and HumanRights of InternationalHumanitarian Law © TheGenevaAcademy ISBN: 9782970125310 April 2019 their boundariesorthestatusofanystatesterritoriesthatborder them. of suchstatesorterritories,theirauthoritiesandinstitutions, thedelimitationof judgement bytheGenevaAcademyorFondationSalviaregarding thelegalstatus commented ondrafts.Thedesignationofstatesorterritoriesdoesnotimplyany ily reflectthoseoftheproject’ssupportersoranyonewhoprovidedinputto, This Briefingistheworkofauthors.Theviewsexpressedinitdonotnecessar- given totheGenevaAcademy’sresearchonthisissue. The GenevaAcademywouldliketothankFondationSalviaforthesupportithas Munizha Ahmad-Cookeforhermeticulouscopy-editing. and PaulineVerrière,whoprovidedhelpfulcommentsonanearlierdraft,to With thankstoFulyaBatur,ClaudioBrenni,JoséEsquinas-Alcázar,GuyKastler, Academy), andbyDrAdrianaBessa,SeniorResearchFellowattheGenevaAcademy. Geneva AcademyofInternationalHumanitarianLawandHumanRights(Geneva Research FellowandStrategicAdviseronEconomic,SocialCulturalRightsatthe This AcademyBriefingwasresearchedandwrittenbyDrChristopheGolay,Senior DISCLAIMER ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS OF PEASANTS AND OTHER PEOPLE WORKING IN RURAL AREAS THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE AND THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE THE UNITED NATIONS DECLARATION ON THE RIGHTS

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 3 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 4

3. 4.

1. 2.

C. B. B. A. IN RURAL AREAS (UNDROP), 2018 THE UN DECLARATION ON THE RIGHTS OF PEASANTS AND OTHER PEOPLE WORKING THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP A. D. C. INTRODUCTION D. C. B. A. THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5. 4. 3. 2. 1. THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF PEASANTS’ RIGHT TO SEEDS THE RIGHT TO SEEDS OF PEASANT WOMEN A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNDROP THE DEFINITION OF PEASANTS AND OTHER PEOPLE WORKING IN RURAL AREAS THE INCLUSION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS INSTRUMENTS THE PRIMACY OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE UNDROP OVER OTHER INTERNATIONAL WORKING IN RURAL AREAS A HOLISTIC VISION OF THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS OF PEASANTS AND OTHER PEOPLE MONITORING MECHANISMS AND IMPLEMENTATION THE RECOGNITION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1992–2008) WHERE ARE THE TENSIONS? ENTRENCHING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1961–1994)

OR PROPAGATING MATERIAL THE RIGHT TO SAVE, USE, EXCHANGE AND SELL FARM-SAVED SEED FROM THE UTILIZATION OF SEEDS THE RIGHT TO EQUITABLY PARTICIPATE IN THE SHARING OF BENEFITS ARISING THE RIGHT TO PARTICIPATE IN DECISION-MAKING ON MATTERS RELATING TO SEEDS THEIR OWN SEEDS AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES RELEVANT TO SEEDS THE RIGHT TO THE PROTECTION OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, INNOVATION PEASANTS’ RIGHT TO MAINTAIN, CONTROL, PROTECT AND DEVELOP

CONTENTS

20 20 28 29 28 22 25 32 23 35 33 14 18 16 33 12 12 31 31 11 7

6. b.

5.

A. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNDROP IN THE EU AND EU MEMBER STATES B. A. THE EUROPEAN UNION CHALLENGES TO THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN THE LAW OF D.

2. 1. TO SEEDS AND STANDARDS, AND NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LAWS AND POLICIES WITH THE RIGHT THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE CONSISTENCY OF INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS 4. 3. 1. 2. SEED REGISTRATION, CERTIFICATION AND MARKETING 3. 2. 1. STATES’ OBLIGATIONS PATENTS, UPOV REGULATIONS AND FARMERS’ RIGHTS 5. 4. 1. 3. 2.

NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LAWS AND POLICIES AGREEMENTS AND STANDARDS THE ELABORATION, INTERPRETION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL c. a. SPECIALPROVISIONS MARKETING REGISTRATION CERTIFICATION FARMERS’ RIGHTS IN EUROPE UPOV REGULATIONS IN EUROPE THE EUROPEAN PATENT CONVENTION INTEGRATE THE NEEDS OF PEASANTS, WITH THEIR ACTIVE PARTICIPATION THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THAT AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES IN RELATION TO SEEDS THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE PARTICIPATION OF PEASANTS IN THE USE OF PEASANT SEEDS AND AGROBIODIVERSITY AND INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND STANDARDS WITH THE RIGHT TO SEEDS THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE CONSISTENCY OF NATIONAL LAWS AND POLICIES THE OBLIGATION TO SUPPORT PEASANT SEED SYSTEMS AND TO PROMOTE OBLIGATIONS TO RESPECT, PROTECT AND FULFIL THE RIGHT TO SEEDS

Genetically modifiedseeds Organic seeds Conservation andamateurvarieties

40 40 44 48 49 49 50 43 54 45 56 43 43 38 39 47 52 52 52 55 55 37 37

CONTENTS 5 CONTENTS 6 7.

ANNEX: RELEVANT ARTICLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DECLARATION ON THE RIGHTS CONCLUSION OF PEASANTS AND OTHER PEOPLE WORKING IN RURAL AREAS B.

5. 4. 3. 2. 1. FOCUS ON SPECIFIC RIGHTS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS

INTEGRATE THE NEEDS OF PEASANTS, WITH THEIR ACTIVE PARTICIPATION THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THAT AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES IN RELATION TO SEEDS THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE RIGHT OF PEASANTS TO PARTICIPATION IN OF BENEFITS ARISING FROM THE UTILIZATION OF SEEDS INNOVATION AND PRACTICES, AND TO EQUITABLY PARTICIPATE IN THE SHARING OF PEASANT SEEDS AND AGROBIODIVERSITY THE OBLIGATION TO PROTECT PEASANTS’ RIGHTS TO TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, OBLIGATIONS TO SUPPORT PEASANT SEED SYSTEMS AND TO PROMOTE THE USE OBLIGATIONS TO RESPECT, PROTECT AND FULFIL THE RIGHT TO SEEDS

60 66 65 59 63 67 57 57 Areas (UNDROP). 1 compared tothesupportgiven toindustrialseedsystemsinrecentdecades.This the lackofsupportgiventopeasant seedsystemsworldwide,Europeincluded, The implementationoftheUNDROPrepresentsauniqueopportunity torebalance peasant seedsystems,andpromotetheuseofseeds agrobiodiversity’. spect and take into account the rights, needs and realities of peasants’; and ‘support other intellectualpropertylaws,certificationschemesandseed marketinglawsre- as they apply to peasants’; ‘ensure that seed policies, plant variety protection and to whichtheyareparty,inamannerconsistentwiththeirhuman rightsobligations alia, ‘elaborate,interpretandapplyrelevantinternationalagreements andstandards on 17December2018.AccordingtotheUNDROP,UNMember Statesshall,inter adopted the UNDROP on 28 September 2018, followed by the UN General Assembly DROP), in which peasants’ right to seeds is recognized. The Human Rights Council Declaration ontheRightsofPeasantsandOtherPeopleWorkinginRuralAreas(UN- To respondtothesechallenges,amongothers,theUnitedNationsadoptedUN continuation ofpeasantagriculturalactivities. selling havebeenoutlawed.Thishasdiscouraged,andinsomecaseshinderedthe peasant seeds,andinanumberofcountries,seedsaving,exchange signed intunewithindustrialseedsandagriculturestandards,largelyexcluding seeds. NationalseedcataloguesandtheEUCommonCataloguehavebeende- largely asa result of a normative framing thatoutlaws the marketingofpeasant supported. Europeanseeddiversityhassufferedadrasticdecayinrecentdecades, glected. Peasantseedsystemsandtraditionalknowledgehavenotbeenadequately tural industryinthecontinent,andrightsofpeasantshavebeenlargelyne- and regulationshavebeendesignedwiththeaimtofurtherdevelopagricul- In theEuropeanUnionandEUMemberStates,focusofthisstudy,seedlaws and tothemaintenanceofpeasantseedsystemsagrobiodiversity. tems haveposedseriouschallengestotheprotectionofthesecustomarypractices, tion ofNewVarietiesPlants(UPOV),andthepromotioncommercialseedsys- the WorldTradeOrganization(WTO)andInternationalUnionforProtec- ty andbiodiversity.Buttheprotectionofintellectualpropertyrightsoverseedsat practices remain essential to peasants’ right to food, as well as to global food securi- seeds, aswellusedandreusedthemtoproducefood.Today,thesecustomary For over 10,000 years, peasants have freely saved, selected, exchanged and/orsold FINDINGS Arts2(4), 15(5) and19(8),UNDeclaration ontheRightsof Peasants andOtherPeople Working inRural AND RECOMMENDATIONS KEY FINDINGS 1

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 7 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 8 • • • • on PlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture: Convention onBiologicalDiversityanditsProtocolstheInternationalTreaty vention ontheEliminationofAllFormsDiscriminationAgainstWomen, Cultural Rights,theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalCon- which it is based,including the International Covenant on Economic, Socialand In accordancewiththeUNDROP,andbindinginternationaltreatieson party, do not lead to violations, but to a better protection of peasants’ right to seeds. party, donotleadtoviolations,butabetterprotectionofpeasants’rightseeds. that their laws andpolicies,aswelltheinternationalagreementstowhich they are ticles 55 (c), 56 and 103 of the UN Charter, the EU and EU Member States shall ensure national laws, reflected in Articles 2(4),15(5)and19(8)of theUNDROP as well as Ar- accordance withtheprioritytobegivenhumanrightsnormsininternationaland UNDROP inallfutureworkleadinguptoitsrealization.Followingthesecalls,and on EuropeaninstitutionsandEUMemberStategovernmentstoactivelysupportthe adoption oftheUNDROP,andEuropeanEconomicSocialCommitteecalled In 2018,theEuropeanParliament(EP)calledforEUMemberStatestosupport of peasants,aswelltheinterestallinpreservationcropbiodiversity. is essentialfortheprotectionoflivesandlivelihoodshundredsmillions RECOMMENDATIONS nomic Partnership Agreements withtheEU. developing countries to adopt UPOV’s 1991 Act, asacondition for concluding Eco- or peasants inother countries. This impliesthatthey shall,inter alia,stop requiring they are party donot lead to violations of the rightto seeds of European peasants The EU andEU MemberStates shallensure thatfree trade agreements to which menting international agreements thatmay affect theirright to seeds. ants, through theirown representative institutions, before adopting andimple- The EU andEU MemberStates shallconsult andcooperate ingoodfaith withpeas- change andsell farmed-saved seeds. realization of therightto seeds, includingpeasants’ rightto freely save, use, ex agreement protecting intellectual property rights,donot violate, butfacilitate the implementation of WTO and UPOV instruments, as well as any other international implies thatthey shall,inter alia,ensure thatthenegotiation, interpretation and agreements andstandards inamannerconsistent withtherightto seeds. This The EU andEU MemberStates shallelaborate, interpret andapplyinternational all other relevant actors. ants andother people working inrural areas, non-governmental organizations and thorities, nationalhumanrightsinstitutions, EU institutions, organizations of peas- training for government officials, members ofthe legislative branch, judicialau- standing of andrespect for itsprovisions. They shallprovide orsupporttechnical The EU and EU Member States shall disseminate the UNDROP and promote under - - • • • • • • peasant seeds, andpromote peasants’ participation initsformulation. fair, impartial andappropriate system of evaluation andcertification of thequality of peasant field schools and participatory plantbreeding. They could also promotea shall encourage equitable andparticipatory peasant-scientist partnerships, suchas only exist, butfullyoperate and thrive asproduction andconservation systems. They They theirnormative shallmodify framework so thatpeasants’ seed systems not maintain, control, protect anddevelop theirown seeds andtraditional knowledge. use of peasant seeds andagrobiodiversity andguarantee therightof peasants to The EU andEU MemberStates shallsupportpeasant seed systems, promote the infringe, butfacilitate therealization of theright to seeds. oration of nationaland regional laws andpolicies,to make sure thatthey donot tion and application of international agreements and standards, and in the elab - and/or through their representative organizations, in the elaboration, interpreta- The EU andEU MemberStates shallensure theparticipation of peasants, directly tions of peasants and other people working inrural areas. and supporttheestablishment andgrowth of strong andindependentorganiza- peasants in decision-making onmatters relating to seeds. They shallalso respect The EU andEU MemberStates shallensure thefullandmeaningful participation of are prescribed inmutuallyagreed terms. communities are obtained before access to seeds andbenefit-sharing modalities that the prior informed consent or approval andinvolvement of farmers andtheir exchange andsell farm-saved seeds orpropagating material. They shallensure sharing of benefits arising from theutilization of seeds; andtheir right to save, of decisions on matters related to seeds; their right to equitably participate inthe of traditional knowledge relevant to seeds; theirrightto participate inthemaking develop theirown seeds and traditional knowledge; theirrightto theprotection peasants’ right to seeds, inparticular their right to maintain, control, protect and The EU andEU MemberStates shallrespect, protect andfulfilthemainelements of into account peasants’ rightto seeds, aswell astheirneeds andrealities. posing industry-specific production standards. The revisions shall respect and take to meet theneeds andinterests of theagricultural industry and,indoingso, im- frameworks onregistration, certification andmarketing of seeds, largely designed alities of peasants. The EU andEU MemberStates shall,inter alia,revise theirlegal and certification schemes respect and take into account therights,needs and re- tion andother intellectual property laws, seed marketing laws, variety registration The EU andEU Member States shall ensure that seed policies,plant variety protec forts aimed atimplementingtherightto seeds. shall engageininternational cooperation andassistance to supportnationalef tect peasants’ rightto seeds andseed systems. AndtheEU andEU MemberStates should includeprovisions andconditionality requirements thatsupportandpro- realization of the right to seeds. The reform of thecommon agricultural policy of their agricultural, economic, social, cultural anddevelopment policies withthe The EU andEU MemberStates shallestablish mechanisms to ensure thecoherence - -

KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9 KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 10 • • • • at themost suitable timefor planting,andatanaffordable price. shall ensure thatseeds of sufficientqualityandquantity are available to peasants, on the crops and species that they wish to grow. The EU and EU Member States on theirown seeds oronother locally available seeds of theirchoice, andto decide The EU andEU MemberStates shallrecognize therightsof peasants to rely either modified organisms, including by protecting peasants against crop contamination. from thedevelopment, handling,transport, use, transfer orrelease of genetically spect and strengthen the right to seeds. They shall, inter alia, prevent risks arising organizations, andtransnational corporations andother business enterprises, re- state actors thatthey are inapositionto regulate, such asprivate individualsand The EU andEU MemberStates shalltake allnecessary measures to ensure thatnon- seeds without discrimination. areas, to promote theirempowerment andto ensure thatthey enjoy therightto forms of discrimination against peasant women andother women working inrural The EU andEU MemberStates shalltake allappropriate measures to eliminate all cal varieties, taking into account theirexperience insuchresearch anddevelopment. priorities andtheundertaking of research anddevelopment of orphancrops andlo- peasants, andthey shallensure peasants’ active participation inthedefinition of velopment of orphancrops, local varieties andseeds thatrespond to theneeds of their active participation. They shall,inter alia,invest more inresearch onandde- ment integrates theneeds of peasants andother people livinginrural areas with The EU andEU MemberStates shallensure thatagricultural research anddevelop-

seeds inEurope. steps thattheEUandMemberStatesshalltaketobetterprotectright This guide aims to support the implementation of the UNDROP. It focuses on the and itsArticle19,whichenshrinestherighttoseeds. and EUMemberStatesshalltakeallnecessarystepstoimplementtheUNDROP national instrumentsadoptedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyingoodfaith,EU realization. Followingthesecalls,andinaccordancewiththeneedtoapplyinter- governments toactivelysupporttheUNDROPinallfutureworkleadingupits and SocialCommitteecalledontheEuropeaninstitutionsEUMemberState port theadoptionofUNDROP,andinFebruary2018,EuropeanEconomic In July2018,theEuropeanParliamentcalledforEUMemberStatestosup- tection oftherighttoseeds. agreements towhichtheyareparty,donotleadviolations,butabetterpro- also requestedtoensurethattheirlawsandpolicies,aswelltheinternational same purpose.LikeotherUNMemberStates,EuropeanUnionStatesare and thattheyshallengageininternationalcooperationassistancewiththe provide that UN Member States shall respect, protect and fulfill the right to seeds, food, seedsandbiologicaldiversity,definecorrelativestates’obligations.They tified challengesandopportunities inusingtheUNDROP to better protect therightto seeds inEurope. their views andconcerns regarding EU andEU MemberStates’ laws andregulations onseeds, andiden- leaders of European peasant organizations and seed networks. During the workshop, participants shared tection of the right to seeds inEurope. Participants included UN andEU experts, lawyers, lobbyists and 3 2 protect peasants’righttoseeds. Several articlesoftheUNDROPdescribemeasuresthatstatesshalltaketobetter adopted iton17December2018. eas (UNDROP)on28September2018,andtheUNGeneralAssembly tion ontheRightsofPeasantsandOtherPeopleWorkinginRuralAr- The UnitedNationsHumanRightsCounciladoptedtheUNDeclara- Member States(Part6). law (Part5)andproposalstobetterprotecttherightseeds intheEUand a presentationofthechallengestoprotectionright to seedsinEuropean struments, aswellnationalandregionallawspolicies (Part 4).Itendswith states’ obligationsandexplainswhyitshallprevailoverother internationalin- introduces the UNDROP (Part 3), outlines its definition of the right to seeds and different monitoringmechanismsandunequalimplementation (Part2).Itthen and intellectualpropertyrightsininternationallaw,their potentialtensions, In April 2018, the Geneva Academy organized a workshop in Geneva on the UNDROP and the pro- By ‘seed’ we mean any plantreproductive organ, includingplants. 3 Itstartswithapresentationoftheprotectionrighttoseeds 2 Theseprovisionsrecognize,interalia,therightsto 1. INTRODUCTION

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 11 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 12 propriate accesstotheseresources. ing ofthebenefitsarisingoututilizationgeneticresources, includingbyap- communities’ traditionalknowledgeandpractices,thefair andequitableshar- ants, through provisions aimed at ensuring the protection of indigenous and local elements oftherighttoseedsindigenousandlocalcommunities,includingpeas- 7 information/parties.shtml (last accessed 2April2019). 6 19_5_2016%20(FINAL%20TO%20BE%20PUT%20ON%20WEBSITES).pdf -%20Legal%20Analysis%20-%20Right%20to%20Seeds%20and%20IPRs%20-%20C_%20Golay%20 rights%20of%20peasants%20and%20other%20people%20working%20in%20rural%20areas%20 geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/Publications/Other%20publications/The%20 International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights (Geneva Academy), 2016, pp11–20, https://www. Analysis ontheRightsof Peasants andOtherPeople Working inRural Areas, Geneva Academy of 4 seeds, aswellusedandreusedthemtoproducefood. For over10,000 years, peasants have freely saved, selected, exchanged and/orsold mentation atnationallevel(SectionD). (Section C),different monitoring mechanisms and unbalanced imple- tional law(SectionsAandB).Itthenpresentstheirinherenttensions history oftherighttoseedsandintellectualpropertyrightsininterna- to theprotectionofrightseeds.Thissectionbeginswithabrief International lawoffersanumberofopportunitiesforandchallenges Nansen Institute, 2005. 5 pdf (last accessed 2April2019). 2017, pp2–3, https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/Resarch%20Brief_web. See Golay, also C. The Rightto Seeds andIntellectual Property Rights,Research Brief, Geneva Academy, almost universal acceptance, with 196 states parties. The CBDwas adopted in1992andentered into force in 1993.Today,ithasacquired and theUNDeclarationonRightsofIndigenousPeoples. ternational TreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(ITPGRFA) adopting theConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)anditsProtocols,In- and thestartoftwenty-firstcentury,statesaffirmedthesecustomaryrights by LAW (1992–2008) LAW A. THE RECOGNITION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN INTERNATIONAL INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS Ontheprotection of therightsof indigenous andlocal communities, see Art8j,CBD. R.Andersen, The History of Farmers’ Rights:AGuideto Central DocumentsandLiterature , Fridtjof

This part islargely inspired by Golay C. , The Rightto Seeds andIntellectual Property Rights.Legal For thelist of States Parties to theConvention onBiological Diversity (CBD),see 2. THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 7 IntheCartagenaProtocolonBiosafety,adopted 6 The CBD protects important 5 Attheendoftwentieth (last accessed 2April2019). https://www.cbd.int/ 4

treaty onthemanagementofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture. – theInternationalUndertakingonPlantGeneticResourcesintoamorespecific (FAO) wastaskedwithtransforminganon-bindinginstrumentitadoptedin1983 When theCBDwasadopted,FoodandAgricultureOrganizationofUN nous andlocalcommunities’(Article12(4)). genetic resourcesandassociatedtraditionalknowledgewithinamongstindige- also committed,‘asfaraspossible,nottorestrictthecustomaryuseandexchangeof in 2001.Ithasmorethan140statespartiestoday The ITPGRFAwasnegotiatedfor20yearsanditadoptedbyconsensusatFAO equitable way. seeds andplantingmaterialtosharebenefitsderivingfromtheseinafair right toseeds.Thetreatyestablishesamultilateralsystemfacilitateaccess ternational treatyintermsofitsrecognitionandprotectionfarmers’/peasants’ adopted in2010andratifiedbymorethan110states, goya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit-Sharing (Nagoya Protocol), ic resourcesheld by indigenousandlocalcommunities (Article 5(2)). with genetic resources (Article 5(5)), and from research and development on genet- benefit-sharing obligations arising from theuse oftraditional knowledgeassociated Resolution 8/2013 http://www.fao.org/3/a-bb926e.pdf, 2014, (last accessed 19April2019). the International Treaty, Especially its Article 9, andRelevant Instruments of UPOV and WIPO, Pursuant to 15 resources.’ Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, UNdocA/64/170, 23July2009, §22. This global pool comprises 64food crops thatmake up more than1millionsamplesof known plantgenetic nent access to alarge poolof geneticresources for thedevelopment of new andimproved plantresources. … For him, theITPGRFA ‘seeks to establish anovel system of governance for global commons, ensuringperma- 14 Agriculture (ITPGRFA), see http://www.planttreaty.org/list_of_countries (last accessed 2April2019). 13 http://www.fao.org/wiews-archive/docs/Resolution_8_83.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). November 1983, theFAO Conference adopted theInternational Undertaking onPlantGeneticResources, 12 areas-reflections-on-benefit-sharing/ (last accessed 2April2019). com/2014/12/08/the-draft-declaration-on-the-rights-of-peasants-and-other-people-working-in-rural- Reflections onBenefit-Sharing’, BeneLex Blog,8December https://benelexblog.wordpress. 2014, 11 12 October See 2014. www.cbd.int/abs (last accessed 2 April2019). Arising from theirUtilization (Nagoya Protocol) was adopted on29October 2010. Itentered into force on 10 9 protocol (last accessed 2April2019). was adopted on29January2000. Itentered into force on11 September 2003. See http://bch.cbd.int/ 8 in 2000andtowhichmorethan 170 states are parties, the potentialrisksposedbygeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMOs). measures toprotectbiologicaldiversityandindigenouslocalcommunitiesfrom seen asthefoundationofallmodernplantbreeding’. and to ‘draw attention to the unremunerated innovations of farmers that were sions, inawaythataimstorespondthreatsposedbyintellectualpropertyrights The Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety to theConvention onBiological Diversity (Cartagena Protocol) See inparticular, Art26, Cartagena Protocol. A. Bessa, ‘The A. Draft Declaration ontheRightsof Peasants andOtherPeople Working inRural Areas: Inhisreport onseed policiespresented in2009, OlivierDeSchutter described theadded value of the treaty.

