For other uses, see Bismarck (disambiguation). port, against the advice of his wife and his heir. While ’s parliament was elected by universal male suf- frage, it did not have real control of the government. Bis- Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg (1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898), known as marck distrusted democracy and ruled through a strong, well-trained bureaucracy with power in the hands of a tra- Otto von Bismarck, was a conservative Prussian states- man who dominated German and European affairs from ditional elite that comprised the landed nobility of the 1860s until 1890. In the 1860s he engineered a se- the east. Under Wilhelm I, Bismarck largely controlled ries of wars that unified the German states (excluding domestic and foreign affairs, until he was removed by Austria) into a powerful under Prussian young Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890. leadership. With that accomplished by 1871 he skillfully Bismarck, an aristocratic Junker himself, had an ex- used balance of power diplomacy to preserve German tremely aggressive and domineering personality. He dis- hegemony in a Europe which, despite many disputes and played a violent temper and kept his power by threat- war scares, remained at peace. For historian Eric Hobs- ening to resign time and again. He possessed not only bawm, it was Bismarck, who “remained undisputed world a long-term national and international vision, but also champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for the short-term ability to juggle many complex develop- almost twenty years after 1871, [and] devoted himself ex- ments simultaneously. As the leader of what historians clusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between call "revolutionary conservatism",[1] Bismarck became a the powers.”[2] hero to German nationalists; they built hundreds of mon- In 1862 King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Minister uments glorifying the iconic symbol of powerful conser- President of , a post he would hold until 1890 (ex- vative leadership. Historians generally praise him as a cept for a short break in 1873). He provoked three short, statesman of moderation and balance who kept the peace in Europe, and was primarily responsible for the unifi- decisive wars against Denmark, Austria and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia in de- cation of Germany and building its world-renowned bu- reaucracy and army. feating his arch-enemy France. In 1871 he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor, while re- taining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the 1 Early years “Iron Chancellor”. German unification and its rapid eco- nomic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy. Bismarck was born in Schönhausen, a wealthy family es- He disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an overseas tate situated west of in the Prussian province of empire when it was demanded by both elite and mass Saxony. His father, Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bis- opinion. Juggling a very complex interlocking series of marck (1771–1845), was a Junker estate owner and a conferences, negotiations and alliances, he used his un- former Prussian military officer; his mother, Wilhelmine rivaled diplomatic skills to maintain Germany’s position Luise Mencken (1789–1839), was the well-educated and used the balance of power to keep Europe at peace daughter of a senior government official in Berlin. The in the 1870s and 1880s. world saw Bismarck as a typical Prussian Junker—an im- He was the master of complex politics at home. He cre- age which he encouraged by wearing military uniforms. ated the first welfare state in the modern world, with the Bismarck was well educated and cosmopolitan, with a gift goal of gaining working class support that might other- for conversation. In addition to his native German, he was wise go to his Socialist enemies. In the 1870s he allied fluent in English, French, Italian, Polish and Russian.[3] himself with the Liberals (who were low-tariff and anti- Bismarck was educated at Johann Ernst Plamann's ele- Catholic) and fought the Catholic Church in a culture war. mentary school,[4] and the Friedrich-Wilhelm and Graues He lost that battle as the Catholics responded by forming Kloster secondary schools. From 1832 to 1833 he stud- a powerful Center party and using universal male suffrage ied law at the University of Göttingen, where he was to gain a bloc of seats. Bismarck then reversed himself, a member of the Corps Hannovera, and then enrolled ended the culture war, broke with the Liberals, imposed at the University of Berlin (1833–35). In 1838, while tariffs, and formed a political alliance with the Center stationed as an army reservist in Greifswald, he studied party to fight the Socialists. A devout Lutheran, he was agriculture at the University of Greifswald.[1] At Göttin- loyal to his king, who in turn gave Bismarck his full sup- gen, Bismarck became friends with the American student

1 2 2 EARLY POLITICAL CAREER

Bismarck soon adopted his wife’s pietism, and he re- mained a devout Pietist Lutheran for the rest of his life.

2 Early political career

Bismarck at 21, 1836

John Lothrop Motley. Motley, who later became an emi- nent historian and diplomat while remaining close to Bis- marck, wrote a novel in 1839, Morton’s Hope, or the Mem- oirs of a Provincial, about life in a German university. In Bismarck at age 32, 1847 it he described Bismarck as a reckless and dashing eccen- tric, but also as an extremely gifted and charming young [5] In 1847 Bismarck, aged 32, was chosen as a repre- man. sentative to the newly created Prussian legislature, the Although Bismarck hoped to become a diplomat, he Vereinigter Landtag. There, he gained a reputation started his practical training as a lawyer in Aachen and as a royalist and reactionary politician with a gift for Potsdam, and soon resigned, having first placed his ca- stinging rhetoric; he openly advocated the idea that the reer in jeopardy by taking unauthorized leave to pursue monarch had a divine right to rule. His selection was two English girls, first Laura Russell, niece of the Duke arranged by the Gerlach brothers, fellow Pietist Luther- of Cleveland, and then Isabella Loraine-Smith, daughter ans whose ultra-conservative faction was known as the of a wealthy clergyman. He also served in the army for “Kreuzzeitung” after their newspaper, the Neue Preussis- a year and became an officer in the (reserve), che Zeitung, which was so nicknamed because it featured before returning to run the family estates at Schönhausen an on its cover.[6][7] on his mother’s death in his mid-twenties. In March 1848, Prussia faced a revolution (one of the Around age 30 Bismarck had an intense friendship revolutions of 1848 across Europe), which completely with Marie von Thadden, newly married to one of overwhelmed King Frederick William IV. The monarch, his friends. Under her influence, Bismarck became though initially inclined to use armed forces to suppress a Pietist Lutheran, and later recorded that at Marie’s the rebellion, ultimately declined to leave Berlin for the deathbed (from typhoid) he prayed for the first time safety of military headquarters at Potsdam (Bismarck since his childhood. Bismarck married Marie’s cousin, later recorded that there had been a “rattling of sabres in the noblewoman Johanna von Puttkamer (1824–94) at their scabbards” from Prussian officers when they learned Alt-Kolziglow (modern Kołczygłowy) on 28 July 1847. that the King would not suppress the revolution by force). Their long and happy marriage produced three children, He offered numerous concessions to the liberals: he wore Herbert (b. 1849), Wilhelm (b. 1852) and Marie (b. the black-red-and-gold revolutionary colours (as seen on 1847). Johanna was a shy, retiring and deeply religious the flag of today’s Germany), promised to promulgate a woman—although famed for her sharp tongue in later constitution, agreed that Prussia and other German states life—and in his public life Bismarck was sometimes ac- should merge into a single nation-state, and appointed a companied by his sister Malwine “Malle” von Arnim. liberal, Ludolf Camphausen, as Minister President.[8] 3

Bismarck had at first tried to rouse the peasants of his es- vinced that to countervail Austria’s newly restored influ- tate into an army to march on Berlin in the King’s name.[9] ence, Prussia would have to ally herself with other Ger- He travelled to Berlin in disguise to offer his services, man states. As a result, he grew to be more accepting of but was instead told to make himself useful by arrang- the notion of a united German nation. He gradually came ing food supplies for the Army from his estates in case to believe that he and his fellow conservatives had to take they were needed. The King’s brother, Prince Wilhelm the lead in the drive toward creating a unified nation in had fled to England, and Bismarck intrigued with Wil- order to keep from being eclipsed. He also believed that helm’s wife Augusta to place their teenage son Frederick the middle-class liberals wanted a unified Germany more William on the Prussian throne in Frederick William IV’s than they wanted to break the grip of the traditional forces place. Augusta would have none of it, and detested Bis- over society. marck thereafter,[10] despite the fact that he later helped Bismarck also worked to maintain the friendship of restore a working relationship between the King and his Russia and a working relationship with Napoleon III's brother. Bismarck was not yet a member of the Land- France—the latter being anathema to his conservative tag—the lower house of the new Prussian legislature. The friends the Gerlachs,[16] but necessary both to threaten liberal movement perished by the end of 1848 amid in- Austria and to prevent France allying herself to Russia. In ternal fighting. Meanwhile, the conservatives regrouped, a famous letter to Leopold von Gerlach, Bismarck wrote formed an inner group of advisers—including the Ger- that it was foolish to play chess having first put 16 of the lach brothers—known as the "Camarilla"—around the 64 squares out of bounds. This observation was ironic as King, and retook control of Berlin. Although a consti- after 1871, France indeed became Germany’s permanent tution was granted, its provisions fell far short of the de- [11] enemy, and eventually allied with Russia against Ger- mands of the revolutionaries. many in the 1890s.[17] In 1849, Bismarck was elected to the Landtag. At this Bismarck was alarmed by Prussia’s isolation during the stage in his career, he opposed the unification of Ger- Crimean War of the mid-1850s, in which Austria sided many, arguing that Prussia would lose its independence in with Britain and France against Russia; Prussia was al- the process. He accepted his appointment as one of Prus- most not invited to the peace talks in . In the East- sia’s representatives at the Erfurt Parliament, an assembly ern crisis of the 1870s, fear of a repetition of this turn of of German states that met to discuss plans for union, but events would later be a factor in Bismarck’s signing the he only did so to oppose that body’s proposals more ef- Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879. fectively. The parliament failed to bring about unifica- tion, for it lacked the support of the two most important German states, Prussia and Austria. In September 1850, after a dispute over Hesse, (the Hesse Crisis of 1850[12]) 3 Ambassador to Russia and Prussia was humiliated and forced to back down by Aus- tria (supported by Russia) in the so-called Punctation of France Olmütz;[13] a plan for the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership, proposed by Prussia’s Minister Pres- ident Radowitz, was also abandoned. In 1851, Frederick William IV appointed Bismarck as Prussia’s envoy to the Diet of the German Confedera- tion in . Bismarck gave up his elected seat in the Landtag, but was appointed to the Prussian House of Lords a few years later. In Frankfurt he engaged in a battle of wills with the Austrian representative Count Friedrich von Thun und Hohenstein, insisting on being treated as an equal by petty tactics such as insisting on do- ing the same when Thun claimed the privileges of smok- ing and removing his jacket in meetings.[14] This episode was the background for an altercation in the Frankfurt chamber with Georg von Vincke that led to a duel be- tween Bismarck and Vincke and Carl von Bodelschwingh as impartial party, which ended without injury.[15] Bismarck’s eight years in Frankfurt were marked by changes in his political opinions, detailed in the numer- ous lengthy memoranda which he sent to his ministerial superiors in Berlin. No longer under the influence of his ultraconservative Prussian friends, Bismarck became Bismarck with Roon (centre) and Moltke (right), the three leaders less reactionary and more pragmatic. He became con- of Prussia in the 1860s 4 4 MINISTER PRESIDENT OF PRUSSIA

