Rites of Initiation in the Early Irish Church: the Evidence of the High Crosses

religions

Article Rites of Initiation in the Early Irish Church: The Evidence of the High Crosses

Megan Henvey

Department of the History of Art, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK; [email protected]

Abstract: Rites of Initiation in early medieval Ireland have been studied only with reference to contemporary texts; recourse to other sources, most notably the substantial corpus of extant high crosses, has not been made. Here it will be demonstrated that the iconography and programmatic arrangement of the depictions of Noah’s Ark, the Baptism of Christ, and the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace can signiﬁcantly advance theological and liturgical understanding of the early medieval rites of baptism and ordination in this region, indicating the central role of these biblical events and their associated literatures in these contexts. It will be further suggested that this relationship between text, image, and ritual points to the role of the high crosses in facilitating the liturgical rites of the early medieval Irish Church.

Keywords: early medieval Ireland; Christian rites of initiation; high cross; sculpture; iconography

1. Introduction Writing on the rites of initiation in the early Roman Liturgy, G.G. Willis lamented the deﬁciency of the sources for this subject (Willis 1994, pp. 129–30); the situation is little different in the Insular context. Writers such as Bede (672/3–735) and Adomnán (c. 624–704) Citation: Henvey, Megan. 2021. recorded certain baptismal events, including the people and places involved, and an Ordo Rites of Initiation in the Early Irish Baptismi is recorded in the late eighth-/early ninth-century Stowe Missal (RIA MS D ii 3; Church: The Evidence of the High Fisher 1965, pp. 77–87); meanwhile, the rite of ordination is preserved in the mid-eighth Crosses. Religions 12: 329. https:// century Vespasian Psalter (Cotton MS Vespasian A I) and the hymns in the Antiphonary doi.org/10.3390/rel12050329 of Bangor (Milan, Ambrosiana Library, MS C.5. inf; Colgrave and Mynors 1969, II.14, 16; Sharpe 1995, II.10; Warren 1881, pp. 187–89, 207–20; Gearhart 2013, p. 118; Billett 2014, Academic Editor: Samuel Youngs p. 113; Hines 2015, p. 271). Here it will be demonstrated that this shallow pool of textual evidence can be deepened through investigation of the iconography of the mid-eighth to Received: 7 March 2021 tenth-century Irish high crosses, suggesting a role in liturgical ritual for these monuments, Accepted: 4 May 2021 Published: 8 May 2021 and providing a better understanding of the theology and shape of these liturgies. The free-standing, stone-carved high crosses found across the island of Ireland have

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral long been understood as forming part of a wider early medieval ecclesiastical landscape, with regard to jurisdictional claims in indicating the Christianity and sanctity of the space, but beyond this their role in the published maps and institutional afﬁl- ecclesiastical life of the communities within whose bounds they stood has eluded scholars. iations. Ultimately symbols of Christian piety, they may have been commissioned in the development and promotion of a saints’ cult; marked the site of a miracle, death or burial; marked out a pilgrimage route; or been the site of a particular event in the (local) Christian calendar (Stalley 2020, pp. 85–87). Recently, attention has turned to the physical position of the crosses within their communities and their performative relationship to the changing Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. seasons and times of day, convincing arguments which strongly point to the role of the This article is an open access article crosses in the enactment of liturgical rituals (Ó Carragáin 2011; Gefreh 2015; Pulliam 2020). distributed under the terms and Elsewhere I have shown that closer consideration of the carved iconographic schemes conditions of the Creative Commons facilitates greater engagement with, and understanding of, the nature of the communi- Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// ties that commissioned and made these crosses, and how they used them. Application creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of this methodology here will further point to the liturgical functions of certain crosses 4.0/). (Henvey 2021).

Religions 2021, 12, 329. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12050329 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2021, 12, 329 2 of 15

While the relationships between medieval art generally, and iconography, liturgy and theology have been a burgeoning area of case-study-based research for some four decades, and the early medieval arts of Britain have been considered in this context, the carved programmes of the Irish crosses have not (Ó Carragáin 1986, 1987, 2006; Hawkes 1999, 2003, 2005; Palazzo 2006; O’Reilly 2013). Indeed, at Dewsbury (Yorkshire), Rothbury (Northumberland), and Breedon-on-the-Hill (Leicestershire) Jane Hawkes has identified the figural schemes, and their visual and (exegetical and liturgical) textual sources, to demonstrate that the iconographic choices made in the production of these monuments were intended to invoke the Christian sacraments of initiation and eucharist (Hawkes 2003). Here, an iconographic approach to the Irish crosses provides careful engagement with their carved details followed by comparison with earlier and contemporary Christian arts to identify and date their schemes and bringing this into conversation with the historical and textual evidence to further interpret their intended and perceived significance and meaning as well as their role in (preserving) contemporary liturgical practices. Interpretive sketches of the schemes discussed help to elucidate the details of the worn and weathered images and so facilitate closer engagement with the full iconography of each scene (Figures 1b, 2b, 4b, 5b and 8b); these were developed through multiple encounters with the crosses in varying seasons and times of day and are designed to show the totality of the extant carved details in a manner not achievable in a single photograph. Investigation of the iconographic choices and programmatic arrangement of the Baptism of Christ, Noah’s Ark, and the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace on these monuments will demonstrate that the carvings provide important evidence, complementary to that of texts, in the scholarly search for a better understanding of early medieval liturgical practices and that the crosses functioned to call to mind, and even facilitate, the rites of initiation of baptism and ordination as practised within the communities that commissioned them.

2. Iconography of Initiation 2.1. The Rite of Baptism The space where baptisms took place has been distinctive from the earliest period of Christianity with the eighth-century Old Gelasian Sacramentary (Vat. Reg. Lat. 316) produced in Gaul recording that the baptismal rite included the processual movement from the church to the baptistery building (Ordo XI.90–5; Willis 1994, p. 127; Morris 1991, pp. 15–24). A similar particularity of space for the rite is also indicated, textually, in the Insular world: Carolyn Twomey has shown that the sacrament and liturgy of baptism took place outdoors, in rivers, until at least the tenth century; indeed, depictions of the Baptism of Christ on the Irish crosses—which in some cases predate depictions of the event elsewhere in the Insular world—may well echo this practice, picturing Christ and John the Baptist standing in ﬂowing waters (Morris 1991, pp. 18–21; Twomey 2021). The idea of a ritual landscape outside the church building proper and involving the high crosses is certainly suggested in two early medieval Irish sources: an image in the eighth- /ninth-century Irish Gospel Book of Mulling (Dublin, TCD, MS 60; for alternative view see: Nees 1983) references crosses standing at various places throughout the hypothetical ecclesiastical enclosure; and the annals record a ﬁre at Armagh in 1166 with its geographic spread described in terms of crosses named for saints (Hennessy and MacCarthy 1998, p. 153). Together, the naming practice for these crosses and the fact that they were invoked to reference the different spaces of the site suggests they functioned to delineate and distinguish each location for the remembrance of certain cults and the undertaking of particular rites. Indeed, that rituals of initiation, such as baptism and ordination, might take in a perambulation of the sacred space of the ecclesiastic grounds/bounds seems so logical it might be considered axiomatic. The iconographic programmes of some crosses certainly provide compelling evidence for this practice at those sites. Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15

of the sacred space of the ecclesiastic grounds/bounds seems so logical it might be consid‐ Religions 2021, 12, 329 ered axiomatic. The iconographic programmes of some crosses certainly provide compel3 of 15‐ ling evidence for this practice at those sites.