Andersen, Andersen, The History of Farmers’, supra Rights fn5,ppv–vi. InitsResolution 8/83 adopted on23 The Nagoya Protocol onAccess to GeneticResources andtheFair and Equitable Sharingof Benefits For alist of States Parties to theInternational Treaty onPlantGeneticResources for Food and The History of Farmers’ Rights,supra fn5,ppv, 3–10. SouthCentre, 14 Importantly,itrecognizesfarmers’rightsinmanyofitsprovi- 13 andisthemostimportantin- 8 states have alsoagreed to take 15 10 stateshavefurtherdefined Interrelations Between 9 And,intheNa- 11 Theyhave 12

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 13 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 14 these twoformsofintellectualpropertyrights. tional treatiesandeffectivemonitoringmechanismsoffer strong protectionto Science Century: inthe21st Rights That Scientists Have to Deal With’, 22Seed Science Research S1(2012). 17 mences_reglementations_EN.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). International Regulations Affect Farmer Seeds, 2011, pp14–19, http://www.farmersrights.org/pdf/se World Scientific,2009. See also Réseau Semences Paysannes, Seeds andFarmers’ Rights:How 16 protection ofbreeders’rightsandpatents. European countriesandtheUnitedStatesintwentiethcentury, throughthe The creationofintellectualpropertyrightsoverseedsandplant varietiesbeganin and developtheirseedsownershipofthese(Article31(1)). first time,byrecognizingindigenouspeoples’righttomaintain,control,protect 2008, statesrecognizedtherighttoseedsininternationalhumanrightslawfor Finally, inadoptingtheUNDeclarationonRightsofIndigenousPeoples rights thatfarmers/peasantshavealwayshad. ticle 9(3)).Itisthereforeveryclearthattheseprovisionsaimtoprotectcustomary have tosave,use,exchangeandsellfarm-savedseedorpropagatingmaterial’(Ar- states thatitsprovisionsshallnotbeinterpreted‘tolimitanyrightsfarmers party willdothis‘asappropriateandsubjecttoitsnationallegislation’.Butitalso for foodandagriculture’.ItisimportanttonotethatArticle9providesastate matters relatedtotheconservationandsustainableuseofplantgeneticresources culture, and(c)therighttoparticipateinmakingdecisions,atnationallevel,on benefits arising from the utilization of plant genetic resources for foodand agri- food andagriculture,affirming(b)therighttoequitablyparticipateinsharing by: ‘(a)protectingtraditionalknowledgerelevanttoplantgeneticresourcesfor cle requiresstatespartiestotakemeasuresprotectandpromotefarmers’rights, the basisforfoodandagricultureproductionthroughoutworld’.Thesamearti- for theconservationanddevelopmentofplantgeneticresourceswhichconstitute in thecentresoforiginandcropdiversity,havemadewillcontinuetomake indigenous communitiesandfarmersofallregionstheworld,particularlythose In Article9,theyfurtherrecognized‘theenormouscontributionthatthelocaland tion ofFarmers’Rightsatnationalandinternationallevels’. ture, arefundamentaltotherealizationofFarmers’Rights,aswellpromo- of thebenefitsarisingfrom,useplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricul- and toparticipateindecision-makingregarding,fairequitablesharing ty tosave,use,exchangeandsellfarm-savedseedotherpropagatingmaterial, In theITPGRFA’sPreamble,statesaffirmedthat‘therightsrecognizedinthisTrea- farming and,morerecently,ofabiotechnologysector. cally linked to the development of a commercial breeding sector separate from IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1961–1994) B. ENTRENCHING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, supra §1. fn See14, also N. Louwaars, ‘Seed G.Dutfield,Intellectual Property Rights andthe Life Science Industries: Past, Present andFuture , 16 Thislegaldevelopmentwasintrinsi- 17 Today,bindinginterna-

clude alllargecommercialpowerswiththenotableexceptionofIndia. members ofUPOV,andtwo-thirdsthemhaveratifiedthe1991Act.Membersin- are obligedtobecomepartiesthe1991version.Today,morethan70states force in1968.Itwasthenrevised1972,1978and1991.Since1999,newmembers The firstversionoftheUPOVConventionwasadoptedin1961anditenteredinto tection ofNewVarieties of Plants(UPOV)anditsConvention(UPOVConvention). Most countriesadoptedthemodelproposedbyInternationalUnionforPro- that theybuyfromsellers,whichmaybethepatent-holdersortheirlicensees. are frequentlyrequestedtosignagreementsnotsave,resoworexchangetheseeds peasants (likebreeders)areconsideredtobelicenseesofthepatentholder,andthey rights overplant-relatedinventions.Whentheyuseapatentedproductorprocess, They ultimately give the right-holders – in many cases corporations – exclusive 25 is available at EU andthe African Intellectual Property Organization are also membersof UPOV. The list of UPOV members 24 doc UPOV/INF/6/4, 29October 2015. 23 apbrebes.org/files/seeds/ToolEnglishcompleteDez15.pdf (last accessed 2April2019) . to UPOV 1991, Association for Plant Breeding for the Benefit of Society (APBREBES), 2015, Developing Countries. ATool for DesigningASuiGenerisPlantVariety Protection System: AnAlternative 22 0b0wtcko2ifeksm9xuaso4dhbpg9r (last accessed 2April2019) . 21 Paysannes, Seeds andFarmers’ Rights,supra fn16,p31. 20 19 thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm (last accessed 2April2019). 18 novation. TheTRIPSAgreementrequiresWTOmembers Organization (WTO)on15April1994,defineshowpatentlawsshouldprotectin- adopted as Annex 1C of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade The AgreementonTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights(TRIPS), and peasants’rights–anoften-citedexampleisthatofIndia(seePart2.Dbelow). through whichtheyseektofindabalancebetweentheprotectionofbreeders’rights Patents representthemostcomprehensiveformofprotectionthatcanbegranted. a combinationofboth(Article27(3.b)). eties eitherbypatents,aneffectivesuigenerissystem(aofitsownkind)or but membersoftheWTOmustprotectintellectualpropertyrightsoverplantvari- industrial application(Article27).Protectionisoptionalforplantsandanimals, nology, providedthattheyarenew,involveaninventivestepandcapableof mum patentprotectionof20yearsforallinventionsinalmostfieldstech- rights systemthatcoverstheterritoryofitsMemberStatessince 1994. been partytotheUPOVActof1991since2005,andhasoperatedaplantbreeders’ ers’ rights. ies throughpatents, the greatmajority have chosentoprotect them throughbreed- While somecountrieshaveprotectedintellectualpropertyrightsoverplantvariet- Oxfam, The Status of Patenting PlantsintheGlobal South,2018, https://oxfam.app.box.com/s/f5l The World Trade Organization (WTO) hasover 160Members.For afulllist, see www.wto.org/english/ Louwaars, ‘Seed Science century’, inthe21st supra fn17. UPOV, Guidance for thePreparation of Laws Based onthe 1991 Act of theUPOV Convention, UPOV EU Council Regulation (EC) No2100/94 of 27 July1994on Community plant variety rights. Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on theRightto Food, supra §13.Inadditionto fn14, 72 states, the See C. M.Correa, See C. withcontributions from S.Shashikant andF. Meienberg, PlantVariety Protection in Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §12.See also Réseau fn14, Semences 21 www.upov.int/export/sites/upov/members/en/pdf/pub423.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). Indoingso,fewcountrieshavedevelopedtheirownsuigenerissystem, 18 toprovideforamini- 25 24 TheEUhas http://www. 20

22 19 23

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 15 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 16 rely onadiversityofcrops’. change andoftheneed,therefore,tobuildresiliencebyencouragingfarmers ed isagrobiodiversity,particularlyinthefaceofemergingthreatclimate and encouragestandardizationhomogeneity,whenwhatshouldbereward- teur ontherighttofood,OlivierDeSchutter,‘intellectualpropertyrightsreward http://www.worldseed.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/View_on_Intellectual_Property_2012.pdf Right to Food, supra §26; International fn14, Seed Federation, ISFView onIntellectual Property , 2012, en/upov_pub_353.pdf (last accessed 2 April 2019). See also Report of the Special Rapporteur onthe 28 27 Food Policy 3(2007) 358. N. Louwaars andD. Eaton, ‘PlantVariety Protection inDeveloping Countries: AReport from theField’,32 26 called nativetraitspatents,wheretheprotectedinnovation relatestoidentified intellectual propertyrights.Anadditionalsetoftensionsarises inthecaseofso- there aretensionswhenpeasantsusefarm-savedseedsofvarieties protectedby states shallsupportinimplementingtheUNDROP(seePart 4.D.3below)–but erty rights when peasants fully operate in peasant seed systems – a situation that There arenodirecttensionsbetweenpeasants’righttoseedsandintellectualprop- of plantbreeders’rights–allowingaccesstoothersforbreeding. ment ofanewplantvariety,whileatthesametime–incaseprotection ent-holder orthebreedertoberewardedforinvestmentmadeindevelop- Intellectual propertyrightsaimatencouraginginnovationbyallowingthepat- government hasenactedanoptionalexceptiontothe1991Act(Articles14and15). exchanging theseseeds,andtheycansavereuseprotectedseedsonlyiftheir ited peasantsfromsellingprotectedseeds,the1991Actalsoprohibitsthem uniform andstableplantvarieties (Article 19).Ifpreviousversionsalreadyprohib- The UPOVAct of 1991grants breeders at least20yearsofrightsover novel, distinct, an official seedcatalogue. means thatthevarietywasnevercommercializedinformalmarket,orlisted already knownorused(bypeasants,forinstance).Rather,noveltyunderUPOV ant to note that the novelty criterion does not mean that the plant variety was not plant varietiesthatarenew,distinct,uniformandstable(Article5(1)).Itisimport- The UPOVConventionprotectstherightsofplantbreederswhohavedeveloped 30 29 accessed 2April2019). inherently unstableandinpermanentevolution. the UPOVConventioncannotofferanyprotectiontopeasantvarieties,whichare discourage innovationinsteadofrewardingit. perts havearguedthatexcessiveprotectionofbreeders’rightsandpatentsmay C. WHERE ARE THE TENSIONS? Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §13. fn14, UPOV, UPOV Report ontheImpact of PlantVariety Protection, 2005, www.upov.int/edocs/pubdocs/ Ibid,§39. Réseau Semences Paysannes, Seeds andFarmers’ Rights,supra fn16,pp32–33. See also R.Tripp, Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on theRightto Food, supra §28. fn14, 26 The uniformity and stability requirements imply that 30 29 For theformerUNSpecialRappor- 27 28 However, ex- (last society’s interestinasustainableagricultureandtheattainmentoffoodsecurity’. dersen, ‘forconductthatshouldbedeemedlegitimateandwhichisfunctionalto in hisreportpresentedtotheUNGeneralAssembly2009: 34 Countries’, 28Food Policy 5–6(2003). Srinivasan, ‘Concentration inOwnershipof PlantVariety Rights:SomeImplications for Developing 33 R_t_F_a_N_Watch_2016_ENG_WEB.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). Watch: Keeping Seeds inPeoples’ Hands,Issue 8,2016, 2–3 March 2015. See also Rightto Food andNutritionWatch Consortium, Rightto Food and Nutrition Technical Committee onSustainable Use of PlantGeneticResources for Food andAgriculture, Rome, and Legislation onVariety Release andSeed Distribution’, InputPaper for theSecond Meeting Ad Hoc 32 mers-rights/submissions-by-the-contracting-parties-and-stakeholders/en/ (last accessed 2April2019). relation between theITPGRFA, UPOV and TRIPS.See http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/areas-of-work/far tatives and the seed industry in response of the resolution of the Governing body of the IIPGRFA on the 31 tion ofpeasants’righttoseeds. es tothemaintenanceanddevelopmentofpeasantseedsystems,protec- tion andthepromotionofcommercialseedsystemalsoposeseriouschalleng- The protectionofintellectualpropertyrightsunderTRIPSandtheUPOVConven- and exchangingfarm-savedseedsofcommercialvarieties, peasants facecivil,andinsomecases,evencriminalsanctionsforsaving,reusing number ofcountriesthathaveadoptedlawscompliantwiththeUPOVAct1991, exchange andsellfarm-savedseeds,usereusethemtoproducefood.Ina erty rightscreatelimitationstothecustomaryofpeasantssave,select, ing, attimesevenbeforethegrantofpatent.Inthesecases,intellectualprop- knowledge, inthelocalplantvarietiesandseedstheyhavebeenusingsav- characteristics in plants, which maybefoundin peasants’ fields withouttheir Examplesof countries andnationallaws can befound ininformation sent by civilsociety represen- Tripp, Louwaars andEaton, ‘Plant Variety Protection inDeveloping Countries’, supra S. fn26; C. R.Andersen, ‘SomeConsiderations ontheRelation Between Farmers’ Rights,PlantBreeders Rights Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra Summary. fn14, indebtedness inthefaceofunstableincomes. become increasinglydependentonexpensiveinputs,creatingtheriskof tion inplantbreeding.Inthisprocess,however,thepoorestfarmersmay of intellectualproperty,asameanstoencourageresearchandinnova- nopoly privilegestoplantbreedersandpatent-holdersthroughthetools and sellseeds, often informally.Thisshift has ledtogranttemporarymo- mers’ seedsystemsthroughwhichfarmerstraditionallysave,exchange leads totheemergenceofacommercialseedsystem,alongsidefar- The professionalizationofbreedinganditsseparationfromfarming ported theexpansionofcommercialseedsnotonlythroughplant variety cial seedsystemsissometimesproblematic.Publicauthorities have sup- community levels between farmers, and mostly informal –andcommer - the coexistencebetweenfarmers’seedsystems–operatingatlocalor real alternativestoacquiringtheirseedfromthecommercialsystem.Yet cause itismadeavailable.This,however,presupposesthatfarmershave obliged topurchaseplantvarietyprotection(PVP)-protectedseedjustbe- smallholders towards commercial seed varieties is that farmers are not The standardargumentagainsttheriskofincreaseddependency 33 OlivierDeSchuttersummarizedthesechallenges https://www.righttofoodandnutrition.org/files/ 34 31 orasstatedbyR.An- 32

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 17 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 18 the maintenanceandimprovementofgeneticresources. and thevastmajorityofpeasantsremainuncompensatedfor their contributionto tional knowledge,innovationsandpracticeshavenotbeenadequately protected efit-sharing asconceivedintheCBDistooslowandoftenunclear, peasants’tradi- implemented at national level. National implementation of the principle of ben- ties protectingpeasants’righttoseedsareveryweak,andthese treatiesarepoorly On theotherhand,monitoringmechanismsassociatedwith internationaltrea- tion forconcludingEconomicPartnershipAgreementswiththeEU. that manydevelopingcountriesarerequiredtoadoptUPOV’s1991Act,asacondi- ered theterritoryof28EUMemberStatessince1994.Itisalsoworthnoting rights overGMOs,andaUPOV-compliantplantbreeders’systemhascov- and Relevant Instruments of UPOV and WIPO, Third World Network and Berne Declaration, 2015, on Farmers’ Rights:The Interrelations Between theInternational Treaty, ItsArticle9onFarmers’ Rights, 35 concluded. advice providedtodevelopingcountries,oraspartoftradeagreementstheyhave protect breeders’rightsthatareUPOV-compliant,oftenonthebasisoftechnical some stateshaveoptedforpatents,andthegreatmajorityadoptedlawsto tional laws(asTRIPSispartoftheWTOAgreement).Aswehaveseen,todoso, are obligedtoprotectintellectualpropertyrightsoverplantvarietiesintheirna- Body composedofjudgeswhocanadoptbindingdecisions,andthe164members national level.AttheWTO,disputesettlementmechanismsincludeanAppellate these treatiesareverydifferent,andtheirimplementationisunbalancedat binding internationaltreaties,butthemonitoringmechanismsassociatedwith Peasants’ righttoseedsandintellectualpropertyrightsarebothrecognizedin ones thatcanbeputonthemarket. be registeredincatalogues,andtherefore–withonlyfewexceptionsthe plant varietiesprotectedbyintellectualpropertyrightsaretheonlyonesthatcan property rights–distinctness,uniformityandstability(DUS).Thisimpliesthat can beregisteredinseedcataloguesarethesameasthoseusedtograntintellectual of peasantseeds:thefactthatcriteriachosentodeterminewhichseedvarieties In theEUandMemberStates,anadditionalfactorcontributestoexclusion 38 37 74–91. 36 (last accessed 2April2019). www.twn.my/title2/intellectual_property/info.service/2015/ip151003/457628655560ccf2b0eb85.pdf D. MONITORING MECHANISMS AND IMPLEMENTATION Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on theRightto Food, supra §16. fn14, Ibid,§36(footnotes omitted). See also S.Shashikant andF. Meienberg, International Contradictions Ibid,§47. B. Magarinos-Rey, 37 sult isaprogressivemarginalizationordisappearanceoflocalvarieties the diffusionofselectedseedsinruralextensionnetworks....Theendre- protection schemes,butalsothroughtheuseofinputsubsidiesandvia IntheEU,patentsareused,interalia,toprotectintellectualproperty Semences hors-la-loi. La biodiversité confisquée, Éditions Alternatives, 2015, pp 36 38 Also,theITPGRFAhas http:// .35 rights theypreviouslyenjoyed’. most liberallegislationtodateinthissphere,allowingfarmersallthecustomary these exceptions. The 2001ProtectionofPlantVarietiesandFarmersRightsActinIndiaisone 46 www.farmersrights.org/bestpractices/success_seed_2.html (last accessed 2April2019). 45 Act’, www.farmersrights.org/bestpractices/success_seed_1.html (last accessed 2April2019). 44 aware of theexistence of suchabreeder’s right(Art42). unknowingly violate therightsof abreeder are not to bepunished ifthey can prove thatthey were not 43 (last accessed 2April2019). in 2001 anditentered into force in2005. See http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=128109 42 html (last accessed 2April2019). Rights Project, ‘Farmers’ RightsLegislation &Policy Database’, www.farmersrights.org/database/index. 41 and-stakeholders/en/ (last accessed 2April2019). http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/areas-of-work/farmers-rights/submissions-by-the-contracting-parties- 40 39 recognition ofpeasants’righttoseedsintheUNDROP. ance protectionbothatinternationalandnationallevels,includingthroughthe peasants’ right to seeds and intellectual property rights, there was a need to rebal- Given theveryunbalancednationalimplementationof,andtensionsbetween ed asobligingstatestoprotectfarmers’rightsinnationallaw. level, essentiallybecauseArticle9,definingfarmers’rights,hasnotbeeninterpret- not ledtoasignificantincreaseintheprotectionofrightseedsatnational breeders’ rights(Article39). change, shareandsellfarmproduce,includingseedsofvarietiesprotectedbyplant and breeders’rightsaswellpeasants’/farmers’tosave,use,sow,resow,ex- a state party to TRIPS but not a member of UPOV – has protected plant varieties of farmers’rightsinthecountry. of UPOV1978)–becauseitwouldhavebeendetrimentaltotheexistingprotection of breeders’rights–andallowNorwaytobecomeamemberUPOV1991(instead decided nottoadoptanewlawin2005thatwouldhavereinforcedtheprotection to findabalancebetweentheprotectionofpeasants’rightsandbreeders’rights. Few exceptionsexist,assomestateshaveadoptedlawsthroughwhichtheyseek ants’ righttoseedsarethereforenotmonitoredandremainunpunished. new onestobetterpromoteandprotectpeasants’rightseeds.Violationsofpeas- majority of states have not adapted their laws and policies, nor have they adopted These states includeEthiopia,Bangladesh, India,Nepal, Thailand andthePhilippines.See the Farmers’ Ibid,§43. Safeguards have been provided against innocent infringementby farmers, asfarmers who The Farmers’ RightsProject, ‘Best Practices: Norway’s “No” to Stricter PlantBreeders’ Rights’, http:// The Protection of Plant Varieties andFarmers’ RightsAct was adopted by theIndianParliament Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §43. fn14, The Farmers’ RightsProject, ‘Best Practices: India’sProtection of Plant Varieties andFarmers’ Rights For information ontheimplementation of Art9of theITPGRFA, see www.farmersrights.org and 42 Throughthislaw,India–whichisamemberoftheWTOand 43 FortheFarmersRightsProject,‘thisstandsas 44 45 Norwayoffersanotherinterestingexample,asit 46 39 Theoverwhelming 40

41

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS 19 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 20 represent 70percentofallpeoplewholiveinextremepoverty at risk.Peasants,landlesspeople,ruralworkers,herders,pastoralistsandfisherfolk peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareasremainunusuallyvulnerable More than50yearsafterthesetwoinstrumentswereadoptedin1966,however, the world’shungry. in ruralareasarevictimsofdiscriminationandhumanrights violations,andmost (last accessed 2April2019). https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/66358/1768_Having_Hunger.pdf?sequence=1 Hunger, 20% landless people and10% herders, pastoralists or fisherfolk. UNMillenniumProject, Task Force on 49 pdf (last accessed 2April2019). www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/rome2007/docs/IFAD%20Rural%20Poverty%20Report%202011. 48 disability, age,political orother opinion,religion, birth oreconomic, social orother status’. grounds suchasorigin,nationality, race, colour, descent, sex, language, culture, marital status, property, human rightsinstruments, free from any kindof discrimination intheexercise of theirrightsbased onany in theCharter of theUnited Nations,theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsandallother international rural areas have therightto the fullenjoyment of allhumanrights andfundamental freedoms recognized 47 (ICESCR) andtheInternationalCovenantonCivilPoliticalRights(ICCPR). enshrined intheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights adoption oftheUniversalDeclarationHumanRightsin1948,includingthose all humanrightsthathavebeenrecognizedbytheUNGeneralAssemblysince As humanbeings,peasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareasareentitledto instruments (SectionD). human rights and theUNDROP shall prevail over other international DROP (SectionC).Itendsbyexplainingwhy,ininternationallaw, (Section B)–andpresentstheholisticvisionpromotedbyUN- of theUNDROP–peasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareas sembly (SectionA).Itthenoutlinesthedefinitionofrights-holders the UNDROPatUNHumanRightsCouncilandGeneralAs- This partstartswithabriefhistoryofthenegotiationandadoption A. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNDROP This isrecognized inArt3(1),UNDROP, according to which‘[p]easants andother people working in International Fundfor Agriculture andDevelopment, Rural Poverty Report 2011 , 2010, p3, The UNMillennium Project hasestimated that50%of theworld’s hungryare smallholderfarmers, RURAL AREAS (UNDROP), 2018 THE RIGHTS OF PEASANTS AND Halving Hunger:ItCanBeDone:Summary Version, UNDevelopment Programme, 2005, pp4–6, OTHER PEOPLE WORKING IN 3. THE UN DECLARATION ON 49