In October 1857, Frederick William IV suffered a paralysing stroke. His brother Wilhelm took over the Prussian government as Regent. Wilhelm was initially seen as a moderate ruler, whose friendship with liberal Britain was symbolised by the recent marriage of his son Frederick William to Queen Victoria's eldest daugh- ter. As part of Wilhelm’s “New Course” he brought in new ministers, moderate conservatives known as the “Wochenblatt” party after their newspaper. Soon the Re- gent replaced Bismarck as envoy in Frankfurt and made him Prussia’s ambassador to the . In the- ory, this was a promotion as Russia was one of Prussia’s two most powerful neighbors. But Bismarck was side- lined from events in Germany, watching impotently as France drove Austria out of Lombardy during the Italian War of 1859. Bismarck proposed that Prussia should exploit Austria’s weakness to move her frontiers “as far south as ” on the Swiss border; instead Prussia mobilised troops in the Rhineland to deter fur- ther French advances into Venetia. As a further snub, the Regent, who scorned Bismarck as a “Landwehrleutnant” (reserve lieutenant), had declined to promote him to the rank of major-general, normal for the ambassador to St Petersburg (and important as Prus- Otto von Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia, shown wear- sia and Russia were close military allies, whose heads ing insignia of a knight of the Johanniterorden of state often communicated through military contacts rather than diplomatic channels). Bismarck stayed in St Petersburg for four years, during which he almost lost in 1862, when the Diet refused to authorize funding for a his leg to botched medical treatment and once again met proposed re-organization of the army. The King’s minis- his future adversary, the Russian Prince Gorchakov, who ters could not convince legislators to pass the budget, and had been the Russian representative in Frankfurt in the the King was unwilling to make concessions. Wilhelm early 1850s. The Regent also appointed Helmuth von threatened to abdicate in favour of his brother Frederick Moltke as the new Chief of Staff of the , William (who opposed it) and believed that Bismarck was and as Minister of War with the job the only politician capable of handling the crisis. How- of reorganizing the army. Over the next 12 years these ever, Wilhelm was ambivalent about appointing a person two and Bismarck transformed Prussia. Bismarck later who demanded unfettered control over foreign affairs. referred to this period as “the most significant of my life.” When, in September 1862, the Abgeordnetenhaus (House Despite his lengthy stay abroad, Bismarck was not en- of Deputies) overwhelmingly rejected the proposed bud- tirely detached from German domestic affairs. He re- get, Wilhelm was persuaded to recall Bismarck to Prussia mained well-informed due to his friendship with Roon, on the advice of Roon. On 23 September 1862, Wilhelm and they formed a lasting political alliance. In May appointed Bismarck Minister President and Foreign Min- 1862, he was sent to Paris, to serve as ambassador to ister.[18] France. He also visited England that summer. These Bismarck, Roon and Moltke took charge at a time visits enabled him to meet and take the measure of sev- when relations among the Great Powers—Great Britain, eral adversaries—Napoleon III in France, and in Britain, France, Austria and Russia—had been shattered by the Prime Minister Palmerston, Foreign Secretary Earl Rus- Crimean War and the Italian War. In the midst of this sell, and Conservative politician Benjamin Disraeli. Dis- disarray, the European balance of power was restructured raeli, who would become Prime Minister in the 1870s, with the creation of the German Empire as the dominant later claimed to have said of Bismarck, “Be careful of power in Europe. This was achieved by Bismarck’s diplo- that man – he means every word he says”. macy, Roon’s reorganization of the army, and Moltke’s military strategy.[19] Despite the initial distrust of the King and Crown Prince, 4 Minister President of Prussia and the loathing of Queen Augusta, Bismarck soon ac- quired a powerful hold over the King by force of person- The regent became King Wilhelm I upon his brother’s ality and powers of persuasion. Bismarck was intent on death in 1861. The new monarch often came into conflict maintaining royal supremacy by ending the budget dead- with the increasingly liberal Prussian Diet. A crisis arose lock in the King’s favour, even if he had to use extralegal 5.2 Defeat of Denmark 5

means to do so. Under the Constitution, the budget could not favorable to a healthy state life. The great only be passed after the king and legislature agreed on questions of the time will not be resolved by its terms, Bismarck contended that since the Constitution speeches and majority decisions—that was the did not provide for cases in which legislators failed to ap- great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron prove a budget, there was a “hole” in the Constitution, and blood.[22] and he could merely apply the previous year’s budget to keep the government running. Thus, on the basis of the 1861 budget, tax collection continued for four years.[20] 5.2 Defeat of Denmark Bismarck’s conflict with the legislators intensified in the coming years. Following the Alvensleben Convention of 1863, the House of Deputies resolved that it could no longer come to terms with Bismarck; in response, the King dissolved the Diet, accusing it of trying to obtain unconstitutional control over the ministry (which, under the Constitution, was responsible solely to the king). Bis- marck then issued an edict restricting the freedom of the press; this policy even gained the public opposition of the Crown Prince. Despite attempts to silence critics, Bis- marck remained a largely unpopular politician. His sup- porters fared poorly in the elections of October 1863, in which a liberal coalition (whose primary member was the Progress Party) won over two-thirds of the seats. The House made repeated calls for Bismarck to be dismissed, but the King supported him as he feared that if he did dis- miss the Minister President, he would likely be succeeded by a liberal.[21]

5 Unification of Germany

Main article: Unification of Germany

5.1 speech Bismarck at 48, 1863

Main article: Blood and Iron speech Germany, prior to the 1860s, consisted of a multitude of principalities loosely bound together as members of the German unification had been a major objective of the . Bismarck used both diplomacy revolutions of 1848, when representatives of the German and the Prussian military to achieve unification, excluding states met in Frankfurt and drafted a constitution creating Austria from a unified Germany. Not only did this make a federal union with a national parliament to be elected Prussia the most powerful and dominant component of by universal male suffrage. In April 1849, the Frankfurt the new Germany, but also ensured that it remained au- Parliament offered the title of Emperor to King Frederick thoritarian, rather than a liberal parliamentary regime.[23] William IV. Fearing the opposition of the other German Bismarck faced a diplomatic crisis when Frederick VII princes and the military intervention of Austria and Rus- of Denmark died in November 1863. Succession to sia, the King renounced this popular mandate. Thus, the the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were disputed; ended in failure for the German lib- they were claimed by Christian IX (Frederick VII’s heir erals. On 30 September 1862, Bismarck made a speech as King) and by Frederick von Augustenburg, a Dan- to the Budget Committee of the Prussian Chamber of ish duke. Prussian public opinion strongly favoured Au- Deputies, in which he expounded on the use of "iron and gustenburg’s claim, as Holstein and blood" to achieve Prussia’s goals: were and still are mostly German-speaking. Bismarck took an unpopular step by insisting that the territories Prussia must concentrate and maintain its legally belonged to the Danish monarch under the London power for the favorable moment which has Protocol signed a decade earlier. Nonetheless, Bis- already slipped by several times. Prussia’s marck denounced Christian’s decision to completely an- boundaries according to the treaties are nex Schleswig to Denmark. With support from Aus- 6 5 tria, he issued an ultimatum for Christian IX to return The war lasted seven weeks—Germans called it a Schleswig to its former status. When Denmark refused, “Blitzkrieg” (“lightning war”—a term also used in Austria and Prussia invaded, commencing the Second 1939).[27] Austria had a seemingly powerful army; it was Schleswig War and Denmark was forced to cede both allied with most of the north German and all of the south duchies. German states. Nevertheless Prussia won the decisive At first this seemed like a victory for Frederick of Au- Battle of Königgrätz. The King and his generals wanted gustenburg, but Bismarck soon removed him from power to push onward, conquer Bohemia and march to Vienna, by making a series of unworkable demands, namely that but Bismarck, worried that Prussian military luck might change or that France might intervene on Austria’s side, Prussia should have control over the army and navy of the Duchies. Originally, it was proposed that the Diet enlisted the help of the Crown Prince (who had opposed the war but had commanded one of the Prussian armies at of the German Confederation (in which all the states of Germany were represented) should determine the fate of Königgrätz) to dissuade his father after stormy meetings. Bismarck insisted on a “soft peace” with no annexations the duchies; but before this scheme could be effected, Bismarck induced Austria to agree to the Gastein Con- and no victory parades, so as to be able to quickly restore friendly relations with Austria.[28] vention. Under this agreement signed 20 August 1865, Prussia received Schleswig, while Austria received Hol- As a result of the (1866), the German stein. In that year he was given the title of (Count) Confederation was dissolved. Prussia annexed Schleswig, von Bismarck-Schönhausen.[24] Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and Nassau. Further, Austria promised not to intervene in German af- fairs. To solidify Prussian hegemony, Prussia forced the 5.3 Defeat of Austria 21 states north of the River Main to join it in forming the North German Confederation in 1867. The confed- eration was governed by a constitution largely drafted by Bismarck. Executive power was vested in a president—a hereditary office of the kings of Prussia. He was assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. As president of the confederation, Wilhelm appointed Bismarck as chan- cellor of the confederation. Legislation was the responsi- bility of the Reichstag, a popularly elected body, and the Bundesrat, an advisory body representing the states. The Bundesrat was, in practice, the stronger chamber. Bis- marck was the dominant figure in the new arrangement; as Foreign Minister of Prussia, he instructed the Prussian deputies to the Bundesrat. Prussia only had a plurality (17 out of 43 seats) in the Bundesrat despite being larger 1867 cartoon making fun of Bismarck’s different roles, from than the other 21 states combined, but Bismarck could general to minister of foreign affairs, federal chancellor, hunter, easily control the proceedings through alliances with the diplomat and president of the parliament. smaller states. This began what historians refer to as “The Misery of Austria”, in which Austria served as a mere In 1866, Austria reneged on the agreement and demanded vassal to the superior Germany, a relationship that was to that the Diet determine the Schleswig–Holstein issue. shape history until the two World Wars. Bismarck had Bismarck used this as an excuse to start a war with originally managed to convince smaller states like Sax- Austria by accusing them of violating the Gastein Con- ony, Hesse-Kassel, and Hanover to join Prussia against vention. Bismarck sent Prussian troops to occupy Hol- Austria, after promising them protection from foreign in- stein. Provoked, Austria called for the aid of other Ger- vasion, morale unity, and fair commercial laws. man states, who quickly became involved in the Austro- Prussian War.[25] Thanks to Roon’s reorganising, the Bismarck, who by now held the rank of major in the Prussian army was nearly equal in numbers to the Aus- Landwehr, wore this uniform during the campaign, and trian army. With the strategic genius of Moltke, the Prus- was at last promoted to the rank of major-general in the sian army fought battles it was able to win. Bismarck Landwehr cavalry after the war. Although he never per- had also made a secret alliance with , who desired sonally commanded troops in the field, he usually wore Austrian-controlled Venetia. Italy’s entry into the war a general’s uniform in public for the rest of his life, as forced the Austrians to divide their forces.[26] seen in numerous paintings and photographs. He was also given a cash grant by the Prussian Landtag, which he used Meanwhile, as the war began, a German radical named to buy a new country estate, Varzin, larger than his exist- Ferdinand Cohen-Blind attempted to assassinate Bis- ing estates combined. marck in Berlin, shooting him five times at close range. Bismarck had only minor injuries; Cohen-Blind commit- Military success brought Bismarck tremendous political ted suicide while in custody. support in Prussia. In the House of Deputies elections 5.4 Franco-Prussian War 1870–71 7 of 1866, the liberals suffered a major defeat, losing their Wilhelm, as head of the House of Hohenzollern, assure large majority. The new, largely conservative House was that no Hohenzollern would ever seek the Spanish crown on much better terms with Bismarck than previous bod- again. To provoke France into declaring war with Prus- ies; at the Minister-President’s request, it retroactively ap- sia, Bismarck published the Ems Dispatch, a carefully proved the budgets of the past four years, which had been edited version of a conversation between King Wilhelm implemented without parliamentary consent. Bismarck and the French ambassador to Prussia, Count Benedetti. suspected it would split the liberal opposition. While This conversation had been edited so that each nation felt some liberals argued that constitutional government was that its ambassador had been disrespected and ridiculed, a bright line that should not be crossed, most of them be- thus inflaming popular sentiment on both sides in favor lieved it would be a waste of time to oppose the bill, and of war. Langer, however, argues that this episode played supported it in hopes of winning more freedom in the fu- a minor role in causing the war.[31] ture. France mobilized and declared war on 19 July. The Ger- man states saw France as the aggressor; swept up by na- tionalism and patriotic zeal, they rallied to Prussia’s side 5.4 Franco-Prussian War 1870–71 and provided troops. Both of Bismarck’s sons served as officers in the Prussian cavalry. The war was a great Main article: Franco-Prussian War success for Prussia as the German army, controlled by Prussia’s victory over Austria increased tensions with Chief of Staff Moltke, won victory after victory. The major battles were all fought in one month (7 August till 1 September), and both French armies were captured at Sedan and Metz, the latter after a siege of some weeks. Napoleon III was taken prisoner at Sedan and kept in Ger- many for a time in case Bismarck had need of him to head the French regime; he later died in exile in England in 1873. The remainder of the war featured a siege of Paris, the city was “ineffectually bombarded";[32] the new French republican regime then tried, without success, to relieve Paris with various hastily assembled armies and increasingly bitter partisan warfare. Bismarck acted immediately to secure the unification of Germany. He negotiated with representatives of the southern German states, offering special concessions if Anton von Werner's depiction of Wilhelm’s proclamation as Em- they agreed to unification. The negotiations succeeded; peror in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles; Bismarck is in the patriotic sentiment overwhelmed what opposition re- centre-right wearing white. mained. While the war was in its final phase Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed on 18 France. Its emperor, Napoleon III, feared that a pow- January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors in the Château de [33] erful Germany would change the balance of power in Eu- Versailles. The new German Empire was a federa- rope; opposition politician Adolphe Thiers had observed, tion: each of its 25 constituent states (kingdoms, grand it was France, not Austria, who was really defeated at duchies, duchies, principalities, and free cities) retained Königgrätz. Bismarck, at the same time, did not avoid some autonomy. The King of Prussia, as German Em- war with France, though he feared the French for a num- peror, was not sovereign over the entirety of Germany; ber of reasons. First, he feared that Austria, hungry for he was only primus inter pares, or first among equals. But revenge, would ally with the French. Similarly, he feared he held the presidency of the Bundesrat, which met to dis- that the Russian army would assist France to maintain a cuss policy presented by the Chancellor (whom the em- balance of power.[29] Still, however, Bismarck believed peror appointed). that if the German states perceived France as the aggres- At the end, France had to surrender Alsace and part of sor, they would unite behind the King of Prussia. To Lorraine, because Moltke and his generals wanted it as achieve this he kept Napoleon III involved in various in- a defensive barrier. Bismarck opposed the annexation trigues whereby France might gain territory from Luxem- because he did not wish to make a permanent enemy of bourg or Belgium—France never achieved any such gain, France. France was also required to pay an indemnity;[34] but it was made to look greedy and untrustworthy.[30] the indemnity figure was calculated, on the basis of pop- A suitable premise for war arose in 1870, when the Ger- ulation, as the precise equivalent of the indemnity which man Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was Napoleon I imposed on Prussia in 1807. offered the Spanish throne, vacant since a revolution in 1868. France pressured Leopold into withdrawing his candidacy. Not content with this, Paris demanded that 8 6 CHANCELLOR OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE

