department of Education indicates the type of partment of Labor Area Redevelopment Act regulations. service to be performed, and the universities have coop- Another area of assistance provided by the Trade and erated to the fullest extent. The full salaries of most of the specialists are paid from trade and industrial edu- Industrial Education Service of the State Department cation funds to the university centers. Travel costs are has been the Instructional Materials Laboratory, de- paid directly from the State Department of Education to veloped and maintained at Ohio State University. The the individual. purpose of the laboratory is to develop new instruc- In the field of adult preemployment training, we hal e tional materials in vocational areas at both the high conducted for a number of years continuing practical school and the adult levels.An annual budget of nurse training programs. At the present time this pro- $20,000, plus the salaries of several professional per- gram is provided in 14 centers throughout Ohio. In the sonnel, is invested in the laboratory. In addition, sales last several years an effort has been made to provide of instructional materials from the laboratory help to retraining programs for unemployed persons with as- maintain the reissue of the materials and to publish them sistance from federal funds made available through Title in an attractive and usable form. The yearly expendi- tures of the laboratory for the production and publica- I of the George-Barden Act and from certain state funds available to the Trade and Industrial Education Service, tion of new materials and the rerun of existing materials with some success. The training programs are carried total' about $60,000. out in cooperation with such agencies as the State Wel- The Instructional Materials Laboratory has had the fare Department, the Ohio State Employment Service, full support of our local supervisors of trade and indus- management organizations,union organizations, and trial education throughout the state. A number of years others. It has been demonstrated that jobs must be avail- ago, when funds were restricted, the people throughout able in order to plan a sound training program for the state voted that we should use the limited funds for unemployed adults and to place them in jobs upon the expansion of the laboratory rather than for increasing completion of training. During the year 1961-62, 572 reimbursements to the local communities. adults, selected from the unemployment rolls of the University Branches and state, were enrolled in training programs. In its 1961 session, the Legislature passed the Ohio COMITIlinity Colleges Worker Training law requiring the establishment ofa There are no publicly supported community colleges worker training committee at the state level and a worker in Ohio at the present time. The various universities training committee in any local community desiring to have established branches in several cities, utilizing the participate in funds made available through the state facilitiesof the public schools.Such branches are worker training committee for the retraining of Ivem- operated directly by the universities, and they provide ployed adults.Although the total retraining program instruction in the first 2 years of basic college work. The under this act is directed by the state committee, the branches do not offer any technical education programs organization and supervision of adult training programs as defined in this paper. 158 The last session of the Legislature passeda com- to train a corps of part-time instructors in localcom- munity college bill and a technical institute bill.The munities or industries to meet local needs quickly, effec- community college bill establisheda board, separate tively, and economically. from the State Board of Education,to administer the 6.State services :n the area of instructional materials program, and it made the county commissioners the legal development and testing. entity for establishing community colleges. Under the 7. Emphasis upon the employment of leadership provisions of the bill, the public schools haveno part personnel within the local community for the develop- in the program. The Legislature providedno funds to assist in the establishment of community colleges. ment of programs, particularly in the trade and industrial education area. The technical institute bill merely made it legal for any group of county commissioners to organize a tech- 8.Trends toward increasedprograms for high school nical program. The bill, however, did not provide for youth through the support of public school administra- any state leadership or financial assistance. tors and the passage of House Bill 620. 9. An increase in the number of shortcourses for Appraisal of the Vocational Education employed adults and homemakers. Program in Ohio 10. The growth of post- high- school technical educa- tion programs. I would judge the following to be outstanding features of the program. 11.The growth of retraining programs. 1.Strong leadership at the State Department level, The weak features appear to be: both within the services and at the head of the division, and community acceptance of state leadershipas an aid 1.The need to extend vocational educationto a to program development and improvement rather than larger number of youth and adults in thestate. simply for inspection. 2.The need to improve the quality of instruction in 2. A close staff relationship within the variousvoca- keeping withthe changing needs of theindustrial tional services at the state and local levels anda clear economy. division of responsibilities among the various services 3. The need for the enrollment ofmore students who and personnel at the state level. are capable of achieving a level of skill and technical 3. The development of manuals of operation topro- knowledge that will enable them to be accepted into the vide adequate information for local communitiescon- highly skilled trade areas with qualitycompanies. cerning sound program standards within the various 4.The need of funds to make the joint vocational service areas. school district organization a reality. 4. The services provided by the Vocational Educa- 5. The need to develop organized vocationalpro- tion Division of the State Department to help local grams along with other appropriate programs to serve communities evaluate existing programs and to establish the students who fall roughly into the 70 to 90 I.Q. new programs. range. 5. The employment of specialized field serviceper- 6. The need to improve salary schedules at the state Sonnel to give leadership to special areas of education level so that the strongest leadership in th, localpro- throughout the state and the utilization of such personnel grams can be attracted into the State Department.

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159 NOT FILMED PRECEDINGPAGE BLANK-

Appendix to Part I MEMANG PAGEBLANK- NOT FILMED

Example of a Basic Classroom Unit Foundation Formulafor Determining State Support of Elementary and Secondary Education ina Hypothetical State BY STANLEY E. HECKER1

BASIC CLASSROOM UNITS (BCRU) physically and mentally handicappCd. (State law and/or Brown School District educates 2,000 pupils (K-12) State School Board regulation defines 1, 2, 3, and 4 and contains considerable land area. It hasone central above.)State approvalis granted for the following highschool(9-12),threeconsolidatedelementary additional classroom units for these special services: schools (K-6), one isolated one-teacher school (K-6), Service Classroom Units and one nonisolated one-teacher school (K-6). (State Physically handicapped 2.0 law and/or State School Board regulation defines "isola- Mentally handicapped 1.0 tion" and "division factor.") The total basic classroom units are calculated as follows: 3.0 Type of School Membership DivisorBCRU SUBTOTAL OF CLASSROOM UNITS One teacher (nonisolated) 15 30 .5 The sum of "classroom units" to this point is: One teacher (isolated)... 12 1.0 Basic classroom units 69.5 Elementary 180 22 8.2 Vocational classroom units 3.0 Elementary 500 30 16.7 Special education classroom units 3.0 Elementary 720 30 24.0 Secondary 573 30 19.1 75.5

