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, . Not to be Excelled for Elegance or Utility: ' t~~j , 1~;:_ A Study of the 'Availability of Ceramics .' , '

~:" : in Sydney 1803-1868 ~' d· '~r' '

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'. I • Megan Atkins

Historical Archaeology IV University of Sydney. /.: I. 'i' , 1991

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'. I I. .::' , .' ", , J . 'NATHANIEL M'CUlLOCK ... is happy in being enabled to announce that, through his extensive connexion, he has added, by the last arrivals, to his stock a splendid variety of of every description, not to be excelled for elegance or utility.'

Sydney Herald 15 August 1833

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Historical Archaeology IV University of Sydney November 1991

Supervisor: Judy Binrungham

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1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: I would like to thank the following people for their advice , and support throughout the year:- Judy Birmingham,Peter White,Roland Fletcher,John Clegg, I Dana Mider and Barbara Fitzroy. I would especially like to thank Andrew Wilson for his help with the illustrations presented in this thesis,as well as for all his ] encouragement and advice in the writing of this thesis. I

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NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE AUTHOR. I ,I I

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TABLE OF CONTENTS: pg.

I.O.INTRODUCTION *1.1.CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR & MATERIAL CULTURE I *1.2.MARKET AVAILABILITY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY 4 CERAMICS

2.0.CONSTRUCTING THE MODEL:METHODOLOGY *2.I.S0URCES OF DATA 7 *2.2.SAMPLING PROCEDURES 7 *2.2.1.THE SYDNEY GAZETTE & N.S.W. 8 ADVERTISER *2.2.2.THE SYDNEY HERALD 9 *2.3.METHODS OF ACQUISITION 11 *2.4.LIMITS OF THE STUDY 13 *2.5.CONSTRAINTS 14

3.0.THE MODEL *3.1.INTRODUCTION 16 *3.2.DECORATIVE TYPES AVAILABLE IN SYDNEY c.1803 TO 1868 *3.2.1.STRUCTURE & CONSTRAINTS 18 *3.2.2.C.C.WARE 20 *3.2.3.QUEEN'S WARE 22 *3.2.4.WHITEWARE 23 *3.2.5.EDGED WARES 24 *3.2.6.SPONGED DECORATED WARES 28 *3.2.7.DIPT WARES 30 *3.2.8.PRINTED WARES 33 *3.2.9.BLUE PRINTED WARES 35 *3.2.10.BROWN PRINTED WARES 37 *3.2.11.GREEN PRINTED WARES 39 *3.2.12.FLOWING & FLOWING BLUE WARES 40 *3.2.13.FLOWING GREEN WARES 43 *3.2.14.MULBERRY WARE 44 *3.2.15.WILLOW WARE 46 *3.2.16.MARBLE WARES 49 *3.2.17. WARES 51 *3.2.18.WHITE GRANITE WARES 53 '*3.2.19.PEARL WHITE WARES 54 *3.2.20.WHITE & GOLD WARES 56 *3.2.21.GOLD EDGE (& GOLD BAND WARES 59 *3.2.22.SPRIGGED OR SPRIG WARES 61 *3.2.23.BLUE SPRIGGED WARES 63 r -

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*3.2.24.BLUE FIGURED WARES 64 *3.2.25.LUSTRE WARES 65 *3.3.SUMMARY:A MODEL OF AVAILABILITY OF 67 CERAMICS ADVERTISED FOR SALE IN SYDNEY c.1803 TO 1868.

4.0.TESTING THE MODEL *4.1.MILLER & THE AVAILABILITY & POPGLARITY 1 OF 19TH CENTURY ENGLISH CERAMICS. 71 *4.1.1.INTRODUCTION 72 *4.1.2.THE MODEL 74 I *4.1.3.DISCUSSION *4.2.THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE:CERAMICS FROM THE REGENTVILLE PRIVY DEPOSIT c.1825-1869. 77 *4.2.1.THE SITE & DEPOSIT 79 *4.2.2.AVAILABILITy,FASHIONABILITY & ASPECTS OF CONSUMERISM AT REGENTVILLE:SOME PRELIMINARY RESULTS

S.O.DISCUSSION & COMMENT:THE CERAMIC MARKET IN THE COLONY OF N.S.W. c.1800-1870.

90 6.0.CONCLUSIONS 93 7.0.FURTHER AREAS OF RESEARCH 95 8.0.BIBLIOGRAPHY

PLEASE NOTE:THE CERAMIC ADVERTISEMENTS USED IN THIS STUDY HAVE BEEN PRESENTED SEPARATE TO THIS STUDY. iv.

LIST OF FIGURES: pg.

*FIGURE l:LIFE-CYCLE OF CERAMICS FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL 2 CONTEXTS

*FIGURE 2:CATALOGUE DRAWINGS OF PLATE 26 SHAPES ON PAPER BEARING AN 1802 WATERMARK SOURCE:ARCHIVES OF LTD., REPRODUCED IN I.NOEL HUME 1973," TO PEARLWARE:A WILLIAMSBURG PERSPECTIVE" IN I. M. G. QUIMBY (ED.), CERAMICS IN ANERICA, P.222.

*FIGURE 3:HANDPAI]\;TED,MODIFIED EDGE DECORATJ.ON ')­ SOURCE:T.MAJEWSKI & M.J.O'BRIEN 1987,"THE USE & <-. I MISUSE OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY ENGLISH & AMERICAN CERAMICS IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS" IN M.B.SCHIFFER (ED.) ,ADv~4NCES IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHOD & THEORY 11 ,p. 149. *FIGURE 4:DIPT & MOCHA WARES SOURCE:T.G.GREEN .& CO'S CHURCH GRESLEY (DERBYSHIRE) 32 , REPRODUCED IN G.A.GODDEN 1980,AN ILLUSTRATED P.173.ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF BRITISH POTTERY & ,

*FIGURE 5:MODEL OF AVAILABILITY FOR ADVERTISED CERAMICS 1803-1868 68

*FIGURE 6:AVAILABILITY & POPULARITY OF CERAMIC DECORATION (AFTER MILLER 1991) 73

*FIGURE 7:AVAILABILITY & POPULARITY OF 10 CERAMIC TYPES COMMON TO FIGS.5 & 6 75

*FIGURE 8:SCHEMATIC PLAN OF THE REGENTVILLE MANSION SITE 78 SOURCE:A.WILSON 1988, "THE FAILED COLONIAL SQUIRE: r SIR JOHN JAMISON AT REGENTVILLE" IN J.BIRMINGHAM,D.BAIRSTOW & A.WILSON (EDS. l, ARCHAEOLOGY & COLONISATION:AUSTRALIA IN THE y/ORLD CONTEXT, P. 125.

*FIGURE 9:DATED MARKED CERAMICS FROM REGENTVILLE PRIVY 1824-1869 81

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U~~ i *FIGURE 10:ADVERTISED CERAMICS PRESENT IN 82 REGENTVILLE PRIVY 1824-1869 l. *FIGURE 11:IMPORTS OF EARTHENWARE & CHINA INTO 85 N.S.W. 1828-1857 SOURCE:ARCHIVES OFFICE OF N.S.W. ,COLONIAL SECRETARY, RETURNS OF THE COLONY (BLUE BOOKS) 1822-1857.FIGURES ARE REPRODUCED '. IN K. BARNES, AUSTRALIAN CERAMIC V1PORTS I,ly­ J1 THE WORLD CONTKYT. *FIGURE 12:FREQUENCY OF ADVERTISEMENTS FOR THE 87 • SALE OF CERAMICS 1828-1857. •rf • I!i 11 I