6 Chancellor of the German Em- pire

Between Berlin and , Bismarck (left) confronts the Pope, 1875

reach an understanding with other European governments to manipulate future papal elections; governments should agree beforehand on unsuitable candidates, and then in- struct their national cardinals to vote appropriately. The goal was to end the pope’s control over the bishops in a given state, but the project went nowhere. Bismarck accelerated the Kulturkampf. In its course, all Otto von Bismarck in 1873. Prussian bishops and many priests were imprisoned or exiled.[36] Prussia’s population had greatly expanded in In 1871, Otto von Bismarck was raised to the rank of the 1860s and was now one-third Catholic. Bismarck be- Fürst (Prince). He was also appointed as the first Imperial lieved that the pope and bishops held too much power Chancellor (Reichskanzler) of the German Empire, but over the German Catholics; he was further concerned retained his Prussian offices (including those of Minister- about the emergence of the Catholic Centre Party (or- President and Foreign Minister). He was also promoted ganised in 1870). With support from the anticlerical to the rank of lieutenant-general, and given another coun- National Liberal Party, which had become Bismarck’s try estate, Friedrichsruh, near , which was larger chief ally in the Reichstag, he abolished the Catholic De- than Varzin, making him a very wealthy landowner. He partment of the Prussian Ministry of Culture. That left also continued to serve as his own foreign minister. Be- the Catholics without a voice in high circles. In 1872, cause of both the imperial and the Prussian offices that he the Jesuits were expelled from Germany. More severe held, Bismarck had near complete control over domes- anti-Roman Catholic laws of 1873 allowed the Prussian tic and foreign policy. The office of Minister President government to supervise the education of the Roman of Prussia was temporarily separated from that of Chan- Catholic clergy, and curtailed the disciplinary powers of cellor in 1873, when Albrecht von Roon was appointed the Church. In 1875, civil ceremonies were required to the former office. But by the end of the year, Roon for civil weddings. Hitherto, weddings in churches were resigned due to ill health, and Bismarck again became civilly recognized.[37][38] Minister-President. Kulturkampf became part of Bismarck’s foreign-policy, as he sought to destabilize and weaken Catholic regimes, [39] 6.1 Kulturkampf especially in Belgium and France. The Catholics reacted by organizing themselves; they Bismarck launched an anti-Catholic Kulturkampf (“cul- strengthened the Centre Party. Bismarck, a devout pietis- ture struggle”) in Prussia in 1871. This was partly mo- tic Protestant, was alarmed that secularists and socialists tivated by Bismarck’s fear that Pius IX and his succes- were using the Kulturkampf to attack all religion. He sors would use papal infallibility to achieve the “papal abandoned it in 1878 to preserve his remaining politi- desire for international political hegemony. ... The re- cal capital. He now needed the Centre Party votes in his sult was the Kulturkampf, which, with its largely Prus- new battle against socialism. Pius IX died that year, re- sian measures, complemented by similar actions in sev- placed by the more pragmatic Pope Leo XIII who negoti- eral other German states, sought to curb the clerical dan- ated away most of the anti-Catholic laws. The pope kept ger by legislation restricting the Catholic church’s politi- control of the selection of bishops, and the Catholics sup- cal power.”[35] In May 1872 Bismarck thus attempted to ported unification and most of Bismarck’s policies; how- 6.4 Socialism 9 ever they never forgot his culture war and preached soli- cerning the Poles[42] furthering enmity between the Ger- darity lest it ever happen again.[40] man and Polish peoples. The policies were motivated by Bismarck’s view that Polish existence was a threat to the German state. Bismarck compared Polish population to animals that need to be shot and privately confessed that he would like to exterminate them.[43][44]

6.4 Socialism

Worried by the growth of the socialist movement— in particular, that of the Social Democratic Party— Bismarck instituted the Anti-Socialist Laws in 1878. So- cialist organizations and meetings were forbidden, as was the circulation of socialist literature. Police officers could stop, search, and arrest socialist party members; socialist leaders were arrested and tried by police courts. But de- spite these efforts, the movement steadily gained support- ers and seats in the Reichstag. Socialists won seats in the Reichstag by running as independent candidates, unaffil- iated with any party, which was allowed by the German Constitution.[45]

7 Foreign policies

Main article: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) Bismarck became in 1871. Bismarck had unified his nation, and now he de-

6.2 Economy

In 1873, Germany and much of Europe and America en- tered the Long Depression, the Gründerkrise. A down- turn hit the German economy for the first time since in- dustrial development began to surge in the 1850s. To aid faltering industries, the Chancellor abandoned free trade and established protectionist import-tariffs, which alien- ated the National Liberals who demanded free trade. The Kulturkampf and its effects also stirred up public opinion against the party that supported it, and Bismarck used this opportunity to distance himself from the National Liber- A main objective of Bismarck’s was to prevent other powers be- als. This marked a rapid decline in the support of the coming an ally of France (shown as the lonely girl on the far National Liberals, and by 1879 their close ties with Bis- left). marck had all but ended. Bismarck instead returned to conservative factions—including the Centre Party—for voted himself to promoting peace in Europe with his support. He helped foster support from the conservatives skills in statesmanship. He was forced to contend with by enacting several tariffs protecting German agriculture French revanchism—the desire to avenge the losses of the and industry from foreign competitors in 1879.[41] Franco-Prussian War. Bismarck therefore engaged in a policy of diplomatically isolating France while maintain- ing cordial relations with other nations in Europe. He had 6.3 Germanisation little interest in naval or colonial entanglements and thus avoided discord with Great Britain. Historians empha- The government tried to Germanise the state’s national size that he wanted no more territorial gains after 1871, minorities, situated mainly in the borders of the empire, and vigorously worked to form cross-linking alliances that such as the Danes in the North of Germany and the Poles prevented any war in Europe from starting. A. J. P. Tay- in the East of Germany. He pursued a hostile policy con- lor, a leading British diplomatic historian, concludes that, 10 7 FOREIGN POLICIES

“Bismarck was an honest broker of peace; and his system of alliances compelled every Power, whatever its will, to follow a peaceful course.”[46] Well aware that Europe was skeptical of his powerful new Reich, Bismarck turned his attention to preserving peace in Europe based on a balance of power that would allow Germany’s economy to flourish. Bismarck feared that a hostile combination of Austria, France, and Russia would crush Germany. If two of them were allied, then the third would ally with Germany only if Germany conceded ex- cessive demands. The solution was to ally with two of the three. In 1873 he formed the League of the Three Emperors, an alliance of Wilhelm, Czar Alexander II of Russia, and Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary. Together they would control Eastern Europe, making sure that restive ethnic groups such as the Poles were kept in control. The Balkans posed a more serious issue, and Bismarck’s solution was to give Austria predominance in the western Balkan areas, and Russia in the eastern areas. The system collapsed in 1887.[47] In 1872, a protracted quarrel began to fester between Bis- marck and Count Harry von Arnim, the imperial ambas- sador to France. Arnim saw himself as a rival and com- petitor for the chancellorship, but the rivalry escalated out of hand, and Arnim took sensitive records from embassy files at Paris to back up his case. He was formally ac- cused of misappropriating official documents, indicted, tried, and convicted, and fled into exile, where he died. No one again openly challenged Bismarck in foreign pol- [48] icy matters until his resignation. Bismarck ca. 1875

7.1 France it clear they would not tolerate a preventive war against France. Bismarck did not want any war either, and the crisis blew over. It was a rare instance where his oppo- Main article: International relations of the Great Powers nents outmaneuvered and embarrassed Bismarck, but he (1814–1919) § War in Sight crisis of 1875 learned an important lesson. It forced him to take into ac- Between 1873 and 1877, according to Stone (1994), count the fear and alarm that his bullying and Germany’s Germany repeatedly acted the bully against France by fast-growing power was causing among its neighbors. The manipulating the internal affairs of France’s neighbors to crisis reinforced Bismarck’s determination that Germany hurt it. Bismarck put heavy pressure on Belgium, Spain, should work in proactive fashion to preserve the peace and Italy hoping to obtain the election of liberal, anticler- in Europe, rather than passively let events take their own ical governments. His plan was to promote republicanism course and react to them.[50][51] in France by isolating the clerical-monarchist regime of President MacMahon. He hoped that ringing France with liberal states would help the French republicans defeat 7.2 Italy MacMahon and his reactionary supporters.[49] The bullying almost got out of hand with a brief war Bismarck maintained good relations with Italy, although scare in mid-1875. It was sparked by an editorial entitled he had a personal dislike for Italians and their country.[52] “Krieg-in-Sicht” (“War in Sight”) in a Berlin newspaper He can be seen as a marginal contributor to Italian unifi- close to the government, the Post. It indicated that highly cation. Politics surrounding the 1866 war against Austria influential Germans were alarmed by France’s rapid re- allowed Italy to annex Venetia, which had been a king- covery from defeat in 1875 and its announcement of an dom of the since the 1815 Congress increase in the size of its army. They talked of launching a of Vienna. In addition, French mobilization for the preventive war against France to hold it down. Bismarck Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 made it necessary denied knowing about the article ahead of time, but he for Napoleon III to withdraw his troops from Rome and certainly knew about the talk of preventive war. The ed- The Papal States. Without these two events, Italian unifi- itorial produced a war scare. Britain and Russia made cation would have been a more prolonged process. 7.6 Avoiding war 11