Hundreds ofmillionspeasantsandotherpeopleworking 48

and 80percentof

http:// 47

Republic of Korea, Slovakia, Slovenia andSpain. and NorthernIreland; states thatabstained: Belgium,Brazil, Croatia, Georgia, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Republic of); states thatvoted against: Australia, HungaryandtheUnited Kingdomof Great Britain Senegal, SouthAfrica, Switzerland, Togo, Tunisia, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela (Bolivarian Mexico, Mongolia,Nepal, Nigeria,Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines,Qatar, Rwanda, SaudiArabia, Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of theCongo, Ecuador, Egypt, Ethiopia,Iraq, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, 3 against and11 abstentions. States thatvoted infavour: Afghanistan, Angola,Burundi,Chile,China, 53 cessed 2April2019). see see 52 downloads/PDF/EN-3.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). 51 pdf (last accessed 2April2019). www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---emp_policy/documents/publication/wcms_212689. 2019). See also ILO, The Informal Economy andDecent Work: APolicy Resource Guide,2013, org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_176668.pdf (last accessed 2April Through Decent Work –BuildingontheILO Rural Work Legacy 1970s–2011 , ILO, 2012, https://www.ilo. see L.deLuca, M.Fernando, E.CrunelandL.O. Smith,Unleashing thePotential for Rural Development 50 opted itsDeclarationontheRightsofPeasants–WomenandMen. ganizations thatisoneoftheworld’slargesttransnationalsocialmovements,ad- To respondtothissituation,in2008LaViaCampesina,anetworkofpeasantor- Organization (ILO)becausetheydonotworkintheformalsector. of themarenoteffectivelyprotectedbyconventionstheInternationalLabour Five sessionsoftheworkinggrouptookplacebetween2013and2018, negotiate theUNDROP. create an open-ended intergovernmentalworkinggroup(thegroup)to main recommendations,theHumanRightsCouncildecidedinSeptember2012to final study, including a draft declaration, in 2012. Adopting one ofthe Committee’s and other people working in rural areas. The Advisory Committee presented its 18 independentexperts,toproposewaysbetterprotecttherightsofpeasants the UNHumanRightsCouncilinstructeditsAdvisoryCommittee,composedof and 11abstentions. 47 MemberStates)adoptedtheUNDROPbyavoteof33statesinfavour,3against UN GeneralAssembly.On28September2018,theHumanRightsCouncil(withits 2018 theUNDROPwaspresentedforadoptiontoHumanRightsCounciland This declaration, adopted by LaVia Campesinain2008, isavailable athttps://viacampesina.net/ HumanRightsCouncil Res 39/12 adopted on28September 2018, by avote of 33states infavour, For information aboutthenegotiation thattook place duringthefive sessions of theworking group, OntheInternational LabourOrganisation’s (ILO) work onrural employment anddevelopment, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RuralAreas/Pages/WGRuralAreasIndex.aspx 53

51 Twoyearslater, 50 52 (last ac andin https:// -

THE UN DECLARATION (UNDROP), 2018 21 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 22 member states) also voted infavour of theUNDROP. Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain. InEurope, Monaco, SerbiaandSwitzerland (non-EU Denmark, Estonia, Finland,France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,Lithuania,Malta, Netherlands, 55 ag12107.doc.htm (last accessed 2April2019). Rights Council andattheUNGeneral Assembly Third Committee. See https://www.un.org/press/fr/2018/ the adoption of theUNDROP. Chinaalso recalled thatitvoted infavour of theUNDROP attheUN Human did not participate inthevote attheUNGeneral Assembly on17December, butthatitwas infavour of Macedonia, Turkey, Tuvalu, Ukraine andVanuatu. Itisimportant to mention thatChinadeclared thatit Federation, Samoa, SanMarino, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, theformer Yugoslav Republic of Lithuania, Malta, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Palau, Poland, Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Georgia, Germany, Greece, Honduras, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kiribati, Latvia,Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Canada, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Andorra, Argentina, Armenia,Austria, Belgium,Bosnia andHerzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria,Cameroon, of Great Britain andNorthernIreland andUnited States of America; states thatabstained: Albania, states thatvoted against: Australia, Guatemala, Hungary, Israel, New Zealand, Sweden, United Kingdom Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Viet Nam, Yemen, Zambia and Zimbabwe; Leste, Togo, Trinidad andTobago, Tunisia, Uganda,United Arab Emirates, United Republic of Tanzania, South Sudan,SriLanka, Sudan,Suriname,Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Thailand, Timor- Principe, SaudiArabia, Senegal, Serbia,Seychelles, Sierra Leone, SolomonIslands,Somalia,SouthAfrica, Moldova, Rwanda, SaintKittsandNevis, SaintLucia, SaintVincent andtheGrenadines, SaoTome and Nigeria, Oman,Pakistan, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines,Portugal, Qatar, Republic of Mauritius, Mexico, Monaco, Mongolia,Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia,Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Republic, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Mauritania, Republic of), Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, LaoPeople’s Democratic Gabon, Gambia,Ghana,Grenada, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti,India,Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of theCongo, Djibouti,Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, ElSalvador, Eritrea, Comoros, Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Democratic Botswana, BruneiDarussalam, Burundi,CaboVerde, Cambodia,Central African Republic, Chad,Chile, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus,Belize, Benin,Bhutan, Bolivia(PlurinationalState of), 54 abstentions. States thatvoted infavour: Afghanistan, Algeria,Angola,Antigua-Barbuda, Azerbaijan, 54 struments, includingtheILORuralWorkers’OrganisationsConvention,1975(No. Special Rapporteurontherighttofood,aswellanumberofinternationalin- work oftheAdvisoryCommitteeUNHumanRightsCounciland The definitionoftherights-holdersinArticle1UNDROPisbasedon rural workers. people, peoplelivingfromtraditionalfishing,herding,andhuntingactivities who togetherrepresentaround2billionpeopleintheworld:peasants,landless The UNDROPaimsto protect the rights of some of the most marginalized people, bourg –and3votedagainstHungary,SwedentheUnitedKingdom. stained whentheUNDROPwasadopted,2votedinfavour–PortugalandLuxem- At the UN General Assembly, where all EU Member States voted,23 of them ab- States) adopteditbyavoteof121statesinfavour,8againstand54abstentions. And on17December2018,theUNGeneralAssembly(composedofallMember WORKING IN RURAL AREAS B. THE DEFINITION OF PEASANTS AND OTHER PEOPLE EU Member States that abstained are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, UNGARes 73/165 adopted on17December 2018, by avote states of 121 infavour, 8against and

55

54 ation, combiningeconomicvulnerabilityandadesireforautonomy. cial relationshipwithland,thewaytheyworkandproducetheirspecificsitu- working inruralareas(thatmaynotapplytoallworkers),suchastheirspe- This definitionidentifiesseveralkeycharacteristicsofpeasantsandotherpeople ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/InBrief5_rightsofpeasants.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). Working inRural Areas, Geneva Academy https://www.geneva-academy. In-Briefno5,2015, pp36–42, 57 pdf (last accessed 2April2019). lines), endorsed on10 June2014 by theFAO Committee onFisheries, http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4356en. Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication 56 DROP, itwasessentialtotakeaholisticapproachtheprotection oftherights noted duringthefirstsessionofUNworkinggroupthatin elaboratingtheUN- ture andformerChairoftheFAOCommitteeonEthicsforFood andAgriculture, of theIntergovernmentalCommissiononGeneticResourcesfor FoodandAgricul- José Esquinas-Alcázar,formerSecretaryoftheITPGRFA, SecretaryGeneral tural farms,forestsandfarmsinaquacultureagro-industrialenterprises’. regardless oftheirmigrationstatus,andseasonalworkers,onplantations,agricul- applies toruralworkers,definedas‘hiredincludingallmigrant in theabove-mentionedactivities.AndArticle1(4)providesthatUNDROPalso transhumant, nomadicandsemi-nomadiccommunitiesthelandless,engaged bers ofpeasants,indigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunitiesworkingontheland, Article 1(2and3)addsthattheUNDROPalsoappliestodependentfamilymem- sion totherightsenshrinedinUNDROP. ation withothersorasacommunity’(Article1(1))givesclearcollectivedimen- area. Thefactthatapeasantcanbeengagedintheseactivities‘alone,orassoci- gathering andhandicraftsrelatedtoagricultureoraoccupationinrural culture, cropplanting,livestockraising,pastoralism,fishing,forestry,huntingor that theUNDROPappliestoanypersonengagedinartisanalorsmall-scaleagri- Describing the activities in which a peasant can be engaged, Article 1(2) provides dency onandattachmenttotheland’. and othernon-monetizedwaysoforganizinglabour,whohasaspecialdepen- significantly, thoughnotnecessarilyexclusively,onfamilyorhouseholdlabour scale agriculturalproductionforsubsistenceand/orthemarket,andwhorelies seeks toengagealone,orinassociationwithothersasacommunity,small- Article 1(1)oftheUNDROP defines apeasantas‘anypersonwhoengagesor ies 141), theFAOVoluntaryGuidelinesforSecuringSustainableSmall-ScaleFisher- PEASANTS AND OTHER PEOPLE WORKING IN RURAL AREAS C. A HOLISTIC VISION OF THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS OF 56 See C. Golay, See C. Negotiation of a United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Food and Agriculture Organization of theUN(FAO), Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable (small-scalefisheriesguidelines)andtheCBDitsProtocols. (small-scale fisheriesguide- 57

THE UN DECLARATION (UNDROP), 2018 23 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 24 cluding thereportonseedpoliciespresentedbyOlivierDeSchutterin2009. and thereportspresentedbyUNSpecialRapporteursonrighttofood,in- people, ruralwomenandworkersinonesingleinstrument. digenous peoples,fisherpeople,pastoralists,nomads,hunters,gatherers,landless a uniqueopportunitytorecognizetherightsofpeasants,localcommunities,in- law isfragmentedonthematter,andelaborationofUNDROPrepresented 61 Level from theExperiences of Brazil andScotland?’, 24 RECIEL 3(2015) 330–340. 60 59 Other People Working inRural Areas, UNdocA/HRC/26/48, 11 March §16. 2014, 58 Indigenous Peoples, the right to food guidelines adopted by states at FAO in 2004 Protocols, andtheITPGRFA.IthasalsobuiltonUNDeclarationRightsof Forms ofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAWConvention),theCBDandits international instruments,includingtheConventiononEliminationofAll In relationtotherightseeds,UNDROPhasbuiltonanumberofbinding dicial orquasi-judicialbodiesatnational,regionalinternationallevels, entitlements innationalandregionallawscanbecomeenforceablebeforeju- ity torecognizeindividualandcollectiverightsthatcanbetransformedintolegal agreed thatthemainaddedvaluesofahumanrightsinstrumentincludeitscapac- ing on and complementingother standard-setting initiativesinthe UN. They also The majorityofnegotiatorsacceptedthisholisticvision,withtheUNDROPbuild- builds uponexistinginstruments,ratherthanweakeningthem. peasants inordertofillgapsinternationallaw,andensurethattheUNDROP Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra Summary. fn14, so thatthey serve the right to food and ensure the right of all to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress. participation of peasants inresearch anddevelopment); and(3)by regulating commercial seed systems that best serve thepoorest peasants indeveloping countries (whichincludestheneed to ensure the serve theinterest of all in thepreservation of biodiversity); (2)by investing inresearch anddevelopment contribute to thefullrealization of human rights:(1)by supportingpeasant seed systems (inorder to 63 resources for food andagriculture, http://www.fao.org/3/a-y7937e.pdf Context of NationalFood Security (rightto food andinparticular guideline 8Dongenetic guidelines),2004, 62 rights%20of%20peasants%20and%20other%20people%20w.pdf tools-files/docman-files/The%20implementation%20of%20the%20UN%20Declaration%20on%20the%20 Working in Rural Areas, Geneva Academy Research Brief, 2019, https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomla are containedinotherinternationalinstruments. capacity todefinestates’obligationsinawaythatismoreprecisethanthose C. Golay, C. Inthisreport, theformer UNSpecial Rapporteur identified three ways inwhichseed policiescan FAO, Voluntary Guidelinesto SupporttheProgressive Realization of theRightto Adequate Food inthe Report of theWorking Group ontheDraft United NationsDeclaration ontheRightsof Peasants and See Golay, Negotiation of a United NationsDeclaration, supra fn57. See also A. Bessa, See ‘Traditional also A. Local Communities: What Lessons CanBeLearnt attheInternational The Implementation of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People 61 (last accessed 2April2019). (last accessed 2April2019). 59 58 International 60 andits 63 62

seed orintellectualproperty),tradeagreementsandproperty rights. noted thatarighttoseedscouldpotentiallyconflictwithmanynationalpolicies(on Working Group, supra fn67, §61. 68 also Golay, Negotiation of aUnited NationsDeclaration, supra fn57, pp65–66. Other People Working inRural Areas, UNdocA/HRC/30/55, 22July2015, §§20, 31, 61, 63, 78, 81. See Intergovernmental Working Group ontheDraft United Nations Declaration onthe Rightsof Peasants and 67 12 July1993, §I.1 (endorsed by UNGARes 20 December 48/121, 1993). 66 WTO Law’, 38Suffolk Transnational Law Review (2015). 65 pp2–3.fn 4, supra pp21–25. See also fn4, Golay, The Rightto Seeds andIntellectual Property Rights(2017), supra 64 mention intellectualpropertyrightsatall. nize peasants’ right to seeds in the UNDROP. In expressing that position, they did not and non-governmentalorganizations(NGOs),agreedthatitwasessentialtorecog- As wehaveseen,amajorityofstates,withallexpertsandrepresentativespeasants one hand,andintellectualpropertyrightsontheother. on therelationshipbetweenrighttofoodandpeasants’seeds the negotiation of the UNDROP, a debate and the expression of divided positions The clear recognition of this primacy in international law did not preclude, during tional instruments,suchasthoseprotectingintellectualpropertyrights. rights instrumentstake precedence in the hierarchyof norms over other interna- In internationallaw,inaccordancewiththeUNCharter,human responsibility ofgovernments. States reaffirmedthatthepromotionandprotectionofhumanrightsisfirst mention thatintheViennaDeclarationandProgrammeofAction,allUNMember gations underthepresentChartershallprevail’(Article103).Itisalsorelevantto Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obli- between theobligationsofMembersUnitedNationsunderpresent ticles 55(c) and 56). The UN Charter also provides that ‘[i]n the event of a conflict take jointandseparateactiontopromoteuniversalrespectforhumanrights(Ar- of themainpurposesUN(Article1(3)),andMemberStatespledgedto According totheUNCharter,promotionandprotectionofhumanrightsisone the righttofoodofbillionspeople,includingmostvulnerable livinginrural human rightsguarantees.Whilepeasants’righttoseedsisintrinsically linkedto clusion thatthiswasnotapotentialcontradictionorconflict betweentwosetsof perts andrepresentativesofpeasantorganizationsNGOs –reachedthecon- During therestofnegotiation,majoritystates–togetherwithallex- OTHER INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS D. THE PRIMACY OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE UNDROP OVER Report of theWorking Group, supra 22,25,36,37; fn58,§§14, Report of theOpen-Ended See, for example, D. Yigzaw, A. ‘Hierarchy of Norms:The Case for the Primacy of HumanRightsOver Report of theWorking Group, supra fn58,§37; Report of theOpen-Ended Intergovernmental UNGeneral Assembly (UNGA),Vienna Declaration andProgramme of Action, UNdocA/CONF.157/23, This part islargely inspired by Golay, The Rightto Seeds andIntellectual Property Rights (2016), 66 67 Atthesametime,agroupofotherstates 64 65

68

THE UN DECLARATION (UNDROP), 2018 25 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 26 69 outside thehumanrightssystem: distinction betweenthishumanrightandintellectualpropertyrightsprotected and CulturalRights(CESCR)reachedthesameconclusion when itdrewaclear Rights andArticle15(1.c)oftheICESCR,UNCommitteeonEconomic,Social tific progress),recognizedinArticle27(2)oftheUniversalDeclarationHuman production ofwhichheorsheistheauthor(righttoenjoybenefitsscien- the moralandmaterialinterestsresultingfromanyscientific,literaryorartistic In itsGeneralCommentontheright of everyonetobenefitfromtheprotection of interests protectedbyinternationallawontheother. between internationalhumanrightsguaranteesontheonehand,andcommercial cannot beplacedatthesamelevel.Manydescribedthissituationasacompetition patent-holders –inmanycasescorporationsthroughintellectualpropertyrights areas, thefactofgrantingtemporarymonopolyprivilegestoplantbreedersand Right to Seeds andIntellectual Property Rights(2017), supra fn4. Golay, The Right to Seeds and Intellectual Property Rights (2016), supra pp 21–25; Golay, fn 4, under nationallegislationorinternational agreements. necessarily coincidewithwhatis referredtoasintellectualpropertyrights interests oftheauthorprovided forbyarticle15,paragraph1(c),doesnot investments. Moreover,thescopeofprotectionmoraland material property regimes primarily protect businessandcorporate interests and sary toenableauthorsenjoyanadequatestandardofliving,intellectual cultural heritage,aswelltheirbasicmaterialinterestswhich are neces- and betweenpeoples,communities,orothergroupstheir collective ductions safeguardsthepersonallinkbetweenauthorsandtheir creations material interestsresultingfromone’sscientific,literaryandartistic pro- Whereas thehumanrighttobenefitfromprotectionof moral and timeless expressionsoffundamentalentitlementsthehuman person. in timeandscope,traded,amendedevenforfeited,human rights are rights, oftenwiththeexceptionofmoralmaybeallocated, limited else. Whileundermostintellectualpropertysystems, property a temporarynature,andcanberevoked,licensedorassignedtosomeone 2. Incontrasttohumanrights,intellectualpropertyrightsaregenerallyof the benefitofsocietyasawhole. preserve theintegrityofscientific,literaryandartisticproductionsfor tive productions,aswellthedevelopmentofculturalidentities,and ness andcreativity,encouragethedisseminationofcreativeinnova- foremost meansbywhichStatesseektoprovideincentivesforinventive- human personassuch,whereasintellectualpropertyrightsarefirstand communities. Humanrightsarefundamentalastheyinherenttothe individuals and,undercertaincircumstances,groupsofand are fundamental,inalienableanduniversalentitlementsbelongingto entitlements recognized in intellectual property systems. Human rights shes article15,paragraph1(c),andotherhumanrightsfrommostlegal from theinherentdignityandworthofallpersons.Thisfactdistingui- duction ofwhichheorsheistheauthorahumanright,derives material interestsresultingfromanyscientific,literaryorartisticpro- 1. The right of everyone to benefit from theprotection of the moraland 69 The rural areas–atthecentreoftheirefforts,notcorporations. of somethemostmarginalizedgroups–peasantsandotherpeopleworkingin (2016), supra pp23–25. fn4, UNDROP. For a more detailed analysis,see Golay, The Rightto Seeds andIntellectual Property Rights right to food andpeasants’ rightto seeds withintheWTO, inthecontext of the implementation of the used to protect therightsto health andaccess to medicines in2001, could bereplicated to protect the public health and,inparticular, to promote access to medicines for all. Itiseasy to see how thisreasoning, and shouldbeinterpreted andimplemented inamannersupportive of WTO members’ rightto protect WTO membersfrom taking measures to protect publichealth, andaccordingly, that the Agreement can prevail over intellectual property rules, i.e. that the TRIPS Agreement does not and should not prevent TRIPS Agreement andPublicHealth, whichclarified thattherightsto health andaccess to medicines shall tion withintellectual property. InNovember 2001, WTO membersadopted theDohaDeclaration onthe the HumanRightsCommission in2001, andtheagreement thatstates came to withintheWTO inconnec 73 72 Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §1. fn14, min/files/weltagrarbericht/IAASTDBerichte/GlobalReport.pdf (last accessed 2April2019), pp109–110; (IAASTD), 71 definition includeknowledge, innovations andpractices related to seeds (§9). respect and protect knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities, which by same general comment thatinimplementing therightof everyone to benefitfrom science, states must UN docE/C.12/GC/17, 12January2006, §§1, 2,7. Itisalso interesting to note thattheCESCR stated inthe literary orartistic production of whichheorsheistheauthor(article 15, paragraph 1(c),of theCovenant), everyone to benefitfrom theprotection of themoral andmaterial interests resulting from any scientific, 70 the ongoingprotectionofhumanrights. trade agreementsandnationallawspoliciesthatmustbeadaptedtoensure not havetobeadaptedtradeagreementsandnationallawspolicies;itis These twoprovisionsreflectthefactthatashigherordernorms,humanrightsdo realities ofpeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareas(Article19(8)). schemes andseedmarketinglawsrespecttakeintoaccounttherights,needs policies, plantvarietyprotectionandotherintellectualpropertylaws,certification rights obligationsastheyapplytopeasants(Article2(4)),andshallensurethatseed and standardstowhichtheyarepartyinamannerconsistentwiththeirhuman that states shall elaborate, interpret and apply relevant international agreements lectual propertyrightsisreflectedintwoarticlesoftheUNDROP,whichprovide The primacyofhumanrightsovercommercialinterestsprotectedthroughintel- ble. groups insocietyandtransnationalcorporations,ratherthanthemostvulnera- agrochemicals andmechanizationhaveprimarilybenefitedthebetter-resourced gies linkedwithintellectualpropertyrights,suchashigh-yieldingcropvarieties, Knowledge, ScienceandTechnologyforDevelopmentconcludedthattechnolo- In itsfinalreportpresentedin2009,theInternationalAssessmentofAgricultural International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science andTechnology for Development A useful precedent in this respect is the recognition of the rights to health and access to medicines by Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §3. fn14, Committee on Economic, Socialand Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment no 17: The right of 71 WhenstatesadoptedtheUNDROP,theydecidedtoplacerightsandneeds Agriculture ataCrossroads: Global Report, 2009, https://www.weltagrarbericht.de/filead nature, arenotprotectedatthelevelofhumanrights. However, asnotedabove,theirentitlements,becauseofdifferent entities areincludedamongtheholdersofintellectualpropertyrights. 7. …Undertheexistinginternationaltreatyprotectionregimes,legal 73 72 70 -

