WORLD

Introduction

THE THREE VOLUMES of the Encyclopedia of World experience was more helpful for me in drawing the fu- Poverty contain some 800 original, previously unpub- ture path of my professional career than it was for the lished articles written by over 125 independent or affil- villagers. At the ages of 16 and 17, we just did not have iated scholars. This encyclopedia is intended for the use enough physical power, or the necessary equipment, to as an authoritative and rigorous source on poverty and complete our projects. related issues. It provides extensive and current infor- It is hard to visualize poverty and the living condi- mation, and insight into the contemporary debate on tions of the poor without personal exposure. Without poverty. It can also be used as a reference to other that encounter, poverty mostly remains a statistic that sources through its cross-references and bibliographies. we are lucky not to be part of, and dealing with the cor- It is a timely project; the year 2005 is marked by a decla- responding human condition is then usually left to ration of concern with poverty by world leaders at the those with the willingness and imagination to think G-8 summit and at the World Economic Forum. In a about it. Poverty is anything but a statistic, and not all time when public attention is directed to poverty, the aspects of it are quantifiable. As the 1998 Nobel Prize Encyclopedia of World Poverty can be an indispensable Laureate in Economics Amartya Sen has eloquently source for all students of poverty. elaborated, poverty is more than just lack of income, Personally, my first encounter with poverty was even though this is an important factor. during a summer break in the 1960s as a high-school Poverty is deprivation from basic capabilities, student in Turkey, in a village in mid-Anatolia. A group rights, and freedoms that provide individuals the neces- of us had volunteered to go to the village to build a sary choices and opportunities they need to lead a life sewer system and repair the run-down school building. they value. Income is a necessary part of life, but alone There was no water, no electricity, no gas, no teachers, it is not sufficient. Unless it is coupled with social, po- and no doctors. The local economy at best could be de- litical, and economic freedoms, it does not suffice to en- scribed as a non-monetized village barter economy hance individual capabilities. In this respect, income is without much even to barter. Most villagers worked for not an end itself but just one of the means to healthy a bare minimum as sharecroppers. Unfortunately the life, to education, and to participation in the surround-