7.3 Russia were sponsored by the Crown Prince, who might soon be- come Kaiser and remove Bismarck.[56][57] The old Kaiser After Russia’s victory over the Ottoman Empire in the was 84 years old. Bismarck was influenced by Ham- Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, Bismarck helped nego- burg merchants and traders, his neighbors at Friedrich- tiate a settlement at the Congress of Berlin. The Treaty sruh. The establishment of the German colonial empire of Berlin revised the earlier Treaty of San Stefano, re- proceeded smoothly, starting with German New Guinea ducing the size of newly independent Bulgaria (a pro- in 1884.[58][59] Other European nations, led by Britain Russian state at that time). Bismarck and other Euro- and France, were acquiring colonies in a rapid fashion pean leaders opposed the growth of Russian influence and (see New Imperialism). Bismarck therefore joined in tried to protect the integrity of the Ottoman Empire (see the Scramble for Africa. Germany’s new colonies in- Eastern Question). As a result, Russo-German relations cluded Togoland (now Togo and part of Ghana), German further suffered, with the Russian chancellor Gorchakov Kamerun (now Cameroon and part of Nigeria), German denouncing Bismarck for compromising his nation’s vic- East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi, and the mainland tory. The relationship was additionally strained due to part of Tanzania), and German South-West Africa (now Germany’s protectionist trade policies. Some in the Ger- Namibia). The Berlin Conference (1884–85) established man military clamored for a preemptive war with Russia, regulations for the acquisition of African colonies; in but Bismarck said that “Preemptive war is like commit- particular, it protected free trade in certain parts of the ting suicide for fear of death.”[53] Congo basin. Germany also acquired colonies in the Pa- cific, such as German New Guinea.[60] 7.4 Triple Alliance 7.6 Avoiding war The League of the Three Emperors having fallen apart, Bismarck negotiated the Dual Alliance with Austria- In February 1888, during a Bulgarian crisis, Bismarck ad- Hungary, in which each guaranteed the other against Rus- dressed the Reichstag on the dangers of a European war. sian attack. He also negotiated the Triple Alliance in 1882 with Austria-Hungary and Italy. Italy and Austria- He warned of the imminent possibility that Hungary soon reached the “Mediterranean Agreement” Germany will have to fight on two fronts; he with Britain. Attempts to reconcile Germany and Russia spoke of the desire for peace; then he set forth did not have lasting effect: the Three Emperors’ League the Balkan case for war and demonstrates its was re-established in 1881, but quickly fell apart (the futility: end of the Russian-Austrian-Prussian solidarity which “Bulgaria, that little country between the had existed in various forms since 1813). Bismarck Danube and the Balkans, is far from being an therefore negotiated the Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 with object of adequate importance ... for which to Russia, in order to prevent Franco-Russian encirclement plunge Europe from Moscow to the Pyrenees, of Germany. Both powers promised to remain neu- and from the North Sea to Palermo, into a war tral towards one another unless Russia attacked Austria- whose issue no man can foresee. At the end of Hungary. However, after Bismarck’s departure from of- the conflict we should scarcely know why we fice Wilhelm II failed to renew the Reinsurance Treaty, had fought.”[61] thus creating a critical problem for Germany in the event of a war. Bismarck also repeated his emphatic warning against any German military involvement in Balkan disputes. Bis- 7.5 Colonies marck had first made this famous comment to the Reich- stag in December 1876, when the Balkan revolts against Bismarck had opposed colonial acquisitions, arguing that the Ottoman Empire threatened to extend to a war be- the burden of obtaining, maintaining, and defending such tween Austria and Russia. possessions would outweigh any potential benefit. He felt that colonies did not pay for themselves, that the Ger- Only a year later [1876], he is faced by man bureaucratic system would not work well in the easy- the alternative of espousing the cause of Rus- going tropics, and that the diplomatic disputes colonies sia or that of Austria. Immediately after the brought would distract Germany from its central inter- last crisis, in the summer of 1875, the mu- est, Europe itself.[54] However, in 1883–84 he suddenly tual jealousies between Russia and Austria had reversed himself and overnight built a colonial empire been rendered acute by the fresh risings in in Africa and the South Pacific. Historians have de- the Balkans against the Turks. Now the is- bated exactly why he made this sudden and short-lived sues hung upon Bismarck’s decision. Imme- move.[55] He was aware that public opinion had started diately after the peace, he had tried to paral- to demand colonies for reasons of German prestige. He yse the Balkan rivals by the formation of the also wanted to undercut the anti-colonial liberals who Three Emperors’ League. “I have no thought 12 8 SOCIAL LEGISLATION

of intervening,” he said privately. “That might status in the legal and political structures of the new Ger- precipitate a European war. [...] If I were man state.[66] In March 1884, Bismarck declared: to espouse the cause of one of the parties, France would promptly strike a blow on the other side. [...] I am holding two powerful heraldic beasts by their collars, and am keep- ing them apart for two reasons: first of all, lest they should tear one another to pieces; and sec- ondly, lest they should come to an understand- ing at our expense.” In the Reichstag, he pop- ularises the same idea in the words: “I am op- posed to the notion of any sort of active partic- ipation of Germany in these matters, so long as I can see no reason to suppose that Ger- man interests are involved, no interests on be- half of which it is worth our risking—excuse my plain speaking—the healthy bones of one of our Pomeranian musketeers.”[62]

A leading diplomatic historian of the era, William L. Langer sums up Bismark’s two decades as Chancellor:

Whatever else may be said of the intricate alliance system evolved by the German Chan- cellor, it must be admitted that it worked and that it tided Europe over a period of several critical years without a rupture. ... there was, as Bismarck himself said, a premium upon the maintenance of peace.[63] Franz von Lenbach's portrait of Bismarck, painted in his 75th year.

Langer concludes: The real grievance of the worker is the in- security of his existence; he is not sure that he His had been a great career, beginning with will always have work, he is not sure that he three wars in eight years and ending with a pe- will always be healthy, and he foresees that he riod of 20 years during which he worked for will one day be old and unfit to work. If he falls the peace of Europe, despite countless oppor- into poverty, even if only through a prolonged tunities to embark on further enterprises with illness, he is then completely helpless, left to more than even chance of success. ... No his own devices, and society does not currently other statesman of his standing had ever before recognize any real obligation towards him be- shown the same great moderation and sound yond the usual help for the poor, even if he has political sense of the possible and desirable. ... been working all the time ever so faithfully and Bismarck at least deserves full credit for having diligently. The usual help for the poor, how- steered European politics through this danger- ever, leaves a lot to be desired, especially in ous transitional period without serious conflict large cities, where it is very much worse than between the great powers.”[64] in the country.[67]

Bismarck’s idea was to implement welfare programs that 8 Social legislation were acceptable to conservatives without any socialistic aspects. He was dubious about laws protecting work- Bismarck implemented the world’s first welfare state in ers at the workplace, such as safe working conditions, the 1880s. He worked closely with large industry and limitation of work hours, and the regulation of women’s aimed to stimulate German economic growth by giving and child labor. He believed that such regulation would workers greater security.[65] A secondary concern was force workers and employers to reduce work and produc- trumping the Socialists, who had no welfare proposals of tion, and thus harm the economy. Bismarck opened de- their own and opposed Bismarck’s. Bismarck especially bate on the subject in November 1881 in the Imperial listened to Hermann Wagener and Theodor Lohmann, Message to the Reichstag, using the term practical Chris- advisers who persuaded him to give workers a corporate tianity to describe his program.[68] Bismarck’s program 8.3 Old Age and Disability Insurance Law of 1889 13

centered squarely on insurance programs designed to in- party was afraid of the expansion of Federal Power at the crease productivity, and focus the political attentions of expense of States Rights. As a result, the only way the German workers on supporting the Junkers’ government. program could be passed at all was for the entire expense The program included sickness insurance, accident insur- to be underwritten by the Employers. To facilitate this, ance, disability insurance, and a retirement pension, none Bismarck arranged for the administration of this program of which were then in existence to any great degree. to be placed in the hands of “Der Arbeitgeberverband in Based on Bismarck’s message, the Reichstag filed three den beruflichen Korporationen” (the Organization of Em- bills to deal with the concepts of accident and sick- ployers in Occupational Corporations). This organization established central and bureaucratic insurance offices on ness insurance. The subjects of retirement pensions and disability insurance were placed on the back-burner for the Federal, and in some cases the State level to perform the actual administration. The program kicked in to re- the time being.[69] The social legislation implemented by Bismarck in the 1880s played a key role in the place the sickness insurance program as of the 14th week. It paid for medical treatment and a Pension of up to 2/3s sharp, rapid decline of German emigration to America. Young men considering emigration looked at not only the of earned wages if the worker was fully disabled. This program was expanded in 1886 to include Agricultural gap between higher hourly “direct wages” in the United [69] States and Germany but also the differential in “indi- workers. rect wages”—social benefits, which favored staying in Germany. The young men went to German industrial cities, so that Bismarck’s insurance system partly offset 8.3 Old Age and Disability Insurance Law low wage rates in Germany and furthered the fall of the of 1889 emigration rate.[70] The Old Age Pension program, an insurance equally fi- nanced by employers and workers, was designed to pro- 8.1 Sickness Insurance Law of 1883 vide a pension annuity for workers who reached age 70 years. Unlike the Accident Insurance and Sickness In- The first bill that had success was the Sickness Insurance surance programs, this program covered all categories of Bill, which was passed in 1883. Bismarck considered workers—industrial, agrarian, artisans and servants from the program the least important and the least politically the start. Also, unlike the other two programs, the prin- troublesome. The program was established to provide ciple that the national government should contribute a sickness insurance for German industrial laborers.[71][72] portion of the underwriting cost, with the other two por- The health service was established on a local basis, with tions prorated accordingly, was accepted without ques- the cost divided between employers and the employed. tion. The Disability Insurance program was intended to The employers contributed 1/3, while the workers con- be used by those permanently disabled. This time, the [73] tributed 2/3s. The minimum payments for medical treat- State or Province supervised the programs directly. ment and sick pay for up to 13 weeks were legally fixed. The individual local health bureaus were administered by a committee elected by the members of each bureau, and 9 Forced to resign this move had the unintended effect of establishing a ma- jority representation for the workers on account of their large financial contribution. This worked to the advantage In 1888, the German Emperor, Wilhelm I, died leaving of the Social Democrats who—through heavy Worker the throne to his son, Friedrich III. The new monarch was membership—achieved their first small foothold in pub- already suffering from an incurable throat cancer and died lic administration.[69] after reigning for only 99 days. He was succeeded by his son, Wilhelm II, who opposed Bismarck’s careful foreign policy, preferring vigorous and rapid expansion to enlarge [75] 8.2 Accident Insurance Law of 1884 Germany’s “place in the sun”. Bismarck was 16 years older than Friedrich. Before the Bismarck’s government had to submit three draft bills be- latter became terminally ill, Bismarck did not expect he fore they could get one passed by the Reichstag in 1884. would live to see Wilhelm ascend to the throne, and thus Bismarck had originally proposed that the Federal Gov- had no strategy to deal with him. Conflicts between Wil- ernment pay a portion of the Accident Insurance contri- helm II and his chancellor soon poisoned their relation- bution. Bismarck’s motive was a demonstration of the ship. Perhaps on account of his prominent role in Wil- willingness of the German government to lessen the hard- helm’s upbringing, Bismarck believed that he could dom- ship experienced by the German workers as a means of inate the young Kaiser and showed little respect for his weaning them away from the various left-wing parties, policies in the late 1880s. However, Wilhelm wanted most importantly the Social Democrats. The National to be his own master and was surrounded by sycophants Liberals took this program to be an expression of State telling him that Frederick the Great would not have been Socialism, which they were dead set against. The Center so great with a Bismarck at his side. Their final split 14 9 FORCED TO RESIGN occurred after Bismarck tried to implement far-reaching Despite this, a turn of events eventually led to his dis- anti-Socialist laws in early 1890. The Kartell majority tancing from Wilhelm. Bismarck, feeling pressured and in the Reichstag, of the amalgamated Conservative Party unappreciated by the Emperor and undermined by ambi- and the National Liberal Party, was willing to make most tious advisers, refused to sign a proclamation regarding of the laws permanent. But it was split about the law the protection of workers along with Wilhelm, as was re- allowing the police the power to expel socialist agita- quired by the German Constitution, to protest Wilhelm’s tors from their homes, a power used excessively at times ever increasing interference to Bismarck’s previously un- against political opponents. The National Liberals re- questioned authority. Bismarck also worked behind the fused to make this law permanent, while the Conserva- scenes to break the Continental labour council on which tives supported only the entirety of the bill and threatened Wilhelm had set his heart.[77] to and eventually vetoed the entire bill in session because [76] The final break came as Bismarck searched for a new par- Bismarck would not agree to a modified bill. liamentary majority, with his Kartell voted from power due to the anti-socialist bill fiasco. The remaining forces in the Reichstag were the Catholic Centre Party and the Conservative Party. Bismarck wished to form a new block with the Centre Party, and invited Ludwig Windthorst, the parliamentary leader, to discuss an al- liance. This would be Bismarck’s last political manoeu- vre. Wilhelm was furious to hear about Windthorst’s visit. In a parliamentary state, the head of government depends on the confidence of the parliamentary major- ity, and certainly has the right to form coalitions to en- sure his policies a majority. However, in Germany, the Chancellor depended on the confidence of the Emperor alone, and Wilhelm believed that the Emperor had the right to be informed before his minister’s meeting. After a heated argument in Bismarck’s office Wilhelm, whom Bismarck had allowed to see a letter from Tsar Alexander III describing him as a “badly brought-up boy”, stormed out, after first ordering the rescinding of the Cabinet Or- der of 1851, which had forbidden Prussian Cabinet Min- isters to report directly to the King of Prussia, requiring them instead to report via the Prime Minister. Bismarck, forced for the first time into a situation he could not use to his advantage, wrote a blistering letter of resignation, A painting of Bismarck, late in his career, by Franz von Lenbach decrying Wilhelm’s interference in foreign and domestic policy, which was published only after Bismarck’s death. As the debate continued, Wilhelm became increasingly Bismarck resigned at Wilhelm II’s insistence on 18 March interested in social problems, especially the treatment 1890, at age 75, to be succeeded as Chancellor of of mine workers during their strike in 1889, and keep- Germany and Minister-President of Prussia by Leo von ing with his active policy in government, routinely in- Caprivi.[78] Bismarck was discarded (“dropping the pi- terrupted Bismarck in Council to make clear his social lot”, in the words of the famous Punch cartoon), pro- policy. Bismarck sharply disagreed with Wilhelm’s pol- moted to the rank of “Colonel-General with the Dignity icy and worked to circumvent it. Even though Wilhelm of Field Marshal” (so-called because the German Army supported the altered anti-socialist bill, Bismarck pushed did not appoint full Field Marshals in peacetime) and for his support to veto the bill in its entirety. But when given a new title, Duke of Lauenburg, which he joked his arguments could not convince Wilhelm, Bismarck be- would be useful when travelling incognito. He was soon came excited and agitated until uncharacteristically blurt- elected to the Reichstag as a National Liberal in Ben- ing out his motive to see the bill fail: to have the social- nigsen’s old and supposedly safe Hamburg seat, but he ists agitate until a violent clash occurred that could be was embarrassed by being taken to a second ballot by a used as a pretext to crush them. Wilhelm replied that he Social Democrat opponent, and never actually took up his was not willing to open his reign with a bloody campaign seat. He entered into a restless, resentful retirement on his against his own subjects. The next day, after realizing his estates at Varzin, now part of . Within one month blunder, Bismarck attempted to reach a compromise with of his wife’s death on 27 November 1894, he moved to Wilhelm by agreeing to his social policy towards indus- Friedrichsruh near Hamburg, waiting in vain to be called trial workers, and even suggested a European council to upon for advice and counsel. discuss working conditions, presided over by the German Emperor. 9.2 Death 15