THE UN DECLARATION (UNDROP), 2018 27 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 28 humanity tobiodiversity,andthereforesurvival. a gapininternationalhumanrightslawbyrecognizingpeasants’righttoseeds. argued thattheadoptionofUNDROPrepresentedauniqueopportunitytofill and theformerUNSpecialRapporteuronrighttofood,OlivierDeSchutter, tiators toincludetherightseedsinUNDROP.BothAdvisoryCommittee 2013, K. D. Maass Wolfenson, etcgroup.org/files/030913_ETC_WhoWillFeed_AnnotatedPoster.pdf Chaos… Who Will Feed Us?The Industrial Food ChainorThe Peasant Food Web, p3,http://www. 2014, In addition,10–15% isprovided by small-scale agriculture inurban settings. ETC Group, With Climate eaten intheworld (10–15% from huntingandgathering,5–10% from fishingand35–50% from farms). and other people working inrural areas asdefined intheUNDROP provide 50–70% of thetotal food 77 76 Committee), UNdocA/HRC/15/1/2, 20 June2013. 75 74 right toseedsisintrinsicallylinkedeveryone’sfood UNDROP wascrucialforpeasantsandhumankind.Theyunderlinedthatpeasants’ tives ofpeasantsandNGOsstressedthattherecognitionrighttoseedsin During theworkinggroup’sfivesessions,severalstates,panellistsandrepresenta- Committee in2012 the negotiationofUNDROP,fromfirstdraftpresentedbyAdvisory A specificarticleontherighttoseedswasincludedinalldraftsdiscussedduring obligations (SectionD)intheUNDROP. elements of peasants’ right to seeds (Section C) and correlative states’ the righttoseedsofpeasantwomen(SectionB),andpresentsmain in theUNDROP(SectionA).Itthendescribesprotectionaffordedto This partstartsbyexplainingwhytherighttoseedshasbeenincluded 4. THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ Peasants andOtherPeople Working inRural Areas, UNdocA/HRC/19/75, 24 February 2012, §§69–74. 79 (last accessed 2April2019). the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture, 2019, 2010, ted. FAO, The Second Report onState of theWorld’s PlantGenetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, impact ontheabilityof humankindto feed itself inthefuture, withthepoorest intheworld most affec 78 level inSub-Saharan Africa, see IAASTD, Agriculture ataCrossroads. Volume V:Sub-Saharan Africa, p22. Rights CouncilandGeneralAssemblyin2018. A. THE INCLUSION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS See, for example, Report of theWorking Group, supra fn58,§§13,28.Itisestimated thatpeasants See Art5,Declaration ontheRightsof Peasants andOtherPeople Working inRural Areas (Advisory This part ispartially inspired by ibid,pp6–11 and26–36. According to FAO, 75% of crop diversity was lost between 1900 and 2000, which will have a major See Art19,UNDROP. Final Study of the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee on the Advancement of the Rights of

http://www.fao.org/3/a-ar363e.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). For similarfigures at theregional http://www.fao.org/3/i1500e/i1500e.pdf OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP Coping with the Food and Agriculture Challenge: Smallholders’ Agenda , FAO, 75 tothefinaldraftpresentedforadoptionUNHuman (last accessed 2April2019). See also FAO, The State of http://www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/ca3129en.pdf 76 78 UNexpertsalsopushednego- (last accessed 2April2019). See also 77 andtotherightsof 74 79

- and savedbywomen. material usedinpeasantagricultureareseedsandgermplasmsproduced,selected tral inpeasantseedsystems,whereitisestimatedthatupto90percentofplanting lectual propertyrights. with nationalpoliciesonseedorintellectualproperty,tradeagreementsandintel- a groupofstatesalsonotedthatpeasants’righttoseedscouldpotentiallyconflict sources, includingseeds. hungry, and aresubjectto multiple discriminations in accesstoproductivere- Human Rightto Adequate Food: Towards an Inclusive Framework, Routledge, 2015. 84 Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, UNdocA/HRC/31/51, 14December 2015. 83 p 5,http://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). State of Food andAgriculture 2010-2011. Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development, countries, ranging from 20% inLatinAmerica to 50% inEastern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. FAO, The 82 Intergovernmental Working Group, supra fn67, §61. 81 Intergovernmental Working Group, supra fn67, §29. 80 ensure thatpeasantwomenenjoytherighttoseedswithoutdiscrimination. and other women working in rural areas, promote rural women’s empowerment and provides thatstates shall eliminate all formsofdiscriminationagainstpeasant women UNDROP. ReadtogetherwiththeUNDROP’sArticle19onright toseeds,Article4 in Article14oftheCEDAWConventionand,averysimilarway, inArticle4ofthe In internationalhumanrightslaw,theofruralwomenhavebeenrecognized crops worldwideandearningincomestofeedtheirfamilies. Peasant womenplayakeyroleinlocalandglobalfoodsecurity–producing spect andtakeintoaccounttherights,needsrealitiesofpeasants’. other intellectualpropertylaws,certificationschemesandseedmarketinglawsre- ral areas’,andthatthey‘shallensureseedpolicies,plantvarietyprotection human rightsobligationsastheyapplytopeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginru- agreements andstandardstowhichtheyareparty,inamannerconsistentwiththeir the UNDROPthatstates‘shallelaborate,interpretandapplyrelevantinternational to seedsoverintellectualpropertyrights,byprovidinginArticles2(4)and19(8)of cided toreaffirmtheprimacyofinternationalhumanrightslawandpeasants’right peasants’ righttoseedsinArticle19oftheUNDROP.Aswehaveseen,theyalsode- experts andrepresentativesofpeasantorganizationsNGOs–agreedtoinclude During thefinalstageofnegotiation,alargemajoritystates–supportedbyall existing humanrightsprovideadequateprotectiontopeasants. rights, andincludedtherighttoseedsinthiscategory.Thesestatesarguedthat On theotherhand,aminorityofstatesdidnotwishUNDROPtorecognizenew B. THE RIGHT TO SEEDS OF PEASANT WOMEN See, for example, Report of theWorking Group, supra fn58,§37; Report of theOpen-Ended Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra Report §42; fn14, of theSpecial According to FAO, women comprise, onaverage, 43%of theagricultural labourforce indeveloping A. C. Bellows, F.C. A. L. S. Valente, S. Lemke and M.D. Núñez Burbano de Lara, Gender, Nutrition, and the See, for example, Report of theWorking Group, supra fn58,§29,35;Report of theOpen-Ended 83 81 Yetwomenandgirlsrepresent70percentoftheworld’s 84 82 Theirroleisalsocen- 80 Aswehaveseen,

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP 29 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 30 right tofood. Parties totheCEDAWConventionshouldtakebetterprotectruralwomen’s 88 87 86 4MarchGC/34, 2016, §63. 85 en’s right to seeds is a fundamental human right. In an importantstatement, the CEDAWCommitteerecognizedthat rural wom- acknowledged, andpoorlysupported’. and inpromotingruraldevelopment,yettheircontributionisoftenunpaid,un- are criticaltoachievingfoodsecurity,reducingpoverty,malnutritionandhunger, crimination AgainstWomen(CEDAWCommittee)underlinedthat‘ruralwomen ticle 14oftheCEDAWConvention,UNCommitteeonEliminationDis- In itsGeneralRecommendationNo.34adoptedin2016,whichitinterpretedAr- adequate foodandnutrition. eignty, andtheadoptionofeffectivepoliciestoensurethattheyhaveaccess manage andcontroltheirnaturalresources,withintheframeworkoffoodsover- ment Articles4and19oftheUNDROP. DAW Convention, as well as by UN Member States when they take steps to imple- These recommendationsshouldbefollowedbythe189States PartiestotheCE- tection ofpeasantwomen’srighttoseeds: ommendations toStatesPartiestheCEDAWConventioninrelationpro- Ibid,§§64–65. CEDAW Committee, General Recommendation No. 34ontherightsof rural women, UNdocCEDAW/C/ Ibid,§56. Ibid,§§63–66. health, aswellaccesstolivestock. and medicinalresourcestoimproveruralwomen’sfoodsecurity and ducts, andtheiraccesstomarkets.Theyshouldensurediversity ofcrops and protectruralwomen’sdiverselocalagriculturalmethods andpro- 66. Statespartiesshouldadoptlaws,policiesandmeasuresto promote women fromseedsaving… mandatory purchaseofsterile(i.e.terminator)seeds,whichprevent rural women. Statespartiesshouldprohibitcontractualrequirements on the transnational companiestotheextentthatitthreatensrightsofrural of foodandmedicinalresources,preventpatentingbynational (b) Protectandconservenativeendemicspeciesplantvarieties and exchangetraditionalnativeseeds; cultural knowledgeandparticularlytherightofwomentopreserve,use, (a) Respectandprotectruralwomen’straditionaleco-friendlyagri- Additionally, Statespartiesshould: and information,aswellequipmentresourcesfororganicfarming. to agriculturalresources,includinghighqualityseeds,tools,knowledge and fertilizers.Theyshouldensurethatruralwomenhaveeffectiveaccess mote organic farming and protect rural women from harmful pesticides rural womenfarmers,recognizeandprotectthenaturalcommons,pro- 62. Statespartiesshouldimplementagriculturalpolicieswhichsupport 86 Theseincludemeasurestoensurethattheyhavetheauthority 87 85 ItthendescribedthemeasuresthatStates 88 It then made a number of rec- ing thereportonseedpoliciespresentedbyOlivierDeSchutterin2009. and thereportspresentedbyUNSpecialRapporteursonrighttofood,includ- Agriculture, Draft Guidefor NationalSeed Policy Formulation , FAO doc CGRFA-14/13/Inf.20, 2013, §72. 9533-d5d61aa53e4a www.wur.nl/web/file?uuid=e43709be-cf55-4ac2-b897-87a83b2225be&owner=1a616bd7-d3c1-493f- Guiding Principles,Centre for Development Innovation, Wageningen University &Research, 2013, https:// 91 90 and agriculture. 89 maintenance ofpeasantfoodandseedsystemsagrobiodiversity. the promotionofcommercialseedsystemshaveposedserious challengestothe We havealsoseenthattheprotectionofintellectualproperty rights overseedsand essential totheirownfoodsecurityandglobal andbiodiversity. eas indevelopingcountriesstillrelyonpeasantfoodandseed systems,whichare We haveseenthat,today,theoverwhelmingmajorityofpeople livinginruralar- trol, protectanddeveloptheirownseedstraditionalknowledge. Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttomaintain,con- Article 19(2) UNDROP 1. PEASANTS’ RIGHT TO MAINTAIN, CONTROL, PROTECT AND DEVELOP THEIR OWN exchange andsellfarm-savedseedorpropagatingmaterial(Section5). benefits arisingfromtheutilizationofseeds(Section4);andtheirrighttosave,use, relating toseeds(Section3);theirrightequitablyparticipateinthesharingof seeds (Section2);theirrighttoparticipateinthemakingofdecisionsonmatters to theprotectionoftraditionalknowledge,innovationandpracticesrelevant tect anddeveloptheirownseedstraditionalknowledge(Section1);right been includedintheUNDROP.Theseare:peasants’righttomaintain,control,pro- This sectiondescribesthemainelementsofpeasants’rightstoseedsthathave of IndigenousPeoples,therighttofoodguidelinesadoptedbystatesatFAOin2004 its Protocols,andtheITPGRFA.TheyalsobuiltonUNDeclarationRights built onanumberofbindinginternationalinstruments,inparticulartheCBDand As wehaveseen,indefiningtherighttoseedsArticle19ofUNDROP,states SEEDS AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE C. THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF PEASANTS’ RIGHT TO SEEDS Ibid, Summary and §42; ISSD Ibid,Summaryand§42; Africa, Introduction to Integrated Seed Sector Development andits FAO rightto food guidelines,supra fn62, inparticular guideline8Dongeneticresources for food Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on theRightto Food, supra fn14. (last accessed 2 April 2019); FAO, Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and 91 90 89

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP 31 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 32 has alsobeenreaffirmed intheITPGRFA, peasant seeds and agrobiodiversity (Article 19(6)) (see Section 4.D.3 below). peasant seedsandagrobiodiversity(Article19(6))(seeSection4.D.3below). defines states’ obligations to support peasant seed systems and to promote the use of the protection of the traditionalknowledge, innovation and practices of peasants, In Articles19(1.d)and20(2),theUNDROPclarifiesinternational standardsfor concerning theselection,conservationanduseofseedspropagating materials. 96 95 94 93 92 biological diversity’. bodying traditionallifestylesrelevantfortheconservationand sustainableuseof knowledge, innovationsandpracticesofindigenouslocal communitiesem- As wehaveseen,theCBDrequestsstatespartiesto‘respect,preserve andmaintain ical diversity. agroecological systemsrelevanttotheconservationandsustainableuseofbiolog- ral areas,includingtraditionalagrarian,pastoral,forestry,fisheries,livestockand knowledge, innovation andpractices of peasantsandother people working in ru- States shalltakeappropriatemeasurestopromoteandprotectthetraditional Article 20(2) Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttoseeds…including: Article 19(1) UNDROP 2. THE RIGHT TO THE PROTECTION OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, INNOVATION in theUNDeclarationonRightsofIndigenousPeoplesadopted2007 – similarlytothewayinwhichUNrecognizedthisrightofindigenouspeoples control, protectanddeveloptheirownseedstraditionalknowledge(Article19(2)) To respondtothesechallenges,theUNDROPrecognizespeasants’rightmaintain, to foodguidelines. AND PRACTICES RELEVANT TO SEEDS Article 8(j), CBD. Article8(j), Art7, Nagoya Protocol. See Art31(1),UNDeclaration ontheRightsof IndigenousPeoples. Guideline8.12, FAO rightto food guidelines,supra fn62. Art9(2.a),ITPGRFA. genetic resourcesforfoodandagriculture… (a) The right to the protection of traditional knowledge relevant to plant 96 Itincludestraditionalknowledge,innovationandpractices 93 Theprotectionoftraditionalknowledgerelevanttoseeds 94 theNagoyaProtocol 95 andtheFAOright 92 – and it –andit 97 Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherightto seeds…including:… Article 19(1) UNDROP 4. THE RIGHT TO EQUITABLY PARTICIPATE IN THE SHARING OF BENEFITS ARISING agriculture’ (Article19(1.c)). ing totheconservationandsustainableuseofplantgeneticresourcesforfood peasants havethe‘righttoparticipateinmakingofdecisionsonmattersrelat- seeds, building on existing instruments, including the ITPGRFA, it provides that affect theirlives,landandlivelihoods’(Article10(1)).Inrelationtotheright preparation andimplementationofpolicies,programmesprojectsthatmay participation, directlyand/orthroughtheirrepresentativeorganizations,inthe Concretely, theUNDROPprovidesthatpeasants‘haverighttoactiveandfree participation indecision-makingprocessestoreversethatdiscrimination. and other people working in rural areas, and recognizes, inter alia, their right to The UNDROPshowsdeepconcernwithstructuraldiscriminationagainstpeasants Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttoseeds…including: Article 19(1) 3. THE RIGHT TO PARTICIPATE IN DECISION-MAKING ON MATTERS RELATING TO SEEDS at lawandpolicylevelsfortheirpreservationprotection. including inrelationtoseeds,andcallsuponstatesadoptallpossiblemeasures FROM THE UTILIZATION OF SEEDS See also Arts26(1) and26(3), UNDROP. the utilizationofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture … (b) Therighttoequitablyparticipateinsharingthebenefits arisingfrom and agriculture… to theconservationandsustainableuseofplantgeneticresourcesforfood (c) Therighttoparticipateinthemakingofdecisionsonmattersrelating 97

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP 33 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 34 dalities areprescribedinmutuallyagreedterms. and theircommunitiesareobtainedbeforeaccesstoseedsbenefit-sharingmo- ensure that the prior informedconsentorapproval and involvementofpeasants As clarifiedinthetextofNagoyaProtocol,statesmustalsotakeallmeasuresto cle 19(1.b)oftheUNDROPrecognizeshumanrightsnaturethis right. farm-saved seedorpropagatingmaterial’. be interpretedtolimit‘anyrightsthatfarmershavesave,use, exchangeandsell levels’, andwhentheystressedinitsArticle9thatprovisionsof thetreatyshallnot Rights, aswelltothepromotionofFarmers’Rightsatnational andinternational and otherpropagating material …are fundamental to the realization of Farmers’ ‘the rights recognized in this Treaty to save, use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed been recognizedbystateswhentheyaffirmedinthePreamble oftheITPGRFAthat use, exchange andsell farm-saved seeds. load/47066 (last accessed 3April2019), definingfarmers’ rights ascustomary rightsof farmers to save, Rights onSeeds andtheHuman RightsResponse, 3D, 2009, http://www.ideaspaz.org/tools/downp 9, to save, reuse, share anddevelop seeds. See also Z.Goodman,Seeds of Hunger: Intellectual Property 101 100 99 guidelines, supra fn62. 98 food. changed and/orsoldfarm-savedseeds,aswellusedandreusedthemtoproduce We haveseenthatforover10,000years,peasantsfreelysaved,selected,ex- 1. Peasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttoseeds…including: Article 19 UNDROP 5. THE RIGHT TO SAVE, USE, EXCHANGE AND SELL FARM-SAVED SEED OR utilization ofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture,includingseeds. rights ofpeasantstoequitablyparticipateinthesharingbenefitsarisingfrom to foodguidelines,theresponsibilitytakemeasuresprotectandpromote undertaken, undertheCBD,ITPGRFA,NagoyaProtocolandFAOright ants’ participationindecision-makingonmattersrelatingtoseeds,stateshavealso In additiontoprotectingseed-relatedtraditionalknowledge,andensuringpeas- PROPAGATING MATERIAL See Art 8(j), CBD;Art5,Nagoya Protocol; See Art8(j), Art9,ITPGRFA; andGuideline8.12, theFAO rightto food Arts5(5)and6(2),Nagoya Protocol. Andersen (ibid)also definescustomary rightsto seeds, aswell as customary practices of farmers Andersen, The History of Farmers’ Rights,supra fn5. 100 We havealsoseen that thesecustomary rights of peasants to seeds have agating material. (d) Therighttosave,use,exchangeandselltheirfarm-savedseedorprop- 101

99

98 Arti- 103 Right to Food: From Conflict to Complementarity’, 33HumanRightsQuarterly 2(2011). 102 joy thebenefitsofscientific progress, includingbyfacilitatingpeasants’access to seed systemssothattheyserve therighttofoodandensureofallen- In thesamereport,DeSchutterconcludedthatstatesshould regulate commercial Schutter, inhisreportonseedpolicies As explainedbytheformerUNSpecialRapporteuronrighttofood,OlivierDe the seedsthattheyhavecontributedtodeveloping. food andagriculture,ithasbeenarguedthatpeasantsshouldbegivenrightsover in the sharing ofbenefitsarising fromtheutilizationofplant geneticresources for recognition ofthiscontribution,andinapplyingtherighttoequitablyparticipate constitute the basis for foodand agriculture production throughout the world’. In to makefortheconservationanddevelopmentofplantgeneticresourceswhich larly thoseinthecentresoforiginandcropdiversity,havemadewillcontinue local andindigenouscommunitiesfarmersofallregionstheworld,particu- In Article9oftheITPGRFA,statesrecognized‘theenormouscontributionthat Article 15oftheICESCR. and therightofeveryonetoenjoybenefitsscientificprogressenshrined in benefits arisingfromtheutilizationofgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture, phasis ontheneedtoapply the righttoequitably participate inthe sharing of protected byintellectualpropertyrightsintheUNDROP,negotiatorsplacedem- To supporttheinclusionofrightspeasantsoverfarm-savedseedsvarieties both peasantvarietiesandprotectedbyintellectualpropertyrights. ing material(Article19(1.d)),whichcreatesentitlementsoverfarm-savedseedsof DROP istheirrighttosave,use,exchangeandsellfarm-savedseedorpropagat- As aconsequence,oneofthemainelementspeasants’righttoseedsinUN- 19 oftheUNDROP. negotiators oftheUNDROPdecidedtorecognizesameentitlementsinArticle PGRFA wasadoptedbyconsensusatFAOin2001,after20yearsofnegotiation, farm-saved seedsofvarietiesprotectedbyintellectualpropertyrights.AstheIT- without makinganydistinctionbetweenfarm-savedseedsofpeasantvarietiesand In theITPGRFA,statesrecognizedtheserightsofpeasantsoverfarm-savedseeds, Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §46. fn14, See also O. DeSchutter, ‘The Rightof Everyone to Enjoy theBenefits of ScientificProgress andthe nable useofagrobiodiversity. with farmersinallcountriesengagedtheconservationand sustai- of farmersacrosstheglobehavecontributedto,theyshould be shared that genetic resources constitute a common heritage which generations utilized bycommercialbreedingcompanies:inrecognitionof thefact accrue tothosefewfarmerswhohappenhaveplantvarieties thatare genetic resourcesforfoodandagriculture,suchbenefitsshould notonly equitably inthesharingofbenefitsarisingfromutilization ofplant [a]lthough article 9 (2) (b) of the Treaty concerns the right to participate 102 103

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP 35 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 36 of international,regionalornationallawsandpolicies. could representacompromiseacceptableforallpartiesengagedintheelaboration by peasants.Giventhatpeasantsaredefinitionactiveatsmall-scalelevel,this by intellectualpropertyrights,butprohibitthecommercializationoftheseseeds save, use,exchangeandsellatlocallevelfarm-savedseedsofvarietiesprotected in theimplementationofUNDROP,statescouldrecognizepeasants’rightsto of PlantVarietiesandFarmersRightsAct, and (f)).Aswehaveseen,agoodexampleatnationallevelisthe2001Protection save, use,multiplyandprocessfarm-savedseedofprotectedvarieties(Article26(e) tected bybreeders’rightstodevelopfarmers’varieties,andtherightcollectively can Unionrecognizedthatpeasantsshouldhavetherighttouseanewvarietypro- ants dependingonthoseinputsinordertobeablecontinuefarm’. plant breeders,soastopreventthemfromviolatingtherightfoodofpeas- ‘would beviolatedifastatefailedtoregulatetheactivitiesofpatent-holdersor essential forpeasants’righttofood,states’obligationprotectthefood mercial production of protected varieties. objective ofintellectualpropertyrightssystemsistocontrolunauthorizedcom- 110 109 aware of theexistence of suchabreeder’s right(Art42). unknowingly violate therightsof abreeder are not to bepunished ifthey can prove that they were not 108 supra fn26, 362–363. United Nations Office, Tripp, 2104; Louwaars and Eaton, ‘PlantVariety Protection inDeveloping Countries’, Generis Protection of PlantVarieties andFarmers’ RightsAct’, supra S.Koonan, fn44; ‘Developing Country Sui Protection inDeveloping Countries, supra fn22;The Farmers’ RightsProject, ‘Best Practices: India’s 107 and for theRegulation of Access to Biological Resources was adopted by theAfrican Unionin2000. 106 in Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §5. fn14, view to eliminating theirdependency onmultinationalcorporations’, UNdocE/C.12/IND/CO/5, §69, cited provide ‘State subsidiesto enablefarmers to purchase genericseeds whichthey are ableto reuse, witha 105 104 rights. ants donotcommercializeseedsofvarietiesprotectedbyintellectualproperty intellectual property rights, one way to resolve them would be to ensure that peas- If statesadoptsuchalegislativeandpolicyframework,tensionsremainwith and Breeders,fortheRegulationofAccesstoBiologicalResources, African ModelLawfortheProtectionofRightsLocalCommunities,Farmers spiration fromexamplesofgoodpracticeatregionalandnationallevels.Inthe eties andvarietiesprotectedbyintellectualpropertyrights,statescoulddrawin- In theimplementationofpeasants’rightsoverfarm-savedseedspeasantvari- commercial seeds. ing seedsofvarietiesprotectedbyplantbreeders’rights(Article39). ants’ rightstosave,use,sow,resow,exchange,shareandsellfarmproduce,includ- Tripp, Louwaars andEaton, ‘PlantVariety Protection inDeveloping Countries’, supra fn26, 360. The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, supra See also fn 42. Correa, DeSchutter quotes thejurisprudence of theCESCR inwhichtheCommittee recommended thatIndia Safeguards have been provided against innocent infringementby farmers, asfarmers who Golay, The Rightto Seeds andIntellectual Property Rights(2016), supra p36. fn4, The African Model Law for theProtection of theRightsof Local Communities, Farmers andBreeders, Ibid,Summary. 109 Options: India’sSuiGenerisSystem of PlantVariety Protection’, BriefingPaper Quaker no4, As explained by Robert Tripp, Niels Louwaars and Derek Eaton, the main 104 Healsounderlinedthatinthecaseswhichsuchaccessis 107 110 throughwhichIndiarecognizedpeas- Taking that objective into account, 108 106 105 Plant Variety theAfri- 111 groups inassociateddecision-makingprocesses(Article2(3)). active, free,effective,meaningfulandinformedparticipation ofindividualsand consideration existingpowerimbalancesbetweendifferent parties andensuring before thosedecisionsaremade,andrespondingtotheircontributions, takinginto gaging withandseekingthesupportofthosewhocouldbeaffected bydecisions agreements andotherdecision-makingprocessesthatmayaffect theirrights,en- tutions, beforeadoptingandimplementinglegislationpolicies, international and otherpeopleworkinginruralareas,throughtheirown representative insti- digenous peoples–statesshallconsultandcooperateingood faithwithpeasants The UNDROPalsoprovidesthat–withoutdisregardingspecific legislationonin- policies withtherealizationofrightscontainedinUNDROP. the coherenceoftheiragricultural,economic,social,culturalanddevelopment that inaccordancewithArticle15(5),statesshallestablishmechanismstoensure and otherpeopleworkinginruralareas(Article19(8)).Itisalsoimportanttonote ting lawsrespectandtakeintoaccounttherights,needsrealitiesofpeasants tion andotherintellectualpropertylaws,certificationschemesseedmarke- rights ofpeasants(Article2(4)),andensurethatseedpolicies,plantvarietyprotec- agreements andstandardstowhichtheyareparty,inamannerconsistentwiththe provide thatstatesshallelaborate,interpretandapplyrelevantinternational As wehaveseen,thisobligationisdefinedintwoarticlesoftheUNDROP,which the rightsofpeasants,includingtheirrighttoseeds. which theyareparty,includingthoseprotectingintellectualpropertyrights,with of theirnationallawsandpolicies,internationalagreementsstandardsto tional andnationallaws(seepart3.Dabove),statesshallensuretheconsistency In accordance with the primacy to be given to human rights norms in interna- 1. THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE CONSISTENCY OF NATIONAL LAWS AND POLICIES ticles oftheUNDROP. States havedefinedtheirobligationsinrelationtotherightseedsseveralar- ment integratetheneedsofpeasants,withtheiractiveparticipation(Section5). relation toseeds(Section4)andensurethatagriculturalresearchdevelop- (Section 3),ensuretheparticipationofpeasantsindecision-makingprocesses peasant seedsystemsandpromotetheuseofseedsagrobiodiversity also committedtorespect,protectandfulfiltherightseeds(Section2),support standards towhichtheyarepartywiththerightseeds(Section1).Theyhave sistency oftheirnationallawsandpolicies,internationalagreements AND INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND STANDARDS WITH THE RIGHT TO SEEDS D. STATES’ OBLIGATIONS See also Golay, The Implementation of theUnited NationsDeclaration , supra fn61. 111 Inthesearticles,theyhavecommittedtoensurethecon-

