/ ' ·'O' " . ,- '. r· :.' CHAPTER 4 The Roman Republic FORUM IN ROME, The forum, a large rectangular space that served as a marketplace, was the center of a Roman city. In Rome itself, the forum evolved into a political center surrounded by large public buildings. (©Karen Tweedy-Holmes/Corbis) 100 Part One The Ancient World from the creation of a multinational empire. The city of Rome was evolving into the city of humanity-the cosmopolis envisioned by the Stoics. Polybius THE ROMAN ARMY The discipline and dedication of the citizen-soldiers help explain Rome's suc­ cess in conquering a world empire. In the following account, Polybius (c. 200­ c. 118 B.C.) tells how the commanders enforced obedience and fostered heroism. A court-martial composed of the tribunes im­ fence. The above are the offences which are mediately sits to try him [a soldier}, and if he punished as crimes. The following actions are is found guilty, he is punished by beating (jus­ regarded as unmanly and dishonourable in a tuarium). This is carried out as follows. The tri­ soldier: to make a false report to the tribune of bune takes a cudgel and lightly touches the your courage in the field in order to earn dis­ condemned man with it, whereupon all the tinction; to leave the post to which you have soldiers fall upon him with clubs and stones, been assigned in a covering force because of and usually kill him in the camp itself. But fear; and similarly to throwaway out of fear even those who contrive to escape are no better any of your weapons on the field of battle. For off. How indeed could they be? They are not this reason the men who have been posted to allowed to return to their homes, and none of a covering force are often doomed to certain their family would dare to receive such a man death. This IS because they will remain at their into the house. Those who have once fallen posts even when they are overwhelmingly out­ into this misfortune are completely and finally numbered on account of their dread of the ruined. The optio [lieutenant} and the decurio punishment that awaits them. Again, those [sergeant] of the squadron are liable to the who have lost a shield or a sword or any other same punishment if they fail to pass on the weapon on the battlefield often hurl them­ proper orders at the proper moment to the pa­ selves upon the enemy hoping that they will trols and the decurio of the next squadron. The either recover the weapon they have lost, or consequence of the extreme severity of this else escape by death from the inevitable dis­ penalty and of the absolute impossibility of grace and the humiliations they would suffer at avoiding it is that the night watches of the Ro­ home. man army are faultlessly kept. If it ever happens that a large body of men The ordinary soldiers are answerable to the break and run in this way and whole maniples tribunes [elected military administrators} and [units of 120 to 300 men} desert their posts the tribunes to the consuls [commanders}. A under extreme pressure, the officers reject the tribune, and in the case of the allies a prefect idea of beating to death or executing all who [commander of a large unit}, has power to are guilty, but the solution they adopt is as ef­ inflict fines, distrain on [confiscate} goods, and fective as it is terrifying. The tribune calls the to order a flogging. The punishment of beating legion [large military unit} on parade and to death is also inflicted upon those who steal brings to the front those who are guilty of hav­ from the camp, those who give false evidence, ing left the ranks. He then reprimands them those who in full manhood commit homosex­ sharply, and finally chooses by lot some five or ual offences, and finally upon anyone who has eight or twenty of the offenders, the number been punished three times for the same of­ being calculated so that it represents about a Chapter 4 The Roman Republic 101 tenth I of those who have shown themselves similar situation in which there is no necessity guilty of cowardice. Those on whom the lot has to engage in single combat, have voluntarily fallen are mercilessly clubbed to death in the and deliberately exposed themselves to danger. manner I have already described. The rest are At the storming of a city the first man to put on rations of barley instead of wheat, and scale the wall is awarded a crown of gold. In are ordered to quarter themselves outside the the same way those who have shielded and camp in a place which has no defences. The saved one of their fellow-citizens or of the al­ danger and the fear of drawing the fatal lot lies are honoured with gifts from the consul, threatens every man equally, and since there is and the men whose lives they have preserved no certainty on whom it may fall, and the pub­ present them of their own free will with a lic disgrace of receiving rations of barley is crown; if not, they are compelled to do so by shared by all alike, the Romans have adopted the tribunes who judge the case. Moreover, a the best possible practice both to inspire terror man who has been saved in this way reveres his and to repair the harm done by any weakening rescuer as a father for the rest of his life and of their warlike spirit. must treat him as if he were a parent. And so The Romans also have an excellent method by means of such incentives even those who of encouraging young soldiers to face danger. stay at home feel the impulse to emulate such Whenever any have especially distinguished achievements in the field no less than those themselves in a battle, the general assembles the who are present and see and hear what takes troops and calls forward those he considers to place. For the men who receive these trophies have shown exceptional courage. He praises not only enjoy great prestige in the army and them first for their gallantry in action and for soon afterwards in their homes, but they are also anything in their previous conduct which is singled Out for precedence in religious proces­ particularly worthy of mention, and then he sions when they return. On these occasions no­ distributes gifts such as the following: to a man body is allowed to wear decorations save those who has wounded one of the enemy, a spear; to who have been honoured for their bravery by the one who has killed and stripped an enemy, a cup consuls, and it is the custom to hang up the tro­ if he is in the infantry, or horse-trappings if in phies they have won in the most conspicuous the cavalry--originally the gift was simply a places in their houses, and to regard them as lance. These presentations are not made to men proofs and visible symbols of their valour. So who have wounded or stripped an enemy in the when we consider this people's almost obsessive course ofa pitched battle, or at the storming of a concern with military rewards and punish­ city, but to those who during a skirmish or some ments, and the immense importance which they attach to both, it is not surprising that they "This custom is the origin of the word decimate, from the emerge with brilliant success from every war in Latin decem, ten. which they engage. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. How did the Romans ensure good discipline among their soldiers? 2. What factors mentioned by Polybius help explain Rome's emergence as a great power? 'I ! 102 Part One The Ancient World 2 The Punic Wars In 264 B.C., Rome, which had just completed its conquest of Italy, went to war with Carthage, the dominant power in the western Mediterranean. A threat to the north Sicilian city of Messana (now Messina) was the immediate cause of the war. Rome feared that Carthage might use Messana as a springboard from which to attack the cities of southern Italy, which were allied to Rome, or to interfere with their trade. The First Punic War (264-241 B.C.) was a grueling conflict; drawing manpower from its loyal allies, Rome finally prevailed. Carthage surren­ . ~ dered Sicily to Rome, and three years later Rome seized the large islands of Cor­ sica and Sardinia, west of Italy, from a weakened Carthage. Livy THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: THE THREAT FROM HANNIBAL Carthaginian expansion in Spain led to the Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.). The Carthaginian army was led by Hannibal (247-183 B.C.), whose military genius im­ pressed and frightened Rome. Hannibal brought the battle to Rome by leading his seasoned army, including war elephants, across the Alps into Italy. Hannibal demonstrated his superb generalship at the battle of Cannae in 216 B.C., where the Carthaginians destroyed a Roman army of sixty thousand. Hanni­ bal removed some ofhis soldiers in the center and commanded the thin line to re­ treat as the Romans charged. Believing that the enemy was on the run, the Romans continued their headlong thrust into the Carthaginian center. Then, ac­ cording to plan, Carthaginian troops stationed on the wings attacked the Roman flanks and the cavalry closed in on the Roman rear, completely encircling the Ro­ man troops. News of the disaster, one of the worst in the Republic's history, brought anguish to Romans, who feared that Hannibal would march on the cap­ ital itself.