Bismarck on his 80th birthday (1 April 1895) "Dropping the Pilot" Famous caricature by Sir John Tenniel (1820-1914), published in an English magazine, 29 March 1890. 9.2 Death 9.1 Last warning and prediction Bismarck spent his final years composing his memoirs In December 1897, the Emperor Wilhelm II visited Bis- (Gedanken und Erinnerungen, or Thoughts and Memo- marck for the last time. Bismarck again warned him ries), a work of literary genius but questionable accu- about the dangers of improvising government policy racy, in which he increased the drama around every event based on the intrigues of courtiers and militarists. Bis- and always presented himself favorably. He died in July marck’s last warning was: 1898 at the age of 83 in Friedrichsruh, where he is en- tombed in the Bismarck Mausoleum. He was succeeded Your Majesty, so long as you have this as Fürst von Bismarck-Schönhausen by his son Herbert. present officer corps, you can do as you please. He continued his feud with Wilhelm II by attacking him But when this is no longer the case, it will be in his memoirs and by publishing the text of the Rein- very different for you.[79] surance Treaty with Russia, a breach of national security for which any individual of lesser status would have been Subsequently, Bismarck made this prediction: prosecuted. Bismarck managed one final attack on Wilhelm II by hav- " came twenty years after the death ing his tombstone inscribed with the words “Here lies a of Frederick the Great; the crash will come true servant of the Emperor Wilhelm I”. twenty years after my departure if things go on like this"―a prophecy fulfilled with the Kaiser’s abdication almost twenty years to the day after Bismarck’s death.[80] 10 Legacy and memory

According to Albert Ballin, the year before he died Bis- Historians have reached a broad consensus on the content, marck told him: function and importance of the image of Bismarck within Germany’s political culture over the past 125 years.[82][83] “One day the great European War will According to Steinberg, his achievements in 1862–71 come out of some damned foolish thing in the were “the greatest diplomatic and political achievement Balkans”.[81] by any leader in the last two centuries.”[84] 16 10 LEGACY AND MEMORY

because it consciously reined in any expansionist drives. In dramatic contrast stands the ambition of Wilhelm II’s Weltpolitik to secure the Reich’s future through expan- sion, leading to . Likewise Bismarck’s policy to deny the military a dominant voice in foreign politi- cal decision making was overturned by 1914 as Germany became an armed state. Bismarck’s psychology and personal traits have not been so favourably received by scholars. The American his- torian Jonathan Steinberg portrays a malign genius who was deeply vengeful, even toward his closest friends and family members. Evans says he was “intimidating and unscrupulous, playing to others’ frailties, not their strengths.”[85] British historians, including Evans, Taylor, Palmer and Crankshaw, see Bismarck as an ambivalent figure, undoubtedly a man of great skill but who left no lasting system in place to guide successors less skilled than himself. Being a committed monarchist himself, Bismarck allowed no effective constitutional check on the power of the Emperor, thus placing a time bomb in the foundation of the Germany that he created. Observers at the time and ever since have commented on Bismarck’s skill as a writer. As Henry Kissinger has noted, “The man of 'blood and iron' wrote prose of extraordinary directness and lucidity, comparable in distinctiveness to Churchill's use of the English [86] Otto von Bismarck statue in Berlin language.” During most of his nearly 30-year-long tenure, Bismarck held undisputed control over the government’s policies. He was well supported by his friend Albrecht von Roon, Bismarck’s most important legacy is the unification of the war minister, as well as the leader of the Prussian Germany. Germany had existed as a collection of hun- army Helmuth von Moltke. Bismarck’s diplomatic moves dreds of separate principalities and Free Cities since the relied on a victorious Prussian military, and these two formation of the . Over the cen- men gave Bismarck the victories he needed to convince turies various rulers had tried to unify the German states the smaller German states to join Prussia. without success until Bismarck. Largely as a result of Bismarck’s efforts, the various German kingdoms were Bismarck took steps to silence or restrain political op- united into a single country. position, as evidenced by laws restricting the freedom of the press, and the anti-socialist laws. He waged a cul- Following unification, Germany became one of the most ture war (Kulturkampf) against the Catholic Church until powerful nations in Europe. Bismarck’s astute, cau- he realized the conservatism of the Catholics made them tious, and pragmatic foreign policies allowed Germany to natural allies against the Socialists. His king Wilhelm I peacefully retain the powerful position into which he had rarely challenged the Chancellor’s decisions; on several brought it; maintaining amiable diplomacy with almost all occasions, Bismarck obtained his monarch’s approval by European nations. France, the main exception, was dev- threatening to resign. However, Wilhelm II intended to astated by Bismarck’s wars and his harsh subsequent poli- govern the country himself, making the ousting of Bis- cies towards it; France became one of Germany’s most marck one of his first tasks as Kaiser. Bismarck’s succes- bitter enemies in Europe. Austria, too, was weakened sors as Chancellor were much less influential, as power by the creation of a German Empire, though to a much was concentrated in the Emperor’s hands. lesser extent than France. Bismarck believed that as long as Britain, Russia and Italy were assured of the peaceful nature of the German Empire, French belligerency could 10.1 Memorials be contained; his diplomatic feats were undone, however, by Kaiser Wilhelm II, whose policies unified other Eu- Immediately after he left office, citizens started to praise ropean powers against Germany in time for World War him and established funds to build monuments like I. the or towers dedicated to him. Historians stress that Bismarck’s peace-oriented, “satu- Throughout Germany, the accolades were unending, sev- rated continental diplomacy” was increasingly unpopular, eral buildings were named in his honour, portraits of 17

Memorial dedicated to Bismarck as a student at the Rudelsburg The , Hamburg

him were commissioned from artists such as Franz von over the past which raged between 1918 and 1933. This Lenbach and C.W. Allers and books about him became myth proved to be a weapon against the Repub- best-sellers. The first monument built in his honour was lic, and exercised a destructive influence on the political the one at Bad Kissingen erected in 1877. culture of the first German democracy. Frankel (2005) Numerous statues and memorials dot the cities, towns, shows the Bismarck cult fostered and legitimized a new and countryside of Germany, including the famous of right-wing politics, and made possible the post- Bismarck Memorial in Berlin and numerous Bismarck Bismarckian crisis of leadership, both real and perceived, towers on four continents. The only memorial depicting that had Germans seeking the strongest possible leader him as a student at Göttingen University (together with and asking, “What Would Bismarck Do?" a dog, possibly his Reichshund Tyras) and as a member For example, Hamburg’s memorial, unveiled in 1906, is of his Corps Hannovera was re-erected in 2006 at the considered one of the greatest expressions of imperial Rudelsburg. The gleaming white 1906 Bismarck Monu- Germany’s Bismarck cult and an important development ment in the city of Hamburg, stands in the centre of the St. in the history of German memorial art. It was a prod- Pauli district, and is the largest, and probably best-known, uct of the desire of Hamburg’s patrician classes to de- memorial to Bismarck worldwide. The statues depicted fend their political privileges in the face of dramatic social him as massive, monolithic, rigid and unambiguous.[87] change and attendant demands for political reform. To Two warships were named in his honour, the SMS Bis- those who presided over its construction, the monument marck of the German Imperial Navy, and the Bismarck was also a means of asserting Hamburg’s cultural aspira- from the World War II–era. tions and of shrugging off a reputation as a city hostile to the arts. The memorial was greeted with widespread dis- 10.2 Bismarck myth approval among the working classes and did not prevent their increasing support for the Social Democrats.[88] Gerwarth (2007) shows that the Bismarck myth, built up predominantly during his years of retirement and even more stridently after his death, proved a powerful rhetor- ical and ideological tool. The myth made him out to be a 11 Place names dogmatic ideologue and ardent nationalist when, in fact, he was ideologically flexible. Gerwarth argues that the constructed memory of Bismarck played a central role as A number of localities around the world have been named an anti-democratic myth in the highly ideological battle in Bismarck’s honour. They include: 18 14 REFERENCES

• Bismarck Archipelago, near the former German itself and the sovereignty that would have transformed his colony of New Guinea. family into a mediatized house. Bismarck regarded it as a mockery of his ambition, and he considered nothing more • Bismarck, Illinois cruel than this action of the emperor.[89] • Bismarck, North Dakota, a city and state capital in On Bismarck’s death in 1898, his dukedom (held only for the United States. his own lifetime) was extinguished and the princely title passed to his eldest son, Herbert. • Bismarck, Missouri, a city in Missouri.

• Bismarck Sea 13 See also • Bismarck Strait, a channel in Antarctica. • • Bismarckburg (Kasanga, Tanzania) Adelbert Theodor Wangemann, made only known recording of Bismarck’s voice • Film footage of Bismarck removing his military hel- 12 Titles and styles from birth to met death • Gerson von Bleichröder, Bismarck’s banker and economics advisor • 1 April 1815 – 1865: Junker Otto von Bismarck • Here is Germany • 1865–1871: High Born Count Otto of Bismarck- • House of Bismarck Schönhausen • Wilhelm Stieber, master spy • 1871–1890: His The Prince of Bis- marck • 1890 – 30 July 1898: His Serene Highness The 14 References Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg [1] Steinberg, Jonathan. Bismarck: A Life. p. 51. ISBN Bismarck was created Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen 9780199782529. (“Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen”) in 1865; this comi- [2] Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire: 1875–1914 (1987), tal title is borne by all his descendants in the male line. In p. 312. 1871, he was further created Fürst von Bismarck (“Prince of Bismarck”) and accorded the style of Durchlaucht [3] Lowe, Charles (2005). Prince Bismarck: An Historical (equivalent to “Serene Highness”); this princely title de- Biography With Two Portraits. Kessinger Publishing. p. scended only to his eldest male heirs. 538. ISBN 9781419180033. [4] Field 1898, pp. 603–4. 12.1 Duke of Lauenburg [5] Steinberg, 2011, pp. 39–41. [6] Steinberg, 2011, p. 93. In 1890, Bismarck was created further Herzog von Lauen- burg (“Duke of Lauenburg"; the Duchy was one of the [7] Pflanze 1971, p. 56. territories which Prussia seized from the Danish king in [8] Steinberg, 2011, p. 89. 1864). [9] Steinberg, 2011, p. 86. It was Bismarck’s ambition to be assimilated into the mediatized houses of Germany. He attempted to per- [10] Steinberg, 2011, pp. 87–88. suade Kaiser Wilhelm I that he should be endowed with the sovereign duchy of Lauenburg, in reward for his ser- [11] Pflanze 1971, p. 64. vices to the imperial family and the German empire. This [12] Alan Palmer, Bismarck [Charles Scribner Publishers: was on the understanding that Bismarck would immedi- New York, 1976] p. 41 ately restore the duchy to Prussia; all that he wanted was the privilege of a mediatized family for himself and his [13] Alan Palmer, Bismarck, p. 42. descendants. This novel idea was turned down by the con- [14] Steinberg, 2011, p. 117. servative emperor, who thought that he had already given the chancellor enough rewards. There is reason to believe [15] Steinberg, 2011, pp. 142–43. that he informed Wilhelm II of his wishes. After being [16] Quotations from letters between Leopold von Gerlach and forced by the sovereign to resign, he received the purely Bismarck debating the topic of Napoleon III are in Stein- honorific title of “Duke of Lauenburg”, without the duchy berg, 2011, pp. 131–33. 19