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1.a.INTRODUCTION

1.1.CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MATERIAL CULTURE

Ceramic artefacts recovered from archaeological contexts have been used by historical archaeologists for a variety of purposes.As artefacts whose manufacturer,origin and period of production can often be established, ceramics have traditionally been used in historical archaeology as tools for the dating of deposits and the period of occupation of a site. The interpretativ~ role played by ceramics,however,has greatly expanded during the past decade as historical archaeologists have become increasingly aware of the varied informational content contained within the ceramic database. One area of research in historical archaeology that has gathered momentum in recent years,primarily in North America,is the study of the relationship between consumer behaviour and material culture.Historical archaeologists have isolated consumer choice as one of a number of cultural formation processes which influence the nature of the archaeological record.In the broadest sense,consumer choice relates to those variables which influence consumers in their decision to acquire or select goods and services which they expect will satisfy perceived needs and wants.Archaeologists have identified a number of diverse,yet often interrelated variables that may have influenced consumer choice. A number of variables commonly cited by historical archaeologists as influencing consumer choice are represented in Figure 1.This diagram represents in a simplistic form the life­ cycle of ceramic artefacts recovered from archaeological contexts.Basically,the life-cycle of a ceramic object begins with its manufacture.It is then distributed or transported to a market where it is purchased by a consumer.It is the decision made by the consumer to acquire only a selective range of goods that is one of the processes that influences what is ultimately deposited in an archaeological context. What motivated the consumer to purchase or select one type of good over another,however,is a complex issue.Historical archaeologists have identified a number of behavioural variables which may have influenced consumer choice.These variables include market access or the availability of goods, socioeconomic status (or the social and economic position of the consumer) ,ethnicity, individual preferences or tastes,household size and composition and foodways functions.After the ceramic has be~n purchased,it is usually placed in general usage at a household or some other level.Such I 2

FIG.l:LIFE-CYCLE OF CERAMICS FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS

I MAN UFACTURE. I DlST£IBtIfEO TO I A MARKET

I INDIVIDUAL ./ PREFERENCES / / / / ECoNOMIC ~ PURCHASED BY HOUSfHOLD SllE ------I 50CIAL POsrnON THE CONSUMER a COMP051TlON

t 'I." FOOOWflYS 6// 1 FilNCTlON5 I USED 8YTHE: CONSUME-I<. OR. HouseHOLD I 1 I LOST OR DISCflRDfD ON I SITE ------+ ----1~~~~~=:N1EXT--- I OrJW FORMS PRRT OF ARCHI'lEDlDQlUIL I ASSEM5lflGE 3

factors as the loss or intentional disposal of the object results in its movement from a living (systemic) context to an archaeological context.The archaeological assemblage that is ultimately recovered is essentially the end product of an I indeterminate series of purchase,use and discard incidents. A large proportion of research concerning consumer behaviour has focused on isolating and examining the influence that the variables of socioeconomic status and ethnicity have on the I nature of the archaeological record.One of the major criticisms of many of these studies has been of the assumption that the , determinants of the archaeological record can indeed be isolated in such a way. Consumer selections may be influ~nced by an indeterminate number of variables which are often interrelated.As Spencer-Wood and Heberling,two leading exponents in this field of research have conceeded:

"The complex interaction of factors affecting consumer decisions makes it difficult to tinderstand fully the role of each variable .... Until more is known about the many factors that influence I consumer behavior and the kinds of artifacts deposited and excavated, sophisticated archaeological interpretation , is difficult."l

~ Despite the presence of this extensive body of literature on consumer behaviour,many ceramic studies in Australian historical i1 archaeology still concentrate on aspects of ceramic technology I, and its implications for the dating of deposits.Indeed,a number of recent site reports have produced no more than a description of th~ ceramics recovered from the site.In recent years,however, one of the explicit goals of a number of excavations in Australia i1 has been the investigation of the economic and social position of the past occupants of a site.To do this,excavators have looked at ceramic assemblages .for the presence or absence of "expensive" ~ ware or decorative types,such as porcelain,and the frequencies with which they occur in a given ~eposit.Also,the presence or ~ absence of matching ceramic services has been looked for.The I' lS.M.Spencer-Wood & S.D.Heberling 1987, "Consumer Choices in White Ceramics",in S.M.Spencer-Wood {ed. ) ,Consumer Choice in Historical ~ Archaeology,p.58. ~. 4

assumption,however,that the presence of these categories of ceramics indicates a higher social and economic position has not been tested or qualified in any way. A number of problems are also apparent in attempting to define the status of past occupants of a site through their material remains.The nature of the deposit itself can cause difficulties when attempting to associate it with particular inhabitants of a site.This is particularly true of accumulative deposits such as wells and privies typically found on many nineteenth and twentieth-century Australian sites.There is also a tendency to link the archaeological record with those inhabitants of a site who are the most prominent in the historical record. Groups such as women and servants,who are often under-represented in the historical record,and their role in the formation of the archaeological record is an area that needs to be addressed. J.

1.2.MARKET AVAILABILITY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY CERAMICS

Market availability represents one of a number of variables that may influence consume~ choice.In the broadest sense,market availability refers to the total range of goods and services that are supplied by producers to a market for consumption.It essentially represents the basis for all consumer decisions,for a consumer can only choose from the range of goods available. This thesis examines both the historical and archaeological evidence pertaining to th~ market availability or supply of ceramics in Sydney from c.1800 to 1870.In general terms,the aims of this study are as 'folloHs: *To use ceramic advertisements from two Sydney newspapers as a coherent body of data to generate a model of availability of ceramic types which could be purchased in Sydney between 1803 ~nd 1868,focusing not only on the types of objects that could be purchased,but on trends such as ceramic fashionability in Sydney during the nineteenth century.The primary aim of generating such a model is to provide a local or regional framework that will facilitate site comparison.These ceramic advertisements are a valuable source of information on ceramics that were produced in and imported into the colony of N.S.W .. Until now,however, little attempt has been made by both archaeologists in Australia and overseas to utilize this body of data.While many of the studies consulted during the course of this study often referred to the contents and use of ceramic advertisements,the author did not locate any studies where advertisements have formed and have

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been utilized a coherent body of data. 2 ,J. ~s *Other documentary sources of data concerning ceramic supply will be compared with this model in an attempt to further define the nature of this model.The model will be further tested against archaeological evidence pertaining to ceramic availability and consumer purchasing patterns at the site of Regentville near Penrith,N.S.W ..

*To explore the nature of the ceramic market in ~.S.w. and the mechanisms that may have influenced supply.

*Lastly,to explore and access the role of market availability in terms of its relationship to consumer behaviour,and as one of a number of cultural formation processes which influence the nature of the archaeological record.

Part 2 of this research details the sources of data,sampling procedures,the constraints encountered during research and the I limits of the study.Part 3 outlines decorative types available in Sydney between c.1800 and 1870,and presents a model of availability based upon references to these wares.The model generated in Part 3 of this study is assessed and further refined I against another historical model of availability derived from the Kork of George L.~iller,as well as against excavated material from the site of Regentville. Part 5 of this study explores the nature of the Sydney ceramic market during this period,and its place within the global economy.One of the major assumptions made in many American studies of consumer behaviou~,is that the supply of ceramics is stable,that is,there was a constant supply of a wide range of nineteenth century ceramics in the larger distribution centres of North America.Studies have focused instead on looking at the accessibility of archaeological sites to major markets and

2The only paper located by the author which referred to the role of ceramic advertisements in historical archaeology was S.A.Mrozowski 1988,"For gentlemen of capacity & leisure:the archaeology of colonial newspapers",in M.C.Beaudry led. ) ,Documentary Archaeology in the New World.In this paper,the author only alludes to the use of ceramic advertisements in refining dating techniques,and the fact that they "furnish a body of data concerning assemblage composition" (p.185). 6

3 problems of supply in economically isolated communities. In Australia, however,it may be that factors such as the distance of the colony from the major production centres in Great Britain and Europe,the cost of transportation and the small size of the market in the earlier part of the nineteenth-century affected the supply of ceramics to even the larger colonial settlements such as Sydney.