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP 37 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 38 both madeuseoftherespect,protectandfulfiltypology. plementation ofthe two internationalcovenantsadoptedbytheUNin1966)have The CESCRandtheUNHumanRightsCommittee(inchargeofmonitoringim- fulfil typologycanalsobeusedtodefinestates’extraterritorialobligations. 115 Comment no12:The rightto adequate food (art.11), UNdocE/C.12/1999/5, 12May 1999,§15. gation to fulfil incorporates both anobligationto facilitate andanobligationto provide.’ CESCR, General levels of obligationsonStates parties: theobligations to respect, to protect and to fulfil.Inturn,theobli- 114 para. 6),UNdocCRC/GC/2003/5, and44, 42 (arts. 4, 27 November 2003, §§7, 60–64. Comment no 5(2003): General measures of implementation of the Convention on the Rightsof theChild Committee on the Rights of the Child began defining states’ extraterritorial obligations in its General the Covenant, since it published General Comment no 12 on the right to adequate food (1999). The has systematically defined states’ extraterritorial obligationsto respect, protect andfulfiltherightsof ciples/?tx_drblob_pi1%5BdownloadUid%5D=23 human rightsbodies,https://www.etoconsortium.org/nc/en/main-navigation/library/maastricht-prin ding current andformer UNSpecial Procedure mandate holdersandmembersof UNtreaty andregional Economic, SocialandCultural Rights,adopted inSeptember 2011 by 40international law experts, inclu - 113 edn, EngelVerlag, 2005, ppXX–XXI. 115–156, 397–400. M.Nowak, U.N. Covenant onCivilandPolitical Rights:CCPR Commentary , 2ndrevised Social andCultural Rights,Schoolof HumanRightsResearch Series,vol 18,Intersentia, 2003, pp13–14, 112 (Article 19(3)),isthereforeinconformitywithinternationalhumanrightslaw. the rights of peasantsingeneral (Article 2(1)), andtherightto seeds inparticular The inclusionintheUNDROPofstates’obligationstorespect,protectandfulfil ligation to respect, protect and fulfil all humanrights. In internationalhumanrightslaw,itisgenerallyacceptedthatstateshavetheob- 2. OBLIGATIONS TO RESPECT, PROTECT AND FULFIL THE RIGHT TO SEEDS introduction tothesedeclares: and provide)typologyintheFAOrighttofoodguidelinesadopted2004.The to definetheirobligationsusingtherespect,protectandfulfil(promote,facilitate ETO Consortium, FAO right to food guidelines,supra fn62, Preface andIntroduction, §17. See M. Sepúlveda, For the CESCR, ‘[t]herightto adequate food, like any other humanright,imposes three types or those whoareunabletoprovideforthemselves. permit, establishandmaintainsafetynetsorotherassistancetoprotect including foodsecurity.StatesPartiesshould,totheextentthatresources access toandutilizationofresourcesmeansensuretheirlivelihood, food byproactivelyengaginginactivitiesintendedtostrengthen people’s to contributetheprogressiverealizationofpeople’srightadequate access toadequatefood.StatesPartiesshouldpromotepoliciesintended steps sothatenterprisesandindividualsdonotdepriveoftheir access, andshouldprotecttherightofeveryonetoadequatefoodbytaking adequate foodby not takinganymeasures that result in preventingsuch the righttoadequatefood.StatesPartiesshouldrespectexistingaccess to takeappropriatestepsachieveprogressivelythefullrealizationof Rights (ICESCR)havetheobligationtorespect,promoteandprotect Parties totheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCultural to theprogressiverealizationofrightadequatefood.Notably,States States haveobligationsunderrelevantinternationalinstruments Maastricht PrinciplesonExtraterritorial Obligationsof States intheArea of The Nature of the Obligations Under the International Covenant on Economic, (last accessed 2April2019). The CESCR, for example, 112 114 115 The respect, protect and Stateshavealsoagreed 113

risk disappearing’. ers’ seedsystemsandassociatedtraditionalknowledgepractices,such proactive policies aimed at preserving and encouragingthe development of farm- seed systems,astheyaredominantinmostcountries. agricultural system experts, who underline that it is important to support peasant The inclusionofthisobligationintheUNDROPechoesviewmanyseedand mote theuseofpeasantseedsandagrobiodiversity’. ‘[s]tates shalltakeappropriatemeasurestosupportpeasantseedsystems,andpro- This obligationwasincludedinArticle19(6)oftheUNDROP,whichprovidesthat continue tofarm. the righttofoodofpeasantsdependingonthoseinputsinorderbeable ities of patent-holders or of plant breeders,so as to prevent them from violating The obligationtoprotectwouldbeviolatedifastatefailedregulatetheactiv- Coherence Between Practice, Programs, andPolicies’, 26 Journalof Crop Improvement 1(2012). W. S.deBoef, ‘Integrated Seed Sector Development inAfrica: AConceptual Framework for Creating 121 120 119 118 in Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §5. fn14, view to eliminating theirdependency onmultinationalcorporations’, UNdocE/C.12/IND/CO/5, §69, cited provide ‘State subsidiesto enablefarmers to purchase genericseeds whichthey are ableto reuse, witha 117 116 ments shouldacceptthattheyhavedutiestosupportfarmers’seedsystems’. or sellingofseedswillnotsuffice:forfarmers’rightstobetrulyrealized,Govern- As statedbyOlivierDeSchutter,‘merelyremovingbarrierstothesaving,exchange 3. THE OBLIGATION TO SUPPORT PEASANT SEED SYSTEMS AND TO PROMOTE THE tems, asthiswoulddeprivepeasantsfromameansofachievingtheirlivelihood. measures thatcreateobstaclestotherelianceofpeasantsoninformalseedsys- gation torespectwouldbeviolatedifstateswereintroducelegislationorother tions torespect,protectandfulfiltherightsfoodseeds.Forhim,obli- In hisreportonseedpolicies,OlivierDeSchutterdefinedviolationsoftheobliga- full useoftechnicalandscientificknowledge. their livelihood;theymustalsoimprovemethodsofproductionfoodbymaking strengthen peasants’accesstoandutilizationofresourcesmeansensure Genetic ResourcesforFoodandAgriculturehasunderlinedthat USE OF PEASANT SEEDS AND AGROBIODIVERSITY DeSchutter quotes thejurisprudence of theCESCR inwhichtheCommittee recommended thatIndia Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on theRightto Food, supra §6. fn14, Ibid,§48. Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra §4. fn14, ISSD Africa, Introduction to Integrated Seed Sector Development, supra fn91; N.P. Louwaars and Ibid,§44. the foreseeablefuture,nationalseedpoliciesmustrecognize the infor- ly attractive to the formal sector. Since this is likely to remain the case for important sourceofseedfortraditionalcropsandothersnotcommercial - seeds, in-kindseedexchanges and seedsalesinlocalmarkets–isthemost [i]n most countries, the informal sector –symbolized by farmer-saved 117 119 Accordingtotheobligationfulfil,statesmustproactively 118 Headdedthat,‘[ 121 TheFAOCommissionon i ] n theabsenceof 120 116

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP 39 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 40 122 innovation circleinordertorealizepeasants’rightsandprotect biodiversity. which isnotprotectedbyinternationallaw,butrepresents themostimportant are protectedbypatentsandplantbreedersrights,(3)innovation bypeasants, (1) innovationthroughbiotechnologyand(2)byplant breeders,which given tothreeinnovationcirclesthatcoexistinrelationseeds werediscussed: ants’ righttoseeds.DuringthenegotiationofUNDROP,support andprotection support researchanddevelopmentthatcontributetothefull realizationofpeas- tion indecision-makingprocessesrelationtoseeds,itisimportant thatstates In additiontosupportingpeasantseedsystemsandensuring peasants’participa- 5. THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THAT AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOP- (Article 27(1)). tion onissuesaffectingthem,whichincludetheirrighttoseeds full realizationoftheUNDROP,andconsiderwaystoensurepeasants’participa- programmes, andotherintergovernmentalorganizations,shallcontributetothe (Article 2(3)).TheUNDROPalsoprovidesthatUNspecializedagencies,fundsand tory farmer-scientistpartnershipstorespondthechallengesthatpeasantsface to information(Article11(2)).Statesshallalsoencourageequitableandparticipa- processes relatedtoseeds(Articles2(4),10(1),11(3)and19(8)),aswelltheirright directly and/orthroughtheirrepresentativeorganizations,indecision-making UNDROP provides,interalia,thatstatesshallensuretheparticipationofpeasants, sion-making processestoreversethatdiscrimination.Toguaranteeright,the against peasants,andrecognizes,amongothers,theirrighttoparticipationindeci- As wehaveseen,theUNDROPshowsdeepconcernwithstructuraldiscrimination 4. THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE PARTICIPATION OF PEASANTS IN DECI- of biodiversity. hundreds ofmillionspeasants,aswelltheinterestallinpreservation dustrial seedsystemsinrecentdecades.Thisisessentialtoprotecttherightsof the supportgiventopeasantseedsystems,comparedin- The implementationoftheUNDROPrepresentsauniqueopportunitytorebalance of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra fn 14. 124 123 Policy Formulation, supra fn91, §72. MENT INTEGRATE THE NEEDS OF PEASANTS, WITH THEIR ACTIVE PARTICIPATION SION-MAKING PROCESSES IN RELATION TO SEEDS See also Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra Summary. fn14, FAO, Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Golay, The Right to Seeds and Intellectual Property Rights these variousfunctionsshouldbegivenparticularattention. lity controlandsourcingofemergencyseedstocks.Therolewomenin for farmers,communityseedbanks,germplasmconservation,qua- and developmentpartnersinareassuchasextension,trainingschemes mal sector’simportant role andhelpmobilize support ofthegovernment 123

(2016), supra p 32. See alsofn 4, Report Draft Guidefor NationalSeed 122 124 of peasants’righttoseeds. breeding, toensurethatresearchanddevelopmentareconnectedtherealization of peasantsinresearchanddevelopment,includingthroughparticipatoryplant and underutilizedspecies(NUS));theneedtoensureactiveparticipation cassava, groundnut,oilseed,potatoorsweetandthousandsofneglected particularly indevelopingcountries(tropicalmaize,sorghum,millet,banana, development oforphancropsandseedsthatrespondtotheneedspeasants, of twocomplementaryobjectives:theneedtoinvestmoreintoresearchonand many negotiatorsagreedthatitcouldbeimprovedthroughabetteridentification 128 127 food_composition/documents/Cordoba_NUS_Declaration_2012_FINAL.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). on Promising Crops for Century, theXXI adopted in2012, of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, supra Summary. fn 14, See also the Cordoba Declaration 126 125 they willbothcontributetotherealizationofpeasants’right to seeds: both inthecommercialseedsystemandpeasantsystems toensurethat De Schutterconcludedhisreportbyrecommendingthatstates supportinnovation scribed thesetwoobjectivesinhisreportonseedpolicies,presented2009: The formerUNSpecialRapporteurontherighttofood,OlivierDeSchutter,de- conservation andsustainableuseofseeds. PGRFA on the right to participate in making decisions on matters related to the of thisobligationbuiltonprovisionstheCBD,NagoyaProtocolandIT- peasants’ righttoseeds.InadraftoftheUNDROPpresentedin2015,definition gation to support researchanddevelopmentthat contribute to the realizationof During the negotiation, a discussion also took place on the definition ofthe obli- Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on theRightto Food, supra §34. fn14, See Art 8(j), CBD;Art5,Nagoya Protocol; See Art8(j), andArt9,ITPGRFA. Ibid,§35. Golay, The Rightto Seeds andIntellectual Property Rights cies, couldpartiallycompensatefortheexistingimbalance. plant breeding,ifsufficiently supportedthroughdomesticpublicpoli- ds therealneedsofpoorfarmersindevelopingcountries.Participatory order toreorientresearchanddevelopmentintheprivatesectortowar- and associatedfundingbeincreased,orthatincentivesdevelopedin It isthereforevitaleitherthatthecapacityofpublicresearchcentres and in farmers’ seed systems, ensuring that innovation in both systems States should promote innovation in boththe commercial seed system made upforthelackofinterestprivatesectorinthesecrops. These are referred to as‘orphan crops’: public research centres have not nana, cassava,groundnut,oilseed,potatoorsweetpotato,forexample. Very littleresearchhasbenefitedtropicalmaize,sorghum,millet,ba- farmers indevelopingcountrieshavebeencomparativelyneglected. meeting theneedsoffarmersinrichcountries,whilepoor research …[T]hishasledtoorientateanddevelopment towards an imbalancebetweentheprivateandpublicsectorsinagricultural The markedincreaseinintellectualpropertyprotectionhas…created 126 125 Whilethisdefinitionwaswelcomed, http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ (2016), supra p32.See also Report fn4, 128 127

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP 41 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS IN THE UNDROP 42 peasants, andtoensuretheiractiveparticipationinsuchresearchdevelopment. search onanddevelopmentoforphancropsseedsthatrespondtotheneeds In implementingthis provision, itwillbeimportant both toinvestmoreintore- In Article19(7)oftheUNDROP,statesagreedthatthey peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. the developmentoforphancropsandseedsthatrespondtoneeds into accounttheirexperience,andincreaseinvestmentinresearch of prioritiesandtheundertakingresearchdevelopment,taking in rural areas, and to ensure their active participation in the definition development integratestheneedsofpeasantsandotherpeopleworking shall take appropriate measures to ensure that agricultural research and often informally. they savefromtheirowncropsandwhichdonate,exchangeorsell, in developingcountries,whooverwhelminglystillrelyonseedswhich crop diversity, and for improving the livelihoods ofsmall-scale farmers lances the needs for innovation, for the preservation and enhancement of of thesesystemscanwehopetoarriveatasystemwhichadequatelyba- ticularly inthedevelopingcountries.Onlybymanagingcoexistence works forthebenefitofpoorestandmostmarginalizedfarmers,par- velopment ofGMOs. and agriculture,thepatentregimehasbeendeemedafundamental toolinthede- 131 130 Office, see https://www.epo.org/about-us/foundation/member-states.html 129 inventive stepandbesusceptibletoindustrialapplication. nology thatobserveathree-prongedcriteria:inventionsmust benew,involvean financial rewardsderivedtherefromtocreatorsofinventions inallfieldsoftech- The purposeofthepatentingregimeistoprovideexclusivecommercial rightsand ditions asanationalpatentgrantedbythatState’. ing Statesforwhichitisgranted,havetheeffectofandbesubjecttosamecon- By virtueofthisconvention,any‘Europeanpatentsshall,ineachtheContract- has 38statesparties,includingallEUMemberStates. and procedureforthegrantofpatentsincountriescontinent.Todayit was adoptedin1973withtheaimofestablishingonesinglenormativeframework The ConventionontheGrantofEuropeanPatents(EuropeanPatentConvention) 1. THE EUROPEAN PATENT CONVENTION peasants’ righttoseedsandseedsystems(SectionB). favour theinterestsofagriculturalindustry,andlargelyneglect and regulationsonregistration,certificationmarketingofseeds fered tointernationalpropertyrights(SectionA),andthefactthatlaws seeds ofpeasants/farmers,comparedwiththeextensiveprotection- EU andMemberStates:theweakprotectiongrantedtoright important legalchallengestotheprotectionofrightseedsin mentation oftherighttoseeds.Thispartfocusesontwomost have tobefaced.InEurope,thismayparticularlytruefortheimple- In theimplementationofUNDROP,anumberchallengeswill The mostrecentversionoftheConventionisdatedJune2016. menting regulationshavebeensubjecttoanumberofamendments andrevisions. 132 A. PATENTS, UPOV REGULATIONS AND FARMERS’ RIGHTS 5. CHALLENGES TO THE PROTECTION THE LAW OF THE EUROPEAN UNION Fulltext available athttps://www.epo.org/law-practice/legal-texts/epc.html See Art52(1),European Patent Convention (asconsolidated in2016). For thelist of States Parties to theEuropean Patent Convention and therefore to the European Patent Art2(2),European Patent Convention (1973). OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN 130 Thisconventionandimple- 129 (last accessed 2April2019). 132 (last accessed 2April2019). Inthefieldoffood 131

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 43 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 44 form effectinallEUMemberStates. form of‘Communityindustrialpropertyrightsforplantvarieties’,whichhasuni- the debateisstillongoing. But thisdecisionwascontestedbytheTechnicalBoardsofAppealEPOand the UPOVConvention. upon request of theCommission (Art19(2)). 140 139 European UnionPlantVariety Protection, Oxford University Press, 2015, Chapter 1. Council Regulation (EC) see No2100/94, G.Würtenberger, P. van derKooij, B.Kiewiet andMartinEkvad, 138 137 on-seeds.org/en/node/527 (last accessed 2April2019),sent by 40civilsociety organizations. an Immediate Moratorium of Patents onPlantsandAnimals’, 29January2019, https://www.no-patents- 136 135 réglementation européenne surlessemences, supra fn133. protection of biotechnological inventions; Art53(b), European Patent Convention. See also Kastler, La 134 note-semences-septembre-2015-web.pdf (last accessed 2April2019). semences: D’où vient-elle? Oùva-t-elle?, FIANBelgium,September 2015, https://www.fian.be/IMG/pdf/ 133 Adopted in1994,EuropeanCouncilRegulation(EC)No2100/94 2. UPOV REGULATIONS IN EUROPE by theseprocesses’. In Europe,patentsapplyto‘microbiologicalprocessesandtheproductsobtained or microbiologicalprocesses. ular qualitiesofplantsorproductsderivedfromharvestobtainedbytechnical relate to genetic sequences(biological material), ‘geneticinformation’ or partic- (crossing and selection) are not patentable. plant varietiesandessentiallybiologicalprocessesfortheproductionofplants ropean Directive98/44/EConthelegalprotectionofbiotechnologicalinventions, ing onplantsderivedfrom‘essentiallybiological’breedingprocessesin2017. the EPO–composedof38statespartiestoreaffirmprohibitionpatent- not geneticallyengineered,social mobilization ledthe Administrative Councilof as tomatoes,broccoli,peppersandlettucederivedfromconventionalbreeding In reactiontothegrantingbyEPOofaround200patentsonfoodplantssuch accordance withUPOVnorms. that new genetic traits of plants maybepatented,butvarietiesareprotectedin appeal procedureoftheEuropeanPatentOffice(EPO),practicewhichshows process, andthepatentabilityrequirementsarethusinterpretedbyinternal 25 yearsforotherplantvarieties. will begrantedfor30yearsperennialplants,suchasvinesandtreespecies, requirements forgrantingintellectualpropertyrightsoverplantvarieties,which Council Regulation (EC) supra No2100/94, fn25. Art53(b), European Patent Convention. See also G.Kastler, Laréglementation européenne surles Kastler, Laréglementation européenne surlessemences, supra fn133. For a historical review of plant variety protection laws in European states andtheconception of Arts1and2,Council Regulation (EC) supra No2100/94, fn25. See ‘International Appeal to thePresident of theEuropean Patent Office, António Campinos: Callfor Art 4, Directive Art4, 98/44/EC of theEuropean Parliament andof theCouncil of 6 July1998onthelegal Art19,ibid.Itisnoteworthy that theEuropean Council may extend these terms by upto five years 133 ButaccordingtotheEuropeanPatentConventionandEu- 138 Itestablishesthesystemofplantvarietyrightsin 135 Thereisnodefinitionofanessentiallybiological 140 Tobeeligibleforlegalprotection,aplantvari- 139 Concretely,thenormclarifiesspecific 134 European patents shall therefore 137 implements 136

severely restrictspeasants’rightsoverfarm-savedseeds. this protection now extends to the reproduction of commercial seeds, and thus seeds, withoutrestrictingtherightsofpeasantstosaveandusefarm-saved UPOV Convention only protected the production and marketing of commercial 146 145 144 for inArticle14(3)of Council Regulation (EC) No2100/94 onCommunity plantvariety rights. Regulation (EC) No1768/95 of 24 July1995implementingrulesonthe agricultural exemption provided 143 142 141 their contributiontothemaintenanceandimprovementof seeds. adequately protectedandthevastmajorityofpeasantsremain uncompensatedfor unclear, peasants’traditionalknowledge, innovations andpractices have notbeen of theprinciplebenefit-sharingasconceivedinCBD is tooslowandoften the lawsandregulationsofEUMemberStates.The implementation main elementsoftherighttoseedsfarmers/peasantsare poorlyprotectedin In sharpcontrastwiththeprotectiongrantedtointellectual propertyrights,the 3. FARMERS’ RIGHTS IN EUROPE other varieties’. poses’ and‘actsdoneforthepurposeofbreeding,ordiscoveringdeveloping done privatelyandfornon-commercialpurposes’,‘actsexperimentalpur- ones andclarifiesthespecificcasestowhichplantvarietyrightsdonotapply:‘acts concerning freeaccesstoprotectedplantvarietiesforthedevelopmentofnew With respecttothebreeders’exemption,regulationreaffirmsUPOVrule ty plantvarietyright’. variety otherthanahybridorsyntheticvariety,whichiscoveredbyCommuni- they haveobtainedbyplanting,ontheirownholding,propagatingmaterialofa ing purposesinthefield,ontheirownholdingproductofharvestwhich safeguarding agriculturalproduction,farmersareauthorizedtouseforpropagat- former, Council Regulation (EC) No 2100/94 establishes that, ‘for the purposes of Conventions, havebeeninternalizedintheEUnormativeframework.Asfor The notionsoffarmers’privilegeandbreeders’exemption,prescribedintheUPOV four yearsor,inthecaseofvinesandtrees,earlierthansixoutsideEU. following timelapse:(a)earlierthanoneyear,ifwithintheEU,(b) with theconsentofbreeder’,aimexploitingvarietywithin or harvestedmaterial‘havenotbeensoldotherwisedisposedoftoothers,by criterion of novelty. A plant variety is considerednew whenever its constituents ety mustmeettheDUScriteriareferredtoearlierinthisstudy,addition and theareaofcultivation. limited withregardtothenumberofspecieslistedinnormativeframework Art10(1), Council Regulation (EC) supra No2100/94, fn25. Art 14(2and 3), ibid. See also detailed conditions to give effect to thisderogation in Commission Art15,Council Regulation (EC) supra No2100/94, fn25. Art14(1),ibid. Reportof theSpecial Rapporteur onthe Rightto Food, supra §47. fn14, Kastler, Laréglementation européenne surlessemences, supra fn133. 145 142 Thisderogationofplantvarietyrights,however,maybe 143 And,asnotedearlier,whilethefirstversionsof 144 146 As wehave 141