[17] Steinberg, 2011, ch. 5. [44] The Immigrant Threat: The Integration of Old and New Migrants in Western Europe Since 1850 (Studies of World [18] Steinberg, 2011, ch. 6. Migrations) – Page 60 Leo Lucassen – 2005 University of Illinois The depth of his hatred for the Poles is illustrated [19] Eyck 1964, pp. 58–68. by a letter Bismarck wrote in 1861 to his sister: “Hit the Poles, so that they break down. If we want to exist, we [20] Taylor 1955, pp. 48–51. have to exterminate them;"

[21] Eyck 1964, pp. 69–70. [45] Friedrich Darmstaedter, Bismarck and the creation of the Second Reich (2008) p. xiv, xvii [22] Hollyday 1970, pp. 16–18. [46] A.J.P. Taylor, Europe: Grandeur and Decline (1967) p 89 [23] Gordon A. Craig, Germany, 1866–1945 (1978), pp 1–21 [47] Raymond James Sontag, European Diplomatic History: [24] Eyck 1964, pp. 58–106. 1871–1932 (1933) pp 3–58 [48] Crankshaw 1981, p. 322. [25] Eyck 1964, pp. 107–38. [49] James Stone, “Bismarck and the Containment of France, [26] Pearce 2010. 1873–1877”, Canadian Journal of History (1994) 29#2 pp 281–304, online [27] Friedrich Darmstaedter (2008). Bismarck and the Cre- ation of the Second Reich. Transaction Publishers. p. 289. [50] Lothar Gall, Bismarck: The White Revolutionary, Volume ISBN 9781412807838. 2: 1871–1898 (1986) pp 46–48

[28] Steinberg, 2011, p. 253. [51] William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871–1890 (2nd ed. 1950) pp 44–55 [29] Bismarck, Otto von (1966). The Memoirs vol. II. New York, NY: Howard Fertig. pp. 58–60. [52] Taylor 1969, p. 212. [53] Retallack 2008, p. 29. [30] Eyck 1964, pp. 139–86 [54] Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann. “Domestic Origins of [31] William Langer, “Bismarck as Dramatist,” in Studies in Germany’s Colonial Expansion under Bismarck.” Past & Diplomatic History & Historiography in Honour of G.P. Present (Feb 1969), Issue 42, pp 140–159 in JSTOR Gooch (1962) pp 199–216, [55] Kennedy 1988, ch 10. [32] Taylor 1969, p. 126. [56] Eyck 1964, pp. 273–76. [33] Crankshaw. [57] Wehler 1970, pp. 119–55. [34] Taylor 1969, p. 133. [58] Strandmann 1969, pp. 140–59.

[35] Hollyday 1970, p. 6. [59] Crankshaw 1981, pp. 395–97.

[36] Blackbourn 1998, pp. 261–3. [60] S. G. Firth, “The New Guinea Company, 1885– 1899: A case of unprofitable imperialism,” Histori- [37] Ross 2000. cal Studies (1972) 15#59 pp 361–377 DOI:10.1080/ 10314617208595478 [38] Gross 2005. [61] Ludwig 1927a, p. 73. [39] James Stone, “Bismarck and the Containment of France, 1873-1877,” Canadian Journal of History (1994) 29#2 pp [62] Ludwig 1927b, p. 511. 281-304 online [63] William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments: [40] Rebecca Ayako Bennette, Fighting for the Soul of Ger- 1871–1890 (2nd ed.) 1950 p 459 many: The Catholic Struggle for Inclusion after Unifica- [64] Langer, European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890 tion (Harvard U.P. 2012) pp 503–04

[41] E. J. Feuchtwanger, Bismarck (2002) p. 208 [65] E. P. Hennock, The Origin of the Welfare State in Eng- land and Germany, 1850–1914: Social Policies Compared [42] Koschnirk, Leonore; von Specht, Agnete. “Room 10: The (Cambridge University Press, 2007) Social Dimension - “Founders” and “Enemies of the Em- pire"". Deutsches Historisches Museum. Archived from [66] E. P. Hennock. “Social Policy under the Empire: Myths the original on 2 July 2004. and Evidence” German History 1998 16(1): 58–74; Her- man Beck, The Origins of the Authoritarian Welfare State [43] Norman Davies, God’s Playground, a History of Poland: in Prussia. Conservatives, Bureaucracy, and the Social 1795 to the present (1982) p 124 online Question, 1815–70. 1995. 20 15 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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[83] Urbach (1998) • Hollyday, FBM (1970), Bismarck, Great Lives Ob- served, Prentice-Hall. [84] Steinberg, 2011, p. 184. • Kent, George O (1978), Bismarck and His Times. [85] Richard J. Evans, “The Gambler in Blood and Iron,” New York Review (23 February 2012) p 39 • Kissinger, Henry A (31 March 2011), “Otto von Bismarck, Master Statesman”, The New York Times [86] Kissinger 2011. (book review). [87] Sieglinde Seele, Lexikon der Bismarck-Denkmäler. Türme, Standbilder, Büsten, Gedenksteine und andere • Lerman, Katharine Anne. Bismarck: Profiles in Ehrungen, Michael Imhof Verlag: Petersberg, 2005; 480 Power. Longman, 2004. ISBN 0-582-03740-9; pp. 312pp 15.3 Specialized studies 21

• Ludwig, Emil (1927a), Wilhelm Hohenzollern: • Sheehan, James J. German History, 1770–1866 The last of the Kaisers, New York, ISBN (1989), dense, thorough political history 9780766143418, popular. • ———————— (1978), German liberalism in • Ludwig, Emil (1927b), Bismarck: The Story of a the ninetury century (EBOOKS), University of Fighter, Little, Brown, popular. Chicago Press; ACLS • Pflanze, Otto, Bismarck and the Development of Germany; 3 vols., 1963–90. vol 1 online, Bismarck 15.3 Specialized studies and the Development of Germany: The Period of Unification, 1815–1871 • Beck, Hermann (1995), Origins of the Authoritarian • Pflanze, Otto (Apr 1955), “Bismarck and German Welfare State in Prussia, 1815–1870. Nationalism”, American Historical Review 60 (3): • Clark, Chester Wells. Franz Joseph and Bismarck: 548–66, doi:10.2307/1845577, JSTOR 1845577 The Diplomacy of Austria before the War of 1866 • Steinberg, Jonathan. Bismarck: A Life (Oxford Uni- (Harvard University Press, 1934). versity Press, 2011), 592 pp • Field, WG (October 1898), “Bismarck’s First • Stern, Fritz (1977), Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Ble- School”, The Journal of Education (Oxford Univer- ichröder and the Building of the German Empire, sity Press) 20: 603–4. Penguin. • Goddard, Stacie E. “When Right Makes Might: • Taylor, A.J.P. (1969), Bismarck: the Man and the How Prussia Overturned the European Balance of Statesman, New York: Alfred A Knopf. Power,” International Security, Volume 33, Number 3, Winter 2008/09, pp. 110–42 in Project MUSE, covers 1864–71 15.2 Surveys • Gross, Michael B (2005), The War against Catholi- • Berghahn, Volker. Imperial Germany, 1871–1914 cism: Liberalism and the Anti-Catholic Imagination (1994) in Nineteenth-Century Germany.

• Blackbourn, David (1998), The Long Nineteenth • Hennock, E. P. The Origin of the Welfare State in Century: A , 1780–1918. England and Germany, 1850–1914: Social Policies Compared (Cambridge University Press, 2007) 381 • Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and pp. Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (2009) • Hennock, E. P. “Social Policy in the Bismarck Era: • Craig, Gordon A. Germany, 1866–1945 (1978) A Progress Report,” German History, (June 2003) online edition 21#2 pp 229–238 online • Holborn, Hajo (1969), “The Constitutional Conflict • Howard, Michael. The Franco-Prussian War: The in Prussia and the Early Years of the Bismarck Min- German invasion of France, 1870–1871 (1961) istry”, The History of Modern Germany 1840–1945, excerpt and text search Alfred A Knopf, pp. 131–72. • • ———————— (1969), “The Founding of the Kennedy, Paul M (1988), The Rise of the Anglo- New German Empire, 1865–71”, The History of German Antagonism, 1860–1914. Modern Germany 1840–1945, Alfred A Knopf, pp. • Kissinger, Henry. “The White Revolutionary: Re- 173–229. flections on Bismarck,” Daedalus Vol. 97, No. 3, • ———————— (1969), “Bismarck and the (Summer, 1968), pp. 888–924 in JSTOR Consolidation of the German Empire, 1871–90”, • Lord, Robert H. “Bismarck and Russia in 1863,” The History of Modern Germany 1840–1945, Alfred American Historical Review, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Oc- A Knopf, pp. 233–97. tober 1923), pp. 2–48. in JSTOR • Langer, William L. European alliances and align- • Mork, Gordon R. “Bismarck and the 'Capitulation' ments, 1871–1890 (1964) of German Liberalism,” Journal of Modern History • Retallack, James N (2008), Imperial Germany, Vol. 43, No. 1 (Mar., 1971), pp. 59–75 in JSTOR 1871–1918, Oxford University Press. • Paur, Philip. “The Corporatist Character of Bis- • Robinson, Janet, and Joe Robinson. Handbook of marck’s Social Policy,” European History Quarterly, Imperial Germany (2009) excerpt and text search Oct 1981; vol. 11: pp. 427–60. 22 15 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Ross, Ronald J (1998), The Failure of Bismarck’s • Frankel, Richard E (2005), Bismarck’s Shadow. The Kulturkampf: Catholicism and State Power in Impe- Cult of Leadership and the Transformation of the rial Germany, 1871–1887, The Catholic University German Right, 1898–1945, ISBN 1-84520-033-0, of America Press, 219 pp. 222 pp.