vii viii Introduction ing political, cultural, and economic life. It is important lated deaths significantly. Tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS to take poverty out of the narrow context of income. are other diseases with a high death toll. In 2001, tuber- Otherwise poverty would be an issue only in develop- culosis claimed 196 lives per 100,000 people in Niger. ing countries and not in affluent, industrial countries, The HIV prevalence estimate runs a high range, 0.7-2.3 where even many of the poor have an income higher percent of the 15-49 age group. The probability at birth than most in the world. of not surviving to age 40 is 39 percent. In this measure, I do not mean to say that statistics related to Niger compares favorably to Lesotho, where the proba- poverty do not matter. They help us to frame the mag- bility of not surviving is 68.1 percent. Just these few sta- nitude of the problem. According to the latest official tistics are enough to give an idea about the level of data, about 1.2 billion people currently live in extreme destitution in these countries. poverty, defined as living on less than $1 a day at Pur- The poor in affluent societies face similar measures chasing Power Parity (PPP). If we raise the threshold in- of destitution, even though its magnitude is signifi- come to $2 a day (PPP), the number rises to 2.5 billion. cantly less. The United States, the highest per capita in- Of course, the geographical distribution of poverty is come country in the world, is ranked 17th according to not even. Over one billion of the extreme poor live in the . Over 13 percent of the pop- South Asia (488 million or 42 percent), in Sub-Saharan ulation lives below the poverty income threshold of Africa (315 million or 27 percent), and in East Asia and $11 a day, a threshold more than 10 times that of devel- the Pacific (279 million or 24 percent). The incidence of oping countries. The under-five and overall child mor- extreme poverty differs among countries. In Ethiopia tality rates are 8 and 7 percent, respectively. The and in Uganda, plagued by internal strife, it is 82 per- maternal mortality ratio is 12 percent. About 10 per- cent; in oil-rich Nigeria, it is 70.2 percent; while in Tan- cent of one-year-olds are not immunized against zania, Kenya, and Senegal, the corresponding figure is measles. The probability at birth of not surviving to age significantly less, 20, 23, and 26 percent respectively. 60 is 12.6 percent. Over 20 percent of the age group 16- The discouraging aspect of the overall poverty data 65 lack functional literacy. The data clearly reflect the is that in the 1990s, which is promoted as an era of sus- fact that a certain low-income group is not sharing the tained economic growth and prosperity, income economic growth and the affluence enjoyed by most in poverty increased in 37 of the 67 countries for which the United States. These findings can easily be extended longitudinal data is available. These countries are to other industrial countries as well. mostly located in Central and Eastern Europe. In other The poor in developing and industrial countries countries, mostly in East and Southern Asia and few in share similar characteristics. Unmistakably, women, Latin America (for instance Brazil and Chile), however, children, the elderly, racial and ethnic minorities, those poverty has significantly decreased. At this juncture, it in rural areas, urban unemployed and slum-dwellers is worth mentioning that official poverty rates based on make up the bulk of the poor. They constitute a socially threshold income measures tend to underestimate the and economically vulnerable group subject to Sen’s actual extent of poverty. Is there any reason to believe “unfreedoms” that worsen their destitution by limiting that a person who makes $1.10 a day (PPP) is not living their opportunities to break through the walls of in poverty? poverty surrounding them. An additional complication In spite of its shortcomings, income poverty gives of this gender, age, and race composition is that these an idea about the extent of the destitution of the poor. are those groups with the least potential to access mar- Malnutrition, hunger and starvation; HIV/AIDS, tuber- kets and therefore their poverty becomes a long-term culosis, malaria, and other life-threatening diseases; phenomenon. high child and maternal mortality, high illiteracy, and In the Encyclopedia of World Poverty, 191 country en- lack of basic needs are all concentrated in poverty- tries provide current vital statistics on poverty—on its stricken countries. In Niger in sub-Saharan Africa, one composition and characteristics, on mortality, disease, of the poorest countries in the world if not the poorest, literacy and illiteracy. These articles also incorporate in- 36 percent of the population is undernourished, the formation on geographic, political, social, cultural, and under-five mortality rate per 1,000 live births is 265, the other economic characteristics of each country. Each maternal mortality ratio per 100,000 live births is 1,100, country’s ranking according to the Human Develop- and about 2,000 children per 100,000 die because of ment Index and the Human Poverty Index, whenever malaria. Only one percent of children benefit from the available, is listed as well. The Human Development insecticide-treated bed nets that could cut malaria-re- Index combines life expectancy, education, and ad- Introduction ix justed income into an indicator of overall human devel- tential suspect contributing a fair share. Hence, the en- opment. The content of the Human Poverty Index de- tries emphasize the importance of all economic, social, pends on whether it is being used for developing or for and political aspects of poverty. affluent industrial countries. For the former group, it Vulnerability, insecurity, powerlessness, social ex- combines life expectancy, education, nutrition, and ac- clusion and disqualification, and stigmatization are cess to water and health services. For the latter group, among the more than two-dozen articles in the encyclo- the access to water and health is replaced by long-term pedia on the potential effects of poverty. Some of these unemployment. Even though these are by no means effects are quantifiable but some are not. To some de- perfect or comprehensive indices, they attempt to over- gree we can measure the crime rate and environmental come the difficulty of quantifying human development degradation associated with poverty, but it is almost im- and poverty, both of which do not lend themselves eas- possible to measure the stigmatization and powerless- ily to quantification. There are 78 entries in the encyclo- ness a poor person feels. We can somehow measure the pedia dealing with the various definitions and output loss associated with poverty, and the cost of wel- measurement techniques of poverty. Absolute versus fare programs associated with poverty, but we can relative poverty, the headcount index of poverty versus hardly quantify a feeling of self-worthlessness and inse- the relative-income based measure of poverty, and vari- curity. A thorough understanding of these tangible and ous others measures inevitably yield different results re- intangible effects is necessary for the reader to realize garding poverty rates. These are important technical that combating poverty would not only benefit the issues in that they ultimately affect public policy deci- poor but society as a whole. sions geared to combating poverty. Understanding the difficulties associated with the Information on the causes of poverty is equally im- definition and measurement of poverty, along with its portant for public policy purposes. The level of poverty causes and effects, is essential for the conceptualization and changes in it can be an economic phenomenon, for of poverty. The design and prioritization of anti- instance the result of a recession. If so, it may be of poverty policies depend heavily on how poverty is con- temporary nature and is likely to disappear with an im- ceptualized. A successful fight against poverty calls for proving economy. In this case the policy choice would engagement from governments, civil society organiza- be very different than when poverty is more permanent tions, and individual people, to improve the coordina- and is caused by structural factors. It could be the result tion, collaboration, and implementation of of historical, cultural, or social factors, such as colonial- anti-poverty policies. There is evidence that in countries ism, international economic relations, or apartheid. In where local organizations and people assumed the own- these cases, different policies to combat poverty are ership of anti-poverty programs, success has been sig- called for. Inequality in the distribution of income and nificantly higher. Civil Society Organizations, Secular wealth tops the list of long-term causes of poverty. Charities, Religious Charities, and Non-Governmental If a disproportionately large share of total income Organizations are therefore important players in the generated in the economy is held by a relatively small fight against poverty, and the encyclopedia acknowl- group of people or households, the share of the re- edges their importance by allocating over 150 articles to maining people or households is inevitably limited. In- them. equality also can deepen poverty by perpetuating it. The political environment also plays an indispensa- The pattern of income and wealth distribution deter- ble role in the effectiveness and success of the anti- mines the pattern of consumption and production in poverty policies and programs. Their importance is the economy. Consumption preferences of high-income captured by over 20 in-depth analytical entries. Without groups are such that they favor luxurious consumption the engagement of these organizations and institutions, goods, which are produced using relatively more capital- eradication of poverty and human development might intensive techniques. well be impossible. A notable example of the impor- Hence, increases in their production do not neces- tance of civil society organizations and grassroots sarily reduce unemployment. This encyclopedia distin- movements is the recent revival of interest in poverty guishes among 25 different potential causes of poverty, and its eradication by the political leaders of industrial ranging from discrimination to climate factors, such as countries; these organizations have been instrumental draught and famine. In-depth analyses show that, in in both bringing the urgency of poverty to the attention general, no one single factor causes poverty. It is usually of world leaders and also forcing them to commit them- like the movie Murder on the Orient Express, each po- selves to its eradication. x Introduction