2.1.1. Iconography of The Baptism of Christ (Matthew 3:13–17; Mark 1:10–11; Luke 3:21– 2.1.1. Iconography of The Baptism of Christ (Matthew 3:13–17; Mark 1:10–11; 22)Luke 3:21–22) TheThe depictions depictions of of the the Baptism Baptism of of Christ Christ on on the the early early medieval medieval Irish Irish crosses crosses will will here bebe iconographically iconographically investigated investigated to to demonstrate how contemporary theological beliefs andand liturgical liturgical practices practices were were reflected reflected in in the the imagery imagery and, and, in turn, in turn, the thevalue value of these of these im‐ agesimages to the to thestudy study of historical of historical liturgies. liturgies. Robin Robin Jensen, Jensen, Everett Everett Ferguson, Ferguson, and Twomey and Twomey have eachhave discussed each discussed the absence the absence of a dominant of a dominant iconographic iconographic type typefor the for depiction the depiction of the of rite the ofrite baptism of baptism in the in early the early Church Church as deriving as deriving from fromindividualised individualised local localritual ritual practices practices (Fer‐ guson(Ferguson 2009; 2009 Jensen; Jensen 2012; 2012 Twomey; Twomey 2021). 2021 While). While a number a number of scholars of scholars have have discussed discussed the connectionthe connection between between Christ’s Christ’s Baptism, Baptism, the sacrament the sacrament as it developed as it developed in the in Apostolic the Apostolic Age, andAge, the and impact the impact of both of doctrine both doctrine and ritual and practice ritual practice on the medieval on the medieval imagery, imagery, the context the ofcontext the Irish of the material Irish material has not hasbeen not hitherto been hitherto considered considered (Strzygowski (Strzygowski 1885; Cullmann 1885; Cullmann 1950; Burnish1950; Burnish 1985; Ferguson1985; Ferguson 2009; Jensen2009; Jensen 2012). 2012). IndividualIndividual elements elements of of the the recorded recorded story story of of Christ’s Christ’s Baptism Baptism are are variably variably employed employed inin depictions depictions of of the the event event developed developed at at each each site, site, and and these these are are each each discussed discussed here, here, in turn.in turn. The The concise concise passages passages in the in Gospels the Gospels of Matthew, of Matthew, Mark, Mark, and andLuke Luke contain contain the ele the‐ mentselements essential essential to the to the Baptism’s Baptism’s perceived perceived status status as as a atheophany: theophany: the the dove dove of of the the Holy Holy Spirit,Spirit, and and the the voice of God. An iconographically abbreviated abbreviated version version preserved preserved on on the crosscross at at Arboe Arboe (Tyrone) (Tyrone) includes these features: the the figures figures of of the the Baptist (left) (left) and the diminutivediminutive Christ, Christ, with with the the dove dove above above his his head head (right), (right), stand stand together together facing facing one one another another inin flowing flowing waterwater (Figure(Figure1 a,b).1a,b). Christ’s Christ’s Baptism, Baptism, however, however, is depicted is depicted on eight on eight further further Irish Irishcrosses crosses dating dating to between to between the mid-eighth the mid‐eighth and and mid-tenth mid‐tenth century, century, each each of which of which presents pre‐ sentsvariations variations on this on established this established iconography iconography (Arboe (Arboe N1 (Tyrone), N1 (Tyrone), Armagh Armagh W3 (Armagh), W3 (Ar‐ magh),Boho W4 Boho (Fermanagh), W4 (Fermanagh), Camus Camus E2 (Londonderry), E2 (Londonderry), Donaghmore Donaghmore E3 (Tyrone), E3 (Tyrone), Galloon Gal‐ loonEast East W2 (Fermanagh), W2 (Fermanagh), Broken Broken Cross, Cross, Kells Kells E1 (Meath), E1 (Meath), Killary Killary W2 (Meath), W2 (Meath), Tall Cross, Tall Cross,Monasterboice Monasterboice W2 (Louth)); W2 (Louth)); these are these worth are exploring worth exploring in more in detail more to detail establish to establish what the whatvisual the choices visual and choices developments and developments reveal about reveal the about rite as the celebrated rite as celebrated at these at sites. these sites.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 1 1.. (a(,ba,).b ).Baptism Baptism of Christ, of Christ, N1, N1,Arboe Arboe cross. cross. Early Earlyninth century. ninth century. Arboe, Co. Arboe, Tyrone. Co. Photo Tyrone.‐ graph:Photograph: Megan Megan Henvey; Henvey; Interpretive Interpretive Sketch: Sketch: Megan Megan Henvey. Henvey.

The ﬂowing water, primary in the enactment of baptism, was a ﬁxed feature of the imagery from the earliest period and is attested in all the Irish cross depictions as a series

of horizontal or curving lines through the bottom half of the schemes. This iconography Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

The flowing water, primary in the enactment of baptism, was a fixed feature of the imagery from the earliest period and is attested in all the Irish cross depictions as a series of horizontal or curving lines through the bottom half of the schemes. This iconography Religions 2021, 12, 329 4 of 15 was, unsurprisingly, developed directly from John the Baptist’s practice which involved immersion in water in what was a temporary and preparatory symbolic washing away of sin (Cullmann 1950, p. 10; Morris 1991; Twomey 2021). Early exegetes understood that thiswas, type unsurprisingly, of purification developed was unnecessary directly from for John Christ the Baptist’s himself; practice for Augustine, which involved Jesus’ submis‐ immersion in water in what was a temporary and preparatory symbolic washing away of sion to Baptism by water indicated his humility; ‘He willed to be baptized by John in wa‐ sin (Cullmann 1950, p. 10; Morris 1991; Twomey 2021). Early exegetes understood that this ter,type not of purificationthat any iniquity was unnecessary in him might for Christ be washed himself; away, for Augustine, but that his Jesus’ great submission humility might beto commended’ Baptism by water (In aqua indicated ergo hisbaptizari humility; voluit ‘He a Ioanne, willed to non be ut baptized eius iniquitas by John ulla in water,dilueretur sed utnot magna that any commendaretur iniquity in him humilitas might be; Enchiridion washed away, to butLaurentius that his great on Faith, humility Hope, might and be Charity, 14commended’ ed. van den (In Hout aqua ergo et al baptizari. 1969, voluitp. 49; a trans. Ioanne, Parker non ut eius1857, iniquitas p. 116). ulla Indeed, dilueretur according sed to Matthewut magna commendaretur3:15, Christ’s humilitassubmission; Enchiridion to this baptism to Laurentius was a on crucial Faith, moment Hope, and in Charity, salvation his‐ tory,14 ed. marking van den the Hout beginning et al. 1969 of, p.his 49; messianic trans. Parker ministry 1857 (Cullmann, p. 116). Indeed, 1950, accordingp. 16). Importantly, to inMatthew the context 3:15, Christ’s of this submissiondiscussion, to it this enabled baptism the was significance a crucial moment of the in water salvation to be history, understood marking the beginning of his messianic ministry (Cullmann 1950, p. 16). Importantly, in as transforming from the symbolic to the actual. From an early date it was understood the context of this discussion, it enabled the significance of the water to be understood as thattransforming Christ’s Baptism from the symbolicsanctified to water the actual. for all From future an early baptisms date it and was understoodthat all life thatcame from waterChrist’s (Souter Baptism 1919, sanctified pp. 48–54; water forCullmann all future 1950, baptisms pp. and48–53; that Ferguson all life came 2009, from p. water 109). In an Insular(Souter 1919context, pp. the 48–54 importance; Cullmann of 1950 naturally, pp. 48–53; flowing Ferguson water 2009 for, conducting p. 109). In an a Insular baptism is at‐ testedcontext in the Adomnán’s importance Life of naturally of St Columba, flowing waterfor when: for conducting a baptism is attested in Adomnno áwatern’s Life [was] of St to Columba, be found for in when: that spot… the saint turned aside to the nearest rock, whereno water he [was] knelt to and be prayed found in a that little spot while.... theWhen saint he turned stood asideup, he to blessed the nearest the face of therock, rock, where and he at knelt once and water prayed bubbled a little out while. from When it… he (Sharpe stood up, 1995, he blessedp. II.10. the p. 161). face of the rock, and at once water bubbled out from it ... (Sharpe 1995, p. II.10. Thus,p. 161) while the flowing waters in which Christ is depicted as baptised conforms to the typical iconography of the event, this is best understood as a deliberate reflection of Thus, while the flowing waters in which Christ is depicted as baptised conforms to the belief that it was this act that purified the baptismal waters for all and furthermore the typical iconography of the event, this is best understood as a deliberate reflection of the reflectsbelief that contemporary it was this act practice that purified where the baptismalthe rite of waters baptism for allcontinued and furthermore to take reflectsplace in open runningcontemporary water practice (Twomey where 2021). the rite of baptism continued to take place in open running waterIn ( Twomeyeach, however, 2021). of the Irish cross depictions of the event this water flows from two circularIn each,forms however, (Figure 2a,b), of the except Irish cross at Armagh depictions where of the they event are thisreplaced water by flows a large, from concave circletwo circular that may forms have (Figure featured2a,b), an except inset at (of Armagh metal). where With theyno iconographic are replaced byprecedent a large, identi‐ fiedconcave to date circle both that Porter may have and featured Harbison an inset considered (of metal). the With two no circular iconographic forms precedent to represent the twoidentified fonts toJor date and both Dan Porter following and Harbison Josef Strzygowski’s considered the 1885 two circularstudy which forms tocites represent Josephus and the two fonts Jor and Dan following Josef Strzygowski’s 1885 study which cites Josephus Jerome alluding to this tradition (Strzygowski 1885; Porter 1971, p. 107; Harbison 1992, p. and Jerome alluding to this tradition (Strzygowski 1885; Porter 1971, p. 107; Harbison 1992, 251).p. 251). Unlikely Unlikely to to reflect reflect a liturgical or or ritual ritual function, function, this this explicit explicit reference reference to the riverto the river JordanJordan waswas perhaps perhaps intended intended to distinguish to distinguish the depiction, the depiction, readily identifiablereadily identifiable as the locally as the lo‐ callypractised practised rite of rite baptism, of baptism, as the historic as the Baptismhistoric ofBaptism Christ. of Christ.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 2.2. ((aa,,bb).). Baptism Baptism of of Christ, Christ, E2, E2, Camus Camus cross-shaft. cross‐shaft. Ninth century.Ninth century. Camus-Macosquin Camus‐Macosquin Cemetery, Ceme‐ tery,Co. Londonderry. Co. Londonderry. Photograph: Photograph: Megan Henvey;Megan Henvey; Interpretive Interpretive Sketch: Megan Sketch: Henvey. Megan Henvey.