• Stone, James. “Bismarck Ante Portas! Germany • Gerwarth, Robert. “Inventing the Iron Chancellor,” and the Seize Mai Crisis of 1877.” Diplomacy & History Today 2007 57(6): 43–49, in EBSCO Statecraft (2012) 23#2 pp: 209-235. • ———————— (2005), The Bismarck Myth: • Stern, Fritz. Gold and Iron: Bismark, Bleichroder, Weimar Germany and the Legacy of the Iron Chan- and the Building of the German Empire (1979) eco- cellor, ISBN 0-19-928184-X, 216 pp. nomic and financial history; Bismark worked closely • Hamerow, Theodore S. ed. Otto von Bismarck and with this leading banker excerpt and text search Imperial Germany: A Historical Assessment (1993), excerpts from historians and primary sources • Stone, James (1994), “Bismarck and the Contain- ment of France, 1873–1877”, Canadian Journal of • Müller, Frank Lorenz (2008). “Man, Myth and History 29 (2) Monuments: The Legacy of Otto von Bismarck (1866–1998)". European History Quarterly 38 (4): • Strandmann, Hartmut Pogge von, “Domestic Ori- 626–36. doi:10.1177/0265691408094517. gins of Germany’s Colonial Expansion under Bis- marck,” Past & Present No. 42 (Feb., 1969), pp. • O'Shea, John J. “Bismarck’s Decline and Fall,” The 140–59 in JSTOR American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XXIII, January/October 1898. online • Waller, Bruce. Bismarck at the Crossroads. The Reorientation of German Foreign Policy after the • Pearce, Robert (March 2010), “The Austro- Congress of Berlin 1878–1880 (1974) Prussian War”, History Review (66). • • Wawro, Geoffrey. The Franco-Prussian War: The Russell, Mark A. “The Building of Hamburg’s Bis- German Conquest of France in 1870–1871(2005) marck Memorial, 1898–1906,” Historical Journal, Vol. 43, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 133–56 in JSTOR • Wawro, Geoffrey. “The War Scare of 1875: Bis- • Steefel, Lawrence D. “Bismarck,” Journal of Mod- marck and Europe in the Mid-1870s.” German His- ern History, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Mar., 1930), pp. 74–95 tory (2012) 30#1 pp: 140-141. in JSTOR • Wehler, Hans-Ulrich “Bismarck’s Imperialism • Stürmer, Michael. “Bismarck in Perspective,” Cen- 1862–1890” Past and Present, No. 48, August tral European History, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1870/71 1970. pp: 119–155 online edition (Dec., 1971), pp. 291–331 in JSTOR

• Wetzel, David. A Duel of Nations: Germany, • Urbach, Karina. “Between Saviour and Villain: 100 France, and the Diplomacy of the War of 1870– Years of Bismarck Biographies,” Historical Journal 1871 (University of Wisconsin Press; 2012) 310 1998 41(4): 1141–60 in JSTOR pages

• Wetzel, David. A Duel of Giants: Bismarck, 15.5 Primary sources Napoleon III, and the Origins of the Franco-Prussian War (U of Wisconsin Press, 2001). 244 pp. ISBN • Bismarck, Otto von (1899), Bismarck, the Man & 0-299-17490-5 the Statesman: Being the Reflections and Reminis- cences of Otto, Prince von Bismarck 1 15.4 Historiography and memory • ———————— (1898), Thoughts and Reminis- cences I • Cowen, Ron (30 January 2012), “Restored Edison • ———————— (1898), Thoughts and Reminis- Records Revive Giants of 19th-Century Germany”, cences II, Google Books. New York Times, retrieved 31 January 2012 • ————————, Memoirs II, Archive.org. • Frankel, Richard E. “From the Beer Halls to the Halls of Power: The Cult of Bismarck and the Le- • Hohenzollern, William I; Bismarck, Otto von gitimization of a New German Right, 1898–1945,” (1903), The correspondence of William I. and Bis- German Studies Review, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Oct., marck: with other letters from and to Prince Bis- 2003), pp. 543–560 in JSTOR marck, Translated by J. A. Ford 23

16 External links

• Otto von Bismarck at DMOZ •

• Bismarck on In Our Time at the BBC.(listen now)

• Bismarck World History Database

• Works by or about Otto von Bismarck in libraries (WorldCat catalog) 24 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

17 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

17.1 Text

• Otto von Bismarck Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck?oldid=669456154 Contributors: AxelBoldt, MichaelTin- kler, The Epopt, Mav, Clasqm, LA2, Christopher Mahan, Yooden, Rmhermen, Absecon 59, Ambrosen, Roadrunner, Ktsquare, Youandme, Olivier, Leandrod, Mrwojo, Edward, RTC, Dark ferret, Michael Hardy, Dante Alighieri, Gabbe, CORNELIUSSEON, GTBacchus, Todd, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Djmutex, Vzbs34, David Stewart, Panoramix, John K, Ruhrjung, JASpencer, Etherialemperor, Boson, Fuzheado, Zoicon5, Sarrazip, Tpbradbury, Tschild, VeryVerily, Wernher, Lord Emsworth, Joy, Mackensen, Bcorr, Eugene van der Pijll, Adam Carr, Pollinator, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Chrism, Chris 73, Jredmond, Romanm, Sam Spade, Lowellian, May- ooranathan, Yosri, Academic Challenger, Puckly, Hemanshu, Meelar, Moink, Hadal, Raeky, Anthony, HaeB, Seth Ilys, Guy Peters, Alan Liefting, Peterklevy, Christopher Parham, Barbara Shack, Oberiko, Nunh-huh, Ferkelparade, HangingCurve, Zigger, Dissident, Everyk- ing, No Guru, Guanaco, Naufana, Matthead, Nul~enwiki, Jackol, Deus Ex, Kudz75, Ehusman, Chowbok, Gadfium, Manuel Anastácio, Pgan002, Sca, Opera hat, Knutux, Quadell, Antandrus, Elizabeth A, Robert Brockway, Piotrus, Domino theory, Känsterle~enwiki, Mami- zou, Hi, Jeff. Hi!, Rdsmith4, Imlepid, OwenBlacker, Bodnotbod, Cglassey, Soman, Ørbech, Joyous!, Jcw69, TJSwoboda, Dcandeto, Hardouin, Karl Dickman, Adashiel, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, N328KF, DanielCD, Shipmaster, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rupertslander, ArnoldReinhold, Xezbeth, Mjpieters, Uppland, SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, Kaisershatner, S.K., Sem- pron~enwiki, Lycurgus, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Tom, Bookofjude, Hajduk, Bobo192, BT2, Elipongo, Sabretooth, Pokrajac, Vckeating, Jo- jit fb, Pschemp, Kx1186, Polylerus, Pearle, HasharBot~enwiki, Ranveig, ADM, Alansohn, Gary, Couperman, Eleland, Ryanmcdaniel, Jeltz, Ashley Pomeroy, AzaToth, Lectonar, RobK, Lightdarkness, Viridian, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Bucephalus, Bbsrock, Benson85, Immanuel Giel, Amorymeltzer, Sciurinæ, DrGaellon, Guy Montag, BlastOButter42, Kusma, BDD, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Ghirlandajo, Redvers, Nightstallion, Dan100, Squidwina, Ron Ritzman, King pigeon, Pischdi, Bobrayner, Dr Gangrene, Woohookitty, AxelDaner, FeanorStar7, MONGO, Tabletop, JohnC, Jon Harald Søby, Murdockh, Prashanthns, Palica, Matilda, Graham87, Mucky Duck, Yurik, Island, Wikix, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Coemgenus, Koavf, Carl Logan, Zimmera, Lockley, Helvetius, Feydey, Tawker, Stilgar135, The wub, Ttwaring, Olessi, Tommy Kronkvist, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Canaduh, EvanSeeds, Doc glasgow, KarlFrei, Kmorozov, RexNL, Str1977, Nevfennas, TeaDrinker, Russavia, Aloysius, Samuel Levine, Valentinian, Butros, Chobot, Kresspahl, Nagytibi, DVdm, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Banaticus, EamonnPKeane, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Kinneyboy90, Blightsoot, A.S. Brown, RussBot, Long- bow4u, Pigman, Tresckow, Danbarnesdavies, FDR, KevinCuddeback, CambridgeBayWeather, Monkeytrumpets, Kyorosuke, Cpuwhiz11, Marcus Cyron, NawlinWiki, Anomie, Aftermath, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Madcoverboy, Joshdboz, Carbidfischer, Rjensen, Howcheng, Dog- cow, Ghostreveries, Gerhard51, Ergbert, Molobo, Semperf, JPMcGrath, Michael Drew, Lockesdonkey, DeadEyeArrow, Brisvegas, DWC LR, Dv82matt, Wknight94, Sandstein, Spiogarb, Lt-wiki-bot, Bhumiya, Fang Aili, E Wing, Livitup, Sean Whitton, Acer, JoanneB, TBad- ger, Hayden120, Emc2, JLaTondre, Spliffy, T. Anthony, Curpsbot-unicodify, Allens, Wiggy04, Airconswitch, Joshronsen, Victor falk, Jinxs, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Sintonak.X, Joshbuddy, SmackBot, John Lunney, Britannicus, Unschool, Haymaker, Andrew walker, Bobet, M dorothy, Charles, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Hydrogen Iodide, Metzerly, Bomac, AndreasJS, Randoley, ScaldingHotSoup, Delldot, Eskimbot, Motorneuron, Vilerage, Kintetsubuffalo, Mike McGregor (Can), Srnec, Madison, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Duke Ganote, Hmains, The Gnome, Skizzik, QEDquid, Master Jay, Bluebot, Cush, Kaliz, Jprg1966, Stubblyhead, Thumperward, Liamdaly620, KaptKos, Leoni2, Robth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Roy Al Blue, Gerd Fahrenhorst, Colonies Chris, Darshbegarsh, Rlevse, GoodDay, Royboycrashfan, Shadow7789, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Ian T-Dobson, Mitsuhirato, Alexbulg, Skidude9950, TheKMan, TKD, Tyche151, Addshore, Edivorce, Krich, TotalSpaceshipGuy3, Khukri, Nakon, T-borg, Gokmop, RolandR, Rake~enwiki, RandomP, Thething88, Insineratehymn, Gujuguy, Andrew c, Le baron, Bidabadi~enwiki, Tim Ross, Ohconfucius, Kuzaar, SashatoBot, Serein (renamed because of SUL), MegA, Nareek, Sydney.city.easts, Molerat, Kuru, John, Pranesh Bhargava, Mathiasrex, Tazmaniacs, Worthlessboy1420, Gobonobo, Jperrylsu, Evenios, Michael Bednarek, PseudoSudo, LCahill, Hvn0413, SimonATL, Hera1187, Gamahler, Pseudoanonymous, Dodo bird, Xionbox, Dl2000, BSI, Fan-1967, Iridescent, Wrathful, Wikitedium, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Nhinchey, Paul Foxworthy, KsprayDad, Richard75, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Axt, Ofssinfoxes, Idols of Mud, Mike Lewis, Vaughan Pratt, CmdrObot, Van helsing, Nczempin, Mattychatty1, Kylu, Stevo1000, NickW557, Lazulilasher, Avillia, Neelix, Rwtheisen, Bill Sayre, Equendil, Cydebot, Reywas92, Gogo Dodo, Bellerophon5685, Travelbird, Corpx, Xeonis, Jayen466, Arkhamite, Crudnick, Bbalin1, Ejk81, DumbBOT, Lykos Moon, Rainer Lewalter, Kingstowngalway, Rider kabuto, JamesAM, Lid, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Kablammo, SeNeKa, [email protected], RobotEater, Headbomb, Marek69, James086, DaQuirin, Tellyaddict, JustAGal, Trampas, Edwin Hale, Jadseanderson, Escarbot, Drew- likeslacrosse, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Wsopla, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Opelio, Smith2006, F McGady, Cjs2111, Hellodier, Modernist, Farosdaughter, North Shoreman, Fredflint, Gökhan, Pfc Ender, JAnDbot, Lottto1000, MER-C, Dsp13, Matthew Fennell, Nwe, Passerby25, 100110100, Rentaferret, Savant13, Beaumont, Acroterion, Golemast9, DerMeister, Connormah, Restenergy, Brain explosion, Parsecboy, Celithemis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Italus, AtticusX, Norden1990, JaseFace, Zathereus, Hekerui, BrianGV, Carn, Animum, Nposs, Shield2, Commiserate, Spellmaster, Glen, DerHexer, Edward321, Patstuart, Charitwo, Ekki01, Smallchanges, MartinBot, STBot, Church of emacs, Andromeda53, 52 Pickup, Rettetast, Anaxial, Keith D, Jerry teps, Wylve, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHor- atius, Patar knight, Cheesenip1234, Vorratt, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Kimse, Eapos, DrKiernan, Shaundunbabin, DomBot, Kemiv, Eliz81, Mike.lifeguard, Rosomondo, Gzkn, Paris1127, Codohu, LordAnubisBOT, Bakhirun, Tony360X, Trvsdrlng, Gurchzilla, Less Than Free, Belovedfreak, Kansas Bear, Mufka, Student7, Harriellie, Sigmundur, Cometstyles, Lucifero4, Xyl 54, Mike V, Kvdveer, Inwind, Sandy Scott, Blood Oath Bot, Rpeh, Idioma-bot, Wikieditor06, Lights, Jay Iscariot, VolkovBot, Cireshoe, Thedjatclubrock, TallNapoleon, Rock- etman116, Firstorm, Soliloquial, Klkr, Philip Trueman, Paulturtle, TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, BuzzWoof, Tovojolo, Jacob Lundberg, Thats- theway, Hengoroth, Clarince63, Btovee, Manbss, Tpk5010, Raymondwinn, Maroonedsorrow, Mannafredo, RHLrx, Akerbeltz, Smallcor- rection, Josephabradshaw, Pwolschen, Chuck02, Milesmonk, Jnbl, PaladinWhite, Rumiton, Malus Catulus, Rune Kock, Pacifica007, Mon- sieurdl, Butterscotch, Inycxchris, Mcattell, Meters, Synthebot, Richado, Amwyll Rwden, Funnyboy220, ObjectivismLover, AlleborgoBot, Lincoln Pigman, Goldnpuppy, NHRHS2010, Rontrigger, AntiVandal9, Thw1309, Sean an Scuab, SieBot, Dca5347, Pro Game Master87, Kernel Saunters, ToePeu.bot, Jauerback, Æthelwold, VVVBot, Krawi, Dimwight, Countesssophie, Peterypres, Cwkmail, 7mper5~enwiki, Yintan, Veritatis splendor~enwiki, Tiptoety, Oda Mari, Jasgrider, Monegasque, Freedomwarrior, Darth Kalwejt, Antonio Lopez, Ethan nietche, Benea, Steven Zhang, Setrep, Johnanth, Svick, G.-M. Cupertino, Vojvodaen, Aumnamahashiva, Oceras, The Four Deuces, Pow- erman5544, Jacob.jose, Martin H., NazgulsInc, Nn123645, Denisarona, Jons63, LarRan, Megavat, Brand35, Francvs, Gr8opinionater, Tkcharles, RS1900, Dvallere, Willow-williams, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Soidi, Elassint, ClueBot, Hutcher, Philip Sutton, Wedineinheck, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, Dpmuk, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Arakunem, Wispanow, Senzangakhona, Drmies, Cryptographic hash, Uncle Milty, Ventusa, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, LizardJr8, Dozols, 00Svo, Neverquick, Mr Accountable, DragonBot, Excirial, Ziko, NuclearWarfare, Jotterbot, Iohannes Animosus, M.O.X, Kaiba, Banime, MilesAgain, Thingg, Versus22, Bobtherush, SoxBot III, Indopug, Apatens, Cowardly Lion, Oskar71, Polyhistor1876, Hotcrocodile, RogDel, Mccaskey, BR- PXQZME, Little Mountain 5, Npnunda, NellieBly, Maracon, HerkusMonte, Squiglypete2005, Noctibus, Kaiwhakahaere, WikiDao, Cradel, 17.2 Images 25

