Copyright by Sakina Jangbar 2018 The Dissertation Committee for Sakina Jangbar Certifies that this is the approved version of the following Dissertation: Rhetorical Silence: An Emerging Genre Committee: Richard A. Cherwitz, Supervisor Barry S. Brummett Scott R. Stroud Jeffrey S. Walker Rhetorical Silence: An Emerging Genre by Sakina Jangbar Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2018 Dedication To my mom and dad, who prayed for me To my husband, who encouraged me To my children, who inspired me To my professors, who counseled me To my friends, who cheered me Acknowledgements This project has reached fruition with the help of many folks. Foremost, I would like to thank my adviser, Rick Cherwitz, who understood what I wanted to say and helped me say it. I am also grateful for the assistance of my committee members: Barry Brummett, Scott Stroud, and Jeffrey Walker. A special thank you to Ellen Kimball at the Meher Center in Myrtle Beach, SC, for directing me to rich sources for my research on Meher Baba. I am grateful for Peter Marston’s guidance throughout my educational journey. No one could ask for a better mentor and friend. A warm thank you to my parents, who prayed for my success. And, I have nothing but gratitude for my husband and children, who turned my dream into a family project. v Abstract Rhetorical Silence: An Emerging Genre Sakina Jangbar, PhD The University of Texas at Austin, 2018 Supervisor: Richard A. Cherwitz My dissertation asks if a genre of rhetorical silence is emerging in response to message saturation in contemporary societies. I define rhetorical silence as an intentional and strategic use of silence to influence. I analyze three instances of rhetorical silence. Ghazala Khan’s silence at the 2016 Democratic National Convention was an uncodeable and indigestible excess that stalled the production-consumption cycle and caused physiological discomfort in the audience. The discomfort led to a clamor for a spectacle that cured public indigestion but robbed Ghazala of her agency. The students participating in the Day of Silence bookend their silence with speech to contain the meaning of their silence. Since silence does not add to information chaos, it is gaining recognition as a new way to protest in digitalized societies. Meher Baba’s 44-year silence transformed him into a mythical figure. By relying on interpretation rather than documentation, Baba acquired a status outside of time and place. My study found that instances of rhetorical silence share six generic characteristics: (a) Rhetorical silence is employed to oppose norms such as stereotypes of oppressed and empowered women, gender binaries, heterosexuality, and the image of a talking God; (b) Although rhetorical silence challenges norms, it is not adversarial. Instead, it invites reflection; (c) Rhetorical silence subverts the production- vi consumption cycle by creating a human artifact that cannot be packaged and consumed digitally; (d) By engaging the body, rhetorical silence subverts the aesthetics of speed and efficiency on which the digital machine relies; (e) Although silence can be polysemic, the rhetor can contain the meaning by bookending silence with speech; and (f) The form can captivate audiences by evoking a desire to decode the mystery of the silence. My study concludes that a shift is occurring in the available means of persuasion because of the dominance of the digital machine. Rhetorical silence functions at the level of the body, which the machine cannot comprehend. People can be moved by rhetorical silence because it takes a human to listen to silence and because it appeals to the body rather than to its digital twin. vii Table of Contents Table 1: Elements of a Genre…………………………………………….26 Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………..……………………...1 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………….5 Silence as Creative or Destructive........................................................... 6 Silence as a Threat.....................................................................................8 Silence as a Right.....................................................................................10 Possible Meanings of Silence…………………………………………...12 Functions of Silence ……………………………………………………13 Silence as a Political Strategy…………………………………………..16 Silence as Epistemic…………………………………………………….17 Silence as a Rhetorical Art……………………………………………..18 WHY GENRE THEORY?.........................................................................................21 What Is a Genre?.....................................................................................23 The Situation …………………………………………………………...28 Intentions or Motivations ……………………………………………...31 Conventions……………………………………………………………..33 Expectations……………………………………………………………..35 