CHALLENGES TO THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN THE EU 45 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 46 laws, especiallyEUDirectives98/95/EC to theenforcementofplantvarietyrightsinEU(seeabove),seedmarketing No 2100/94,whichupheldthenotionoffarmers’rightsandprescribedexceptions rules thatfavourindustrialseedsystems.InadditiontoCouncilRegulation(EC) been grantedtotherightsofpeasants,informexceptionsgeneral In that overallcontext,smallprogresshasbeenachieved, when protection has protecting peasants’righttoseedsandseedsystems. keting requirements. sionally involvedinplantproduction(localcirculation)’fromgeneralseedmar- plants isintendedforfinalusebypersonsonthelocalmarketwhoarenotprofes- producers allofwhoseproductionandsalespropagatingmaterialfruit Council Directive2008/90/EC,whichallowsEUMemberStatestoexempt‘small and plantvarieties. fore notconstrainedbytherequirementsofregistrationandcertificationseeds peasants andamateurgardenerswhoself-consumetheirproduce,whichisthere- theoretically excludesfromthescopeofnormexchangeseedsbetween conservation (2015), especially Section 7. savers andcompanies aboutrulesandpractice of trade andtransfer of seeds for non-commercial use and 154 153 propagating material andfruitplantsintended for fruitproduction. 152 151 150 149 and onthecommon catalogue of varieties of agricultural plantspecies. beet seed, fodder plantseed, cereal seed, seed potatoes, seed of oilandfibre plantsandvegetable seed 66/401/EEC, 66/402/EEC, 66/403/EEC, 69/208/EEC, 70/457/EEC and70/458/EEC onthemarketing of internal market, genetically modified plantvarieties andplantgeneticresources, Directives 66/400/EEC, 148 and-stakeholders/en/ (last accessed 2April2019). http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/areas-of-work/farmers-rights/submissions-by-the-contracting-parties- 147 tional law. rights, hasnotbeeninterpretedasobligingstatestoprotectfarmers’rightsinna- rights ofpeasantsatnationallevel,essentiallybecauseArticle9,definingfarmers’ seen, the ITPGRFA has also not led to a significant increase in the protection of the mercial exploitationofthevariety…shallnotberegardedasmarketing’. Concretely, Directive98/95/ECestablishesthat‘[t]radeinseednotaimedatcom- such asAustria of EUMemberStateshaveexploitedthisderogationintheirnationallegislations, national level,andtheirimplementationhasbeenunequalatbest.Onlyahandful farmers’ rights. way tonew,tinyregulatoryspacesthatallowforEUMemberStatesimplement Kastler, Laréglementation européenne surlessemences , supra fn133. See Austrian Seed Regulation, 1997 (2016 Version), §4(3). Art 10(1.a), Council Directive 2008/90/EC of 29 September 2008 on themarketing of fruit plant Ibid,§43.For information on theimplementation of Art9,ITPGFA, see www.farmersrights.org and See Ministry of Environment andFood of Denmark,Seeds 2,Instructions for amateur breeders, seed Art1(2),Council Directive 98/95/EC, supra fn148. Council Directive 98/95/EC of 14 December 1998 amending, in respect of the consolidation of the See also Kastler, Laréglementation européenne surlessemences, supra fn133. 147 TheEUandMemberStatesarealsonotadequatelypromoting 149 153

andDenmark. 151 152 Thisprerogativehasbeenreaffirmedinthesubsequent Theseprerogativesnonethelessneedtobetransposedat 154

148 and2008/62/EChavealsoopenedthe 150 Itthus of low-inputagriculturalsystemssuchasorganic. peasant seedsystemsoperatinginEurope,anddonotrespondtothespecificneeds for registeringseedsintheEUCommonCatalogue,donotreflectrealityof new varieties, seeds and propagating materials have satisfactory agronomic value lectual property rights – and the requirement that in the case of agricultural crops’ this assertion.Concretely,theDUScriteria–sameasthoseusedtograntintel- The strictrequirementsforregistering,certifyingandmarketingseedsillustrate text, therights,needsandinterestsofpeasantshavebeenlargelyneglected. industry and,assuch,imposesindustry-specificproductionstandards.Inthiscon- fact thatithasbeendesignedtomeettheneedsandinterestsofagricultural One ofthemajorpointscontentionregardingthislegalframeworkliesin supra fn36,especially pp119–149. 157 organic seeds can have better access to the market, 156 Crops GeneticDiversity’, 15Sustainable Agriculture Reviews (2015). 155 ing ofseedandpropagatingmaterialspecificcropsanarraylegalacts. logues of the EUMemberStates, eleven verticaldirectivesregulating the market- varieties of agricultural plant species, compiled on the basis of the national cata- horizontal directive,Directive2002/53establishingtheEUCommonCatalogueof in theEUaregovernedbyamyriadoflawsandregulations.Thesecompriseone The registration,certificationandmarketingofseedspropagatingmaterials for seedmarketing. fore fornotcomplyingwiththerequirementsprescribedinEUDirective98/95/EC practice thathasbeencarriedoutbypeasantssincetimeimmemorial),andthere- been suedforsellingseedsthatarenotregisteredintheofficialseedcatalogues(a and fightingtheerosionofseeddiversitywithinbeyondcontinenthave European civilsocietyassociationsengagedincollectingancientandorphanseeds amateur gardeners. innumerous seedsandplantvarietiesusedtradeddailyamongpeasants B. SEED REGISTRATION, CERTIFICATION AND MARKETING See thecases Kokopelli vFrance andKokopelli vBaumaux,inMagarinos-Rey, Semences hors-la-loi, For adetailed appraisal of thisregulatory system, see T. Winge, ‘Seed Legislation inEurope and See theLIVESEED project, which–amongother goals –aimsto adapt thecriteria to make sure that 157

https://www.liveseed.eu (last accessed 3 April 2019). 156 Theyoutlawthemarketingof 155

CHALLENGES TO THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN THE EU 47 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 48 ety featuresofitspropagation. The criterionofuniformityreferstotheexpecteddegreevariationplantvari- 162 161 160 propagation_material/legislation/eu_marketing_requirements_en (last accessed 3April2019). 159 sites/food/files/plant/docs/plant_variety_catalogues_db_eu-list-var-vine.xls (last accessed 3April2019). catalogues of the vinevarieties thatcan bemarketed intheEU isavailable at regulate the marketing of vine species. The EU Common Catalogue of Vine Varieties, with data on national table seed andseed of oiland fibre plantsrespectively, andrepealing Commission Decision 2010/680/EU seed, material for thevegetative propagation of thevine,forest reproductive material, beet seed, vege- 1999/105/EC, 2002/54/EC, 2002/55/EC and 2002/57/EC on the marketing of fodder plant seed, cereal from theobligationto applyto certain species Council Directives 66/401/EEC, 66/402/EEC, 68/193/EEC, Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2017/478 of 16 March 2017 releasing certain Member States 68/193/EEC of 9April1968on the marketing of material for thevegetative propagation of thevineand plant/docs/plant-variety-catalogues_frumatis-eu-list.xlsx in EU MemberStates thatcan bemarketed intheEU. See https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/ Reproductive Material Information System) provides information onfruitgenera andspecies registered tration of suppliersandof varieties andthecommon list of varieties. The database FRUMATIS (Fruit Implementing Directive 2014/97/EU implementingCouncil Directive 2008/90/EC asregards theregis- 2019). Specifically onfruitplants,refer to Council Directive 2008/90/EC, supra fn152,and Commission if a particular material is suitable for a site’. See of approved basic material including data onareas orgeographic location –essential for determining Material Information System) ‘provides access to thedata of thenationalregisters, containing thedetails lists of thebasic material of forest reproductive material. The database FOREMATIS (Forest Reproductive down detailed rulesfor theapplication of Council Directive 1999/105/EC asregards theformat of national of forest reproductive material andCommission Regulation EC 1597/2002 of 6September 2002 laying 158 crops, theirvalueforcultivationanduse(VCU)mustalsobeassessed. The newvarietieshavetobetestedforDUS.Furthermore,inthecaseofagricultural varieties mayonlybeofficiallyregisterediftheymeetanumberoftechnicalcriteria. tural plantandvegetablespeciesallowedtobemarketedwithinthecontinent.Plant istered plant varieties based on national catalogues and lists the varieties of agricul- authorization intheEUzone.TheCommonCatalogueservesasadatabaseofreg- Registration innationalplantvarietycataloguesisthefirststeptowardmarketing types ofcropsaregovernedbyspecificdirectives. agricultural plantandvegetablespeciesthatcanbemarketedwithintheEU.Other EU Council Directive 2002/53/EC establishes the European Common Catalogue of 1. REGISTRATION the dateofapplication. pared toanyothervarieties‘whoseexistenceisamatterofcommonknowledge’at istics, asaresultofparticulargenotypeorcombinationgenotypes,whencom- A plantvarietyisconsidereddistinctifitholdsclearlydistinguishablecharacter- a competentintergovernmentalorganization. an officialregisterintheEUorMemberStates,anon-EUState of commonknowledge’ifithasbeensubjecttoaplantvarietyrightorincludedin Art7(2),ibid. Forest trees are governed by Council Directive 1999/105/EC of 22December 1999onthemarketing See European Commission, ‘EU Marketing Requirements’, Art8,ibid. Art7(1),Council Regulation (EC) supra No2100/94, fn25. 160 Theexistenceofavarietyisconsideredtobe‘amatter 162 As for stability, a plant variety will be deemed to be Asforstability,aplantvarietywillbedeemedto http://ec.europa.eu/forematis (last accessed 3 April 2019). Council Directive 161

158 https://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_ https://ec.europa.eu/food/ (last accessed 3 April 159

ornamental plants’. ed forfruitproduction,forestreproductivematerialandpropagatingof material otherthanseed,fruit-plantpropagatingandfruitplantsintend- tion orregistrationofsuppliersisrequiredforvegetablepropagatingandplanting and successive amendments. 1992 onthemarketing of fruitplantpropagating material andfruit plantsintended for fruitproduction 168 167 Crops GeneticDiversity’, supra fn155,8. 166 165 cessed 3April209). ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_propagation_material/plant_variety_catalogues_databases_en (last ac 164 163 ber 2008. fruit productionisgovernedbyCouncilDirective2008/90/ECof29Septem- The marketingoffruit-plantpropagatingmaterialandfruitplantsintendedfor 3. MARKETING that areputinthemarket. guaranteeing theidentity,healthandqualityofseedspropagatingmaterial Certification ofseedlotsandproducingplantpropagatingmaterialsaimsat 2. CERTIFICATION the market,whilepeasantseedsaremarginalizedanddisappear. catalogue, andthereforetheonlyones–withfewexceptionsthatcanbeputon tected byintellectualpropertyrightsaretheonlyonesthatcanberegisteredin as thoseusedtograntintellectualpropertyrightsimpliesthatseedvarietiespro- seed varietiescanberegisteredintheEuropeanCommonCataloguearesame It mustberestatedherethatthefactDUScriteriachosentodetermineif to theenvironmentandqualitycharacteristics. the performanceofvarietyonyield,resistancetoharmfulorganisms,response The valueforcultivationanduseofagriculturalcropsisassessedonthebasis the caseofaparticularcyclepropagation,atendeachsuchcycle’. used forthevarietydescription,remainunchangedafterrepeatedpropagationor,in stable iftheparticularfeaturesthatcharacterizeitsdistinctness‘aswellasanyothers carried outbyofficialbodiesorundersupervision. mandatory step before their commercialization. Certification and inspections are for thevegetativepropagationofvine. al andCouncilDirective68/193/EECof9April1968onthemarketing ofmaterial 1999/105/EC of22December1999onthemarketingforest reproductive materi- vegetable propagating and planting material other than seed, Council Directive marketing ofvegetableseed,CouncilDirective2008/72/EC on themarketingof For adetailed appraisal of these regulatory systems, see ibid. Art9,ibid. See European Commission, ‘EU Marketing Requirements’, supra fn159. Council Directive 2008/90/EC, supra fn152,whichrepeals Council Directive 92/34/EEC of 28 April For a detailed appraisal of these regulatory systems, see Winge, ‘Seed Legislation in Europe and See European Commission, ‘PlantVariety Catalogues, Databases and Information Systems’, 168 OtherapplicabletextsincludeCouncilDirective2002/55/EC onthe 167 165 Forcommercialcropsandpotatoes,certificationis a 164 166 Likewise,‘accredita- 163 https:// -

CHALLENGES TO THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN THE EU 49 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 50 to the local and regional conditions and threatened by genetic erosion’. Conservation varietiesare‘landracesandwhichnaturallyadapted tific purposes,forselectionworkortohelppreservegeneticdiversity. that donotobservethesecriteriacanonlybeplacedonthemarketfortrialsorscien- the specificrequirementsforCACmaterialestablished[inlaw]’. terial, theproductionoffruitplants,and/orfruits,and(c)satisfy adequate varietalpurity[and](b)areintendedfor:theproductionofpropagatingma- comprises propagatingmaterialandfruitplantswhich‘(a)havevarietalidentity plified registrationandmaybecommercializedwithoutcertification.Thiscategory der the‘CACmaterial’(conformitasagrariacommunitatis)categorycanfollowasim- 175 174 173 sur lessemences, supra fn133. of seed of those landraces and varieties. On this point, see also Kastler, Laréglementation européenne for commercial crop production butdeveloped for growing underparticular conditions andfor marketing ties andregions andare threatened by genetic erosion andof vegetable varieties withnointrinsicvalue acceptance of vegetable landraces andvarieties whichhave been traditionally grown inparticular locali- 152; andCommission Directive 2009/145/EC of 26 November 2009 providing for certain derogations, for ting of seed andseed potatoes of those landraces andvarieties; Council Directive 2008/90/EC, supra fn naturally adapted to thelocal andregional conditions andthreatened by geneticerosion andfor marke- 2008 providing for certain derogations for acceptance of agricultural landraces andvarieties whichare 172 171 170 169 tions forpeasantsandgardenerswhouseconservationamateurvarieties. of DUSforregisteringnewplantvarietiesandtocreatespecialmarketingcondi- EU Member States are allowed to apply partial derogation from the prescriptions a. Conservationandamateurvarieties 4. SPECIAL PROVISIONS rial ortheymeettheconditionstobequalifiedasCACmaterial’. CAC material; and (b) the fruit plants have been officially certified as certified mate- sic material”or“certifiedifitmeetstheconditionstobequalifiedas ‘(a) thepropagatingmaterialhasbeenofficiallycertifiedas“pre-basicmaterial”,“ba- ing materialsareonlyallowedtobemarketedifthefollowingcriteriaobserved: plants intendedforfruitproduction.Accordingtothisdirective,seedsandpropagat- Directive 2008/90/EC on the marketing of fruit-plant propagating material and fruit To illustratethiscomplexcrop-by-cropsystem,wecantaketheexampleofCouncil cial cropproduction. teur varietiesinturnarevegetablewithnointrinsic value forcommer- regards theacceptanceofvarietiesandmarketing…’ and marketedevenwheretheydonotcomplywiththegeneral requirementsas tions andthreatenedbygeneticerosion(conservationvarieties)shouldbegrown landraces andvarietieswhicharenaturallyadaptedtolocalregionalcondi- to ensureinsituconservationandthesustainableuseofplantgeneticresources, Art3(4), ibid. Art1(1.a), Commission Directive 2008/62/EC, supra fn172. Preamble, Commission Directive 2008/62/EC, supra fn172. Commission Directive 2009/145/EC, supra fn172, especially Arts21–32. Art1(24), Council Directive 98/95/EC, supra Commission fn148; Directive 2008/62/EC of 20 June Art2(8),ibid. Art3(1),Council Directive 2008/90/EC, supra fn152. 174 CommissionDirective2008/62/ECclarifiesthat‘[i]norder 175

170 169 Otherwise,seeds Seedsfallingun- 171 173 Ama- 172

of thevariety’ descend fromseedproducedaccordingtowelldefinedpracticesformaintenance 183 182 181 180 179 178 and Agrobiodiversity’, supra fn176, 40. of conservation asastrategy to derogate from certain requisites of seed rules’. Bocci, ‘Seed Legislation has sought to reduce theriskof an indiscriminate passage of varieties from thecommon Catalogue to that Plant Breeders Rights(PBRs)cannot beconsidered conservation varieties (Art.6).Inthisway, legislation Catalogue of varieties butwhichhave been absent from itfor less than2years, orwhichare protected by 177 and Environment for International Development 1/2(2009) 35. 176 pared to306amateurvarietiesinacataloguethatregistersthousands ofvarieties. example, thereare17conservationvarietieslistedinthenationalcatalogue,com- very little success, especially when it came to conservationvarieties. In France, for strictions and administrative burden that accompaniedthis approach have led to able useofgeneticresources.However,thegeographicallimits,quantitativere- States was allowed with a view to contributing tothe conservation and sustain- The registrationofconservationandamateurvarietiesintheEUMember Member States’. resource authoritiesorfromorganisationsrecognisedforthispurposebythe ber Stateconcerned;(d)otherinformation,in particular fromtheplantgenetic during cultivation,reproductionanduse,asnotifiedbytheapplicanttoMem- (b) theresultsofunofficialtests;(c)knowledgegainedfrompracticalexperience sufficient: ‘(a)thedescriptionofconservationvarietyanditsdenomination; rieties withoutofficialassessmentoftechnicalrequirements.Thefollowingare In practice,legalderogationallowsforregisteringconservationandamateurva- varieties thatcouldonlybeexchangedbetweenfarmers.’ to fallintothecategoryofseedmarketabilitycreatinganarealegitimacyfor procedures forthesaleofseeds.Theintention,therefore,isthesevarieties tered inthe[EUCommon]Catalogue,andonothertoestablishaminimumof the present-dayseedsystemononehandtoallowthesevarietiesberegis- As noted,‘theobjectiveofconservationisachievedbythetoolderogationfrom is naturallyadapted’ ‘the regionorregionsinwhichthevarietyhashistoricallygrownandtoit to theirregionoforiginorapprovedadditionalregions; member statewherethederogationappliesinonegrowingseason. marketed mustnotexceed0.5percentoftheseedsamespeciesusedin in their region of origin or approved additional regions; keting restrictionsapply:conservationvarietiesmayonlybemarketedifproduced Art13(1.a), ibid. Art5,Council Directive 98/95/EC, supra ‘Varieties fn148: previously registered inthecommon Art8,Commission Directive 2008/62/EC, supra fn172. R.Bocci, ‘Seed Legislation andAgrobiodiversity: Conservation Varieties’, 103 Journalof Agriculture Art10(2), ibid. Art 14, ibid. Art14, Art13(1.b), ibid. Art10(3), ibid. 179 and‘shallhavesufficientvarietalpurity’. 177 Inaddition,forconservationvarieties,the‘regionoforigin’,i.e. 178 mustbeidentified,theseedorpropagatingmaterial‘shall 182 181 176 180 andthequantityofseed marketingisrestricted Last,anumberofmar- 183

CHALLENGES TO THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN THE EU 51 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 52 Arche Noah, of theseedsandplantsreproductivematerialavailablefororganicfarmers.For This newregulationisanimportantsteptowardstheincreaseanddiversification repealing Council Directive 90/220/EEC. 12 March 2001 onthe deliberate release into theenvironment of genetically modified organisms and 187 tion_-_october_2018_web.pdf (last accessed 3April2019). https://www.arche-noah.at/files/arche_noah_information_note_seeds_in_new_the_eu_organic_regula 186 press/press-releases/2018/05/22/organic-farming-new-eu-rules-adopted (last accessed 3April2019). 185 labelling of organic production, labellingandcontrol [2008] OJ L250/1. detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 on organic production and 184 organism hasbeenauthorizedpursuanttoDirective2001/18/EC ically modifiedorganismcanonlybecommercializedifthegenetically other propagating materials, as well as fruit-plant varieties that consist of a genet- As forGMseeds,furtherrulesthecertificationandmarketingapply.Seeds c. Geneticallymodifiedseeds (EC) No889/2008, tional seeds.OrganicseedshavetocomplywithEuropeanCommissionRegulation Organic seeds are subject to further rules, in addition to those applied to conven- b. Organicseeds organic products’. tors, preventingfraudandunfairpracticesimprovingconsumerconfidencein duction in the EU and aims at guaranteeing fair competitionfor farmers and opera- new regulationaimsatencouraging‘thesustainabledevelopmentoforganicpro- In May2018,theEUCouncilpassedanewregulationonorganicproduction.The ling oforganicproducts. quirements forproductsconsistingoforcontainingGMOs. 1829/2003 initsturndetailsspecificproceduresfortraceability andlabellingre- and makingallassessmentreportsavailabletothepublic. Regulation (EC)No which aretobeplacedonthemarket,aswelladequatelabelling ofpackages assessment, riskmanagementandmonitoringofGMOsorproducts containing, (EC) No1829/2003.Directive2001/18/ECrequiresspecificenvironmentalrisk See especially, Arts12–24, Directive 2001/18/EC of theEuropean Parliament andof theCouncil of European Council, ‘Organic Farming: New EU Rules Adopted’, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/ Arche Noah, European Commission (2008) Regulation (EC) No889/2008 of 5September 2008 laying down on non-organicseedsandPRMintheorganicsector. rise inthesupplyoforganicseeds,reducingwidespreaddependency thereby increasingtheuseofagro-biodiversityinagriculture;and(ii)a the marketingofamuchwidervarietyseedsandPRMonmarket, to thenationalauthority.Theseprovisionsshouldopendoorto:(i) tered variety,butinsteadfollowingarelativelysimplepriornotification may, from2021,bemarketedintheorganicsectorwithoutbeingaregis- the mostwelcomedevelopmentisthat‘organicheterogeneousmaterial’ Seeds in the New EU Organic Regulation 2018/848, Information Note, October 2018, 185 184 Thenewregulationwillapplyfrom2021onwards. which laysdowntherulesfororganicproductionandlabel- 186 187 orRegulation

