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Principles of Horticulture This page intentionally left blank Principles of Horticulture Fifth edition C.R. Adams, K.M. Bamford and M.P. Early AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK 30 Corporate Drive, Suit 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA First published 1984 Reprinted 1985, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992 Second edition 1993 Third edition 1998 Reprinted 1999 Fourth edition 2004 Fifth edition 2008 Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (ϩ 44) (0) 1865 843830; fax ( ϩ 44) (0) 1865 853333; email: [email protected]. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-7506-8694-5 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our web site at http://www.elsevierdirect.com Typeset by Charon Tec Ltd., A Macmillan Company (www.macmillansolutions.com) Printed and bound in Slovenia 08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Preface vii Acknowledgements xi Chapter 1 Horticulture in context 1 Chapter 2 Climate and microclimate 25 Chapter 3 Environment and ecology 45 Chapter 4 Classification and naming 63 Chapter 5 External characteristics of the plant 77 Chapter 6 Plant cells and tissues 87 Chapter 7 Plant reproduction 99 Chapter 8 Plant growth 109 Chapter 9 Transport in the plant 121 Chapter 10 Pollination and fertilization 133 Chapter 11 Plant development 149 Chapter 12 Plant propagation 165 Chapter 13 Weeds 181 Chapter 14 Horticultural pests 197 Chapter 15 Horticultural diseases and disorders 233 Chapter 16 Plant protection 263 Chapter 17 Physical properties of soil 295 Chapter 18 Soil organic matter 319 Chapter 19 Soil water 337 Chapter 20 Soil pH 355 Chapter 21 Plant nutrition 365 Chapter 22 Alternatives to growing in the soil 383 Index 401 This page intentionally left blank Preface By studying the principles of horticulture, one is able to learn how and why plants grow and develop. In this way, horticulturists are better able to understand the responses of the plant to various conditions, and therefore to perform their function more effi ciently. They are able to manipulate the plant so that they achieve their own particular requirements of maximum yield and/or quality at the correct time. The text therefore introduces the plant in its own right, and explains how a correct naming method is vital for distinguishing one plant from another. The internal structure of the plant is studied in relation to the functions performed in order that we can understand why the plant takes it particular form. The environment of a plant contains many variable factors, all of which have their effects, and some of which can dramatically modify growth and development. It is therefore important to distinguish the effects of these factors in order to have precise control of growth. The environment which surrounds the parts of the plant above the ground includes factors such as light, day-length, temperature, carbon dioxide and oxygen, and all of these must ideally be provided in the correct proportions to achieve the type of growth and development required. The growing medium is the means of providing nutrients, water, air and usually anchorage for the plants. In the wild, a plant will interact with other plants, often to different species and other organisms to create a balanced community. Ecology is the study of this balance. In growing plants for our own ends we have created a new type of community which creates problems – problems of competition for the environmental factors between one plant and another of the same species, between the crop plant and a weed, or between the plant and a pest or disease organism. These latter two competitive aspects create the need for crop protection . It is only by identifi cation of these competitive organisms (weeds, pests and diseases) that the horticulturist may select the correct method of control. With the larger pests there is little problem of recognition, but the smaller insects, mites, nematodes, fungi and bacteria are invisible to the naked eye and, in this situation, the grower must rely on the symptoms produced (type of damage). For this reason, the pests are covered under major headings of the organism, whereas the diseases are described under symptoms. vii viii Preface Symptoms (other than those caused by an organism) such as frost damage, herbicide damage and mineral defi ciencies may be confused with pest or disease damage, and reference is made in the text to this problem. Weeds are broadly identifi ed as perennial or annual problems. References at the end of each chapter encourage students to expand their knowledge of symptoms. In an understanding of crop protection, the structure and life cycle of the organism must be emphasized in order that specifi c measures, e.g. chemical control, may be used at the correct time and place to avoid complications such as phytotoxicity, resistant pest production or death of benefi cial organisms. For this reason, each weed, pest and disease is described in such a way that control measures follow logically from an understanding of its biology. More detailed explanations of specifi c types of control, such as biological control, are contained in a separate chapter where concepts such as economic damage are discussed. This book is not intended to be a reference source of weeds, pests and diseases; its aim is to show the range of these organisms in horticulture. References are given to texts which cover symptoms and life cycle stages of a wider range of organisms. Latin names of species are included in order that confusion about the varied common names may be avoided. Growing media include soils and soil substitutes such as composts, aggregate culture and nutrient fi lm technique. Usually the plant’s water and mineral requirements are taken up from the growing medium by roots. Active roots need a supply of oxygen, and therefore the root environment must be managed to include aeration as well as to supply water and minerals. The growing medium must also provide anchorage and stability, to avoid soils that ‘ blow ’ , trees that uproot in shallow soils or tall pot plants that topple in lightweight composts. The components of the soil are described to enable satisfactory root environments to be produced and maintained where practicable. Soil conditions are modifi ed by cultivations, irrigation, drainage and liming, while fertilizers are used to adjust the nutrient status to achieve the type of growth required. The use of soil substitutes, and the management of plants grown in pots, troughs, peat bags and other containers where there is a restricted rooting zone, are also discussed in the fi nal chapter. The importance of the plant’s aerial environment is given due consideration as a background to growing all plants notably their microclimate , its measurement and methods of modifying it. This is put in context by the inclusion of a full discussion of the climate , the underlying factors that drive the weather systems and the nature of local climates in the British Isles. There has been an expansion of the genetics section to accommodate the need for more details especially with regard to genetic modifi cation (GM) to refl ect the interest in this topic in the industry. The changes in the classifi cation system have been accommodated and the plant Preface ix divisions revised without losing the familiar names of plant groups, such as monocotyledon, in the text. Concerns about biodiversity and the interest in plant conservation are addressed along with more detail on ecology and companion planting. More examples of plant adaptions have been provided and more emphasis has been given to the practical application of plant form in the leisure use of plants. The use of pesticides has been revised in the light of continued regulations about their use. More details have been included on the use of inert growing media such as rockwool . Essential defi nitions have been picked out in tinted boxes alongside appropriate points in the text. Further details of some of the science associated with the principles of growing have been included for those who require more backgound; these topics have been identifi ed by boxing off and tinting in grey. The fi fth edition is in full colour and has been reorganized to align closely with the syllabus of the very popular RHS Certifi cate of Horticulture . To this end, the chapters have been linked directly to the learning outcomes of the modules that cover The Plant, Horticultural Plant Health Problems, the Root Environment and Plant Nutrition. Introductions to Outdoor Food Production, Protected Cultivation, Garden Planning, Horticultural Plant Selection, Establishment and Maintenance have been expanded and a new chapter on Plant Propagation has been added.