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Chromium, Nickel and Molybdenum in Society and the Environment

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Chromium, Nickel and Molybdenum in Society and the Environment Chromium, Nickel and Molybdenum In Society and the Environment A Compilation of Facts on Flows, Quantities and Effects in Sweden Eva Walterson Contents PREFACE 1. OBJECT 2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM AND THEIR COMPOUNDS 2.1 Chromium and chromium compounds. 2.2 Nickel and nickel compounds. 2.3 Molybdenum and molybdenum compounds. 2.4 Properties that motivate the use of chromium, nickel and molybdenum. 3. NATURAL OCCURRENCE AND CIRCULATION OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM GLOBALLY AND IN THE SWEDISH ENVIRONMENT 3.1 Natural occurrence of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in the earth’s crust. 3.2 Occurrence of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in Swedish bedrock and soil. 3.2.1 Bedrock. 3.2.2 Soil types. 3.3 Chromium, nickel and molybdenum and their world reserves. 3.3.1 Chromium. 3.3.2 Nickel. 3.3.3 Molybdenum. 3.4 Natural transport of chromium, nickel and molybdenum from bedrock and soil to the aquatic environment. 3.4.1 Processes in the ground profile. 3.4.2 Groundwater. 3.4.3 Surface water. 3.4.4 Seawater. 3.5 Natural transport of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to the atmosphere. 2 4. GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM 4.1 Primary chromium, nickel and molybdenum production. 4.2 Uses of chromium, nickel and molybdenum. 4.3 Recycling of chromium, nickel and molybdenum. 5. SWEDISH PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM 5.1 Primary and secondary production of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in Sweden. 5.1.1 Primary production. 5.1.2 Secondary production of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in Sweden. 5.2 Steel production. 5.3 Use of chromium, nickel and molybdenum and their compounds. 5.4 The circulation of steel and other products containing chromium, nickel and molybdenum. 5.4.1 Steel. 5.4.2 Residual products and waste from metal production. 5.4.3 Metal-bearing residual products and waste from other areas. 6. MAGNITUDE OF THE ANTHROPOGENIC FLOW OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM TO THE SWEDISH EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT 6.1 Emissions from point sources. 6.1.1 Emissions to air and water from point sources. 6.2 Diffuse emissions. 6.2.1 Diffuse emissions from production process waste. 6.2.2 Leakage from stores of waste and residual products. 6.3 Diffuse emissions of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in connection with use of products. 6.3.1 Corrosion/wear/abrasion of steel products, alloys, and metallised surfaces containing chromium, nickel in the external environment. 6.3.2 Emission of chromium, nickel and molybdenum from material exposed in the traffic environment. 3 6.3.3 Building materials other than iron and steel products. 6.3.4 Paints and coatings. 6.3.5 Tanning of leather. 6.3.6 Municipal sewage treatment works. 6.3.7 Emissions to agricultural land. 6.4 Summary of chromium, nickel and molybdenum flows from society to the Environment, and their natural circulation in Sweden. 7. DISTRIBUTION, CONVERSION, AND FIXING OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT 7.1 Current atmospheric distribution and fallout of chromium, nickel and molybdenum over Sweden. 7.1.1 Wet deposition. 7.1.2 Wet and dry deposition. 7.2 Occurrence and distribution of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in Swedish soil. 7.2.1 Current content of topsoil. 7.2.2 Current content of agricultural land. 7.2.3 Current content of open land in the urban environment. 7.2.4 Current content in humus in forested and open land in areas near major emission sources. 7.3 Chromium, nickel and molybdenum occurrence and distribution in the inland aquatic environment. 7.3.1 Current content in groundwater in various parts of the country. 7.3.2 Current content in groundwater in the urban environment. 7.3.3 Current content in groundwater in areas near major emission sources. 7.3.4 Current content in surface water. 7.3.5 Current content in surface and deep sediments. 7.4 Occurrence and distribution of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in neighbouring sea areas. 7.4.1 Discharge from various drainage areas. 7.4.2 Current content of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in central sea areas. 7.4.3 Current content in sediments. 8 ASSIMILATION AND METABOLISATION OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 8.1 Essential and non-essential metals. 8.2 Assimilation and conversion of metals in organisms. 4 8.2.1 Bio-accumulativity of chromium, nickel and molybdenum. 8.3 Environmental factors affecting the bio-accessibility of chromium, nickel and molybdenum. 8.3.1 Terrestrial environment. 8.3.2 Aquatic environment. 8.4 Recorded content of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in plants and animals in the terrestrial environment. 8.5 Recorded content of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in plants and animals in the aquatic environment. 8.5.1 Fresh water. 8.5.2 Sea water. 9. LEVELS OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM AT WHICH DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS OR TOXIC EFFECTS OCCUR 9.1 Deficiency symptoms. 