GMOs. ECJ, Confédération paysanne andOthersjudgment,supra fn188,ruling§1. new genetic engineering techniques are GMOsandwithout a‘longrecord of safety’, must beregulated as controversies. The finaldecision of theECJ clarified thelegal status of new geneticengineering techniques: DNA andthepotential effects of these new plantsto humanhealth andtheenvironment remain subject to the exclusion of thescope of Directive 2001/18/EC. However, these techniques implydirect modification of through transgenesis (e.g. herbicide-resistant varieties). Biotechnologies industries tryto beneficiate from modification has allowed for the production of genetically modified plant varieties similar to those obtained scope of thedirective (cf. Annex IB,Directive 2001/18/EC,). The introduction of new techniques of genetic was adopted in1990. Ifrecognized asatechnique leading to GMOs,mutagenesis isexcluded from the mutagens, suchasultraviolet light and chemicals, respectively, techniques existing when thefirst directive in whichgenomemodification isinduced through theexposure of anorganism to natural orindustrial Mutagenesis isnot defined intheEuropean GMOlegislation. Itrefers to techniques developed inthe1960s by transgenesis, i.e. thedirect modification of thegenomethrough theintroduction of aforeign gene. mating and/or natural recombination’. This notion hasbeen developed bearing in mindorganisms obtained human beings,inwhichthegeneticmaterial hasbeen altered inaway thatdoesnot occur naturally by 190 189 de l’agriculture, del’agroalimentaire etdelaforêt, Case C-528/16, Judgment,25July2018. 188 ject totheEuropeanGMregulations. isms obtainedbymutagenesisfallwithinthecategoryofGMOsandarethussub- In arecentdecision,theEuropeanCourtofJusticeexpresseditsviewthatorgan- and theenvironment. been settledonthebasisofpotentialriskstheseorganismstohumanhealth within themeaningofGMentrenchedinDirective2001/18/EC. material ofanorganisminawaythatdoesnotoccurnaturally’andthereforefall involve theuseofgeneticengineering,thosetechniques/methodsalter methods involvetheuseofchemicalorphysicalmutageneousagents,andothers European Court of Justice (ECJ), Art 2(2),Directive 2001/18/EC, supra fn 187, defines a GMOas‘an organism, withtheexception of Ibid,§29. 190 Confédération paysanne and Others v Premier ministre andMinistre 188 Forthecourt,‘certainofthosetechniques/ 189 Thedebatehas

CHALLENGES TO THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN THE EU 53 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 54 according to thevotes of states duringthis adoption (UNGARes 73/165, supra §2). fn54, Declaration andto promote universal respect and understanding thereof’, withoutmakingany distinction United Nations system andintergovernmental andnon-governmental organizations to disseminate the adopted theUNDROP, theUNGeneral Assembly invited ‘Governments, agenciesandorganizations of the of Action, endorsed by UNGARes 20 December 48/121, 1993. Itisalso worth mentioningthatwhenit rights isthefirst responsibility of governments. UNGeneral Assembly, Vienna Declaration andProgramme Programme of Action, all UNMemberStates reaffirmed thatthepromotion andprotection of human sent Charter shall prevail’ (Art103). Itisalso relevant to mention thatintheVienna Declaration and Charter andtheirobligationsunderany other international agreement, theirobligationsunderthepre- event of aconflict between theobligationsof the Members of theUnited Nationsunderthepresent mote universal respect for humanrights(Arts55(c)and56).The UNCharter also provides that‘[i]nthe purposes of theUN(Art1(3)),andMember States pledged to take joint and separate actionto pro- 191 peasants, withtheiractiveparticipation(SectionB.5). B.4); andensurethatagriculturalresearchdevelopmentintegrate theneedsof participation ofpeasantsindecision-makingprocessesrelation toseeds(Section sharing ofbenefitsarisingfromtheutilizationseeds(SectionB.3);ensure ditional knowledge, innovation and practices, and to equitably participate in the of peasantseedsandagrobiodiversity(SectionB.2);protectpeasants’rightstotra- the righttoseeds(SectionB.1);supportpeasantseedsystemsandpromoteuse placed ontheEUandMemberStates’obligationstorespect,protectfulfil are consistentwiththerighttoseeds(SectionA.2).Particularemphasisisthen they areparty (Section A.1),aswelltheirnationalandregionallawspolicies, ber States shallmakesurethatinternational agreements and standards to which In thispart,wewillseethatinimplementingtheUNDROP,EUandMem- the UNDROP. above). Thisistrueevenforstatesthatabstainedorvotedagainsttheadoptionof al propertyrights,andovernationalregionallawspolicies(seePart4.D vail overotherinternationalinstruments,includingthoseprotectingintellectu- As wehaveseen,ininternationallaw,humanrightsandtheUNDROPshallpre- DAW Convention),theCBDanditsProtocolsITPGRFA. human rightsconventions(suchattheICESCR,ICCPRandCE- binding internationaltreatiesratifiedbyEUMemberStates,including law. Itbuildsonandincludesagreedlanguagetakenfromanumberof UN GeneralAssemblyin2018isareflectionofexistinginternational The UNDROPadoptedbytheUNHumanRightsCounciland According to the UNCharter, thepromotion andprotection of humanrightsisoneof themain OF THE UNDROP IN THE EU AND 191 6. THE IMPLEMENTATION EU MEMBER STATES

saved seedsenshrinedinArticle 19(1.d)oftheUNDROP.Inordertoprotectthis in thelimitationsofpeasants’ right tofreelysave,use,exchangeandsellfarmed- challenges totheprotectionof peasants’ righttoseeds.Oneofthesechallengeslies national agreementsprotecting intellectualpropertyrightshaveposedserious As wehaveseen,intheEUand EUMemberStatestheimplementationofinter- international agreementsthatmayaffecttheirrighttoseeds. through theirownrepresentativeinstitutions,beforeadopting andimplementing of theUNDROP,theyshallalsoconsultandcooperateingood faithwithpeasants, not infringed, but respected, protected and fulfilled. In accordance with Article 2(3) States shallprivilegetherightsofpeasantsandensurethatpeasants’ righttoseedsis already undertaken,includingattheWTOandUPOV,EU andtheEUMember and ininterpretingimplementingtheinternational obligations that theyhave their righttoseeds.Inotherwords,inelaboratingnewinternational instruments, which theyareparty,inamannerconsistentwiththerightsof peasants,including elaborate, interpretandapplyrelevantinternationalagreements andstandardsto primacy overotherinternationalinstruments,Article2(4)providesthatstatesshall To reverse this trend, and clarifying that human rights and the UNDROP shall have ants andcommunities. aspects intertwinedwiththeseeds’exchangeandcommercializationamongpeas- crucial roleofseedsinpeasants’ survival andlivelihoodsaswellsociocultural to privilegethedevelopmentofseedindustrywithlittleifanyconcernfor tion andimplementationoftheseinternationalinstruments.Stateshavetended saving, useandmarketinghasmore often than not beenneglected in theelabora- and intellectualpropertyrights.Thehumanrightsdimensionofseedscollection, verse branchesoflaw,includinghumanrights,environmentalconservation,trade Seeds aresubjecttoanumberofinternationallegalinstrumentsdealingwithdi- obligations asapplicabletopeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. standards towhichtheyareapartyinmannerconsistentwiththeirhumanrights States shallelaborate,interpretandapplyrelevantinternationalagreements Article 2(4) UNDROP 1. THE ELABORATION, INTERPRETION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND STANDARDS AND REGIONAL LAWS AND POLICIES WITH THE RIGHT TO SEEDS INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND STANDARDS, AND NATIONAL A. THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE CONSISTENCY OF

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNDROP IN THE EU AND EU MEMBER STATES 55 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 56 breeder’s right(Art 42). breeder are not to bepunished ifthey can prove thatthey were not aware of the existence of such a vided against innocent infringementby farmers, asfarmers who unknowingly violate therightsof a 192 the rights,needsandrealitiesofpeasantsotherpeopleworking inruralareas. erty laws,certificationschemesandseedmarketinglawsrespect andtakeintoaccount States shallensurethatseedpolicies,plantvarietyprotectionandother intellectualprop- Article 19(8) rights containedinthisDeclaration. economic, social,culturalanddevelopmentpolicieswiththe realizationofthe States shall establish mechanisms to ensure the coherence of their agricultural, Article 15(5) UNDROP 2. NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LAWS AND POLICIES ers’ rights(Article39). share andsellfarmproduce,includingseedsofvarietiesprotectedbyplantbreed- and breeders’rights,aswellfarmers’rightstosave,use,sow,resow,exchange, ies andFarmersRightsActinIndia,throughwhichIndiaprotectedplantvarieties EU MemberStatescoulddrawinspirationfromthe2001ProtectionofPlantVariet- ing andimplementingexistingones,includingattheWTOUPOV,EU right ofpeasantsinelaboratingnewinternationalinstruments,andinterpret- condition forconcludingEconomicPartnershipAgreementswiththeEU. shall, interalia,stoprequiringdevelopingcountriestoadoptUPOV’s1991Actasa of peasants’righttoseedsintheEUandothercountries.Thisimpliesthatthey EU andMemberStatesshallmakesurethatthesewillnotleadtoviolations Finally, itisimportanttounderlinethatinnegotiatingfreetradeagreements,the them. Industrialseedpricesmustbefairandadequateforlocalcontexts. seed researchanddevelopmentshallnotpreventfarmersfromhavingaccessto availability andaccessshallbeguaranteed.Thefinalretributionderivingfrom notwithstanding anypropertyrightsindustrialseedcompaniesmighthold, locally, includingcommercialseeds(Article19(5)).Inpractice,thisentailsthat rights ofpeasantsnotonlytorelyontheirownseedsbutalsoavailable The UNDROPalsoprovidesthattheEUandMemberStatesshallrecognize that theysupportandprotectpeasants’righttoseeds. privilege, privateandnon-commercialusethebreeders’exception,toensure flexibilities ofthepatentandplantvarietyprotectionsystems,suchasfarmers’ The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, supra Safeguards fn 42. have been pro- 192 Theycouldelaboratenewrules,orreinterpretexisting law (seePart4.D.1above). seeds inparticular(Article19(3)) isinconformitywithinternationalhumanrights protect and fulfil the rightsof peasantsin general (Article 2(1)),and the right to As wehaveseen,theinclusion intheUNDROPofstates’obligationstorespect, ants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. States shalltakemeasurestorespect,protectandfulfiltheright toseedsofpeas- Article 19(3) present Declarationthatcannotbeimmediatelyguaranteed. appropriate stepstoachieveprogressivelythefullrealization oftherights ing inruralareas.Theyshallpromptlytakelegislative,administrative andother States shallrespect,protectandfulfiltherightsofpeasantsotherpeoplework- Article 2(1) UNDROP 1. OBLIGATIONS TO RESPECT, PROTECT AND FULFIL THE RIGHT TO SEEDS icies andotherdecision-makingprocessesthatmayaffecttheirrighttoseeds. representative institutions,beforeadoptingandimplementinglegislationpol- shall alsoconsultandcooperateingoodfaithwithpeasants,throughtheirown In accordance with Article 2(3) of the UNDROP, the EU and EU Member States efforts aimedatimplementingtherighttoseeds(Article2(6)). States shallengageininternationalcooperationandassistancetosupportnational and protectpeasants’righttoseedsseedsystems.AndtheEUMember Policy shouldincludeprovisionsandconditionalityrequirementsthatsupport of peasants(Article19(8)).Forexample,thereformCommonAgricultural seed marketinglawsrespectandtakeintoaccounttherights,needsrealities variety protection and other intellectual property laws, certification schemes and of the right toseeds (Article 15(5)), and they shall ensure that seed policies, plant cultural, economic,social,culturalanddevelopmentpolicieswiththerealization Member Statesshallestablishmechanismstoensurethecoherenceoftheiragri- 15(5) and19(8)oftheUNDROP.Accordingtothesetwoprovisions,EU ing theexerciseofrighttoseedsshallbechanged,inaccordancewithArticles In theEU,anumberoflawsandpolicieschallengingprotectionof,orrestrict- B. FOCUS ON SPECIFIC RIGHTS AND STATES’ OBLIGATIONS

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNDROP IN THE EU AND EU MEMBER STATES 57 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 58 and 4regionshavedecidedtobanGMOcultivationontheirterritory. al ororganicagriculture.Onthebasisofthisnewlegislation,17 EUMemberStates also bejustifiedfornon-scientificreasons,includingtheneed to protectconvention- risks of these organisms to human health and the environment, such a ban can now and whilebefore2015itwasalreadypossibletobanGMOson the basisofpotential be excludedintheEuropeanUnion’.But2015,EUDirective2001/18wasmodified, tional, organicoragricultureusinggeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMOs),should The guidelinesdepartedfromthepremisethat‘[n]oformofagriculture,beitconven- sur-les-OGM-en-France-et-en-Europe- (last accessed 8April2019). 196 2003/556/EC. practices to ensure the coexistence of genetically modified crops withconventional andorganic farming, 195 194 seed marketing laws respect andtake into account therights,needs andrealities of peasants (Art 19(8)). that seed policies,plantvariety protection andother intellectual property laws, certification schemes and they are party, inamannerconsistent withtherightsof peasants (Art2(4)); andthatstates shallensure states shallelaborate, interpret andapplyrelevant international agreements andstandards to which of policies,programmes andprojects thatmay affect theirlives, landandlivelihoods (Art10(1)); that pation, directly and/or through their representative organizations, in thepreparation andimplementation 193 to ensurethecoexistenceofGMcropswithconventionalandorganicfarming. enacted theguidelinesfordevelopmentofnationalstrategiesandbestpractices to fiercedebatesinEurope.TheEUCommissionRecommendationof23July2003 The coexistenceofGMcropsandconventionalorganicfarminghasbeensubject with Articles 2(4), 10(1) and 19(8) of the UNDROP shall respecttherightsofpeasantstoseedsincludeobligation–inaccordance In theUNDROP,examplesofwaysthroughwhichEUandMemberStates and localcommunities’. diversity, especiallywithregardtothevalueofbiologicaldiversityindigenous living modifiedorganismsontheconservationandsustainableuseofbiological to takedue account of ‘socio-economic considerations arising from the impact of ber Stateshavetaken,upontheratificationofCartagenaProtocolonBiosafety, ticle 20(3)).ThisobligationisclosetothecommitmentthatEUandMem- handling, transport,use,transferorreleaseofanylivingmodifiedorganisms(Ar- the righttoseedsincludepreventionofrisksarisingfromdevelopment, In the UNDROP, measures that the EU and EU Member States shall take to protect es, respectandstrengthentherightsofpeasants,includingtheirright toseeds. als andorganizations,transnationalcorporationsotherbusinessenterpris- that non-stateactorstheyareinapositiontoregulate,suchasprivateindividu- provision, theEUandMemberStatesshalltakeallnecessarymeasurestoensure The obligationtoprotectisdefinedinArticle2(5)oftheUNDROP.Accordingthis they donotinfringetherealizationofrighttoseeds. and intheelaborationofnationalregionallawspolicies,tomakesurethat oration, interpretationandapplicationofinternationalagreementsstandards of peasants,directlyand/orthroughtheirrepresentativeorganizations,intheelab- Arts2(4), 10(1) and19(8),UNDROP, provide thatpeasants have therightto active andfree partici- EU Commission, Recommendation onguidelinesfor thedevelopment of nationalstrategies and best See inf’OGM, Moratoires See inf’OGM, surlesOGMenFrance etenEurope , https://www.infogm.org/-Moratoires- Art26(1), Cartagena Protocol. 194 193 – to ensure theparticipation 196 195 accessed 3April2019). Agriculture, Position Paper, 2011, p 23,https://www.ifoam.bio/sites/default/files/position_seeds.pdf 200 199 Coexistence Regulation for GMCrops’, 28Nature Biotechnology 2(Feb 2010) 133. 198 authors of this study, ‘[c]o-existence in breeding and seed production is considered to be unfeasible’, p 6. ifoam_eu_project_keeping_gmos_socioeconomic_study_final.pdf (last accessed 3April2019). For the Economic Impacts of GMOs on European Agriculture 2017,, 197 mote theuseofpeasantseedsandagrobiodiversity. States shalltakeappropriatemeasurestosupportpeasantseed systems,andpro- Article 19(6) international levels,andtopromotetheirparticipationinits formulation. uation andcertificationofthequalitytheirproductsat local,nationaland people workinginruralareastoafair,impartialandappropriatesystemofeval- States shalltakeappropriatemeasurestopromotetheaccessofpeasantsandother Article 11(3) UNDROP 2. OBLIGATIONS TO SUPPORT PEASANT SEED SYSTEMS AND TO PROMOTE THE biodiversity (Article20(1)). wish togrow(Article19(5)),andensuretheconservationsustainableuseof available seedsoftheirchoice,andtodecideonthecropsspeciesthatthey ognize therightsofpeasantstorelyeitherontheirownseedsorotherlocally most suitabletimeforplanting,andatanaffordableprice(Article19(4)),torec- ensure thatseedsofsufficientqualityandquantityareavailabletopeasantsatthe EU Member States shall fulfil peasants’ right to seeds include the obligations to Finally, accordingtotheUNDROP,examplesofwaysthroughwhichEUand crops. ventional andorganicagriculturetocross-fertilizationbetweenGMnon-GM Overall, however, too little attention has been paid to the vulnerability of con- contamination withGMcrops,resultingindecertificationandincomeloss. Spanish peasantshaveabandonedorganicmaizeproductionduetothehighriskof ities ofthisissueandthevulnerabilitypeasantstocropcontamination.InEurope, Canada IncvSchmeiserandMarshBaxter, unteer plantsfromstrayseedsandadmixtureafterharvest’. to asadventitiouspresence,usuallyoccursthrough‘outcrossing,thegrowthofvol- USE OF PEASANT SEEDS AND AGROBIODIVERSITY IFOAM EU (theEuropean umbrella organization for organic food andfarming) and FiBL,Socio- Supreme Court of Western Australia, K. Ramessar, T. Capell, R. M. Twyman and P. Christou, ‘Going to Ridiculous Lengths – European IFOAM –Organics International, The Use of Organic Seed andPlant Propagation Material inOrganic 197 ThepresenceofunwantedGMmaterialinnon-GMcrops,usuallyreferred Monsanto and Canada IncvSchmeiser, 2004, 199 forinstance,haveexposedthecomplex- https://www.ifoam-eu.org/sites/default/files/ 198 ThecasesMonsanto Marsh vBaxter 2014. , 200 (last

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNDROP IN THE EU AND EU MEMBER STATES 59 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 60 tion andconservationsystems. peasants’ seedsystemsnotonlytoexist,butfullyoperateandthriveasproduc- ment bytheEUandMemberStatesofnormativeframeworksthatallow to industrialseedsystemsinrecentdecades.Inpractice,thisentailsthedevelop- balance thesupportgiventopeasantseedsystems,compared In Europe,theimplementationofthisobligationrepresentsanopportunitytore- mote theuseofpeasantseedsandagrobiodiversity. states shalltakeappropriatemeasurestosupportpeasantseedsystemsandpro- This obligationwasincludedinArticle19(6)oftheUNDROP,whichprovidesthat formulation. local, nationalandinternationallevels,topromotetheirparticipationinits evaluation andcertificationofthequalitytheirproducts,includingseeds,at also promotetheaccessofpeasantstoafair,impartialandappropriatesystem As providedinArticle11(3) of theUNDROP,EU and EU MemberStatesshall 203 schools, participatory plant-breeding programmes, seed ormodifying marketing rules. 202 201 Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetheright toseeds…including: Article 19(1) UNDROP 3. THE OBLIGATION TO PROTECT PEASANTS’ RIGHTS TO TRADITIONAL ments shouldacceptthattheyhavedutiestosupportfarmers’seedsystems’. or sellingofseedswillnotsuffice:forfarmers’rightstobetrulyrealized,Govern- De Schutter,rightlystatedthat‘merelyremovingbarrierstothesaving,exchange As wehaveseen,theformerUNSpecialRapporteuronrighttofood,Olivier ervation ofbiodiversity. enshrined inArticle19(2)oftheUNDROP,aswellinterestallpres- of Europeanpeasantstomaintain,control,protectanddeveloptheirownseeds, KNOWLEDGE, INNOVATION AND PRACTICES, AND TO EQUITABLY PARTICIPATE IN THE SHARING OF BENEFITS ARISING FROM THE UTILIZATION OF SEEDS Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on theRightto Food, supra §44. fn14, See also Report of theSpecial Rapporteur ontheRightto Food, supra Summary. fn14, There are numerous ways to supportpeasants’ seed systems, including by supporting peasant field the utilizationofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture … (b) Therighttoequitablyparticipateinsharingthebenefits arisingfrom genetic resourcesforfoodandagriculture; (a) The right to the protection of traditional knowledge relevant to plant 203

202 Thisisessentialtoprotecttherightofmillions

201

ITPGRFA 206 205 204 sustainable useofbiologicaldiversity’. local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservationand spect, preserveandmaintainknowledge,innovationspractices ofindigenousand As wehaveseen,apredecessoroftheUNDROP,CBDrequested statespartiesto‘re- arising fromtheutilizationofseeds. practices relevanttoseeds,andtheirrightparticipateinthe sharingofbenefits States shallprotecttherightofpeasantstotraditionalknowledge, innovationand According to Articles 19(1) and 20(2) of the UNDROP, the EU and EU Member and technologiesofpeasantsotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. edge, andeliminatediscriminationagainstthetraditionalknowledge,practices ants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareasrelatingtotheirtraditionalknowl- States shallrespect,andtakemeasurestorecognizeprotect,therightsofpeas- Article 26(3) tional lawortolimittheirscope. invoke culturalrightsto infringe upon the humanrightsguaranteed by interna- life, methods of production or technology, or customs and tradition. No one may trol, protectanddeveloptheirtraditionallocalknowledge,suchaswaysof any formofdiscrimination.Theyalsohavetherighttomaintain,express,con- culture andtopursuefreelytheirculturaldevelopment,withoutinterferenceor Peasants andotherpeopleworkingin rural areashavethe right toenjoytheirown Article 26(1) ical diversity. agroecological systemsrelevanttotheconservationandsustainableuseofbiolog- ral areas,includingtraditionalagrarian,pastoral,forestry,fisheries,livestockand knowledge, innovation andpractices of peasantsandother people working in ru- States shalltakeappropriatemeasurestopromoteandprotectthetraditional Article 20(2) trol, protectanddeveloptheirownseedstraditionalknowledge. Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttomaintain,con- Article 19(2) ing selection, conservation and use of seeds and propagating materials. ing selection,conservationanduseofseedspropagatingmaterials. Art9(2.a),ITPGRFA. Art7, Nagoya Protocol. Art 8(j), CBD. Art8(j), 205 and theNagoyaProtocol. 206 204 This includes traditional knowledge concern- This prescription has been reaffirmed in the Thisprescriptionhasbeenreaffirmedinthe

