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MEDIEVAL PERSIA 1040–1797 Medieval Persia 1040–1797 charts the remarkable history of Persia from its conquest by the Muslim Arabs in the seventh century AD to the modern period at the end of the eighteenth century, when the impact of the west became pervasive. David Morgan argues that understanding this complex period of Persia’s history is integral to understanding modern Iran and its significant role on the international scene. The book begins with a geographical introduction and briefly summarises Persian history during the early Islamic centuries to place the country’s Middle Ages in their historical context. It then charts the arrival of the Saljūq Turks in the eleventh century and discusses in turn the major politi- cal powers of the period: Mongols, Timurids, Türkmen and Safawids. The chronological narrative enables students to identify change and consistencies under each ruling dynasty, while Persia’s rich social, cultural, religious and economic history is also woven throughout to present a complete picture of life in Medieval Persia. Despite the turbulent backdrop, which saw Persia ruled by a succession of groups who had seized power by military force, arts, painting, poetry, literature and architecture all flourished in the period. This new edition contains a new epilogue which discusses the significant literature of the last 28 years to provide students with a comprehensive over- view of the latest historiographical trends in Persian history. Concise and clear, this book is the perfect introduction for students of medieval Persia and the medieval Middle East. David Morgan is Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His previous publications include Medieval Historical Writing in the Christian and Islamic Worlds (edited, 1982) and The Mongols (second edition 2007). This page intentionally left blank MEDIEVAL PERSIA 1040–1797 Second edition David Morgan Second edition published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 David Morgan First published in 1987 by Pearson The right of David Morgan to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him/her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Morgan, David, 1945– Medieval Persia 1040–1797 / David Morgan. — 2nd edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Iran—History—640–1500. 2. Iran—History—16th–18th centuries. I. Title. DS288.M67 2015 955.02—dc23 2015002454 ISBN: 978-1-138-88629-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-88566-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-68661-5 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC Sultan Muhammad (fl. c. 1505–1550), attr.: Shahnama (The Book of Kings) of Shah Tahmasp, Illustrated Manuscript, c. 1520–22. Author: Abu’l Qasim Firdausi. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Colors, ink, silver and gold on paper, Painting: H: 9 1/2 W: 9 1/16 in. (H: 24.1 W: 23 cm) Entire Page: H: 18 1/2 W: 12 5/8 in. (H: 47 W: 32.1 cm). Gift of Arthur A. Houghton Jr. 1970. Acc.n.: 1970.301.2 © 2015. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS List of genealogical tables and map x Note on dates xv Preface xvi Introduction to the second edition 1 1 The land and peoples of Persia 4 2 Persia in the early Islamic centuries 11 The Sasanian period 11 The Arab conquest of Persia 16 The rule of the caliphs 19 The “independent” dynasties 21 The Ghaznawids and the Buyids 24 3 Turkish rule in Persia: the great Saljūq sultanate at its height (431–485/1040–1092) 28 The origins of the Saljūqs 28 Toghril Beg: the establishment of the Saljūq empire 29 The consolidation of the Saljūq empire (455–485/1063–1092) 31 The impact of the Saljūq conquest of Persia 34 viii Contents 4 Institutions of Saljūq government: steppe and sedentary traditions 37 Divisions of the empire 37 The central administration 38 The iqṭāʿ 40 5 The later Saljūq period and its aftermath: Ismāʿīlīs, Qara-Khitais and Khwārazm-shāhs (485–617/1092–1220) 44 The decline of the Saljūq sultanate 44 The Ismāʿīlīs 46 The Qara-Khitai and the Khwārazm-shāhs 49 6 The Mongols and their coming to Persia 53 The career of Chingiz Khān 56 The first Mongol invasion of Persia 58 Hülegü and the foundation of the Ilkhanate 60 7 The early Mongol rulers: Persia under infidel government (663–694/1265–1295) 63 Foreign relations of the Ilkhanate 63 Religious policy in the Ilkhanate 65 The administration of the Ilkhanate 66 The reigns of the Īlkhāns 68 8 The barbarians civilized? Ghazan and his successors (694–736/1295–1335) 72 Conversion to Islam 72 Ghazan’s reforms 74 The last Īlkhāns 77 The Mongol impact on Persia 79 9 The empire of Tamerlane 82 The post-Mongol vacuum 82 The rise of Temür 83 Temür’s conquests 85 The character of Temür’s empire 90 10 Persia in the fifteenth century: the Timurids 93 Shāh Rukh: stability in the east 93 Shāh Rukh’s successors 95 The Timurid achievement 97 Contents ix 11 Persia in the fifteenth century: the Türkmen dynasties and the rise of the Ṣafawids 100 The Qara-Qoyunlu