Conventional fiscal, monetary, and industrial poli- goals included universal education, gender equality, re- cies, especially in developing countries, have either duction in child mortality by two-thirds by 2015, im- completely failed or have been of limited success in provement in maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS combating poverty. Structural rigidities in the economy, and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainabil- political factors, and the inadequacy of the policies ity, and finally halving the number of people without themselves have contributed to their failure to meet access to safe water. The financial resources needed for their objectives. One of the important factors that un- these ambitious goals, however, proved to be enormous derline poverty is asset distribution in an economy. and industrial countries as a whole failed to allocate the Members of high-income groups rarely derive their in- funds required for the project. Five years later, at the come as labor income; their income is derived from 2005 G-8 Summit in Gleneagles in , leaders re- asset ownership. Since labor is a relatively abundant fac- newed their commitment to fight extreme poverty in tor of production, return to labor relative to capital is Africa with a promise of debt relief and economic and relatively low. humanitarian assistance. The fine print, however, in- Under these circumstances growth increases the in- cludes conditions for such assistance, with an emphasis come gap between owners of labor and capital, increas- on trade liberalization. ing income inequality and deepening poverty. Asset Economic liberalization and globalization have been redistribution is then a necessary component of a full- promoted by some as a panacea to poverty. Economic fledged anti-poverty program. This is one of the main growth achieved through liberalization and trade is sup- difficulties with anti-poverty programs: how the elite posed to trickle down to low-income groups by creating can be convinced to support the redistribution of as- employment in areas where each country has a compar- sets, existing or newly created, as the growth with redis- ative advantage. Others regard globalization and liberal- tribution advocates claim. The literature on ization as having contributed to poverty, as a result of anti-poverty programs is cluttered with such propos- outsourcing, off-shoring, and labor market liberaliza- als—intellectually appealing but in practice impossible tion that has marginalized labor, especially the low skill, to implement successfully. Numerous entries in the en- low wage workers. cyclopedia cover public policy issues related to poverty. Most likely, in some countries globalization and lib- Limited resources, existing economic rigidities, and eralization have been positive forces, but not in all. political bottlenecks have been reasons for developing Thus relying on liberalization and globalization as a countries to expect help from industrial countries. The one-size-fits-all-policy in combating poverty might not industrial world, on the other hand, has traditionally be that desirable. Most likely the different conditions in been reluctant to provide that help. The G-8 Summits each country call for different anti-poverty policy ap- and World Economic Forums have frequently dis- proaches. A common denominator in the successful cussed targeting global poverty and helping very poor fight against poverty, however, involves unconditional nations, especially those in Africa, but they have been commitment to political and economic democracy, to reluctant to commit the financial resources to back good governance, to transparency and accountability. their promises. At the turn of the new millennium, the highly publicized Millennium Development Goals tar- M. ODEKON geted global poverty, aiming to halve it by 2015. Other SKIDMORE COLLEGE WORLD POVERTY