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In early Christian and medieval images of the Baptism, Christ always stands fully upright in the flowing waters, facing the viewer (Schiller 1971, p. 132; Harbison 1992, p. 251). Depicted diminutively in early examples (Ferguson 2009, p. 124), he is later shown as tall, or taller, than the Baptist—as in the sixth-century paintings in the Catacombs of Ponziano, Rome—an antique convention indicating that he was of central importance (Ferguson 2009, p. 124, fig. 354). It is in keeping with this tradition that Christ is depicted equal in height to the Baptist on most of the Irish crosses suggesting that the model post- dates the sixth-century. At Arboe, however, the earlier type is preserved, facilitating two important significations: his humility, according to the typical aulic conventions depicting the person receiving a benefit as smaller than the patron (Ferguson 2009, p. 123); and the inclusion of the (now very worn) dove of the Holy Spirit above his head denoting the divine theophany of the historic event. Christ’s nakedness is common to all iconographic types of the event and one explanation suggests that this is related to the ritual practice of baptism from the earliest period (Ferguson 2009, pp. 129–31). The early sources agree on the nakedness of a catechumen approaching the baptismal waters (Willis 1994, p. 129). For some early exegetes this represented a return to/rebirth in the pre-Fall innocence of Adam and Eve (Burnish 1985, p. 130). In a more specifically liturgical context, this frame of reference would have been familiar to early medieval Irish Christians, being attested in the Incipit of the baptismal liturgy as recorded in the Stowe Missal (Fol. 45b): God, you who made Adam from the mud of the land, and when that man sinned in paradise, you did not consider that a sin of death, but you saw fit to restore him in sanctity through your own blood, and you will restore glorious Jerusalem. (deus, qui adam de limo terrae fecisti, et ille in paradiso peccauit, et illum peccatum mortis non reputasti, sed per per sanguinem unigeniti tui recuperare digneris et in sancta, hirusalem glorientem reducis). Warren 1881, p. 207; trans.: Author A circumambulatory reading of the Arboe cross and the Tall cross at Monasterboice makes this relationship explicit by presenting schemes involving Adam and Eve on the same, lowermost register. Ferguson has further argued that Christ’s nakedness in depictions of the Baptism—as at Arboe, Armagh, and Camus—reinforces themes linking him to figures receiving deliverance or healing, a connection drawn in the iconographic contexts of both the Arboe and Armagh crosses (Ferguson 2009, pp. 124, 128, 131). At Armagh it shares a register with both the Sacrifice of Isaac and Daniel in the Lions’ Den, while at Arboe, the Baptism is placed below a healing miracle on the same face of the cross, perhaps drawing on another passage from the Stowe Missal’s baptismal liturgy which may have been understood as a reference to Christ’s miraculous healing of the blind man, ‘Drive from him all blindness of heart’ (caecitatem cordis omnem ab eo expellens; Jn 9:1–12; fol. 48b; Warren 1881, p. 209; trans.: Whitaker and Johnson 2003, p. 276). Thus, Christ’s nakedness in the depictions at Armagh, Arboe, and Camus can be understood in the light of both contemporary theology and liturgical practice. An element of the visual arrangement that does, however, distinguish the Irish examples is the way the Baptist stands, with Christ, in the flowing waters, rather than beside him on a mound, as was the norm in early Christian art: as in the mosaic in the early sixth-century Arian Baptistery, Ravenna (Figure3) and on a sixth-century ivory, possibly from Syria, now in the British Museum (London, BM, Inv.1896,0618.1). Religions 2021, 12, 329 6 of 15 Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15

FigureFigure 3.3. BaptismBaptism of of Christ, Christ, mosaic, mosaic, fifth ﬁfth century, century, Arian Arian Baptistery, Baptistery, Rome. Rome. Photograph: Photograph: https: //www.ﬂickr.com/photos/paullew/11904056613https://www.flickr.com/photos/paullew/11904056613 (accessed (accessed on 12 on May 12 May 2020). 2020).

