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Signature Redacted Signature of Author: ______Binso /1 ~T[ C Making a Digital Working Class Uber Drivers in Boston, 2016-2017 by MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE H. C. Robinson OF TECHNOLOGY Bachelor of Arts OCTI 13 2017 Harvard College, 2003 LIBRARIES Juris Doctor ARCHIVES Harvard Law School, 2006 Submitted to the Program in Science, Technology, and Society in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology, and Society at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology September 2017 C 2017 H. C. Robinson. All Rights Reserved The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created. Signature redacted Signature of Author: _________________________binso /1 ~T[ C. Robinson History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology and Society August 29, 2017 Signature redacted Certified by: _ Susan S. Silbey Lem' and Anne Goldberg Professor of Humanitiesociology and Anthropology Professor of Behavioral and Policy Sciences, Sloan School of Management Thesis Supervisor Certified by: Signature redacted JoAnne Yates Distinguished Professor of Management, and Profe or of Managerial Communication and Work and Organization Studies, Sloan School of Management Thesis Committee Member Certified by: Signature redacted Malick W. Ghachem Associate Professor of History Thesis Committee Member Signature redacted Accepted by: Harriet Ritvo Arthur J. Conner Professor of History Director of Graduate Studies, History, Anthropology, and STS Signature redacted Accepted by: Jennifer S. Light Professor of Science, Technology, and Society Department Head, Program in Science, Technology, and Society Professor of Urban Studies and Planning 2 This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my father, Frederic Girard Robinson (1936-1994), who never quite finished his own thesis, and who showed me how to be interested in other people. 3 MAKING A DIGITAL WORKING CLASS Uber Drivers in Boston, 2016 - 2017 by H. C. Robinson Submitted to the Program in Science, Technology, and Society on September 1, 2017 in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology, and Society ABSTRACT Pocket computers, called "smartphones," have become a part of everyday life over the past decade. Most people now routinely carry around with them millions of times more computing power than generated the Apollo mission to the Moon. They use it to access, process, and share information quickly and cheaply, in furtherance of the things people have long done: buying and selling, socializing, and so on, yet faster and across greater distances-characteristic of what we call "modernity." This has affected the ways in which people are working, and who is working, doing what, today. This thesis reports the results of a field study of one new kind of laborer who has been brought into work consequent to the smartphone: Uber drivers. The author conducted ethnographic fieldwork over one year in Boston, Massachusetts, and the surrounding area using ride-along sampling, participant observation, lengthy interviewing, and systematic coding in order to better understand a software-organized, person-to-person labor market in which the person who does the labor also brings the capital in the form of a vehicle used to provide transportation to other people. The first chapter of the thesis provides a typology of Uber drivers based on semi-random sampling through ride-alongs. The second chapter describes collective action that was undertaken by Uber drivers at Boston's Logan Airport in the form of a strike against the algorithm, which was an effort to induce the software to perceive an (artificial) driver shortage, leading to an increase in the price of fares. The third chapter offers a theory of the structure of Uber as an organization that mobilizes labor by using software to facilitate economic transactions that are triangulated between two users and the firm. The chapter also explains how this structure was particularly apt at mobilizing large numbers of people to carry out "regulatory breach," as they worked as Uber drivers doing the equivalent of taxi or livery work without complying with any of the applicable legal regulations. The final chapter explains how analysis of the field data, in combination with the new theoretical insights of the thesis, drives a conclusion suggested by the thesis title: that Uber has made a digital working class. Thesis Supervisor: Susan S. Silbey Title: Leon and Anne Goldberg Professor of Humanities, Sociology and Anthropology Professor of Behavioral and Policy Sciences, Sloan School of Management 4 Table of Contents Introduction....................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 1: Uber W orkers and the W ork Experience ..................................................... 19 Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 21 Typology of Uber Drivers ............................................................................................................ 24 Typology of Issues that Characterizethe Uber Work Process........................................... 48 Major PreoccupationsEmergent from Coding of Interview Transcripts..........................80 Chapter 2: Uber Drivers in Collective Action .............................................................. 93 Striking Against the Algorithm..................................................................................................... 109 Conflict and Collective Action Among a D igital Working Class ......................................... 117 Shifting Gears: The Differential Speed of D igital Change.................................................... 123 Chapter 3: Triangulated Transacting, the Thin Organization, & Regulatory Breach..... 131 LegislatingInto the Breach .......................................................................................................... 154 Chapter 4: M aking a Digital W orking Class................................................................... 161 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 176 Limitations of the Thesis Research and Directionsfor Future Studies .............................. 189 Appendix I: Interview Questions .................................................................................... 209 Appendix II: Codebook................................................................................................... 213 References....................................................................................................................... 216 5 Acknowledgements My husband, Mikkel Heuck, influenced many aspects of this work. He listened carefully over several years as I tried to make sense of what I was seeing and experiencing during field research. He suggested that I could establish a relationship between coded variables in a manner that made it possible to compare their weight across interviews, irrespective of variations in interview length. Mikkel has the diligent, regular, working style that is necessary to complete long projects, and he helped me while I tried to learn and adopt that style, often with great difficulty (and I still have not gotten it). He gave me the desk and the chair on which the thesis was written, which is a metaphor for how central he has been for me. D. H. Lawrence, who wrote about the dehumanizing effects of industrialization and modernization (and probably would have been interested in Uber drivers), said about love, by contrast, that it was "the flower of life." He could have also said flowering of life. My life has been flowering since Mikkel came into it; and since we are so fortunate to have our lives and work overlap, my work has been flowering too. My father died in 1994. My mother made sure that I was well-educated and surrounded by happy circumstances, and she endured long commutes and worked hard to facilitate this. Her values were focused on education and experience, and I am deeply grateful that I grew up in such a family. Thank you. It is double-luck when academic companionship turns into friendship, and vice- versa. I would like to thank the friends who have shaped my ideas, and me, over many years, especially Irena Stevanovic, David Singerman, Daniel Doneson, Afonso Januario, Costas Boussios, Marie Karkov, Jonathan Man, and Jan Phillip Balthasar Muller. Thank you also to Barbara Alexandra Szerlip, Fabien Gregis, Jeremy Grosman, Nick Robinson, and Marc Aidinoff, who are new and I hope lasting friends in the world of ideas. Sven Beckert was always willing to speak to me about my work during the many years we both frequented Simon's Coffee Shop in Cambridge; it was not until years later that I realized he was in fact Professor Sven Beckert, the well-regarded historian of capitalism. When I first spoke to him about Uber, he exclaimed (in an accent once described by Sam Seder as "academic Arnold Schwarzenegger"), the labor brings the capital!-which propelled me into the literature on labor and wage history, including Thomas Picketty's extensive book, which had been sitting unopened on our coffee table for several months, looking intimidating. Many illuminating conversations happened at Shay's Wine Bar in Harvard Square. I hope that
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