Reader’s Guide

THIS LIST IS provided to assist readers in locating arti- Food Resource Bank cle entries on related topics. Habitat for Humanity Haig Fund Antipoverty Organizations Hull House African Development Foundation Institute for Peace and Justice American Friends Service Committee Institute for Research on Poverty Anti-Defamation League Institute for the Study of Homelessness and Poverty Better Safer World Institute on Race and Poverty Big Brothers Big Sisters International Food Policy Research Institute Campus Compact International Labor Organization CARE International Monetary Fund Center for Democratic Renewal International Nongovernmental Organizations Center for the Study of Urban Poverty International Service Agencies Center on Budget and Policies Priorities Lawyers Without Borders Center on Hunger and Poverty Médecins Sans Frontières Charity Organization Society National Alliance to End Homelessness Comic Relief National Association for the Advancement of Cuerneveca Center Colored People Development Gateway National Campaign for Jobs and Income Support Employment Policies Institute National Coalition for the Homeless Engineers Without Borders National Coalition of Barrios Unidos Feinstein Foundation National Coalition on Health Care Food First National Conference for Community and Justice Food for the Hungry National Low Income Housing Coalition Food Research and Action Center National Poverty Center

xi xii Reader’s Guide

New Partnership for Africa’s Development Equatorial Guinea Nongovernmental Organizations Eritrea Salvation Army Ethiopia Second Harvest Gabon Students against Sweatshops Gambia UNICEF Ghana United For a Fair Economy Guinea Voluntary Services Overseas Guinea-Bissau World Bank Kenya World Health Organization Lesotho World Trade Organization Liberia Madagascar Children and Poverty Malawi CDF Black Community Crusade for Children Mali Child Malnutrition Mauritania Child Mortality Mauritius Child Relief & You Morocco Child League of America Mozambique ChildLine Namibia Children and Poverty Niger Children’s Defense Fund Nigeria Children’s Hunger Relief Rwanda Children’s Aid Society Sao Tome and Principe Church of England Children’s Fund Senegal Ecumenical Child Care Network Sierra Leone Education Somalia National Association for the Education South Africa of Young Children Sudan National Education Association Swaziland National Fatherhood Initiative Tanzania Nutrition Togo Street Children Tunisia Uganda Countries: Africa Zambia Algeria Zimbabwe Angola Benin Countries: Americas Botswana Antigua and Barbuda Brunei Darussalam Argentina Burkina Faso Bahamas Burundi Barbados Cameroon Belize Cape Verde Bolivia Central African Republic Brazil Chad Canada Comoros Chile Congo Colombia Congo, Democratic Republic Costa Rica Côte d’Ivoire Cuba Djibouti Dominica Egypt Dominican Republic Reader’s Guide xiii