ThisThis iconographiciconographic divergencedivergence mightmight reflectreflect thethe naturenature ofof the the ritual ritual as as practised practised in in earlyearly medievalmedieval Ireland; the the ecclesiastic ecclesiastic performing performing the the rite rite entered entered the thewater water with with the com the‐ communicant,municant, despite despite the cold the cold conditions conditions (Morris (Morris 1991, 1991 pp. ,19 pp.–20). 19–20). One of One the of earliest the earliest depic‐ depictionstions of the of event the eventfrom Britain, from Britain, in the tenth in the‐century tenth-century Benedictional Benedictional of Æthelwold of Æthelwold (London, (London,BL, Add BL,MS 49598, Add MS fol. 49598, 25r), also fol. 25r), features also John features in the John waters, in the suggesting waters, suggesting that such that practices such practiceswere familiar were across familiar the across Insular the world. Insular world. ExceptingExcepting the the abbreviated abbreviated depiction depiction at at Arboe, Arboe, all all Irish Irish cross cross depictions depictions of of the the Baptism Baptism alsoalso include include between between one one and and three three additional additional figures, figures, pictured pictured either either as as busts, busts, diminutive diminutive figuresfigures above above the the fonts, fonts, or or as as full-length full‐length figures figures flanking flanking the the action, action, and and representing representing angels an‐ asgels witnesses as witnesses or bystanders or bystanders (Schiller (Schiller 1971, p. 1971, 133; p.Jensen 133; 2012Jensen, p. 2012, 186; Fergusonp. 186; Ferguson 2009, p. 129).2009, Althoughp. 129). Although wingless atwingless all but Kells, at all thebut way Kells, in whichthe way these in which figures these hover figures at Armagh, hover Camus, at Ar‐ Donaghmore,magh, Camus, Galloon, Donaghmore, and Killary Galloon, suggests and flight,Killary pointing suggests to flight, their identification pointing to their as angels, iden‐ whichtification alongside as angels, the ‘laying which onalongside of hands’ the by ‘laying John the on Baptist, of hands’ can by be understoodJohn the Baptist, as symbolic can be signifiersunderstood of theas symbolic ‘bestowal signifiers of the Holy of the Spirit’ ‘bestowal in keeping of the Holy with Spirit’ early evangelicalin keeping with thought early (Fergusonevangelical 2009 thought, pp. 125–26 (Ferguson). This 2009, is particularly pp. 125–26). pertinent This is particularly at Armagh, pertinent Boho, and at Armagh, Camus whereBoho, theand dove Camus is not where discernible the dove in is the not carvings. discernible Further, in the Cullmann carvings. Further, has explained Cullmann the connectionhas explained between the connection Christ’s Baptism between and Christ’s miraculous Baptism deeds and as miraculous being rooted deeds in the as faithbeing ofrooted those in who the seekfaith salvation, of those who noting seek that salvation, this is not noting necessary that this of the is not catechumen—who necessary of the maycatechumen—who be an infant—but may the be congregation an infant—but as the a whole congregation (Cullmann as a 1950whole, p. (Cullmann 55). Against 1950, this p. background,55). Against thesethis background, figures, and thethese further, figures, non-angelic, and the further, bystanders non included‐angelic, onbystanders the Broken in‐ crosscluded at Kells,on the and Broken Tall cross at Kells, Monasterboice, and Tall cross may at well Monasterboice, have been intended may well to have reference been theintended faithful to attendees; reference necessary the faithful witnesses attendees; to the necessary baptismal witnesses act, again to reflecting the baptismal the rite act, as practisedagain reflecting by the earlythe rite Christian as practised communities. by the early Christian communities. Overall,Overall, itit is is clear clear that that depictions depictions of of the the Baptism Baptism of of Christ Christ on on the the Irish Irish crosses crosses were were developeddeveloped andand existedexisted withinwithin a a complex complex of of theological theological and and patristic patristic writings, writings, liturgical liturgical andand ritual ritual practicespractices specific specific to to the the communities communities that that made made and and used used them. them. In Inreflecting reflecting the thelocal local practice practice of baptism of baptism taking taking place place with with both both baptist baptist and and communicant communicant standing standing in in flowing/open waters, and with bystanders taking part, the study of these depictions flowing/open waters, and with bystanders taking part, the study of these depictions pro‐ provides important evidence for the early medieval rite of baptism in Ireland. This further vides important evidence for the early medieval rite of baptism in Ireland. This further enables the suggestion that the crosses themselves played a ritual function in the procession enables the suggestion that the crosses themselves played a ritual function in the proces‐ from the church to the water, particularly tenable at sites such as Arboe where the cross is sion from the church to the water, particularly tenable at sites such as Arboe where the positioned on the edge of a Lough. A brief consideration of the iconography of Noah’s Ark cross is positioned on the edge of a Lough. A brief consideration of the iconography of further recommends this interpretation. Noah’s Ark further recommends this interpretation. 2.1.2. Iconography of Noah’s Ark (Genesis 8:1–11) 2.1.2. Iconography of Noah’s Ark (Genesis 8:1–11) As with the Baptism of Christ, the biblical story of Noah’s Ark contains a number of details,As comparison with the Baptism with which of Christ, facilitates the biblical identification story of Noah’s of possibly Ark contains six examples a number on the of Irishdetails, crosses comparison where the with specific which selection facilitates of certainidentification elements of ofpossibly the iconography six examples provides on the evidenceIrish crosses for local where theological the specific beliefs selection surrounding, of certain and elements liturgical of recollectionsthe iconography of, the provides event. Theevidence varied for iconographic local theological contexts beliefs of this surrounding, scene at Armagh and liturgical (Armagh), recollections Camus (London- of, the derry),event. The Donaghmore varied iconographic (Down), Kells contexts Broken of cross,this scene Killary at Armagh (both Meath) (Armagh), and less Camus certainly (Lon‐ atdonderry), Killamery Donaghmore (Kilkenny), bears (Down), testimony Kells Broken to early cross, Christian Killary exegesis (both on Meath) the subject and less which cer‐ tainly at Killamery (Kilkenny), bears testimony to early Christian exegesis on the subject

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saw it variously exploited typologically, a fact that makes its relative absence in Insular artwhich generally saw it all variously the more exploited notable (typologically,Gatch 1975; Unger a fact 1991that ;makes Harbison its relative1992, pp. absence 197–98; in LezziInsular 1994 art). generally all the more notable (Gatch 1975; Unger 1991; Harbison 1992, pp. 197–98;Turning Lezzi first 1994). to the typological significance of the bird in flight: in the upper centre of the panelTurning at Killary first to (Figure the typological4) is a bird significance flying from of right the bird to left in with flight: a largein the branch upper incentre its beak;of the the panel worn at conditionKillary (Figure of the 4) panels is a bird at Armagh, flying from Camus, right and to left the with Kells a Broken large branch cross make in its identificationbeak; the worn of the condition details atof the the top panels of those at Armagh, panels more Camus, difficult, and although the Kells each Broken does cross bear amake similarly identification shaped, carved of the details detail in at the the same top of position those panels (at Kells more it is difficult, to the left) although which each can bedoes identified bear a similarly by comparison shaped, with carved the better-preserved detail in the same scheme position at Killary. (at Kells At it Donaghmore is to the left) thewhich break can in be the identified shaft has resultedby comparison in the loss with of the the better upper‐preserved portion of thescheme scheme at Killary. making At it impossibleDonaghmore to ascertain the break whether in the thisshaft detail has resulted was included. in the The loss significance of the upper of theportion bird liesof the in itsscheme typological making relationship it impossible to the to doveascertain of the whether Holy Spirit this detail at Christ’s was Baptism.included. Bede, The signifi in his‐ commentary on Genesis, for instance, set out how: cance of the bird lies in its typological relationship to the dove of the Holy Spirit at Christ’s Baptism.the dove, Bede, which in his commentary carried the branch on Genesis, of the for olive instance, tree afterset out the how: flood through the open window into the ark, that when the Lord was baptized in the Jordan the dove, which carried the branch of the olive tree after the flood through the open the heavens were opened and the Holy Spirit descended in the form of a dove window into the ark, that when the Lord was baptized in the Jordan the heavens upon him. were opened and the Holy Spirit descended in the form of a dove upon him. ((PotestPotest inin columba, columba, quaequae apertaaperta postpost diluvium diluvium fenestrafenestra ramumramum olivaeolivae intulitintulit inin arcam,arcam, etiametiam hoc hoc praefiguratum praefiguratum intelligi, intelligi, quod, quod, baptizato baptizato Domino Domino in in Jordane, Jordane, aperti aperti suntsunt coeli,coeli, et descendit Spiritibus sanctus in specie columbae super eum P.L. 91 et descendit Spiritibus sanctus in specie columbae super eum).; Bede, Bede, In In Gen., Gen., P.L. 91, , Migne 1850, Col.101; trans. Kendall 2008, p. 195; Bk.8, Ch.10–11b Migne 1850, Col.101; trans. Kendall 2008, p. 195; Bk.8, Ch.10–11b). It thusIt thusenabled enabled the scene the scene to be understood to be understood as a typological as a typological baptismal baptismal rebirth that rebirth included that includedthose in the those ark: in the the faithful ark: the (Norberg faithful ( Norberg1982, pp. 1982 914–17, pp. Book 914–17 XI, BookLetter XI, 28). Letter 28).