3For example,G.L.Miller & S.H.Hurry 1983,"Ceramic Supply in an Economically Isolated Frontier Community:Portage County of the Ohio Western Reserve,1800-1825",Historical Archaeology 17:80-S2. Z.O.CONSTRUCTING THE MODEL:METHODOLOGY

2.1. SOURCES~ DAT.';

The data used in this study is derived from ceramic advertisements ....,hich appeared in The Sydney Gazette & N. S. ft'. Advertiser (published between 1803 and 1842) and The Sydney Herald (which began publication in 1831,and which from 1843 became known as The Sydney Morning Heraldl. The time period covered by this study extends from 1803,~ith the publication of the first newspaper in the colony of N.S.W. ,until 186S.Although these advertisements are often for the sale of ceramics in rural or outlying areas such as Windsor,Parramatta and Bathurst,the majority of advertisements are for the sale of goods in the immediate vicinity of Sydney.In particular,many of the retailers and auctioneers who advertised in these two newspapers had stores or rooms in ~hat is now referred to as the CBD area of Sydney. These ceramic advertisements represent the best available source of documentary evidence concerning the supply of nineteenth-century ceramics to the_colony of N.S.W., Unlike wholesale pqtters' records and accounts,another source of information on the availability of ceramics,advertisements are able to focus on supply at a regional or local level.The ceramic advertisements from these two newspapers provide data not only on I the types of ceramics offered for sale,but contain information relevant to the nature of the ceramic market in the colony of N.S.W. ,and the marketing practices of retailers and auctioneers involved in this trade.Apart from detailing the ceramic goods offered for sale,other information commonly found in the advertisements include the prices of the ceramics for sale,detail of the vessels which imported these goods and their I port of origin,detailss of the manufacturers of the goods,details of the agents either aboard the vessels or in Britain who exported the goods to the colony,as well as the type and terms of I the sale. I I 2.2.SAMPLING PROCEDURES Unless otherwise stated,the data used in this study was collected by the author of this thesis.The ceramic advertisements have been presented separately to this study.The reports I mentioned below are held with the Centre for Historical I Archaeology at the University of Sydney.

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2.2.1.THE SYDNEY GAZETTE & N.S.W. ADVERTISER

was published on a *1803 to 1824:During this period the newspaper t was sampled. ~eekly basis and every publication on a weekly , *1825:Until October the newspaper was published twice a week. basis.From this month,the newspaper was published Every publication was sampled for this year. was published twice a week. I> *1826:During this year the newspaper Every publication was sampled for this year.

the first month of this year the newspaper was J *1827:For paper published daily except on Sunday.From February,however,the Monday,wednesday was published three times a week. For JanuarY,a publication was and Friday sample was taken. From February,every I sampled. from an *1828 & 1829:The data for these years was obtained report by Jennifer Hansford.During these years,the unpublished details I was published three times a week.No sampling newspaper was are given,although it appears that every publication pertaining to the sampled.It also appears that advertisements I~q from this study. sale of second-hand ceramics have been excluded was published *1830 to 1834:During this period the newspaper was sampled. I~;. three times a week. Every publication was obtained from an *1835 to June,1837:The data for this period this period the unpublished report by Colleen Callaghan.During issues a month. I newspaper was published between ten and thirteen that every No sampling details are given,although it appears to the sale of publication was sampled.Advertisements pertaining study. I,"'" second-hand ceramics were excluded from this was obtained from *July to December,1837:The data for this period this period the an unpublished report by Annita Waghorn.During I pUblication was newspaper was published three times a week.Every the sale of sampled,although advertisements pertaining to study. I second-hand ceramics were excluded from this from an to 1840:The data for this period was obtained *1838 details are unpublished report by Daniel Morgan.No sampling of second-hand I given.Advertisements pertaining to the sale ceramics were excluded from this study. was obtained from *1841 to October,1842:The data for this period I this period the an unpublished report by Dorian Dobrovic.During I· • k~' L1* 9

newspaper was published every second day until it ceased publication in October,1842.Every publication was sampled, although advertisements pertaining to the sale of second-hand ceramics ~ere excluded from this study.

I 2.2.2.THE SYDNEY HERALD From 1843,The Sydney Herald becomes known as The Sydney Morning Herald,a publication that has continued to the present day.

*1831 & 1832:During these two years the newspaper was published I on a weekly basis beginning in April,1831.Every publication was 'sampled. I *1833 & 1834:During these two years the newspaper was published twice a week.Every, publication was sampled. *1835 to 1837:During this period the newspaper w~s published twice a ~eek.Every Monday (one of these two days) was sampled.

*1838:During this year the newspaper was published twice a week. From July,however,the newspaper began to be published three times a week.One day a week (Monday) was sampled for the whole year. *1839:During this year the newspaper was published three times a week (Monday,Wednesday and Friday).One day a week (Monday) was sampled for the whole year. *1840:During this year the newspaper was published three times a week (Monday,Wednesday and Friday).From October,however,the newspaper was published daily except for Sunday. One day a week (Monday) was sampled for the whole year.

*1841 to 1844:During this period the newspaper was published daily except for Sunday.A one day a week sample (Monday) was taken for the whole period. *1845:The data for this year was obtained from an unpublished report by Robin Monk.During this year the newspaper was published daily except for Sunday.No sampling details are provided.It appears that every edition was looked at. Advertisements pertaining to the s~le of second-hand ceramics have been excluded from this study. *1846 to 1853:During this period the newspaper was published 10

dailY except for Sunday.A one day a week sample (Monday) was taken for the whole period.

*1854:During this year the newspaper was published daily except for SundaY.A one da~ a week sample (Monday) was taken for the whole year.Advertisements pertaining to the sale of second-hand ceramics were not collected for this year.

*1855:The data for this year was obtained from an unpublished report by Denise Mackenzie.During this year the newspaper was published daily except for Sunday.A one day a week sample .(Monday) was taken for the whole year.

*1856 to 1859:During this period the newspaper was published daily except for Sunday.A one day a week sample (Monday) was taken for the entire period.

*1860:The data for this year was obtained from an unpublished report by Kathryn King.During this year the newspaper was pllblished daily except for Sunday.A one day a week sample (Monday) was taken for the whole year.Excluded from this study • were adv~rtisements pertaining to the sale of second-hand ceramics.Also excluded were advertisements pertaining to regular auction sales,where ceramics were one of a wide range of goods • and household furniture sold. *1861:During this year the newspaper was published daily except • for Sunday.A one day a week sample (Monday) was taken for the year,except for between April 1 and June 15 where two days of the week (Monday and Wednesday) were sampled. • *1862 to 1864:During this period the newspaper was published daily except for Sunday.A one day a week sample (Monday) was • taken for the entire period. *1865:The data for this year was obtained from an unpublished report by Rachelle Graves.During this year the newspaper was • published daily except for Sunday.A one day a week sample (Monday) was taken for the whole year.Advertisements pertaining to the sale of second-hand ceramics were excluded from this •" study. *1866 to 1868:Du~ing this period the newspaper was published daily except for Sunday.A one day a week sample (Monday) was • taken for the entire period.

• Initially,this study was undertaken with the goal of looking at as ma~y editions as possible within this time period. • 11

It soon became clear,however,that this would be beyond the time limits given for the completion of this study. and that systematic sampling of the newspapers ~as necessary.Therefore,from 1835 a one day a week sample was taken.The decision to sample every Monday edition of the newspaper was based on two factors. Firstly,a large proportion of the reports that are mentioned above and used in this study follow this format.Therefore, • by adopting this sampling procedure consistency has been maintained for the greater part of the period.Secondly,it became apparent during the course of compiling this data that • advertisements at the beginning of the week were often for sales that were to take place during the forthcoming ~eek,and that there was a tendency to repeat these advertisements closer to the • sale date.Therefore,it was thought that the Monday edition ~ould most likely contain the greatest proportion of advertisements compared to other days of the week.This can be seen when two assignments completed for 1855 are compared.The report for 1855 • used in the present study considered every Monday edition of The Sydney Morning Herald for the entire year.Another unpublished report compiled by Xanthi Pythagoras for 1855 {also held with the • Centre for Historical Archaeologyl,looked at every edition of the same newspaper for the t~o months of January and June.There are only four advertisements {from a total of twelve advertisements} • which do not appear in any of the Monday editions for these two months.A similar proportion can be seen for the period between April 1 and June 15,1861 when a Monday and Wednesday sample was taken.Of a total of 48 advertisements for the period, there were • some twenty advertisements which ~id not appear in the Monday • edition of the newspaper.