Ecuador Nepal El Salvador Oman Grenada Pakistan Guatemala Palestine Guyana Philippines Haiti Qatar Honduras Russia Jamaica Saudi Arabia Mexico Seychelles Nicaragua Singapore Panama Sri Lanka Paraguay Syria Peru Tajikistan Saint Kitts and Nevis Thailand Saint Lucia Turkey Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Turkmenistan Suriname Ukraine Trinidad and Tobago United Arab Emirates United States Uzbekistan Uruguay Vietnam Venezuela Yemen

Countries: Asia Countries: Europe Afghanistan Albania Azerbaijan Andorra Bahrain Armenia Bangladesh Austria Bhutan Belarus Cambodia Belgium China Bosnia and Herzegovina East Timor Bulgaria Georgia Croatia Cyprus Indonesia Czech Republic Iran Denmark Iraq Estonia Israel Finland Japan France Jordan Germany Kazakhstan Greece Korea, North Hungary Korea, South Iceland Kuwait Ireland Kyrgyzstan Italy Laos Latvia Lebanon Liechtenstein Malaysia Lithuania Maldives Luxembourg Moldova Macedonia FYROM Mongolia Malta Myanmar Monaco xiv Reader’s Guide

Netherlands Privatization Norway Recession Poland Unemployment Portugal Romania Economics of Poverty San Marino Agriculture Serbia and Montenegro Agriculture-Nutrition Advantage Slovakia Area Deprivation Slovenia Bankruptcy Spain Basic Income Sweden Basic Needs Switzerland Basic Security United Kingdom Capitalism Civic Society Countries: Pacific Class Analysis of Poverty Australia Class Structure Fiji Communism Kiribati Cost of Living Marshall Islands Credit Micronesia Debt Nauru Debt Relief New Zealand Debt Swap Palau Dependency School Papua New Guinea Deprivation Samoa Destitution Solomon Islands Disability Insurance Tonga Distribution Tuvalu Drought Vanuatu Economic Distance Economic Growth Causes of Poverty Employment Age Discrimination Employment Theory Apartheid Environmental Degradation Bankruptcy Equity and Efficiency Trade-off Class Structure Equivalence Scales Colonialism Family Budgets Conflict Famine Corruption Financial Markets Drought Fiscal Policy Economic Liberalization Food Shortages Feudalism Foreign Direct Investment Fraud Free Trade Agreement of Americas Gender Discrimination Fuel Poverty Globalization Globalization Imperialism Household Consumption Income Inequality Household Employment Industrial Revolution Household Income Inflation Human Capital Irish Famine Human Development Neoliberalism Income Outsourcing/Offshoring Income Distribution Theories Reader’s Guide xv