FigureFigure 4.4. Noah’s Ark, Ark, E3, E3, Killary Killary cross. cross. Ninth–tenth Ninth–tenth century. century. Killary, Killary, Co. Co. Meath. Meath. Photograph: Photograph: http://www.irishstones.org/place.aspx?p=734&i=7 (accessed on 1 March 2021). http://www.irishstones.org/place.aspx?p=734&i=7 (accessed on 1 March 2021).

WhileWhile forfor Augustine Augustine thethe ark ark was was a a symbol symbol of of the the Church Church of of which which the the incorruptible incorruptible timberstimbers and and their their contents contents were were baptised baptised by by the the waters waters (Walsh (Walsh and Monahanand Monahan 1952 ,1952, pp. 480– pp. 84;480–84; Dods Dods 1873 ,1873, Tract Tract VI, Para. VI, Para. 19; Jungmann19; Jungmann 1972 1972, p. p. 167), 167), other other writers writers reinforced reinforced this this pointpoint with with reference reference also also to to the the dove dove ( Deferrari(Deferrari 1963 1963,, Ch. Ch. 4,4, Para. Para. 24;24; JungmannJungmann 19721972,, p.p. 85;85; KendallKendall 20082008,, pp. 181–98; 181–98; Oehler Oehler 1853, 1853 pp., pp. 627–28; 627–28; Souter Souter 1919, 1919 p., 56). p. 56). In an In Irish an Irish con‐ contexttext the the waters waters are are only only (implicitly) (implicitly) present present at Donaghmore at Donaghmore (Down) (Down) through through the the fish ﬁsh be‐ belowlow the the ark ark (Figure (Figure 5a,b);5a,b); it it was was the the dove dove which thus performed thethe referencereference to to baptism, baptism, typologicallytypologically connecting connecting Noah’s Noah’s Ark Ark and and Christ’s Christ’s Baptism Baptism as as expounded expounded in thein the writings writings of thoseof those whose whose texts texts circulated circulated in the in the region region at the at the time. time.

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(a) (b) (a) (a) (b) (b) FigureFigure 5. 5. (a(a,b,b).). Noah’s Noah’s Ark, Ark, W2, W2, Donaghmore Donaghmore cross. cross. Early Early ninth ninth century. century. St St Bartholemew’s Bartholemew’s Church Church FigureFigure 5. (a, b5.). ( aNoah’s,b). Noah’s Ark, Ark,W2, DonaghmoreW2, Donaghmore cross. cross. Early Early ninth ninth century. century. St Bartholemew’s St Bartholemew’s Church Church of Ireland Graveyard, Donaghmore, Co. Down. Photograph: Megan Henvey; Interpretive Sketch: of Irelandofof Ireland Ireland Graveyard, Graveyard, Graveyard, Donaghmore, Donaghmore, Donaghmore, Co. Down. Co.Co. Down. Photograph: Photograph: Megan Megan Megan Henvey; Henvey; Henvey; Interpretive Interpretive Interpretive Sketch: Sketch: Sketch: Megan Henvey. MeganMeganMegan Henvey. Henvey. Henvey. Depictions of the ark itself form two main types: the rectangular box‐type and a three‐ DepictionsDepictionsDepictions of the of of theark the arkitself ark itself itself form form form two two twomain main main types: types: types: the rectangular thethe rectangularrectangular box-type box-type box‐type and and aand three- a a three-three‐ storeyed boat‐type, the first appearing early in Christian art, as in the late‐third‐century storeyedstoreyedstoreyed boat-type, boat-type, boat‐type, the the firstthe ﬁrst firstappearing appearing appearing early early early in Christian in in Christian Christian art, art, asart, in as as the in in the late-third-centurythe late-third-century late‐third‐century Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter, Rome (Figure 6). CatacombsCatacombsCatacombs of Marcellinus of of Marcellinus Marcellinus and and andPeter, Peter, Peter, Rome Rome Rome (Figure (Figure (Figure 6). 6 ). 6).

Figure 6. Noah’s Ark, Fresco, late‐third century, Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter, Rome. Pho‐ FigureFigureFigure 6. Noah 6. 6. Noah’s’s Ark, Ark,Fresco Fresco,, late-third late‐third century, century, Catacomb Catacombss of Marcellinus of Marcellinus and Peter,and Peter, Rom Rome.e. Pho- Pho‐ tograph: NigelNoah’s Morgan Ark, Fresco, (York). late-third century, Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter, Rome. Photo- tograph:graph:tograph: Ni Nigelgel Nigel Morgan Morgan Morgan (York). (York). (York). ‐lebah), Greek (λάρναξ/ap/תבה) This has been understood to derive from the Hebrew ‐,lebah),/lebah),Greek Greek Greek (λ (α´λάρναξρναξ (λάρναξ/appetee)/ap-/apתבה ),(lebah/ תבה) ThisThis hasThis hasbee has nbeen u beennd eunderstoodr understoodstood to d to er i derivederiveve fro fromm from th thee theH Hebrewe bHebrewrew petee), and Latin (arca): words for ‘ark’ in the biblical texts that also denote box or chest petee),andpetee), and Latin andLatin (arca): Latin (arca): words (arca): words for words ‘ark’for ‘ark’ for in the‘ark’ in biblicalthe in biblicalthe textsbiblical texts that texts that also thatalso denote alsodenote box denote orbox chest boxor chest (orUnger chest (Unger 1991, p. 38; Lezzi 1994, pp. 302–3), while simultaneously facilitating cross‐refer‐ (Unger1991(Unger 1991,, p. 1991, 38; p. Lezzi3 8;p. Lezz38; 1994 Lezzii 19, pp.94, 1994, 302–3),pp. 302–3pp. while 302–3),), while simultaneously while simulta simultaneouslyneously facilitating facilitating facilitating cross-references cross-refer- cross‐refer to‐ ences to the ancient Greek story of Deucalion (Unger 1991, p. 38; Lezzi 1994, pp. 302–3; encestheences to ancient the to ancientthe Greek ancient Greek story Greek ofstory Deucalion story of Deuca of Deucalion (Ungerlion (Unger 1991 (Unger, p. 1991, 38; 1991, Lezzi p. 38; p. 1994 Lezzi38; ,Lezzi pp. 1994, 302–3; 1994, pp. Clements 302–3;pp. 302–3; Clements 2010, esp. p. 298–99). The second type, as preserved in the late‐tenth‐/early‐elev‐ Clements2010Clements, esp. 2010, 2010, pp. esp. 298–99). esp. p. 298–99).p. 298–99). The second The The second second type, astype type, preserved, a ass preserved preserved in the late-tenth-/early-eleventh-in the the late late-tenth-/ea‐tenth‐/earlyrly-‐elev‐ enth‐century Roda Bible (Paris, Bib. Nat. MS. lat. 6, fol. 9; Contessa 2009), emerged in early elev-centuryenthenth-century‐century Roda Roda BibleRoda Bible (Paris,Bible (Paris, (Paris, Bib. Nat.Bib. Bib. Nat. MS.Nat. MS. lat. MS. lat. 6, la fol. 6,t. fol.6, 9; fol. 9;Contessa Contessa9; Contessa 2009 2009), ),2009), emerged emerged emerged in in early early medieval contexts and developed through a different means of faithfully following the in earlymedievalmedieval medieval contextscontexts contexts andand developed developed and developed throughthrough through a a different different a meansdi meansfferent of of faithfullymeans faithfully of following following faithfully the the biblical text: focusing on the words spoken by God to Noah (Gen. 6:15–16). Neither of followingbiblicalbiblical the text: text: biblical focusingfocusing text: onfocusingon the the words words on the spoken spoken words by byspoken God God to byto Noah GodNoah (Gen.to (Gen. Noa 6:15–16).h 6:15–16). (Gen. 6:15–16 Neither Neither). of of these types, however, explain the ark on the Irish crosses, where it forms a large, enclosed, Neitherthesethese of types, types, these however, however, types, however, explain explain the the explain ark ark on on the the the ark Irish Irish on crosses, crosses, the Irish where where crosses, it it forms forms where a a large, large, it forms enclosed, enclosed, a seaworthy ship. The earliest example of this ship‐type ark is preserved in the early‐fifth‐ large,seaworthyseaworthy enclosed, ship. ship. seaworthy TheThe earliestearliest ship. exampleexampleThe earliest ofof thisthis example ship-typeship‐type of this arkark ship-type isis preserved preserved ark in inis the thepreserved early-ﬁfth- early‐fifth ‐ century frescoes in the Peace Chapel at El‐Bagawat in Egypt (Figure 7) which offers a good in thecenturycentury early-fifth- frescoes frescoescentury in in the the frescoes Peace Peace Chapel Chapel in the at atPeace El-Bagawat El‐Bagawat Chapel in inat Egypt EgyptEl-Bag (Figure (Figureawat in7 )7) whichEgypt which offers(Figure offers a a good7) good comparator for that on the Irish crosses, particularly at Killary. The similarities between the whichcomparatorcomparator offers a good for for that that comparator on on the the Irish Irish for crosses, crosses, that on particularly particularly the Irish crosses, at at Killary. Killary. partic The Theularly similarities similarities at Killary. between between The the the El‐Bagawat and Irish cross depictions have been variably explained as possible evidence of similaritiesEl-BagawatEl‐Bagawat between andand IrishIrish the crossEl-Bagawat depictions and have Irish been been cross variably variably depictions explained explained have as as possible possible been variably evidence evidence of indirect links between the two regions, or as evidence of the artists’ familiarity with boat‐ explainedofindirect indirect as linkspossible links between between evidence the the twoof twoindirect regions, regions, links or as orbetween evidence as evidence the of two the of regions, theartists’ artists’ familiarityor as familiarity evidence with of withboat ‐ forms – being coastal peoples (Contessa 2009, p. 264; Lezzi 1994, pp. 308, 310–12). the boat-formsartists’forms –familiarity being – being coastal with coastal peoples boat- peoplesforms (Contessa – ( Contessabeing 2009, coastal 2009p. 264; peoples, p. Lezzi 264; (Contessa Lezzi1994, pp.1994 308,2009,, pp. 310–12). p. 308, 264; 310–12). Lezzi 1994, pp. 308, 310–12).