Strategies………………………………………………………………...37 viii Substance………………………………………………………………..38 RHETORICAL SILENCE…………………………………………………………..39 CASE STUDIES……………………………………………………………………41 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ………………………………………………………….42 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTERS ……………………………………………………48 Chapter 2: Ghazala Khan's Silence: From Oppression to Subversion…..50 THE STARS OF THE 2016 DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL CONVENTION……………..53 LAYERS OF MEANING …………………………………………………………...54 THE "I" AND THE OTHERS………………………………………………………57 STYLIZED SUBVERSION………………………………………………………….61 DIFFUSED "YOU"………………………………………………………………..66 UNCODEABLE AND INDIGESTIBLE……………………………………………….70 DISRUPTIVE SILENCE…………………………………………………………....79 Chapter 3: Day of Silence: From Information Overload to Social Change……………………………………………………………………. 81 DAY OF SILENCE………………………………………………………………....84 METHOD………………………………………………………………………....88 WHY SILENCE?......................................................................................................91 Raises Awareness……………………………………………………….92 ix Invites Reflection………………………………………………………..94 Builds Community……………………………………………………...96 Leads to Productive Discomfort……………………………………….97 Provides Space for Listening………………………………………….100 Silence Is a Mode of Speech………………………………………......101 UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES…………………………………………………102 EMESIS OF SIGNS……………………………………………………………….106 NEW RESPONSES IN NEW SITUATIONS………………………………………...109 NONVIOLENCE VS. RHETORICAL SILENCE……………………………………113 Chapter 4: Meher Baba: From Man to Myth…………………………...118 THE TOWER, THE KISS, THE ROCK…………………………………………...122 THE SILENT AVATAR…………………………………………………………..125 AN INTIMATE SILENCE…………………………………………………………128 AWAKENING MANKIND…………………………………...……………………130 INTERPRETATION VS. DOCUMENTATION………………………………………136 FROM MAN TO MYTH………………………………………………………….138 THE PROMISED WORD…………………………………………………………144 MYSTERIOUS SILENCE…………………………………………………………150 x Chapter 5: Rhetorical Silence: An Emerging Genre……………………152 GHAZALA KHAN'S SILENCE: FROM OPPRESSION TO SUBVERSION…………...153 DAY OF SILENCE: FROM INFORMATION OVERLOAD TO SOCIAL CHANGE…...157 MEHER BABA: FROM MAN TO MYTH…………………………………………162 GENERIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RHETORICAL SILENCE……………………..165 Opposes Norms………………………………………………………..165 Invites Reflection………………………………………………………166 Stalls the Production-Consumption Cycle…………………………...166 Subverts the Aesthetics of Speed and Efficiency ……………………168 Bookending Silence with Speech……………………………………..171 The Mystery Factor…………………………………………………...173 LIMITATIONS OF THE GENRE OF RHETORICAL SILENCE……………………..175 The Threat of Violence………………………………………………..175 The Possibility of Erasure……………………………………….........176 Lacks Potential for Escalation………………………………………..177 IMPLICATIONS………………………………………………………………….178 Bibliography……………………………………………………………..183 xi Chapter 1 Introduction The formation of a pearl is a strange process. An irritant enters the oyster, and the oyster keeps its lips sealed. Over time, the irritant is transformed into a pearl, much valued for its perfection and beauty. I was writing my master’s thesis on Heidegger and rhetoric when I first came across the notion of silence as discourse. In Being and Time, Heidegger advances the idea that silence is an essential component of discourse and can promote an in-depth understanding.1 The suggestion that silence is discourse altered my view of rhetorical communication. I realized that words are not the only instruments of persuasion: silence can also persuade. As a rhetorician, I had always endeavored to find the right words to communicate with greater success; however, silence as discourse checked my search for words and switched my focus to silence. As I shifted my attention from spoken and written communication to silence, I discovered that silence shows up in many areas of public discourse. In the spiritual realm, silence is often presented as a tool for greater communion with God. For example, the Trappist monks of the Cistercian Order dedicate their lives to a silent contemplation of Christ’s sacrifice. Quakers (now known as Friends) maintain silence during their group 1 Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson (New York: Harper and Row, 1962). 1 worship meetings. Muslims, when praying alone, recite sacred lines in silence five times a day. Additionally, the embodied state of silence is much revered in Eastern mysticism as a way to connect with a life force that is greater than the individual and to find peace in a chaotic world. For example, Zen masters train their students in awareness through meditation, and Meher Baba, an Indian mystic, stayed silent for forty-four years to raise awareness of God. In addition