Income Inequality Economic Insecurity Income Poverty Environmental Degradation Inflation Exclusion International Trade Exploitation Intra-Household Transfers Family Desertion Labor Market HIV/AIDS Laissez-Faire Homelessness Lumpenproletariat Malnutrition Macroeconomic Policies Nonworking Poor Macroeconomics Rural Deprivation Market Efficiency Social Disqualification Microeconomics Monetary Policy Social Inequality Myrdal’s Theory of Cumulative Causation Social Insecurity Needs Starvation Neoclassical Thought Stigmatization Non-Income Poverty Structural Dependency North American Free Trade Agreement Underclass OECD Countries Vulnerability Outsourcing/Offshoring Welfare Dependence Pension Programs Physiocrats Measurements and Definitions of Poverty Planning Absolute-Income-Based Measures of Poverty Poverty Trap Arab Definition of Poverty Primary Poverty Australian Definition of Poverty Privatization Axiom of Monotonicity and Axiom of Transfers Public Goods Beveridge Scheme Public Policy Brazilian Definition of Poverty Recession Bureau of Labor Statistics Redistribution Capability Measure of Poverty Chinese Definition of Poverty Rural Deprivation Comparative Research Program on Poverty Scarcity Consumption-Based Measures of Poverty Social Democracy Contextual Poverty Socialism Cost-of-Living-Based Measures of Poverty Stabilization Cyclical Poverty Structural Dependency Decomposable Poverty Measures Structuralist School Definitions of Poverty Supply-Side Economics Demographics Wage Slavery Dependency Ratio Wages Deprivation Index War and Poverty Direct and Indirect Measures of Poverty Water Duration of Poverty Welfare State Economic Definitions of Poverty Economic Insufficiency Effects of Poverty Endemic Poverty Crime Engel Coefficient Deprivation European Relative-Income Standard of Poverty Destitution European Union Definition of Poverty Disease Extended Poverty Minimum Economic Distance Extreme Poverty xvi Reader’s Guide

Food-Ratio Poverty Line Adams, John Quincy (Administration) Foster, Greer, and Thorbecke Index Almshouses Ancient Thought Headcount Index Apartheid Human Poverty Index Arthur, Chester (Administration) Buchanan, James (Administration) Indicators of Poverty Bush, George H.W. (Administration) Joint Center for Poverty Research Bush, George W. (Administration) Living-Standards Measurement Study Carter, Jimmy (Administration) Luxembourg Employment Study Cleveland, Grover (Administration) Luxembourg Income Study Clinton, William (Administration) Mapping Poverty Cold War Means-Testing Colonialism National Research Council Coolidge, Calvin (Administration) Normative Standards Depression, Great Overall Poverty Eisenhower, Dwight (Administration) Peripheral Poverty Fabian Society Permanent (Collective) Poverty Feudalism Poverty Assessment Fillmore, Millard (Administration) Poverty Clock Ford, Gerald (Administration) Poverty Gap French Revolution Garfield, James (Administration) Poverty Rate Grant, Ulysses (Administration) Poverty Research Harding, Warren (Administration) Harrison, Benjamin (Administration) Relative-Income Based Measures of Poverty Harrison, William (Administration) Relative Welfare Index Hayes, Rutherford (Administration) Research Center Hoover, Herbert (Administration) Scientific Definitions of Poverty Imperialism Secondary Poverty Industrial Revolution Sen Index Industrialization Sen-Shorrocks-Thon Index Irish Famine Speenhamland System Jackson, Andrew (Administration) Squared Poverty Gap Index Jefferson, Thomas (Administration) Standard Food Basket Johnson, Andrew (Administration) Standard Food Basket Variant Johnson, Lyndon (Administration) Standard of Living Kennedy, John F. (Administration) Subjective Measures of Poverty Les Miserables TIP Curves Lincoln, Abraham (Administration) Totally Fuzzy and Relative (TFR) Poverty Measures Madison, James (Administration) Traumatic Poverty McKinley, William (Administration) UBN-PL Method Medieval Thought Ultimate Poverty Mercantilism University of Kentucky Center for Poverty Research Monroe, James (Administration) USDA Poverty Line Nixon, Richard (Administration) Voluntary Poverty Pierce, Franklin (Administration) Working Poor Polk, James (Administration) World Bank Poverty Lines Poor Laws Reagan, Ronald (Administration) History of Poverty Roosevelt, Franklin (Administration) Adams, John (Administration) Roosevelt, Theodore (Administration) Reader’s Guide xvii