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FigureFigure 7. 7.Noah’s Noah’s Ark,Ark, Fresco,Fresco, earlyearly ﬁfthfifth century,century, Egypt,Egypt, PeacePeace Chapel at El-Bagawat.El‐Bagawat. Photograph: Photograph: https://www.akg‐images.com/archive/‐2UMDHU2YKNXJ.html (accessed on 22 May 2020). https://www.akg-images.com/archive/-2UMDHU2YKNXJ.html (accessed on 22 May 2020).

However,However, thethe ubiquitous ubiquitous animal-headedanimal‐headed andand spiral-formspiral‐form prowsprows onon thethe Irish Irish cross cross depictionsdepictions of of the the ark ark do suggestdo suggest an Insular an Insular iconographic iconographic tradition tradition stemming stemming from knowl- from edgeknowledge of either of Viking either Viking or pre-Viking or pre‐Viking ships (or ships their (or pictorial their pictorial representation) representation) (Henry (Henry 1930; Bruce-Mitford1930; Bruce‐Mitford 1970, pp. 1970, 146–48; pp. 146–48;Porter 1971 Porter, p. 106;1971, Gatch p. 106; 1975 Gatch, p. 9; 1975, Farrell p. 1978 9; Farrell, pp. 48–49; 1978, Ungerpp. 48–49; 1991 ,Unger p. 46; Lezzi1991, 1994p. 46;, p. Lezzi 312), 1994, as it isp. preserved 312), as it elsewhereis preserved in the elsewherec.1000 Anglo-Saxon in the c.1000 JuniusAnglo 11‐Saxon manuscript Junius (Oxford,11 manuscript Bod. Lib. (Oxford, Junius Bod. 11, pp.Lib. 65, Junius 66, 68). 11, Together,pp. 65, 66, the 68). form Together, of the shipthe form and theof the addition ship and of the the distinctive addition of prows the distinctive might suggest prows that might the suggest ultimate that source the ulti for‐ themate ark-type source onfor the the Irish ark‐type crosses on the was Irish developed crosses locally was developed from an earlylocally eastern from an model, early thus east‐ positioningern model, itthus in anpositioning intermediary it in positionan intermediary in the development position in the of thedevelopment iconography of the in theico‐ West.nography in the West. BedeBede stressed stressed that that the the ark ark was was capable capable of of carrying carrying a a great great load, load, ﬂoating floating on on the the waters, waters, andand weathering weathering any any storm storm not not because because of of its its form, form, but but because because it it waswas underunder God’sGod’s protec-protec‐ tiontion ( (KendallKendall 2008 2008,, p. p. 183). 183). Thus, Thus, its its depiction depiction as as a a sea-worthy sea‐worthy ship ship was was perhaps perhaps intended intended toto reinforcereinforce that that it it was was a a safe safe vessel, vessel, something something not not achieved achieved in in the the earlier, earlier, typological typological box-typebox‐type ark ark ( Gatch(Gatch 1975 1975;; Unger Unger 1991 1991,, p. p. 38; 38; Lezzi Lezzi 1994 1994,, pp. pp. 304–5; 304–5; Contessa Contessa 2009 2009).). There There is,is, nevertheless, nevertheless, another another explanation. explanation. WithinWithin an an exegetical exegetical contextcontext thatthat interpretedinterpreted thethe arkark asas the the Church, Church, and and the the ﬂood flood waterswaters as as a a type type of of baptism, baptism, Bede Bede goes goes further, further, explaining explaining how: how: ForFor thethe boughbough ofof an olive tree, found found outside outside and and brought brought into into the the ark ark in in the the mouth mouthof the dove, of the is dove, the type is the of type those of who those receive who receive baptism baptism indeed indeed outside outside of the Church, of thebut Church, are fruitful but with are fruitful an abundance with an of abundance charity and of charitymorally and upright morally with upright pious devo‐ withtion piousas if with devotion the greenness as if with of the leaves. greenness of leaves. (Ramus(Ramus enim enim olivae olivae foris foris inventus inventus et et ore ore columbae columbae in in arcam arcam illatus illatus typum typum gerit gerit eorum eorum qui quiextra extra Ecclesiam Ecclesiam quidem quidem baptisma baptisma percipiunt, percipiunt, sed sed pinguedine pinguedine charitatis charitatis fructuosi, fructuosi, et pia et in‐ piatentione intentione velut velut foliorum foliorum sunt suntviriditate viriditate integri integri; Bede,). Bede,In Gen., In P.L. Gen., 91P.L., Migne 91, Migne 1850, Col. 1850101;, Col.trans. 101; Kendall trans. 2008, Kendall p. 195; 2008 Bk.8,, p. 195; Ch.10–11b). Bk.8, Ch.10–11b PerhapsPerhaps in fashioning in fashioning the ark the as ark a ascontemporary a contemporary ship ship those those responsible responsible for the for depictions the depic- tionson the on crosses the crosses were were indicating indicating that that the therecent recent (Viking) (Viking) invaders invaders of the of the island island presented presented an anopportunity opportunity to to undertake undertake conversion conversion and and baptism. baptism. If If the the olive olive branch was, asas TertullianTertullian putput it it at at a a very very early early date, date, ‘a ‘a token token which which is is held held out out even even among among the the heathen heathen as aas harbinger a harbin‐ ofger peace’ of peace’ (mundi (mundi pacem pacem caelestis caelestis irae praeco irae praeco columba columba terries terries adnuntiavit adnuntiavit dimissa dimissa ex arca ex et arca cum et oleacum reversa olea reversa; Oehler; Oehler 1853 1853,, pp. pp. 627–8; 627–8; trans. trans. Souter Souter 1919 1919,, p. p. 56), 56), then then the the inclusion inclusion of of the the dove—adove—a symbolsymbol of the Holy Holy Spirit Spirit present present also also at at the the Baptism—with Baptism—with the the olive olive branch branch ap‐ approachingproaching the the Viking Viking-type‐type ark/ship ark/ship is isa powerful a powerful statement statement of ofintent. intent. TheThe iconographic iconographic association association of Noah’sof Noah’s Ark Ark with with baptismal baptismal themes themes on the Irishon the crosses Irish furthercrosses points further to points its possible to its rolepossible in the role liturgy in the of liturgy baptism of as baptism practised as inpractised early medieval in early Ireland,medieval and Ireland, the role and of the certain role crossesof certain in crosses these rituals. in these On rituals. the Kells On the Broken Kells cross Broken Noah’s cross ArkNoah’s is depicted Ark is depicted above Adam above and Adam Eve and which, Eve with which, a circumambulatory with a circumambulatory reading reading taking