• 2.3.METHODS OF ACQUISITION

•"' The advertisements indicate that there were two main methods -. of acquiring ceramics during this period.Firstly,ceramics could I be purchased in what can be termed a normal retail situation. In this type of exchange,retailers use the advertisements to directly convey to consumers information on the types of ceramics they have available for sale. Secondly, ceramics could be purchased at auction. There were three main types of auction sales • identified during the course of research.These are as follows:

*The first type of auction was for the sale of second-hand • household furniture where ceramics were one of a range of goods available.These household goods were most often the property of ~ settlers leaving the colony or were part of deceased estates. ~ • ~ ------I 12 I Insolvency,orders from the Supreme Court,and the removal from premises both private and commercial (such as hotels) were other I common reasons given for the sale of household furniture. In general,these auctions were of household furniture and goods which belonged to the wealthier members of colonial I society.For example,an advertisement appearing on January 4,1822 in The Sydney Gazette & N.S.W. Advertiser details the sale of the household furniture and china ware belonging to Governor Macquarie who at the time would have represented the head of I colonial society.Although these auctions were for the sale of second-hand goods,they appear nonetheless to have been quite important and profitable.Often auctioneers produced catalogues I of the goods offered for sale.Also,a number of advertisements in the 1860s for sales that were to take place at residences in the suburbs and outlying districts of Sydney,state that the I auctioneer involved was to provide transportation to the sale and refreshments.The records,however,are silent on who purchased goods in this fashion.Advertisements from later on in the period,however,appeal to furniture dealers,os well as to I recently arrived settlers and those about to furnish a house. These second-hand auction sales occurred regularly throughout the period and attest to the high level of mobility I"" that ceramics had during the nineteenth-century.They constitute an example of what Schiffer refers to as lateral cycling,that is,'~the termination of an element's use (use-life) in one set of activities and its resumption in another".4The frequency of I second-hand sales has several implications when dealing with the nature of an archaeological deposit.Firstly,the reuse of goods in such a way constitutes a process that may delay the entry of I a ceramic item into the archaeological record.Secondly,this i' behavioural pattern may influence the amount of material deposited on a site.For instance,when a site is abandoned it may be that the ceramics owned by the household are more likely to have been sold rather than left" on the site or intentionally - discarded.

*The second type of auction were regular weekly auction sales of primarily household furniture where ceramics were one of a variety of goods offered for sale.Often the auctioneers acted on commission. These auctions were for the sale of both new and used goods.

4M.B.Schiffer 1972,"Archaeological Context and Systemic Context",American Antiguity 37(2) lP.159. ..

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• *The third type of auction sale was for the sale of new goods. Large consignments of ceramics were usually sold by auction,and often quite substantial quantities of general commodities • including ceramics were sold by auction.These general sales were , often of cargoes that had been imported on particular ships.

In the earlier part of the nineteenth century,the majority of retailers and auctioneers dealt in a general array of goods • which were sold to both retail and wholesale purchasers.From around mid-century,however,the focus of the advertisements I change. From this period,a large proportion of the advertisements are for the auctions of quite large quantities of both ceramics , and glassware.The auctioneers involved were often acting on instructions to sell from the importers of the goods or from wholesale pottery ~nd glass warehouses.These advertisements appeal specifically to dealers in earthenware,shippers, storekeeper~ and country dealers, and would seem to represent wholesale activity in the colony.It is also interesting to note the appeal to shippers,indicating.that by ~his period Sydney may have been a distribution centre for other colonies and areas of Australia. I I 2.4.LIMITS OF THE STUDY Although data was collected for the following ceramic I types,they have been excluded from consideration in this study: * *Yellow ware I *Red ware *Brown ware (or brown earthenware) *Parian ware *Ornamental items such as vases,images,chimney I ornaments,baskets and inkstands. These goods were usually manufactured in porcelain or china.They appear to have formed a separate category of ceramic I good,which was often termed "fancy goods".These items rarely appear for sale with other ceramic groups such as and kitchen wares. *Ceramics manufactured in the colony of N.S.W .. This I analysis,therefore,has concentrated on ceramics that I were imported into the colony. I·

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Second-hand furniture sales and regular weekly auctions of household goods have also been excluded from this study. Advertisements for these types of sales rarely provide detailed descriptions,and although many of the auctioneers who held , regular weekly sales deal t 'in both new and second-hand goods, it is often difficult from the advertisements to distinguish between the two . Excluding the above categories,some j,030 ceramic advertisements form the body of data used in this study. The • majority of ceramics described in these advertisements fall into , five broad classes of wares.They are as follows: I.Table wares-which include plates and dishes of various types,as well as tureens,boats and other vessels used for the , serving of food. 2.Tea and Coffee Wares-which include tea and coffee pots,cups and saucers,cans,slop bO~vls,rnilk or cream jugs and sugar bowls.

3.Breakfast wares-which include plates, bowls and saucers,egg cups,toast racks,as well:as many of the ceramic forms , classified as tea and coffee wares.

4.Kitchen wares-which refer to those types of ceramics used in the preparation of food, such as moulds and preserving jars.

5.Toilet wares-which include ewers,basins,chambers,soap dishes I and brush trays. I I 2.5.CONSTRAINTS A number of constraints became apparent during the course of I research regarding the interpretation of the advertisements: *The major constraint was concerned with the grammar of the advertisements.When reading the advertisements it is difficult I to distinguish'which ceramic forms were decorated in the stated method.For example,in the phrase blue printed plates,dishes,cups and saucers,it is impossible to determine if all four functional I types are decorated in this manner,or if the decoration applies. only to plates.Although there appears to have been a tendency to describe the decoration of only a selected number of items in an advertisement,this is by no means a rule of practice.Where there is uncertainty, only the first functional category I.' I r 15

proceeding the stated decorative form has been used in the analysis.

*Often certain functional groups manufactured in ceramic form were produced in other materials.For example,tea services could • be electro-plated or of metal,plates could be manufactured of tin,pewter or even glass.Advertisements where the material is not given,although the goods may be ceramic,have not been included in the analysis.

*Another constraint is the ambiguity of meaning in the actual • description of the decoration of the ceramics.One good example of this is the use of the term plain.Apart from signifying undecorated wares,it appears to have often been used in conjunction with the term gilt to designate wares that did not • have gilding upon them.

*Lastly,many of the terms used to describe the decoration of , ceramic objects were also methods of decoration on other materials. For example, glass ware was often described as being gilded.Many of the advertisements used in this study were for the sale of both ceramics and glass.Again,where material has not been given and there is uncertainty about attribution,the references have been excluded from the analysis.

I

I I I I

I

I I..- ,: • 16

• 3.0.THE MODEL • 3.1.INTRODUCTION

In general,the advertisements divide into three categories. • There are those that provide information on only the ware-type that is for sale,such as earthenware or china.Another category provides details on the function of the ceramic goods • offered for sale.The last category describes how the ceramics offered for sale were decorated.The model of availability proposed in this study is based on advertisements which fall into this last category.It was seen that a model based on decorative • types would achieve two things: 5

• I.It would allow the integration of both documentary and archaeological data.While the majority of classification systems used for the analysis of ceramics recovered from Australian historic sites are based upon the identification of • both ware-types and decoration,other historical sources of data on ceramic availabil i ty reveal that ceramics produced in t.-he nineteenth century were classified according to how they were decorated. For example,a number of price fixing lists from the Staffordshire ,dating to the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,provide cost information for a variety of • vessels according to how they were decorated.Therefore,a model based upon decorative types was seen to provide a point. of •.• ,:...... s comparison for the two sources of data . 2.Classification based on decorative types has the advantage of providing consistency of identification. Many of the ware types produced in the nineteenth century were the result of experimentation on and evolution from existing wares.As well, I the characteristics of many of the standard wares themselves changed throughout the period.Differences between creamware, I pearlware and whiteware,identified by historical archaeologists

5The following points are based on conclusions reached in I G.L.Miller 1980, "Classification and Economic Scaling of 19th Century Ceramics",in Historical Archaeology 14:1-40.Miller surveyed the various classification systems being used by I American historical archaeologists,concluding that beyond aspects of chronology,there were few,if any,reasons to organize ceramics by ware types (p.18). '1' r.- • 1 I

as the main types of earthenware bodies produced in the nineteenth century are often quite small.Further hindering the situation are differences between archaeologists regarding the definition of these wares.A classification system based on nineteenth century ware-types is viewed by many archaeologists as being too confusing a proposition. It also became apparent during the course of research that a model based on ware types was inappropriate when descriptions of the various wares in the ceramic advertisements were examined.In general,the terms earthenware,crockery,porcelain and china are most commonly used to describe the ceramic fabric.It should be noted here that the term china does not refer exclusively to oriental ,but is used in a wider and more general sense.While all these terms can be quite easily defined,classification into groups based on these ware types would be a meaningless exercise,primarily because they are too broad in their scope.Each category spans the entire period studied and encompasses ceramics which could be decorated in many different ways.There are,however,a number of ware-types that are included in this model,primarily for the reason that they were marketed as distinct types of ware.