9.2 Examples of toxic effects of chromium, nickel and molybdenum at increased exposure. 9.2.1 Toxic effects in the terrestrial environment. 9.2.2 Toxic effects in the aquatic environment. 9.2.3 Examples of negative effects in Swedish waters with increased levels of chromium, nickel and molybdenum. 10 EFFECTS OF CHROMIUM, NICKEL AND MOLYBDENUM ON HUMANS 10.1 Human exposure to chromium, nickel and molybdenum. 10.1.1 Exposure via inhalation of ambient air. 10.1.2 Exposure via skin contact with products. 10.1.3 Exposure via intake of mains water. 10.1.4 Exposure via intake of foodstuffs other than mains water. 10.1.5 Other exposure. 10.2 Absorption, secretion and distribution of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in the organism. 10.2.1 Absorption and secretion. 10.2.2 Distribution and contents in various human organs. 10.3 Chromium, nickel and molybdenum deficiency. 10.4 Effects of increased chromium, nickel and molybdenum uptake; toxic symptoms. 5 11. CONCLUSIONS 11.1 Use, recycling – aspects of resources. 11.1.1 Reasons for the use of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in modern society. 11.1.2 Extent of production and recycling 11.1.3 Reasons for increasing the recycling rate 11.2 Natural and anthropogenic flows of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in Sweden. 11.2.1 Amount of naturally-occurring chromium, nickel and molybdenum circulating in the Swedish environment 11.2.2 Environmental emissions of chromium, nickel and molybdenum from production processes, products and waste. 11.2.3 Measured or forecast trends for chromium, nickel and molybdenum in the Swedish environment. 11.3 Environmental and human exposure and effects of chromium, nickel and molybdenum in Sweden. 11.3.1 Risks of effects on the environment 11.3.2 Risks of effects on human beings REFERENCES 1 Objective Several proposals or demands have been raised by various authorities with a view to making radical changes in the use of metals in Sweden. At the same time, it has on various occasions been noted that the demand for knowledge of metals in society and the environment is still very great. For instance, the Commission for the Recycling of Materials (2) has, among other things noted that: ‘An increased knowledge of metals, of where metals are used, and of where diffused emissions of mainly toxic metals take place is needed’. Again, in the research programme for the project ‘Metals in town and country’ initiated by the Swedish Environmental Protection agency, it was remarked that: ‘The use of metals in goods and products has also increased, which has resulted in an increased accumulation of metals in the technosphere and in the urban environment. As the quantities of metals increase in those environments, the risks for the ecosystems and for human health also increase. Knowledge of how 6 fast this accumulation is taking place, and of present and future risks is, however, very scarce.’ By far the main use of chromium, nickel and molybdenum is in alloys of various kinds, mainly stainless steel. Existing surveys on these metals do not give any overall picture of their production, use, distribution or effects in the Swedish environment. On the initiative of the Federation of Swedish Industries, a number of industrial organisations (the Association of Chemical Industries, the Ironmasters Association, the Mine Owners Association, the Scandinavian Copper Development Association and the Nordic Galvanising Association) and companies in the metal business agreed to form a ‘Metals Information Task Force’ (MITF), with the purpose, of compiling facts on some metals. The metals included in the project are zinc, copper and chromium/nickel/molybdenum. The Environmental Research Group (MFG) has been detailed to collect and compile relevant material and to carry out a survey of facts in the form of three separate reports. In June 1997, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the MITF agreed to appoint a joint reference group, in which the National Chemicals Inspectorate was invited to participate. The purpose of the reference group was to discuss and scrutinise these three surveys before publication. The reference group also noted that the surveys are expected to be important bases for ongoing work in setting targets and actions regarding the use of metals in society. In order to carry out a comprehensive, scientific evaluation of the surveys, the Reference Group appointed a panel consisting of five external specialists representing expert knowledge in the following areas: metals in the terrestrial environment, aquatic environment, human toxicology, as well as technical and energy-related aspects. 7 The Reference Group for Metals Surveys has had the following members: Appointed by: The Swedish Environmental Staffan Lagergren, NV Protection Agency Husamuddin Ahmadzai, NV/Nefco Kjell Johansson, NV/SLU Hans Borg, ITM, University of Stockholm National Chemicals Ingela Andersson, KemI Inspectorate MITF Karl-Axel Waplan, Boliden AB Rolf Sundberg, SCDA/Outokumpu Birgitta Lindblad, Jernkontoret Hans Eriksson, Nordisk Zinkinfo Investigators/Authors Lars Landner, MFG Lennart Lindeström, MFG Eva Walterson, MFG Associated expert reviewers Dr.
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