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in the Baptism of Christ on the same—lowermost—register, facilitates engagement with themes of deliverance and salvation. A similar arrangement is present at Killary, where the association is yet more explicit: Noah’s Ark shares a register with the depiction of the Baptism. Thus, the baptismal liturgy as practised at these sites might have included reference to Noah’s Ark, reflected in the iconographic programmes of these crosses and further suggesting their role in the ritual celebration of baptism. The development of the iconography of Noah’s Ark in early medieval Ireland, which includes the dove and Viking ship-type, points to a desire to convert and baptise those arriving on the island. The typological connection to the Baptism of Christ established in earlier exegeses which is specifically and deliberately employed in this iconography and certain of its programmatic associations might, furthermore, in the absence of textual sources, be seen to reflect the inference of this biblical event in the readings and prayers of the liturgy of baptism in early medieval Ireland.

2.2. The Rite of Ordination Traditionally employed in relation to the initiation of preaching ecclesiastics (see, for e.g., Barrow 2018), in the context of early medieval Ireland where the roles of ecclesiastics were not so precisely defined (see, for e.g.,: Sharpe 1983; De Paor 1997, p. 182; Etchingham 1999, pp. 241–43), the little-attested rite of ordination may, therefore, have been used in a variety of contexts, and evidence for this is provided in the iconography of the high crosses. Roger E. Reynolds has importantly shown how images of ordinations from early medieval libelli for the rite—although few in number—can be usefully employed in the construction of an understanding of the practicalities of the ritual ceremony (Reynolds 1983). While no such images have been identified on the Irish crosses, another aspect of their carved programmes can be seen to closely align with the extant textual evidence of the rite of ordination in early medieval Ireland. The iconographic context of the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace reflects its invocation in the hymns of the rite of ordination as preserved in the Vespasian Psalter (fol. 150r–151r) and Antiphonary of Bangor (Warren 1881, pp. 187–94; Gearhart 2013, p. 118; Billett 2014, p. 113; Hines 2015, p. 271). Here, exploration of the iconography of this scheme and its programmatic placement on the Irish crosses, will demonstrate the role of the crosses in the preservation and celebration of this liturgy, as well as contribute to discussions surrounding the individualized character of early medieval ecclesiastic settlements and the role/s and responsibilities of those they housed.

Iconography of The Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace (Daniel 3:19–28) Seven Irish crosses feature depictions of the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace: Arboe (Tyrone), Armagh (Armagh), Tall cross Monasterboice (Louth), Moone (Kildare), Seir Kieran (Offaly), Patrick and Columba Kells (Meath), and Galloon West (Fermanagh). On four it is placed in direct relationship with the depiction of Paul and Anthony in the Desert; here, an iconographic exploration of these depictions of the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace will point to a well-established association between the scheme and the rite through which Ireland’s early medieval religious took orders. Two studies of the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace distinguish iconographic typologies: Ann Walton deals exclusively with earlier second- to sixth-century depictions classifying a linear and pyramidal type, while Colum Hourihane focused on the Irish material distinguishing frontal-facing and kneeling- in-profile arrangements, understanding this as the final resolution of the imagery (Walton 1988; Hourihane 2001). It is clear that the Irish versions follow a common compositional type (Walton’s ‘pyramidal’) that is preserved on a fourth-century lamp in the Vatican; Hourihane’s further distinctions cannot be upheld, however, as the Three Hebrews adopt a number of varied poses (Walton 1988, p. 58; Portnoy 2017, pp. 107–8). Thus, here, each detail of the schemes will be considered in turn, with their theological and liturgical significances outlined. Religions 2021, 12, 329 11 of 15 Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

The position of of the the flames flames in in relation relation to to the the angel angel in in the the schemes schemes at at Armagh, Armagh, Arboe, Arboe, andand Kells Kells cross cross of of Patrick Patrick and and Columba Columba points points to to a a specific specific theological conception conception of of the the event.event. The The flames flames of thethe furnacefurnace are are depicted depicted as as vertical vertical lines lines on on the the left left and and right right at the at the top topof the of panelthe panel suggesting suggesting that thethat four the figuresfour figures are together are together in the in furnace the furnace (Figure (Figure8a,b), among 8a,b), amongthe flames, the flames, as is the as case is the in manycase in of many the earlier of the images, earlier includingimages, including the third-century the third Cappella‐century CappellaGreca fresco Greca (Walton fresco 1988 (Walton, p. 61). 1988, This p. suggests 61). This that suggests the typical that the Irish typical iconography Irish iconogra reflects‐ phya specific reflects and a specific complex and theology complex involving theology the involving figure of the the figure angel, of which the angel, was which developed was developedfrom a late from antique a late continental antique continental model (Hourihane model (Hourihane 2001, pp. 73–76). 2001, pp. 73–76).

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 8. 8. (a(a,b,b)Three) Three Hebrews Hebrews in in the the Fiery Fiery Furnace, Furnace, N1, N1, Armagh Armagh cross. cross. Mid Mid-eighth‐eighth to early to early ninth ninth century.century. St St Patrick’s Patrick’s Church Church of ofIreland Ireland Cathedral, Cathedral, Armagh, Armagh, Co. Co.Armagh. Armagh. Photograph: Photograph: Megan Megan Hen‐ vey;Henvey; Interpretive Interpretive Sketch: Sketch: Megan Megan Henvey. Henvey.