,-

, 11

•11 III III -11-' - -

11' I 11 ~ 18

3.2.DECORATIVE TYPES AVAILABLE IN SYDNEY c.1803 TO 1868

3.2.1.STRUCTURE AND CONSTRAINTS

The advertisements contain a large number of references to the decoration of ceramics that were available during the period. The inclusion of every reference is beyond the limits of this study.The following analysis has concentrated on isolating and identifying recurring groups of ceramics.The basic assumption behind this is that the more references there are to a particular ceramic type,the more the likelihood that it was available in a I substantial quantity. For ease of reference,the information on each decorative type is presented in the following manner: I *Definition:Where possible,each decorative type is defined,using both modern and historical references on nineteenth century ceramics.

*Svnonomous Terms:Lists any other terms used in the advertisements to describe the decorative type.

*Period of Availability:Gives the years that the ceramic type is available based upon references in the ceramic advertisements.

*Decoration,Colour or Shape:Details any additional information that is given in the advertisements to such things as the particular colour that the ceramic is decorated in~or other types of decoration used in conjunction with the stated decorative type.

*Ceramic Forms:Lists the shapes that the decoration appears I on.Both this section and the one above have references grouped into periods of five years. I *Summary:Provides a summary of the above information.

The spelling in the following section follows that presented in the advertisements.A question mark in the text indicates uncertainty regarding either inclusion or identification. I The major constraint encountered during this stage of research was the lack of information concerning the decorative types mentioned in the advertisements.While many of the major I categories could be identified,there are many entries where no information could be found and identification is only tentative.This is due primarily to the fact that much of the , , • 19

• literature concerning nineteenth century ceramics is what can be termed "collector oriented".The focus of these sources is on the rare and valuable,and not on the items of everyday life that are invariably the concern of archaeologists.Much of the terminology , used by collectors is also of a modern nature.To compensate for this,however,a number of contemporary nineteenth century accounts of ceramic production,as well as modern studies of nineteenth ,I century potters and merchants records were consulted. 6 I I , I

I ee 6S in particular,S.Shaw History of the (1829) and L.Jewitt The of Great Britain (1878).G.L.Miller 1980,"Classification and Economic Scaling of 19th Century Ceramics" in Historical Archaeology 14:1-40,and 1991,"A Revised Set of CC Index Values for Classification and Economic Scaling of English Ceramics from 1787 to 1880",in Historical Archaeology 25(1):1-24,presents information on the various decorative types listed in nineteenth century wholesale records,which include a series of Staffordshire potters' price fixing agreements,potters' invoices,bills of lading and merchants' account books. From this point on,these two papers are referred to in the text by the authors name and the year the papers were published. I,, 3.2.2.C.C.WARE

DEFINITION: , cc is the contemporary potters' and merchants' term for what is more commonly referred to in the modern literature as creamware or cream-coloured earthenware.The discovery of creamware is generally credited to Thomas Astbury (c.1720 to 1740),but the development and refinement of this ware from around 1750 was undertaken by Josiah Wedgwood.There was great variation in the colour of this ware.According to Miller (1991;p.5),early creamware has a deep yellow tint.In the later part of the I eighteenth century,with the introduction of kaolin clays from Cornwall,a lighter colour creamware emerged.By 1830,an even lighter creamware was available,this ware being what most archaeologists consider as whiteware. Creamware was characteri~ed by its lightness in weight.It could be decorated in a number of ways,including enamelling, piercing,embossing,painting or transfer-printing.Creamware was also left undecorated.According to Miller (1991;p.5),when the. term cc was used by itself in the wholsale records he studied,it referred to an undecorated ware.

/ SYNONOMOUS TERMS:cream colour,cream-coloured.C.C. ,cream I PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1823 to 1868 DECORATION,COLOUR OR SHAPE: I *1836 to 1840:CC,persian painted CERAMIC FORMS: I *1821 to 1825:earthenware;plates.

I *1831 to 1835:ewers and basons I *1836 to 1840:bowls;chambersjewers and basinsjfoot pansjplates. *1841 to 1845:bed pansjBM moulds;bowls;chambers;chamber ewers and basinsjchamber services;ewers and basinsjfoot bathsjpepper,mustard,and salt bowls;pint ; I pudding bowlsjtoy table sets.

J

I·~

"'.r, __ -:: ~ - I., •• '-... ' _.:. •

21

*1846 to 1850:chambers;ewers and basins;nappies;pudding bowls: toy tea sets.

*1851 to 1855:trifle plates I *1856 to 1860:basins;basons and ewers;bed and stool-pans;blanc mange moulds;chambers;chambers and bowls;foot baths;plug basins;pudding bowls;toilet sets.

*1861 to 1865:bowls and saucers;chambers:chamber ware;hand bowls;pudding bowls.

*1866 to 1868:chambers;plates.

SUMMARY:

The advertisementi indicate that CC ware was available in the colony from the early 1820s to the end of the period stlldied.There is only one reference throughout the period to this ware being decorated,which seems to support Miller's findings that the term CC designate~ an undecorated ware.CC ware was available in a variety of shapes.A large proportion of the ceramic forms given,however,are of a utilitarian nature.

I 22

3.2.3.QUEEN'S WARE

DEFINITION: Queen's ware is considered to be a generic name for refined cream-coloured earthenware.In a letter Wedgwood ~rote to his partner Bentley in 1"767,he refers to "cream colour,alias Queensware".iThe name was derived from the royal patronage Wedgwood secured for this ware.There are references in the advertisements to Wedgwood's ware,however,it is unclear whether this term refers to Queen's ware.

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1809 to 1819.

CERAMIC FORMS:

*1806 to 1810:table set (170 pieces) • *1811 to 1815:breakfast set;sets. • SUMHARY: The advertisements indicate that Queen's ware was available for only a short period of time and in limited quantities,there being only six references to this ware.It is interesting to note that although the terms cream-colour and Queen's ~are ~ere used concurrently during the eighteenth century,their appearance in the Sydney advertisements is separate. Queen's ware is mentioned in advertisements regarding the sale of second-hand household furniture as late as the 1820s.A notice of the sale of effects belonging to Alexander Riley appearing in The Sydney Gazet te on December 2"7,181 7, incl udes "a dinner service of blue queens ware,oriental pattern".This reference suggests that the term may have been used in the advertisements to indicate the higher "status" of the goods not the actual fabric.The possible use of this term to symbolize ceramics of a higher quality seems to be supported by the fact that the ceramic forms given are all sets.

7Quoted in G.A.Godden 1980,An Illustrated Enc,Yclopaedia of British Pottery & Porcelain,p.xv.

- ~ .._- - ____ ...-""'::;-- ~ .,., --:_. __ ...... _-r-___ - ; • • 3.2.4.WHITEWARE DEFINITION:

• Although various types of ceramics are described as being white throughout the period studied,the term whiteware appears to have delineated a distinct type of ware.No contemporary definition of whitewares was 10cated.Historical archaeologists classify whiteware as a nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware that developed from pearlware in the 1820s.These whitewares are almost •• pure white in colour,and often had a slight blue tint to the ceramic body.It is thought that earthenware producers were probably influenced by the growing popularity of bone china in the early nineteenth century to create a whiter ware.Whitewares • were usually decorated.

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1820 to 1860

It is difficult to distinguish an exact period of • av~ilabili~y for this ware.The dates given here represent a general period in which most references to this ware are • contained. CERAMIC FORHS:

*1841 to. 1845:basins;bed and bidet pans;chambers;foot baths;jugs: moulds;preserving jars.

*1846 to 1850:bakers;basins;chair pans;ewers,basins and chambers; dishes;foot pans;hooped foot pans;milk basins;oval butters and covers;plates;preserve jars;pudding bowls.