Poopbuttface123, Hellokitty8000, Surtsicna, Addbot, Roentgenium111, AVand, Offenbach, Some jerk on the Internet, Jojhutton, Light- Spectra, Fieldday-sunday, KorinoChikara, CanadianLinuxUser, Macadam2008, Cst17, Download, Cambalachero, Mdubke, AnnaFrance, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Lyaios~enwiki, Numbo3-bot, Tharnton345, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Tarheelz123, David0811, Bermi- court, Aldibibable, Angrysockhop, Annoapra, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Grantdesrosi, Kartano, Fraggle81, Mas cutie 95, Rsquire3, Naudefjbot~enwiki, House1630, Yngvadottir, WellsSouth, PMLawrence, KamikazeBot, Uhei, MinorProphet, Prince20080, Orion11M87, AnomieBOT, Wikiblurrr, 1exec1, Jim1138, IRP, Crackpot9, Piano non troppo, Lecen, Law, Darolew, Ulric1313, Kikithemad93, Materi- alscientist, Phoenix of9, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Maxis ftw, 30silverplz, Neurolysis, LilHelpa, Xqbot, WikiRapper, TimFlavin2010, ΛΦΠ, Capricorn42, Boongie, Hammersbach, 4twenty42o, Ulf Heinsohn, Lolinder, Mlpearc, PsuedoName, Jdsteakley, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Omnipaedista, Papercutbiology, Prunesqualer, 78.26, Rjhavey, Auntieruth55, Bonncaruso~enwiki, GhalyBot, Shadowjams, Miya- gawa, Erik9, A.amitkumar, ArdenHathaway, Browncub1, Graham pancer, Cekli829, Der Kronstadter, FrescoBot, Mckillingking-rom, LucienBOT, GjR, 1970gemini, Ckehqkqh, Mìthrandir, FrankMJohnson, Alxeedo, HJ Mitchell, Wikilivi, Sopher99, Chenopodiaceous, Intelligentsium, Mmckenna214, Fxdwillieglide3, JohnFagg, WQUlrich, Cerebrotonic, HRoestBot, Moonraker, RedBot, Pikiwyn, Serols, Deguef, Reconsider the static, Ozhistory, Jauhienij, FoxBot, Alfred Lord Tennis shoes, Trappist the monk, Diblidabliduu, 1I9I8I5, Fama Clamosa, Lotje, Vrenator, BirdW, MyMoloboaccount, Dave the translator, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Ramblagir, Bossanoven, VernoWhitney, Beyond My Ken, Hajatvrc, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Patwaddington, Ajraddatz, GoingBatty, Tazzlover, Mar- rante, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, Badzil, Jsehrett, Italia2006, Mz7, Brothernight, Fæ, Traxs7, F69aeb1e491308765e872de70f58e18b, Bhatnagarishi, Alpha Quadrant (alt), A930913, SilverTW, SporkBot, Josh Gorand, Rcsprinter123, Brandmeister, Reigen, Donner60, Chew- ings72, EpiclyAwesomeDude, Bill william compton, ChuispastonBot, , OregonGhost, Herk1955, Llightex, Maicek, WorldWarTwoEd- itor, Historia1234512345, Berlin 11011, ClueBot NG, Rich Smith, 23sports, Yuskeya, Jejehr, NordhornerII, Bigbutt1, RJFF, Frietjes, Rim- mingbastered, Alphasinus, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Widr, Charizard16, Helpful Pixie Bot, Furfur, Lothar Balhorn, HMSSolent, Jcase-levine, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Bmusician, Acidbasesex, Vagobot, Wheatsing, Kndimov, Uberman10, Kangaroopower, HIDECCHI001, Davidiad, Atomician, Joydeep, Yerevantsi, Altaïr, CitationCleanerBot, 14Adrian, Snow Blizzard, Ernio48, Dbrainstorm, Enredados, Sekarrc, Navinhsam, Rosotto, DrKilleMoff, Ericloch00001, Vincentnufcr1, GryffPM, Wolfflover, JYBot, ÄDA - DÄP, Dexbot, Nwash57, BcTsarIvan, Charles Essie, Mogism, Caleb Dorey, Fifty53, LlamaDude78, Y256, Jamesx12345, Albatrossbatman, Marcusbeanfan, Epicge- nius, Beckermanchris, Peter wilson wong, CsDix, Howicus, Julian Felsenburgh, Tentinator, English Patriot Man, B14709, DavidLeighEllis, Rawheadbobby, JamesCatMeow1234, Hardtofindausername, Max Brian Reed, Parksidelowersixth, RoflCopter404, BillTheScienceGuy, OccultZone, Daniel.R.F.Allen, JaconaFrere, Signoredexter, Lafayetteclyde, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Cvazan, Lilypop134, Marcelo Ar- mando, TheoSturgis, Gaystation4, Jacobfrancibob, Clormogan, Barfooker, Akshat2501, Simi9011, SamuelOdinga, Banana10000, Waller- chase, M555333555M555333555M, Sbcloatitr, Y.repik, Dwetzel30, Hashi0707, Its.ako, KasparBot, Chuxes and Anonymous: 1494

17.2 Images

• File:1889_recording_by_Otto_von_Bismarck.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/1889_recording_ by_Otto_von_Bismarck.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cylinder.de/deeplink_resource_bismarck.html Original artist: Otto von Bismarck; restored by Norman Bruderhofer • File:1890_Bismarcks_Ruecktritt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/1890_Bismarcks_Ruecktritt.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bismarck-Nationaldenkmal,_März_2008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/ Bismarck-Nationaldenkmal%2C_M%C3%A4rz_2008.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/brostad/ 2363323849 Original artist: Bernt Rostad • File:Bismarck-Wappen.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Bismarck-Wappen.png License: Public domain Contributors: www.altmarkadel.de Original artist: Falko Ottenberg • File:Bismarck80Jahre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Bismarck80Jahre.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:BismarckLandtag.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/BismarckLandtag.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/BismarckRoonMoltke.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R29818,_Otto_von_Bismarck.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/ Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R29818%2C_Otto_von_Bismarck.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: • Red_flag_waving.svg Original artist: Red_flag_waving.svg: Wereon • File:Flag_of_German_Reich_(1933–1935).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_German_ Reich_%281933%E2%80%931935%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: R-41 • File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Germany_(3-2_aspect_ratio).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Flag_of_Germany_ %283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Mmxxxxxxxx 26 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Prussia_1892-1918.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Flag_of_Prussia_1892-1918.svg License: ? Contributors: Own Work, Custom Creation according to the flag description Original artist: Drawing created by David Liuzzo • File:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Recoloured Image: (2-3).svg Original artist: User:B1mbo and User:Madden • File:Flag_of_the_NSDAP_(1920–1945).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_the_NSDAP_ %281920%E2%80%931945%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Original PNG version created by de:Benutzer:Kookaburra with the name "Bild:Flag Germany 1933.png” in de.wikipedia; uploaded to the Wikimedia Commons by User:Guanaco, later converted to SVG by User:Rotemliss and later modified by other Wikimedia Commons people. Original artist: ? • File:Franz_von_Lenbach_-_Portrait_of_Otto_Eduard_Leopold_von_Bismarck_-_Walters_371007_-_View_B.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Franz_von_Lenbach_-_Portrait_of_Otto_Eduard_Leopold_von_Bismarck_ -_Walters_371007_-_View_B.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: Home page Info about artwork Original artist: Franz von Lenbach • File:Franz_von_Lenbach_Bismarck.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Franz_von_Lenbach_ Bismarck.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Hampel Auctions Original artist: Franz von Lenbach • File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/ Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart. svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides • File:Hamburg-Bismarck-Denkmal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/ Hamburg-Bismarck-Denkmal.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Httpdigi.ub.uni-heidelberg.dediglitklabismarck18900050a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/ Httpdigi.ub.uni-heidelberg.dediglitklabismarck18900050a.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Bismarck-Album des Kladderadatsch Original artist: Wilhelm Scholz • File:Kladderadatsch_1875_-_Zwischen_Berlin_und_Rom.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/ Kladderadatsch_1875_-_Zwischen_Berlin_und_Rom.png License: Public domain Contributors: Kladderadatsch 16. Mai 1875; wieder in: Bismarck-Album des Kladderadatsch. Mit dreihundert Zeichnungen von Wilhelm Scholz und vier facsimilierten Briefen des Reichskanzlers. Berlin 91890, S. 86 Original artist: Wilhelm Scholz • File:Lutherrose.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Lutherrose.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu- tors: Image:Luther seal.jpg uploaded by Dubaduba (21 August 2005 12:06) Original artist: Jed • File:Otto+von+bismarck.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Otto%2Bvon%2Bbismarck.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.deutsche-und-polen.de/_/personen/person_jsp/key=otto+von_bismarck.html Original artist: ? • File:Otto_Fürst_von_Bismarck.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Otto_F%C3%BCrst_von_ Bismarck.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Kabinett-Photo Original artist: AD.BRAUN & Cie Dornach • File:Otto_vBismark.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Otto_vBismark.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Otto_vonBismarck_Signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Otto_vonBismarck_Signature. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/ruete/arabian/vi.jpeg Original artist: Otto von Bismarck • File:Otto_von_Bismarck,_Jugendbildnis_im_Alter_von_22_Jahren.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ d/d3/Otto_von_Bismarck%2C_Jugendbildnis_im_Alter_von_22_Jahren.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 1. welt.de Original artist: Philipp Petri • File:Otto_von_Bismarck.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Otto_von_Bismarck.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Evert A. Duykinck, A Portrait Gallery of Eminent Men and Women of Europe and America, with Biographies. New York: Johnson, Wilson and Company. http://www.jamessmithnoelcollection.org/images/otto%20von%20bismarck.jpg Original artist: Evert Duykinck • File:Rudelsburg_Junger_Bismarck_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Rudelsburg_Junger_ Bismarck_2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_Königreich_Preussen_(Mittleres).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 0/00/Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_K%C3%B6nigreich_Preussen_%28Mittleres%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wernerprokla.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Wernerprokla.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Museen Nord / Bismarck Museum: Picture Original artist: Anton von Werner • File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:World_war_one_web_alliance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/World_war_one_web_ alliance.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: XIXth century political cartoon Original artist: Unknown 17.3 Content license 27

17.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0