TheThe angel, angel, not not included included in in the the earliest earliest versions, versions, is is clearly clearly identifiable identifiable on on the the Irish crossescrosses (Hourihane (Hourihane 2001; 2001 Walton; Walton 1988, 1988 pp., pp. 57–58) 57–58) and importantly and importantly occupies occupies a space a within space thewithin flames. the flames.Phyllis Portnoy Phyllis Portnoy has argued has arguedthat the thatIrish the cross Irish iconographies cross iconographies might be might under be‐ stoodunderstood as providing as providing parallels parallels for the for missing the missing iconographic iconographic programme programme of the of theJunius Junius 11 manuscript11 manuscript (P. 185) (P. 185) which which reads, reads, ‘An ‘Anangel angel … enfolded... enfolded the noble the nobleyouths youths in his arms in his under arms theunder fiery the roof’ fiery (Engel roof’ … (Engel freobearn... freobearn fæðmum fæðmumbeÞeahte beÞeahteunder Þam under fyrenan Þam hrofe fyrenan, Krapp hrofe 1931,, Krapp p. 185;1931 Bradley, p. 185; 1982, Bradley p. 73). 1982 The, p. deliberate 73). The focus deliberate on, and focus repetition on, and of, repetition OE fæđm (enfolded) of, OE fædm¯ is well(enfolded)‐paralleled is well-paralleled in the Irish iconography in the Irish where iconography the angel where embraces the angel the three embraces Hebrews the three and effectivelyHebrews and shields effectively them from shields the them fires of from the thefurnace, fires of as the at Armagh furnace, (Portnoy as at Armagh 2017, ( pp.Portnoy 107– 8).2017 This, pp. suggests 107–8). that This the suggests iconographic that the iconographictype attested type in most attested Irish in depictions most Irish (excluding depictions Moone(excluding which Moone overall which features overall imageries features of imageries almost entirely of almost unique entirely types) unique was developed types) was locallydeveloped with locally knowledge with knowledgeof both earlier of both continental earlier continental models and models with reference and with to reference ideas and to textsideas circulating and texts circulating throughout throughout the Insular the world. Insular world. HavingHaving established established the the iconographic iconographic sources sources of of this this scheme scheme on on the the Irish Irish crosses crosses we we cancan turn turn to to consider consider why why it appears it appears with with such such prevalence prevalence on these on these monuments. monuments. In a study In a ofstudy early of Christian early Christian funerary funerary art Jensen art drew Jensen theological drew theological links between links the between Three theHebrews Three andHebrews Noah’s and Ark, Noah’s with Ark,which with it was which frequently it was frequently juxtaposed, juxtaposed, and argued and that argued the predomi that the‐ nantpredominant themes were themes martyrdom were martyrdom and/or resurrection and/or resurrection (Jensen 2012, (Jensen pp. 201279, 84)., pp. In 79, the 84). later In contextthe later of context the Irish of crosses, the Irish the crosses, event the has event generally has generally been understood been understood as part of as a part scheme of a relatingscheme to relating the Ordo to theCommendatioOrdo Commendatio Animae, a Animae prayer, afound prayer in foundearly medieval in early medieval Irish texts Irish in‐ cludingtexts including the ninth the‐century ninth-century MartyrologyMartyrology of Oengus of, Oengusand the, andStowe the Missal Stowe (Warren Missal ( Warren1881, p.

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1881, p. 226; Stokes 1905, pp. 284–88; Flower 1954; Roe 1966, p. 13; Henry 1967, pp. 142–44; Edwards 1983, pp. 26–27; Harbison 1992, pp. 350–81; 1999, p. 157; Herbert 1997; Jensen 2012, pp. 79, 84). However, the story of the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace as told in the Book of Daniel had a further, more prominent signiﬁcance in early medieval liturgical practices, particularly in the Insular world, and it is in these contexts that the iconographic and programmatic variations of the scene on the crosses of Armagh, Arboe, the Tall cross Monasterboice, and Moone are perhaps best explained. The importance of the Three Hebrews in the various forms of the early liturgy was stressed by Robert Farrell, following John Walton Tyrer (Farrell 1967, pp. 132–34). Daniel 3:1–90 was often read during the Easter Vigil or Holy Saturday service, including both the Song of Azarias and the Song of the Three, placing an emphasis (suited to the occasion) on God’s grace and mercy (Tyrer 1932, pp. 156–57; Farrell 1967, pp. 134–35). John Hines and Heidi Gearhart have both also highlighted that the Benedicite Canticle or Hymnum trium puerorum was central to the Gallican Rite, which is attested in an Insular context in the mid-eighth-century Vespasian Psalter and Antiphonary of Bangor (Warren 1881, pp. 187–94; Gearhart 2013, p. 118; Billett 2014, p. 113; Hines 2015, p. 271). Familiar in the liturgy, the prominence of the story is further attested in the Insular world in Muirchú’s employment of the narrative structure of Daniel 3:1–24 in the account of King Lóegaire’s attack on St Patrick, on the inscription on the possibly ninth-century Honington clip, and in the tenth-century Junius 11 manuscript which preserves the Old English poem (Daniel); this includes both prayers in its poetic narrative of the Book of Daniel (O’Loughlin 2000, pp. 99–103; Hines 2015; Portnoy 2017; Alexander 2018, pp. 174–75). The centrality of the Hebrews’ prayers in Insular liturgy and poetry thus demonstrates a clear focus on their prayerfulness. Indeed, Warren noted that the Canticle was also included in the liturgy of Ember Saturday during which ordinations took place (Warren 1881, p. 190, n.4). On four of the seven crosses where this scheme is depicted, it is in direct relationship with the image of Paul and Anthony—the models of ascetic monasticism— Receiving Bread in the Desert. On these four crosses—Armagh, Arboe, the Tall cross Monasterboice, and Moone—this explicit relationship places careful emphasis on the need for a prayerful frame of mind. More crucially, it strongly suggests a direct reference in the programme of those crosses to the Ember Saturday liturgy of the rite of ordination, the ritual at which a person commits to live as Paul and Anthony. The crosses therefore can be understood to have functioned to call to mind one’s vows, and/or in the celebration of that liturgy. This further points to the nature of those communities, where members would take, or had taken, religious orders, the monastic character of which are suggested in the pairing of the scheme with the depiction of Paul and Anthony. This furthermore points to the individualized nature of ecclesiastic communities in early medieval Ireland, and the need to reconsider what is meant by ‘ordination’ in this context.

3. Conclusions An iconographical investigation of the carved depictions and programmatic arrangements of the Baptism of Christ, Noah’s Ark, and the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace on the Irish high crosses has facilitated a number of new insights to both early medieval Irish liturgies of initiation, the role and function of the crosses themselves within the communities that commissioned, made and used them, and the individualized nature of these communities. Depictions of the Baptism that feature the flowing water with the distinctive iconography of both Christ and the Baptist standing in it has been shown to corroborate what has been gleaned from textual sources: that in the Insular world the ritual took place in open, flowing waters, and additionally to this, that the ecclesiastic performing the rite also stood in the water (Morris 1991; Twomey 2021). Meanwhile the varying number of non-/angelic bystanders reflects contemporary theological interests surrounding the event which dictated that their faith was essential to the rite. The particularity of the iconography of the double-circular form of the fonts of the river Jordan appears to support this in specifically referencing the river in which Christ was baptised, enabling recognition of the Religions 2021, 12, 329 13 of 15

historical event of the past to those in the present otherwise personally familiar with the actions depicted. Thus, the iconography of the Baptism of Christ on the Irish crosses clearly reflects the contemporary, local, liturgical practice of this rite of initiation. With the depictions of Noah’s Ark, the inclusion of the dove draws a further, clear typological reference to the rite, and the specific Viking ship-type with curling and beast- headed prows appears to suggest that the Christian communities responsible for the production of the crosses were aware of the opportunity to convert – and baptise – the contemporaneous incomers to the island. In the absence of textual accounts of the rite, it might be speculated that they included reference to the typological story of Noah’s Ark in the flood. More importantly, however, these findings together suggest that the high crosses may have played a role in the processual ritual of Baptism, as the clergy, catechumens, and congregation moved between the church and the flowing waters. The programmatic relationship between the depictions of the Baptism of Christ and Noah’s Ark has been shown to further support this contention. The Antiphonary of Bangor already demonstrates that the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace featured in the liturgy of Ember Saturday when ordinations took place; here, the programmatic pairing of the iconography of the event with Paul and Anthony in the Desert on four high crosses suggests that this was a well-known liturgical rite, practised throughout early medieval Ireland. This, in turn, sheds light on the monastic character of those communities—reframing the application of the term ‘ordination’ in the context of early medieval Ireland—and further points to the role of high crosses as calling to mind the promises of the sacraments of initiation and/or the facilitation of their ritual occasion. Overall, it can be seen that the iconography of the high crosses provides invaluable insights into the nature of the early medieval communities that made and used them; the function of the monuments themselves in Christian rituals; and their role as evidence complementary to that provided by extant texts in preserving early medieval liturgies, in particular the rites of baptism and ordination.

Funding: This research was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, UK. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

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