SUMMARY:

When ceramic forms are given for whiteware they are predominantly of a utilitarian nature,consisting primarily of toilet wares and ceramics associated with kitchen use.There are no references to any form of decoration occurring on these vessels.This would suggest that like CC ware,the term whiteware may be used in the advertisements to refer not to a specific ware-type but to an undecorated ware. 3.2.5.EDGED WARES

DEFINITION:

Edged was a contemporary term llsed by potters and merchants to refer to a decorative type more commonly referred to as shell • edge and feather edge (Figures 2 & 3).Vessels decorated in this way have a incise~ or moulded pattern on the rim which is highlighted by a single band of colour, usually applied as a • series of short brush-strokes,although from the 1840s the colour was often applied as a band parallel to the rim.This type of decoration was produced by a number of British potters from about the 1770s,and the production of these wares continued into the • 1890s if not later.Although the decoration is usually restricted to the rim area of the vessels,there are examples of edged wares • that have a printed or painted motif in the centre of the vessel. • SYNONO~OUS TERMS:edge;edg'd. , . -- - PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1803 to 1854 FOllr colours were listed in the advertisements.The period of • availability of each colour is as follows: *Blue:c.1803 to 1854 *Green:c.1803 to 1850 *White:c.1819 to 1837 • *Brown:c.1821 to 1835

• CERAMIC FORMS: ~' - *1803 to 1805:dishes;plates;set of earthenivare;soup plates;table • sets. *1811 to 1815:plates

*1816 LO 1820:desert plates;dishes;flat plates;muffin plates; plates;tureens.

*1821 to 1825:baking dishes;basons;breakfast plates;butter plates;cheese plates;dessert plates;dinner plates; dishes;earthenware;flat platesiplates;pudding basons;sallad bowls;soup platesisupper plates; tureens.

*1826 to 1830:cover dishes;dishes;pie dishes;plates;sauce tureens;soup tureens. I 25

• *1831 to 1835:bakers' and flat dishes:earthenware:plates:soup I tureens. *1836 to 1840:dishes;plates .