Taft, William Howard (Administration) Rawls, John Taylor, Zachary (Administration) Ricardo, David Truman, Harry (Administration) Sen, Amartya Tyler, John (Administration) Smith, Adam Utopian Socialists Thompson, T. Phillips Van Buren, Martin (Administration) Wallerstein, Immanuel War on Poverty Weber, Max Washington, George (Administration) Wilson, Woodrow (Administration) Politics and Poverty World War I Democratic Party World War II Economic Dependence Economic Inequality People Economic Insecurity Aquinas, Thomas Economic Liberalization Bellamy, Edward Educational Vouchers Black, Hugo L. Entitlement Brandeis, Louis D. Equality Bryan, William Jennings Exclusion Calvin, John Exploitation Carnegie, Andrew Foreign Aid Coughlin, Charles Fourth World De Soto, Hernando G-8 Donnelly, Ignatius Neoliberalism Engels, Friedrich Republican Party Evans, George Henry Selectivity Foucault, Michel Senate Hunger Caucus Francis of Assisi Third Way Frank, Andre Gunder Third World Franklin, Benjamin Wants Friedman, Milton World Economic Forum Galbraith, John Kenneth Gandhi, Mahatma Poverty Relief Initiatives George, Henry Access-to-Enterprise Zones Giddens, Anthony Adjustment Programs Gilder, George Aid to Families with Dependent Children Greeley, Horace Asset-Based Antipoverty Programs Heilbronner, Robert Congressional Hunger Center Harrington, Michael Earned Income Tax Credit Hobbes, Thomas Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Hobson, John Federal Targeted Training Lewis, Arthur Food Stamps Locke, John G-8 Africa Action Plan Luxemburg, Rosa Global Development Initiative Malthus, Thomas Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria Marshall, Alfred Great Society Programs Marx, Karl Guaranteed Assistance (GA) Mill, John Stuart Head Start Mother Theresa Heifer Project Owen, Robert Help the Aged Polanyi, Karl Housing Assistance Prebish, Raul Inter-American Development Bank xviii Reader’s Guide

International Development Cooperation Forum Goodwill Industries Libyan Arab Jamahiriya International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Living Wage Campaign Jesuits Low-Income Cut-Offs Jubilee 2000 Means-Tested Government Antipoverty Programs Judaism and Poverty Medicaid Living Waters for the World Medicare March of Dimes Microcredit Mendicant Orders Millennium Development Goals Milwaukee New Hope Program Minimum Wage Missionaries Pro-Poor Growth National Interfaith Committee for Worker Justice Rationing Oxfam Regulation Partnership to Cut Hunger in Africa Rural Antipoverty Programs Polish Humanitarian Organization Social Assistance Presbyterian Hunger Program Supplemental Security Income Protestant Churches Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Rebuilding Together UNDP Regional Project for Overcoming Poverty Roy Wilkins Center Unemployment Insurance Samaritans United Nations Development Program Save the Children Fund Urban Anti-Poverty Programs Share Our Strength Wealth Tax Society of Saint Vincent de Paul Workers’ Compensation Southern Christian Leadership Conference Workfare United Methodist Church Initiatives Work-Welfare Programs United Methodist Committee on Relief United Way Religious and Secular Charities World Concern Africa Faith and Justice Network World Food Program Brotherhood of St. Laurence YMCA and YWCA Catholic Campaign for Human Development Christian Antipoverty Campaigns Women and Poverty Christian Community Health Fellowship Family Desertion Christmas Seals Family Size and Structure Church World Services Family Violence Prevention Fund Community-Based Antipoverty Programs Feminist Approaches to Poverty Damascus Road Easter Seals Gender Discrimination Evangelicals for Social Action Gender Division of Labor Faith-Based Antipoverty Programs Maternal Mortality and Morbidity FaithTrust Institute National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy Franciscan Order Women and Poverty