confederation 100 The Aq-Qoyunlu confederation 103 The rise of the Ṣafawids 106 12 Shāh Ismāʿīl I and the establishment of Shīʿism 110 The formation of the Ṣafawid empire 110 The rise of the Özbegs 111 Shāh Ismāʿīl versus Özbegs and Ottomans 112 Foundations of Ṣafawid power 116 The imposition of Twelver Shīʿism 118 13 Crisis, recovery and crisis (930–995/1524–1587) 121 A decade of Qizilbash faction, 930–940/1524–1533 121 The effective rule of Ṭahmāsp I, 940–984/1533–1576 123 Renewed crisis, 984–995/1576–1587 126 14 The apogee of the Ṣafawid empire: the reign of Shāh ʿAbbās I (995–1038/1587–1629) 129 The reconquest of Persia 129 Internal reorganization 130 The new capital 134 The legacy of Shāh ʿAbbās 137 15 The second century of Ṣafawid rule 140 The character of the period 140 Shāh ʿAbbās’s successors 142 Sulṭān Ḥusayn and the fall of the Ṣafawid dynasty 146 16 Persia in the eighteenth century 149 The career of Nādir Shāh 149 Karīm Khān Zand 152 Eighteenth-century religious developments 155 Epilogue 158 Bibliographical survey 169 Glossary 183 Index 187 GENEALOGICAL TABLES AND MAP 1 The Great Saljūqs ix 2 The Īlkhāns ix 3 The Timurids x 4 The Ṣafawids xi General map of the region xii 1 The Great Saljūqs Chaghri Beg I Toghril Beg d. 1060 1037–63 II Alp Arslan 1063–72 III Malikshāh Tutush 1072–92 IV Mahmūd V Berk-yaruq VI Muhammad VII Sanjar 1092–4 1094–1105 1105–18 1118–57 Saljūqs of Iraq 2 The Īlkhāns I Hülegü 1256–65 II Abaqa Taraqai III Tegüder Ahmad 1265–82 1282–4 VI Baidu 1295 IV Arghun V Geikhatu 1284–91 1291–5 VII Ghazan VIII Öljeitü 1295–1304 1304–16 IX Abū Sa‛īd 1316–35 3 The Timurids Temür 1370–1405 Jahāngīr ‘Umar Shaykh Mīrānshāh Shāh Rukh 1405–47 Bayqara Abā Bakr Khalīl Sultān Muhammad Ulugh Beg 1405–9 1447–9 Mansūr Abū Sa‛īd 1451–69 ‘Abd al-Latīf 1449–50 Husayn Bayqara ‘Umar Shaykh 1470–1506 Bābur d. 1530 Mughal Emperors 4 The Ṣafawids I Ismāīl I 1501–24 II Tahmāsp I 1524–76 III Ismāīl II IV Muhammad Khudābanda 1576–7 1578–87 V ‘Abbās I 1587–1629 Safī Mīrzā VI Safī I 1629–42 VII ‘Abbās II 1642–66 VIII Sulaymān (Safī II) 1666–94 IX Sultān Hussayn 1694–1722 ARAL BLACK SEA SEA KHWĀRAZM Tiflis CASPIAN FARGHĀNA SEA R Shakī . O xus (Ā Erivan Ganja m Bākū ū R. Aras (Kirovabad) D a r Mt. Ararat y R.Zarafshān ā TURKEY ) Samarqand MUGHĀN STEPPE Bukhārā Tabrīz mū D Ā a s, r Ardabīl TRANSOXANIA u y Lake Urmiya x ā Miyāna Bandar Anzalī j (O ) àn Marāgha R Tirmiz P R. Atrak . Rasht Bandar R. Mosul Marv M M Shāh u Ā r GURGĀN g GĪLĀN Saf ZĀ . URĀSĀ īd S H N h Balkh MESOPOTAMIA R ND T K Mazār-i Sharīf ū ĀRĀN M ā R. Tigris Qazwīn d Z Mashhad b ALBOR Astarābād Sabzawār TUKHĀRISTĀN Tehran Dāmghān Rayy Nishāpūr Hamadān Simnān QŪMIS BACTRIA HINDU KUSH KURDISTĀN Varāmīn Kirmānshāh Qumm IRAQ DASHT-I KAVĪR Harāt Kābul Arak Kāshān i Rūd BaghdadBaghdad R. Karkha Har LURISTĀN Gulpāyagān IRAN R. Diz AFGHANISTAN Ghazna IsfahānỊ QŪHISTĀN Dizfūl R. Euphrates Kūh-I Zāyanda Rūd R. Kārūn Farah Zard Yazd Ahvāz DASHT-I LŪT R.Hilmand Qandahār KH ZAGROS MTS. SĪSTĀN ŪZIS Basra Ābādān TĀ SHATT AL N Zaranj ‘ARAB Rafsanjān FĀRS Kirmān PAKISTAN KUWAIT Shīrāz KIRMĀN PERSIAN GULF R. Indus Bandar ‘Abbās BALŪCHISTĀN St. of Hurmuz QISHM MAKRĀN 0 300 mls 0 500 km OMAN GULF OF OMAN General map of the region NOTE ON DATES The Muslim era opens with the Hijra (sometimes spelt Hegira), i.e.
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    International Journal of Arts and Commerce Vol. 5 No. 1 January, 2016 The Conceptual Status of Poetry in the Illustrations of the Divan of Khwaju Kirmani Marzieh Toraji Faculty Member of the Art and Architecture of Guilan University Rasht, Iran Email: [email protected] Abstract Literature has been always a source of inspiration for the miniaturists. Persian miniatures with unique settings that reflect imaginal world are full of poetic characteristics. Persian literature, especially poetry, has acted as a tool for expressing mystical themes in addition to its narrating function. The direct impact of Persian poetry and literature on Persian miniature painting can be traced throughout all courses of history. In Jalayirid era, important manuscripts were illustrated among which divan of Khwaju Kirmani is considered as one of the most brilliant and unique works produced during this period. This manuscript consists of beautiful imaginal illustrations painted by Junayd Sultani, who was able to display the taste of union and being drunk with happiness expressed in the poems of Khwaju Kirmani. The manuscript has nine miniature illustrations and it was scribed by Mirali Tabrizi in nasta’liq calligraphic style. It is kept in the British Museum. This paper aims to study the effects of literature on this manuscript of the divan of Khwaju Kirmani focusing on the imaginal world depicted in its miniature illustrations. For this purpose, the following objectives are sought: 1- Have access to the theme expressed by the miniature illustrations of the divan of Khwaju Kirmani. 2- Identify and analyze the miniature illustrations and talent of the artist in composition of form and content.