*1841 to 1845:baking dishes:crockeryware:dinner plates:dishes; • flat dishes;pie dishes;plates;soups;soup plates. *1846 to 1850:bakers;baking dishes;cheese plates;covered dishes: I- dinner plates;dishes;ewers and basins;flat dishes; French dinner plates;French pie and cheese plates; French plates;muffins;pie dishes;pie plates; I plates:soup plates;twifflers;vegetable dishes; ware. I *1851 to 1855:dishes;jugs;plates;trifle plates;twifflers. I SUm1ARY: The advertisements indicate that edged wares were most commonly available in ceramic forms whic~ fall intG the general I class of tablewares.According to the advertisements,this ware was available in sets during the first few years it is listed. However,it is most commonly advertised throughout the period of I availability as individual pieces.Four colours were referred to in the advertisements.Green and blue edged wares often occur together and had a similar range of availability,the last reference to green edged wares being some four years earlier than I that for blue edged wares.Brown edged wares were also listed in the advertisements,although their period of availability is somewhat limited spanning only fourteen years.The availability of I brown edged wares from the early 1820s creates some confusion as to whether the decoration is overglaze or ,as many - ceramic historians believe that it was not until around this date or somewhat later that stable underglaze colours other than blue I-~ were developed. Whi te edged wares also have a limi,ted period of availability and may refer to ceramics with moulded or impressed I rim decoration to which no colour has been added.& I 8See I.Noel Hume 1973,"Creamware to Pearlware:A Williamsburg Perspective" in I.M.G.Quimby (ed. ) ,Ceramics in America,Figures 3 & 4.p.225.Illustrated are a creamware plate and sherd that have I been dated to the last quarter of the eighteenth century. They are decorated with moulded feather edge rim-patterns to which no I colour has been added. , d ·1 "r I- -1 I

~~~- \"Jf;., I I I 26

FIG.2:CATALOGUE DRAWINGS OF WEDGWOOD PLATE SHAPES I (1 lOld Feather Edge; (2lNew Feather Edge;(9)Shell Edge. I I I I I I I i £"" .:\

.;./'4' (./,',.~~ I- ~

., -: . . ;:"::~J. r:--

j ~ 27 I ~lG.J:HANDPAINTED,MODIFIED EDGE DECORATION I (n)fenther edge; (b)shcll cdgc;(c)shell edge. I I: ~~~~ ?~ I (a) I I (b) I I (c) I

I I I) I I I ,i I I~ ." -! 28

3.2.6.SPONGED DECORATED WARES

DEFINITION:

Sponged wares refer to decorated ceramic vessels that have their colour applied with a sponge.There are two main types of sponge decoration referred to in the literature.The first group of sponged wares were decorated with the root of a sponge which had been cut into a simple pattern,dipped in colour and "stamped" onto the ceramic body.These cut-sponges were introduced into the Staffordshire potteries in the 1840s and common patterns include stars, flowers and angels. The second group of sponge designs are those that were often used to cover the entire surface of the vessel,and look like they have been applied with a sponge or chamois that has large interstitial openings.9

11' SYNONOMOUS TERMS:sponge .. M' PERIOrr OF AVAILABILITY:c.1837(?) to 1868 DECORATION,COLOUR OR SHAPE:

*1846 to 1850:sponged,blue and green stripe Dutch jugs;sponged dipt.

*1851 to 1855:blue

*1856 to 1860:purple

*1861 to 1865:blue;sponged printed F.M. and F.B ..

. CERAMIC FORMS:

*1836 to 1840:basins

*1846 to 1850:bowls;boxes;Dutch jugs;jugs;mugs;toy teas. ..1

9T.Majewski & M.J .O'Brien 1987, "The Use &. Misuse of Nineteenth-Century English & American Ceramics in Archaeological Analysis" in M.B.Schiffer (ed. },Advances in Archaeological Method & Theory 11,p.161 to 162. 11

29 •I *1851 to 1855:basins;bo\vls ;chambers:drainers;ewers;mugs.

- . I *1856 to 1860:bowls;bowls and saucers;ewers and basins. I *1861 to 1865:bowls and saucers;cups and saucers;mugs. *1866 to 1868:cups and saucers

I SljMMARY:

The advertisements indicate that the ceramic forms available I with this decoration are largely confined to basins',bowls,ewers, cups and saucers, jugs and mugs.The first reference in 1837 is for "mouth,ewer,& sponge basins".It may be that this is a reference not to an actual decorative type, but to some form of wash basin.

i, ,-. 30

3.2.7.DIPT WARES

DEFINITION:

Dipt or dipped are terms used to describe various types of ceramic decoration produced by the application of a coloured cla~ • slip in horizontal bands or stripes to the ceramic ware before it is bisque fired.It was a technique most commonly used to decorate hollow wares. The bands or stripes on these vessels are slightly • raised.Dipped ~ares were produced in a variety of colours including brown,yellow,tan,rllst,olive drab,ochre and blue,and there is a tendency for the bands to widen through time.This ware was produced in England from the late eighteenth century through • to the early twentieth century. One type of dipt decorated ware commonly recovered from nineteenth century Australian sites is mocha ware (Figure 4).The • decoration on this ware is created when an acidic mixture is dripped onto an area of coloured slip producing dendritic markings which resemble trees. Its name was derived from the similarity of this pattern to the markings of the mocha stone •11 found in Arabia,"and often used in nineteenth-century jewell~ry. 11 SYNONOMOUS TERMS:dipped;dip;stone china,dip;fancy dipt/dipped. PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1823 to 1867

CERA~lIC FORMS:

*1821 to 1825:bo~ls

*1836 to 1840:bowls;chambers;jugs.

*1841 to 1845:basins;bowls;chambers;jugs;mugs.

*1846 to 1850:basins;bowls;chambers;egg cups;jugs;mugs;teapots, sugar boxes,and cream jugs.

*1851 to 1855:bowls;chambers;jugs. li *1856 to 1860:bowls;chambers;jugs.

*1861 to 1865:bowls;mugs. , ij

*1866 to 1868:bo~ls

IJ

- - --.------.: .. -~---.- 31

SUMMARY:

Dipt decoration is found on a variety of holl~w wares.The advertisements,however,do not distinguish the particular type of decoration used on these vessels. • 32

• FIG. ,1 : DJ PT & HOCHA WARES • J. • f &J t ~ SIM,.sa..p.J..- c.--.I lkI.lcn t'. It'. lI'.:f', Y~-C-"""]an ...... J.. •I I·...... r ... u·. 971".....

-,.j. ~ ~ ~ '.1:" .,. .''.;_ .. POll1V ..... , t·...... """ :w.;pJ .... Jr. '- ,.', ~W .... wll.... 1 ...... 1... j:"/:~>;':':" • :.",x. ~~~... I A+~ ~ ~-~. ..::;. ~ P""rt ...... C~s...,.ra ea Wllit.Ko,,.., J, .• " .• ~ •• It', I • .u .. ~. p...... r--... II._b I,', U', "', • :t'" .. U .. I r' 1 ---- '- 111 .;~ • ~ 11 u -...n 11.....::.-.... )1 ...... "' ...... M .. " \1 ...... ,I-t1}16( I )1 ... h.I~lJ .. loIodw. P'"tnt If •.! )lod..lJ-n N'l

I< ~~t'I ~ • • 3.2.8.PRINTED WARES • DEFINITION: The term printed is used in nineteenth century potters and merchants records to refer to transfer-printed wares.The • development of this decorative technique constitutes one of the most important contributions made by British manufacturers to ceramic technology. Transfer-printing was first used in England in the 1750s as a form of .From around 1760, • underglaze printing was used on porcelain bodies,but it was not until some twenty years later that it was applied to .Basically,transfer-printing irlvolves the • transferring or application of a pattern or image from an engraved copper plate on to the surface of the biscuit-fired • ceramic body by means of transfer paper. SYNONOMQlJS TERMS:fancy printed;coloured printed;printed blue and ~t colours;printed and gilt. •! PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1817 to 1868 Although this section is a collection of references to transfer-printed wares where colour is usually not specified,the first date referring to the availability of these wares has been taken as 1817 (blue printedl.The earliest instance.however,where the term printed is used alone is 1820.

CERAMIC FORMS:

*1816 to 1820:plates

*1821 to 1825:bowls;cups and saucers;earthenware;jugs.

*1836 to 1840:bowls;bowls,Grecian;bowls and saucers;chambers; foot pans;jugs;mugs;teapots;tea cups and saucers; toilet sets;toy cans.

*1841 to 1845:baking dishes;basins;basins,Grecian;bowls;bowls, single and with covers;breakfast cups and saucers; breakfast teas;butters,and stands;chambers;chamber services;egg cups;handled bowls and saucers;jugs; mugs;pressed jugs;teas;toilet services;toy cans;toy tea sets.

*1846 to 1850:basins;bowls;breakfast cups and saucers;butters; • 34

1 butter tubs;chambers;cups and saucers;dessert sets; - dinner plates;dinner sets/services;dishes; I earthenware;egg cups;ewers;jugs;muffins;mugs; peppers,salts,mustards;pie plates;plates;sugars; sugar-basins;teapots,boxes,and creams;teapots,sugar boxes,and cream jugs;toilet services/sets;toy cans; Ii - 1 trifle cans.

*1851 to 1855:basins;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and I saucers;breakfast services/sets;breakfast teas, 1 handled;butterpots;butter tubs;chambers;chamber sets;covered dishes;cups and saucers;dinner ~ services;earthenware;earthenware basins;earthenware toilet sets;egg cups;ewers and basins;jugs;jugs in sets;mugs;plates;pressed jugs;sugar boxes;tea and coffee servjces;teapots;toys.

*1856 to 1860:basins;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;chambers;chamber services/sets;cups and saucers;dinner services;egg cups;ewers;foot baths; jugs;muffins;mugs;pie dishes;pudding bowls;sugars; teapots;toilet services/sets.

*1861 to 1865:bakers;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast sets;butters and stands;chambers; chamberware;cups;dishes;fancy cans;jugs;jugs in sets;mugs;plates;prest·chambers,ewer and basin; round nappies;sugar boxes;teapots;toilet sets; vegetable dishes and covers.

*1866 to 1868:bowls;chambers;cups and saucers;dinner services/ sets;dishes;pie dishes;plates;pressed chambers; teas;toilet sets/ware;toilette sets.

SUMMARY:

Printed wares were available in a wide varietv of forms for the greater part of the period studied. Transfer-printed wares were produced in a variety of colours.The advertisements indicate that there were three main printed colours available-blue,brown and green.These are listed separately in the following sections. Purple,mauve and mulberry printed wares appear to have had a limited availability,with only a few references to these wares occurring in the mid-1860s.Black transfer-printed wares are not recorded in the advertisements.

. ~ j

.~ . .. --- .------. -~, :.:>;5

3.2.9.BLUE PRI~TED WARES

DEFINITION:

Blue printed wares refer to those ceramics decorated with a blue transfer-print.Blue was the earliest colour used for the underglaze printing of ceramics.

SYNONOMOUS TERMS:blue print;printed blue.

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1817 to 186~

DECORATION.COLOGR OR SHAPE:

*1841 to 1845:indigo blue