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNDROP IN THE EU AND EU MEMBER STATES 61 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 62 from theNagoya Protocol intheUnion, C/2016/5337, pp1–19, point2.3.2. (EU) No 511/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the compliance measures for users 210 209 208 freedownload.php?sku=978-2-889302-40-6 (last accessed 8April2019). (1970-2013), Éditions Alphil-Presses universitaires suisses, Neuchâtel, 2019, Questions autochtones etpaysannes danslagouvernance delabiodiversité agricole internationale ticle 9duTIRPAA?, 26 June2018. SeeBrenni, also C. Souveraineté alimentaire etsemences: 207 es anditmustbecoveredbytherelevantcontractualagreements’. ciated with genetic resources needs to be related to the utilisation of those resourc- core obligations of Regulation 511/2014 confirms that ‘traditional knowledge asso- And theofficialGuidancedocumentC/2016/5337onscopeofapplicationand al knowledgeandpriorinformedconsentofindigenouslocalcommunities. Member StatestoimplementtheNagoyaProtocolremainsveryweakontradition- In practice,EURegulation511/2014oncompliancemeasurestobeadoptedby and policy levels for their preservation and protection. traditional knowledgeandcallsuponstatestoadoptallpossiblemeasuresatlaw The UNDROPclarifiestheinternationalstandardsforprotectionofpeasants’ nized, butnotpeasants’traditionalknowledge. al knowledgeofindigenouscommunitiesinGuyanaandNovaCaledoniaisrecog- and ratherconfineittoindigenouscommunities.InFrance,forexample,tradition- right totraditional knowledge, innovationsand practices toEuropeanpeasants, But mostofthecountriesinregiondonotrecognizeapplication The EUandMemberStatesareallpartiestotheseinternationalagreements. participate inthesharingofbenefitsarisingfromutilization ofseeds. the realizationofrightspeasantstotraditionalknowledge andtoequitably in thecontractestablishingmutuallyagreedterms.Thisisa serious limitationto EU compliancemechanismandduediligenceobligations,itneedstobeincluded for peasants’righttotraditionalknowledgebeacknowledgedasrelevantinthe and benefit-sharingmodalitiesareprescribedinmutuallyagreedterms. involvement ofpeasantsandtheircommunitiesareobtainedbeforeaccesstoseeds all necessarymeasurestoensurethatthepriorinformedconsentorapprovaland ified inthetextofNagoyaProtocol,EUandMemberStatesmusttake of benefitsarisingfromtheutilizationseedsandpropagatingmaterials.Asclar- protect and promote the rights of peasants to equitably participate inthesharing the NagoyaProtocol–lawsandpoliciesofEUMemberStatesshallalso In accordancewithArticle19(1.b)oftheUNDROP–andITPGRFA handling practices,mustbefullyintegratedintheEuropeanlawsandpolicies. promotion oftraditionalagriculturaltechniquesandinnovations,includingseed EU Commission, Guidance documentonthescope of application andcore obligationsof Regulation Confédération Paysanne, Oùenest l’application enFrance desdroits desagriculteurs définisàl’ar See also Arts20(2), 26(1) and26(3), UNDROP. See Arts5(5)and6(2),Nagoya Protocol. 207 208 The preservation and https://www.alphil.com/ 210 Therefore, 209 - Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherightto seeds…including: Article 19(1) international levels,andtopromotetheirparticipationinits formulation. uation andcertificationofthequalitytheirproductsat local,nationaland people workinginruralareastoafair,impartialandappropriate systemofeval- States shalltakeappropriatemeasurestopromotetheaccessof peasantsandother Article 11(3) tion indecision-makingmattersthatmayaffecttheirlives,landand livelihoods. methods so as to promote their empowerment and to ensure their effective participa- information inalanguageandformthroughmeansadequatetotheircultural working inruralareashaveaccesstorelevanttransparent,timelyandadequate States shalladoptappropriatemeasurestoensurethatpeasantsandotherpeople Article 11(2) environmental standardsthatmayaffectthem. participation inthepreparationandimplementationoffoodsafety,labour nizations ofpeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareaspromoting their includes respectingtheestablishmentandgrowthofstrongindependentorga- cision-making processesthatmayaffecttheirlives,landandlivelihoods;this tative organizations,ofpeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareasde- States shallpromotetheparticipation,directlyand/orthroughtheirrepresen- Article 10(2) affect theirlives,landandlivelihoods. preparation andimplementationofpolicies,programmesprojectsthatmay participation, directlyand/orthroughtheirrepresentativeorganizations,inthe Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttoactivefree Article 10(1) UNDROP 4. THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE RIGHT OF PEASANTS TO PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES IN RELATION TO SEEDS and agriculture… to theconservationandsustainable useofplantgeneticresourcesforfood (c) Therighttoparticipateinthe makingofdecisionsonmattersrelating

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNDROP IN THE EU AND EU MEMBER STATES 63 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 64 facilitate therealizationofrighttoseeds. national andregionallawspolicies,tomakesurethatthey donotinfringe,but application ofinternationalagreementsandstandardsin theelaborationof through theirrepresentativeorganizations,intheelaboration, interpretationand EU MemberStatesshallalsoensuretheparticipationof peasants, directly and/or seed marketing laws respect andtake into account the rights,needs andrealities of peasants (Art 19(8)). that seed policies,plantvariety protection and other intellectual property laws, certification schemes and they are party, inamannerconsistent withtherightsof peasants (Art2(4)), andthatstates shallensure states shallelaborate, interpret andapplyrelevant international agreements andstandards to which of policies, programmes andprojects thatmay affect theirlives, landandlivelihoods (Art10(1)); that pation, directly and/or through their representative organizations, in thepreparation andimplementation 211 In accordancewithArticles2(4),10(1)and19(8)oftheUNDROP, tory plantbreeding(Article25(3)). ticipatory farmer-scientistpartnerships,suchasfarmerfield schools andparticipa- and certification of their products (Article 11(3)), and encourage equitable and par- participation ofpeasantsintheelaborationlegislationcoveringevaluation equate totheirculturalmethods’(Article11(2)).Theyshallalsoensuretheactive timely andadequateinformationinalanguageformthroughmeansad- EU MemberStatesshallensurethatpeasants‘haveaccesstorelevant,transparent, ing toseeds(19(1.c)).Toguaranteethatright,itprovides,interalia,theEUand es therightofpeasantstoparticipateinmakingdecisionsonmattersrelat- Building onexistinginstruments,includingtheITPGRFA,UNDROPrecogniz- to seeds. bility forpeasantstoeffectivelyparticipateindecision-makingonmattersrelated encouraged toparticipateinpublicaffairs.However,gapsstillremainthepossi- tradition ofdemocraticandinclusivegovernance,inwhichallsocialgroupsare by seedslaws,policiesandregulations.TheEUMemberStateshavealong Peasants arethemajoractorsinseeddevelopmentandusemostaffected other peopleworkinginruralareasonissuesaffectingthemshallbeconsidered. and cooperation.Waysmeansofensuringtheparticipationpeasants laration, includingthroughthemobilizationof,interalia,developmentassistance financial organizations,shallcontributetothefullrealizationofpresentDec- and otherintergovernmentalorganizations,includinginternationalregional The specializedagencies,fundsandprogrammesoftheUnitedNationssystem, Article 27(1) lenges thatpeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareasface. health clinicstorespondmoreappropriatelytheimmediateandemergingchal- such asfarmerfieldschools,participatoryplantbreeding,andanimal States shallencourageequitableandparticipatoryfarmer-scientistpartnerships, Article 25(3) Arts2(4), 10(1) and 19(8),UNDROP, provide thatpeasants have therightto active andfree partici- 211 theEUand account theirexperienceinsuchresearchanddevelopment. taking ofresearchanddevelopmentorphancropslocal varieties,takinginto ensure peasants’activeparticipationinthedefinitionofpriorities andtheunder- crops, localvarietiesandseedsthatrespondtotheneedsofpeasants, andtheyshall ants. Indoingso,theyshallinvestmoreinresearchonanddevelopment oforphan ensure thatagriculturalresearchanddevelopmentintegratestheneedsofpeas- According to Article 19(7)oftheUNDROP, EU and EU Member States shall ization ofpeasants’righttoseeds. States shallalsosupportresearchanddevelopmentthatcontributetothefullreal- pation indecision-makingprocessesrelationtoseeds,theEUandMember In additiontosupportingpeasantseedsystemsandensuringpeasants’partici- areas. and seedsthatrespondtotheneedsofpeasantsotherpeopleworkinginrural ence, andincreaseinvestmentinresearchthedevelopmentoforphancrops the undertakingofresearchanddevelopment,takingintoaccounttheirexperi- areas, andtoensuretheiractiveparticipationinthedefinitionofpriorities development integrates the needs of peasants and other people working in rural States shalltakeappropriatemeasurestoensurethatagriculturalresearchand Article 19(7) UNDROP 5. THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THAT AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT affecting them,whichincludeissuestheirrighttoseeds. UNDROP, andtoconsiderwaysensuretheparticipationofpeasantsonissues gional organizations,suchastheEU,tocontributefullrealizationof It isalsoimportanttounderlinethatArticle27(1)oftheUNDROPrequestsre- INTEGRATE THE NEEDS OF PEASANTS, WITH THEIR ACTIVE PARTICIPATION

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNDROP IN THE EU AND EU MEMBER STATES 65 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 66 212 powerful tooltobetterprotectpeasants’rightseedsandseedsystems inEurope. trial farmingsystemsaswelltheruralenvironmentandseeddiversity.Itisalsoa laws andpoliciesthathavenegativelyaffectedEuropeanpeasantsnon-indus- The implementationoftheUNDROPisthereforekeyforredressingdistortions democratic governanceofbiologicalandseeddiversity. fundamental importancetosocietyatlarge,includingthepreservationandmore the rightsofpeasants,UNDROPaddressesanumberquestionsthatare been longleftoutofregionalandnationalpolicies.Initsmissiontostrengthen to guaranteethatstatesrespect,protectandfulfiltherightsofpeasantswhohave The UNDROPhasbeenadoptedtorebalancepowerrelationsinruralareasand through thechampioningofcropuniformityandex-situseedbanks. seed diversityandassociatedtraditionalknowledgeinthecontinent ant systemsandhavecontributedtothecriticalgeneticerosionof Nonetheless, theselawsandregulationshavelargelyneglectedpeas- al agricultureandtheincreaseinfoodproductionpost-WorldWarII. has largelycontributedtothefastdevelopmentofEuropeanindustri- The normativeframeworkoftheEUandMemberStatesonseeds 7. CONCLUSION Bocci, ‘Seed Legislation and Agrobiodiversity’, supra fn 176, 32. 212

… the presentdeclarationthatcannot beimmediatelyguaranteed. other appropriatestepstoachieve progressively thefullrealization oftherights working inruralareas.Theyshall promptlytakelegislative,administrativeand 1. ricultural farms,forestsandfarmsinaquacultureagro-industrial enterprises. workers, regardlessoftheirmigrationstatus,andseasonal onplantations,ag- 4. and thelandless,engagedinabove-mentionedactivities. ties workingontheland,transhumant,nomadicandsemi-nomadic communities, 3. tion inaruralarea.Italsoappliestodependentfamilymembersofpeasants. hunting orgathering,andhandicraftsrelatedtoagricultureaoccupa- scale agriculture,cropplanting,livestockraising,pastoralism,fishing,forestry, 2. dependency onandattachmenttotheland. bour andothernon-monetizedwaysoforganizinglabour,whohasaspecial relies significantly,thoughnotnecessarilyexclusively,onfamilyorhouseholdla- small-scale agricultural production for subsistence and/orfor the market, and who es orwhoseekstoengagealone,inassociationwithothersasacommunity, 1. ARTICLE 2 ARTICLE 1 THE UNITED NATIONS DECLARATION States shallrespect,protectand fulfiltherightsofpeasantsandotherpeople The presentdeclarationfurtherappliestohiredworkers,including allmigrant The presentdeclarationalsoappliestoindigenouspeoplesand localcommuni- The present declaration applies to any person engaged in artisanal or small- For thepurposesofpresentdeclaration,apeasantisanypersonwhoengag- AND OTHER PEOPLE WORKING ON THE RIGHTS OF PEASANTS RELEVANT ARTICLES OF IN RURAL AREAS ANNEX:

THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 67 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 68 limit extremefoodpricevolatility andtheattractivenessofspeculation. ly accesstomarketinformation, includingonfoodreserves,inordertohelp (e) ogies, particularlytodevelopingcountries,onmutuallyagreed terms; cess toandsharingofaccessibletechnologies,throughthe transferoftechnol- (d) knowledge; (c) and sharingofinformation,experiences,trainingprogrammes andbestpractices; (b) er peopleworkinginruralareas; velopment programmes,isinclusive,accessibleandpertinenttopeasantsoth- (a) other peopleworkinginruralareas,amongothers.Suchmeasurescouldinclude: regional organizationsandcivilsociety,inparticularofpeasants among Statesand,asappropriate,inpartnershipwithrelevantinternationaland laration, shall take appropriate and effective measures in this regard, between and tional effortsfortherealizationofpurposesandobjectivespresentDec- 6. States,recognizingtheimportanceofinternationalcooperation in supportofna- the rightsofpeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. transnational corporationsandotherbusinessenterprises,respectstrengthen they areinapositiontoregulate,suchasprivateindividualsandorganizations, 5. obligations astheyapplytopeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. standards towhichtheyareparty,inamannerconsistentwiththeirhumanrights 4. cision-making processes. meaningful andinformedparticipationofindividualsgroupsinassociatedde- ing powerimbalancesbetweendifferentpartiesandensuringactive,free,effective, are made,andrespondingtotheircontributions,takingintoconsiderationexist- working inruralareaswhocouldbeaffectedbydecisionsbeforethose institutions, engagingwithandseekingthesupportofpeasantsotherpeople peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareasthroughtheirownrepresentative ple workinginruralareas,Statesshallconsultandcooperategoodfaithwith er decision-makingprocessesthatmayaffecttherightsofpeasantsandotherpeo- ing andimplementinglegislationpolicies,internationalagreementsoth- 3. Improving thefunctioningofmarketsatgloballeveland facilitating time- Providing, asappropriate,technicalandeconomicassistance, facilitatingac- Facilitating cooperation in research and inaccesstoscientifictechnical Facilitating andsupportingcapacity-building,includingthrough theexchange Ensuring thatrelevantinternationalcooperation,includingde- States shall take all necessary measures to ensure that non-State actors that States shallelaborate,interpretandapplyrelevantinternationalagreements Without disregardingspecificlegislationonindigenouspeoples,beforeadopt- environmental standardsthatmay affectthem. participation inthepreparationandimplementationoffood safety,labourand nizations ofpeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareas andpromoting their includes respectingtheestablishmentandgrowthofstrong independentorga- decision-making processesthatmayaffecttheirlives,land and livelihoods;this sentative organizations,ofpeasantsandotherpeopleworking inruralareas 2. may affecttheirlives,landandlivelihoods. the preparationandimplementationofpolicies,programmes andprojectsthat free participation,directlyand/orthroughtheirrepresentative organizations,in 1. keting facilitiesandappropriatetechnology… (g) (f) equal accesstoeconomicopportunitiesthroughemploymentorself-employment; (e) community andextensionservicesinordertoincreasetheirtechnical proficiency; cluding trainingandeducationrelatingtofunctionalliteracy,benefitfromall (d) of developmentplanningatalllevels;… (a) ments, includingtherights: set outinthepresentDeclarationandotherinternationalhumanrightsinstru- eas enjoywithoutdiscriminationallthehumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms 2. rural economic,social,politicalandculturaldevelopment. freedoms andthattheyareabletofreelypursue,participateinbenefitfrom and women,thattheyfullyequallyenjoyallhumanrightsfundamental mote their empowerment in order to ensure, on the basis of equality between men tion againstpeasantwomenandotherworkinginruralareastopro- 1. ARTICLE 10 ARTICLE 4 States shallpromotetheparticipation,directlyand/orthrough theirrepre- Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetheright toactiveand To haveequalaccesstofinancialservices,agriculturalcreditandloans,mar- To participateinallcommunityactivities; To organizeself-helpgroups,associationsandcooperativesinordertoobtain To receivealltypesoftrainingandeducation,whetherformalornon-formal,in- To participateequallyandeffectivelyintheformulationimplementation States shallensurethatpeasantwomenandotherworkinginruralar- States shalltakeallappropriatemeasurestoeliminateformsofdiscrimina-

ANNEX 69 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 70 zation ofplantgeneticresources forfoodandagriculture; (b) resources forfoodandagriculture; (a) dance witharticle28ofthepresentDeclaration,including: 1. opment policieswiththerealizationofrightscontainedin thisDeclaration. to ensurethecoherenceoftheiragricultural,economic,social, culturalanddevel- the rightscontainedinpresentdeclaration.Statesshallestablish mechanisms sovereignty andsustainableequitablefoodsystemsthat promote andprotect levels toadvanceandprotecttherightadequatefood,foodsecurity ing inruralareas,publicpoliciesatthelocal,national,regionalandinternational 5. respect theircultures. adequate foodproducedthroughecologicallysoundandsustainablemethodsthat sion-making processesonfoodandagriculturepolicytherighttohealthy as therighttofoodsovereignty.Thisincludesparticipateindeci- their own food andagriculture systems, recognized by many States and regions 4. … international levels,andtopromotetheirparticipationinitsformulation. evaluation andcertificationofthequalitytheirproductsatlocal,nation other peopleworkinginruralareastoafair,impartialandappropriatesystemof 3. tion indecision-makingmattersthatmayaffecttheirlives,landand livelihoods. methods so as to promote their empowerment and to ensure their effective participa- information inalanguageandformthroughmeansadequatetotheircultural ple workinginruralareashaveaccesstorelevanttransparent,timelyandadequate 2. fect theproduction,processing,marketinganddistributionoftheirproducts. develop andimpartinformation,includinginformationaboutfactorsthatmayaf- 1. ARTICLE 19 ARTICLE 15 ARTICLE 11

The righttoequitablyparticipate insharingthebenefitsarisingfromutili- The righttotheprotectionoftraditional knowledgerelevanttoplantgenetic Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetheright to seeds,inaccor- States shallformulate,inpartnershipwithpeasantsandotherpeoplework- Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttodetermine States shall take appropriatemeasurestopromotetheaccessofpeasantsand States shalladoptappropriatemeasurestoensurethatpeasantsandotherpeo- Peasants and other people working in rural areas have the right to seek, receive, of biologicaldiversity. stock andagroecologicalsystems relevanttotheconservationandsustainableuse ing inruralareas,includingtraditional agrarian,pastoral,forestry,fisheries,live- ditional knowledge,innovation andpracticesofpeasantsotherpeoplework- 2. peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. of biodiversity,inordertopromoteandprotectthefullenjoyment oftherights gations, topreventthedepletionandensureconservation andsustainableuse 1. ing inruralareas. take intoaccounttherights,needsandrealitiesofpeasants otherpeoplework- lectual propertylaws,certificationschemesandseedmarketinglawsrespect 8. peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. research anddevelopmentoforphancropsseedsthatrespondtotheneeds and development,takeintoaccounttheirexperience,increaseinvestment active participation in the definition of priorities and the undertaking of research ing inruralareas;theyshalltakeappropriatemeasuresordertoensuretheir search anddevelopmentintegratestheneeds of peasantsand other peoplework- 7. promote theuseofpeasantseedsandagrobiodiversity. 6. species thattheywishtogrow. or onotherlocallyavailableseedsoftheirchoice,andtodecidethecrops 5. peasants atthemostsuitabletimeforplanting,andanaffordableprice. 4. peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareas. 3. control, protectanddeveloptheirownseedstraditionalknowledge. 2. material. (d) conservation andsustainableuseofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodagriculture; (c) ARTICLE 20 States shall take appropriate measures in order to promote and protect the tra - States shalltakeappropriatemeasures,inlinewithrelevantinternational obli- States shallensurethatseedpolicies,plantvarietyprotectionandotherintel- States shalltakeappropriatemeasuresinordertoensurethatagriculturalre- States shalltakeappropriatemeasurestosupportpeasantseedsystems,and States shallrecognizetherightsofpeasantstorelyeitherontheirownseeds States shallensurethatseedsofsufficientqualityandquantityareavailableto States shall take measuresto respect, protect and fulfiltheright toseedsof Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttomaintain, The righttosave,use,exchangeandselltheirfarm-savedseedorpropagating The right to participate in the making of decisions on matters relating to the

ANNEX 71 THE RIGHT TO SEEDS IN EUROPE 72 present Declaration,andfollow uponitseffectiveness. financial organizations,shall promote respectforandthefullapplicationof other intergovernmentalorganizations, includinginternationalandregional 2. other peopleworkinginruralareasonissuesaffectingthemshall beconsidered. and cooperation.Waysmeansofensuringtheparticipation ofpeasantsand laration, includingthroughthemobilizationof,interalia,development assistance financial organizations,shallcontributetothefullrealization ofthepresentDec- and otherintergovernmentalorganizations,includinginternational andregional 1. tices andtechnologiesofpeasantsotherpeopleworkingin ruralareas. knowledge, and eliminate discrimination against the traditional knowledge, prac- of peasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareasrelatingtotheirtraditional 3. … tional lawortolimittheirscope. invoke cultural rights to infringe upon the humanrightsguaranteed by interna- life, methods of production or technology, or customs and tradition. No one may trol, protectanddeveloptheirtraditionallocalknowledge,suchaswaysof or anyformofdiscrimination.Theyalsohavetherighttomaintain,express,con- own cultureandtopursuefreelytheirculturaldevelopment,withoutinterference 1. … challenges thatpeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareasface. imal healthclinicstorespondmoreappropriatelytheimmediateandemerging ships, suchasfarmerfieldschools,participatoryplantbreeding,andan- 3. … transfer orreleaseofanylivingmodifiedorganisms. ple workinginruralareasarisingfromthedevelopment,handling,transport,use, 3. ARTICLE 27 ARTICLE 26 ARTICLE 25 The UnitedNationsanditsspecialized agencies,fundsandprogrammes, The specializedagencies,fundsandprogrammesoftheUnited Nationssystem, States shallrespect,andtakemeasurestorecognizeprotect,therights Peasants andotherpeopleworkinginruralareashavetherighttoenjoytheir States shallencourageequitableandparticipatoryfarmer-scientistpartner- States shall prevent risks of violation of the rights of peasants and other peo- most compellingrequirementsofademocraticsociety. tion andrespectfortherightsfreedomsofothers,meetingjust non-discriminatory andnecessarysolelyforthepurposeofsecuringduerecogni- pliant withinternationalhumanrightsobligations.Anysuchlimitationsshallbe be subjectonlytosuchlimitationsasaredeterminedbylawandthatcom- Declaration. TheexerciseoftherightssetforthinpresentDeclarationshall any kind,shallberespectedintheexerciseofrightsenunciatedpresent 2. and indigenouspeoplescurrentlyhaveormayacquireinthefuture. ing ornullifyingtherightsthatpeasantsandotherpeopleworkinginruralareas 1. ARTICLE 28 The humanrightsandfundamentalfreedomsofall,withoutdiscrimination Nothing inthepresentDeclarationmaybeconstruedasdiminishing,impair-

ANNEX 73