2,000 69.5 ADMINISTRATIVE AND SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONAL SERVICES (ASIS) VOCATIONAL CLASSROOM UNITS State law permits additional CRU credit for "Admin- Brown School District is partially rural and partially istrative and Special Instructional Service (ASIS)" per- urban.It has (1) sufficient pupils, (2) adequate facili- sonnel at the rate of one additional unit for each six units ties,(3) an approved program, and (4) certificated in the subtotal. Brown School District's entitlement is teachers in vocational agriculture, vocational home eco- 12.6 units (75.5 divided by 6). Brown School District nomics, and trade and industrial education.(State law employs properly certificated personnel for the following and/or State School Board regulation defines 1, 2, 3, approved positions: and 4 above.) State approval is granted for the follow- Service ClassroomUnits ing additional classroom units for vocational education: Superintendent 1.0 Service Classroom Units Assistant superintendent 1.0 Vocational agriculture 1 0 High school principal 1.0 Vocational home economics 1 0 Assistant high school principal .5 Trade and industrial education 1.0 Elementary principal 2.0 High school librarian 1.0 3.0 High school physical education 2.0 SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASSROOM UNITS Music (instrumental and vocal) 2.0 Brown School District has (1) sufficient pupils, (2) Industrial arts 1.0 adequate facilities, (3) an approved program, and (4) Art 1.0 certificated teachers to provide special programs for the Elementary librarian 1.0 lAssistant Professor, College of Education, Michigan State University. 13.5 163 Since the number employed exceeds the number per- OTHER CURRENT EXPENSES mitted under law, credit will be given for only 12.6 State law allots $1,500 per classroom unit for "other classroom units. (Had Brown employed fewer than 12.6 current expenses." This amount is not earmarked and qualified personnel for these positions, they would not may be used for whatever purpose the local district may have received 12.6 CRU credits.) choose, such as to supplement teachers' salaries, to hire additional personnel, or to expand bus system. SUPERVISORY CLASSROOM UNITS Brown School District's allotment for this section of State law provides that a district may receive credit for the law is 89.1 times $1,500 or $133,650. a supervisory CRU for each 100 or major fraction thereof of CRU's in the subtotal. Brown's subtotal is CAPITAL OUTLAY 75.5, and therefore it receives credit for one (1.0) addi- State law allocates $500 per classroom unit for capital tional CRU. The additional CRU is for a person qualified outlay. These funds are earmarked and must be used: as a general program supervisor. (1) to retire existing indebtedness, (2) to retire new indebtedness, (3) for annual capital improvements, (4) SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL NEED for capital improvements at a future date. Basic classroom units 69.5 Brown School District's allotment for this section of Vocational classroom units 3.0 the law is 89.1 times $500 or $44,550. Special education classroom units 3.0

TRANSPORTATION Subtotal 75.5 ASIS classroom units 12.6 Financial need for transportation is the only section of Supervisory classroom unit 1.0 the Foundation Program that is not directly related to "classroom units."Itisdeveloped under a separate Total 89.1 formula not dealt with here. Brown School District, however, has a financial need for transportation of This completes the calculation of "educational need" $40,000. as defined by State law and/or State SchoolBoard regulation. The next. step is to translate this "educa- SUMMARY OF FINANCIAL NEED tional need" into "financial need." (Financial need for $474,534 "transportation" is dealt with separately.) Instructional salaries Other current expenses 133,650 Capital outlay 44,550 INSTRUCTIONAL SALARIES Transportation 40,000 The Foundation Program law sets up categories or "ranks" for instructional personnel based upon level Total financial need $692,734 of education.Each "rank" isassigned a monetary value an allotment schedule, not a salary schedule. (In most cases it has been necessary to tie a statewide SHARING THE COST minimum salary for teachers to the allotment schedule.) The State in which Brown School District is located Table1 shows how the 90 instructional personnel uses the State Equalized Valuation (SEV) of property employed in Brown School District are "ranked" and and a required local tax effort (deductible millage) to how these ranks afe converted to "financial need." The determine the local share. The SEV of Brown District nine-month salary allotment totals $469,420. Additional is $40,000,000 ($20,000 per pupil), and the deductible funds are calculated for those persons and positions millage is 10 mills. Brown School District's share, there- approved for employment beyond the nine-month school fore, is $40,000,000 times 10 mills or $400,000. The term.(Superintendent, 3 months; Assistant Superin- state's share is the balance, calculated as follows: tendent, 3 months; Principal,1 month, etc.).Total Total financial need $692,734 "Instructional Salary Allotment" totals $474,534: This District's share 400,000 amount or more must be expended for the 89.1 approved classroom units. State's share $292,734

164

17,7 Cr!. Table 1 Calculation of Instructional Salary Allotment

Education Allotment Number of 9-Month Salary Extra Months Allotment Extra Month Total Rank Level Schedule Personnel Allotment Employment Per Month Allotment Allotment

1 MA+30 $6,000 9 $ 54,000 6 $667 $4,002 II MA 5,500 30 165,000 0 611 III BA 5,000 50 250,000 2 556 1,112 IV -BA 4,200 0.1 420 0 467

89.1 $469,420 $5,114 $474,534

Note: In most cases it has been necessary to tie the statewide minimum salary for teachers to the allotment schedule.

165

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July, 1963