*1846 to 1850:dark blue printed;p~le blue printed.

CERAMIC FORMS:

*1816 to 1820:dinner services;plates.

*1821 to 182S:crockery ware

*1831 to 1835:earthenware;handle breakfast bowls and saucers.

*1836 to 1840:chambers;cups and saucers.

*1841 to 1845:basins;bowls;breakfast cups and saucers;brush trays,soap boxes,covers;chambers;ewers,basins and chambers;handled bowls and saucers;handled breakfast and tea cups and saucers;jugs;mugs;oval teapots;plates;pressed jugs;sugar boxes and cream jugs;tea cups and saucers;teapots,sugars,and creams;toilet sets.

*1846 to 1850:bowls;bowls,breakfast and tea;bowls and saucers; breakfast bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast teas;butters;carved sugars; chambers;chamber bowls;chamber services/sets; covered vegetable dishes;cups and saucers;dinner services;dishes;egg cups;ewers,basins and chambers; French concave plates;handled breakfast cups and saucers;jugs;jugs,covered;milk jugs;mugs;plates; porter mugs;soap boxes and brush trays;soup plates; 36

tankards;tea and breakfast services;teapots;toilet sets;toilette sets;toy cans;toy tea sets;trifle cans.

*1851 to 1855:bowls;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast sets/ services;breakfast teas;chambers;chamber ware; cheese plates;cups and saucers;dinner plates;dinner services/sets;dishes;egg cups;ewers;ewers and basins;foot baths;jugs;mugs;mustards;pie plates; plates;pudding basins;sets of ewers and basins, • chambers,soap boxes,brush trays;soup tureens; teapots,sugars,butters,and stands.

*1856 to 1860:basins;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast bowls and • saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;chambers;cups and saucers;dinner services;dishes;Irish jugs;plug • basins;teas and saucers;teapots. *1861 to 1865:bakers;bowls;chambers;crates earthenware;cups and saucers;dinner ware;ewers and basins;.iugs;muffins; • plates;vegetable dishes;ware. *1866 to 1868:chambers;cups and saucers;dishes. I' SUMMARY: I:i~'~ . L" .. Blue printed wares were available in a wide variety of ceramic forms.The advertisements rarely provide information on ~ the shade of blue used to decorate these vessels. - •~ ~

~. l--...... ------_._-- - -' -"'- - .:-';' 3i

3.2.10.BROWN PRI~TED wARES

•- DEFINITION: •1 • ,: •• J Brown printed wares refer to those ceramics decorated with a brown transfer-print.Simeon Shaw in 1~29 states that '1-- manufacturers had very recently introduced red,broKn and green ", '( printed colours,and due to the fact that blue printed wares had become so common,these Kares ~ere "obtaining a decided preference in most genteel circles'!lOThis would suggest that red, green and brown transfer-printed ~ares must have been introduced some time in the late 1820s.Miller,however,has argued that these colours may have been introduced some years earlier than this accepted • ll I date. PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1844 to 1863.

I - • DECORATION,COLOlR OR SHAPE:

t I, ~ - " *1851 to 1855:geranium pattern

CERAMIC FORMS: I; :' *1841 to 1845:chambers;plates.

*1846 to 1850:bowls;breakfast bowls and saucers;chamber sets; r ' • cups and saucers;dinner services;jugs;jugs,covered; :I-~, mugs;toilet stes. ! '..i>~ : *1851 to 1855:boKls;breakfast cups and saucers;chambers';cheese plates;cups and saucers;dinner plates;dinner services;dishes;pie plates;plates;sets of ewers and basins,chambers,soap boxes, brush trays.

*1856 to 1860:breakfast cups and saucers

*1861 to 1865:bakers' ;bowls;crates earthenware;dinner ware;Irish teas;mugs;vegetable dishes.

lOS.Shaw 1829,History of the Staffordshire Potteries,p.234-235. IlG.L.Miller 1984,"George M.Coates,Pottery Merchant of Philadelphia,1817-1831" in Winterthur Portfolio 19(1),p.44-45. 38 I I SU~jt-1ARY : Brown printed wares were available in a variety of forms. I This ware was often advertised along with green printed wares. I I·

I,

I

I. :' I; I; ': I, , I:

It\ , : . Ii. ' 'i .! I .~

... ,. .J: .~,~.,.- "" ii5;;------.. ------3.2.11tGREEN PRINTED WARES

DEFINITION: Green printed wares refer to ceramics that were decorated with a green transfer-print.They were thought to have been introduced along with red and brown transfer-prints some time in the 1820s.

SYNONOMOUS TERMS:printed,green;printed white and green.

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1844 to 1864

CERAMIC FORMS:

*18~1 to 1845:chambers *1846 to 1850:bo~ls;breakfast bowls and saucers;chamber sets;cups and saucers;dinner services;Grecian ewers and bowls;jUgS;jUgs,covered;mugs:plates;toilet sets.

*1851 to 1855:breakfast cups and saucers;chambers;cheese plates; dinner plates;dishes:pie p~ates;plates.

*1856 to 1860:breakfast cups and saucers

*1861 to 1865:bowls;toilet~are.

SUMMARY: Green printed wares have a similar availability range as brown printed wares,and often the two colours were advertised together.The forms available are .predominantly breakfast,toilet and tablewares.

.'

- --"" -.:...... - ~'

•1 -to

3.2.12.FLOWING A~D FLOWING BLCE WARES

DEFINITION:

The term flowing refers to a decoration produced by the firing of ceramic vessels in an atmosphere into which volatile chlorides have been introduced.The effect of this is to spread the colour of the print or paint into the glaze,creating a biurred or misty look.This decorative technique' is often found on ironstone wares.Dark blue Kas the most common colour used to decorate these wares.FloK transfer-printing was introduced around 1835 in a number of colours.

SYNONOMOUS TER~lS: flowing bl u.e stone china; Iron Stone China­ floKing blue;flowing blue and printed; flowed blue;flo,;,n;flowing blue and gold;flowing blue printed;printed and flown;f~ow;flowed;flowed, printed;F.B. ;flowing printed;printed flowing blue;flown and printed;floK and blue;flowing and printed;printed flowing;flown colours;F.B. printed.

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1846 to 1868

DECORATION , COLOUR OR SHAPE:

*1846 to 1850:dark;Dutch stripe;Indian;bamboo;Florentine; Mazarine;Orleans;japan;Kembia;gilt;Arcadian pattern;Arcadia;Armour;Ormond.

*1851 to 1855:acadia;Indiana;hearts of oak;Florida;Queen's (shape ?';Canton blue (colour ?);Neva;Spanish flowing blue (colour ?);dark.

*1856 to 1860:hong;flowing dove rumais;flowing blue stripes; Indian,Cambridge (shape ?);Tudor flowing blue hyacinth;F.B. polka lustre;F.B. Eustemet:Albert flowing blue floraiflowing dresden (shape ?)iHebri flowing blue Bagdad;Spanish flowing blue edge Swiss;flowing unique (colour ?);flowing blue, marble;F.B. and marble;flown marble.

*1861 to 1865:flo\ving unique;flowing canton;F.B.unique;F.B. Canton;flowed neutral and peach;Canton flown unique;globe flown;flowing blue marble.

j.

,~ ;f, tt~ I -+1

*1866 to 1868:printed and flowing blue~marble.

CERAHIC FORl'iS:

*1846 to 1850:baking dishes;basins;bowls;bowls and saucers; breakfast bowls and saucers;breakfast and coffei sets;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast plates; breakfast services/sets;breakfast and tea services; breakfast,tea,and coffee sets;breakfast ware; butters;butter basins;butter basins and covers; butter stands;butters and stands;butter tubs;cans; chambers;chamber services/sets;cheese plates;cover dishes;covered dishes;crearns;cream ewers;crearn jugs;cups and saucers;dessert services;dinner plates;dinner services/sets;dishes;egg cups;ewers; ewers and basins;flat di~hes;French shape and Grecian shaped breakfast cups and saucers;handled cups and saucers;jugs;jugs~'in sets;meat dishes;milk jugs;milk pots;mugs;mustards and peppers;oval dishes;pie dishes;pie plates;plates;pressed jugs; punchbowls;salts;slop basins;slop bowls;sguare B&B plates;square covered sugars;square teapots covered;sugars;sugar basins;sugar boxes;tea and breakfast sets;teapots;toilet sets;toy mugs; vegetable dishes;ware,assorted.

*1851 to 1855:bakers;baking dishes;basins;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast services/sets;breakfast teas; breakfast teas,handled;breakfast and teas;breakfast and tea services;butters;butters,and stands;butter tubs;butter tubs and stands;chambers;chamber sets/ services;chamber ware;cheese plates;cover dishes; covered dishes;creams;cups and saucers;dinner plates;dinner services/sets;dishes;earthenware; egg cups;ewers;ewers and basins;flat dishes;gravy dishes;hRndled bowls and saucers;handled breakfast teas;jugs;jugs in sets;rneat dishes;muffins;mugs; pickles and boats;pie dishes;pie plates;plates; pressed jugs;pressed toilette sets;pudding plates;soup and sauce tureens;square butters; sugars;sugar boxes;table ware;teapots;tea sets; toilet sets;toilette services/sets;toys;toycans; tureens;twifflers;vegetable dishes.

*1856 to 1860:bakers;basins;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers; breakfast plates;breakfast services/sets; breakfast teas;butters;centrepieces;chambers; 42

ctlamber services/sets;cheese plates;cover dishes; covered dishes;cups and saucers;dessert plates: dinner plates;dinner services/sets;dishesj earthenwarejegg cups;ewers;e~ers and basinsjgravy dishesjjugsjjugs,in sets;muffjns;mugs;pie plates; plates;porter mugs;round cover dishes;salads; sauce tureensjsoupS;soup tureens;sugars;sugar bowlsjteapots;toilet services/setsjtoilette sets; warejWorcester handled teas.

*1861 to 1865:bo~ls;bo~ls and saucers:breakfast cups and saucersjbutters and stands:cups and saucers;egg cllpsjfestoon twifflers;jugs;mugs;plates;pressed jugs;sugar boxes;teapotsjtoilet sets.

*1866 to 1868:bowls;chambers;cups and saucers;flat dishes:pie dishes;plates;pressed chambers;teasjtoilet sets/ services.

Flowing and flowing blue wares were available in a large variety of forms,and according to the advertisements were a popular ware.It is listed as being decoration that was used both on ironstone china and earthenware,and was available in a variety of shades and patterns. -!-3

3.2.13.FLOWING GREEN WARES

DEFINITION:

The decorative technique is the same as the previous section "Flov:ing and Flo,,-ing Blue wares" ,except the pattern on the vessel is green.

SYNONOMOUS TER~S:flo~ green;F.G ..

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1855 to 1862

Q~CORATION,COLOuR OR SHAPE:

*1851 to 1855:flown,green marble.

*1856 to 1860:flDwing green and gold;flowing green vine pattern; Dresden (shape ?l.

CERAMIC FORHS:

*1851 to 1855:dessert services;toilet sets.

*1856 to 1860:breakfast cups and saucers;dinner services/sets; toilet sets.

*1861 to 1865:chamber sets;dinner sets.

SUMMARY:

Flowing green wares are not as common as flowing blue wares,and appear to have a limited period of availability in the colony.With the exception of one entry,this ware was adver~ised in sets. -l-l-

3.2.14.MULBERRY WARE

- DEFINITION: Mulberry is a shade of purplish-brown (puce) or purplish-gray used to decorate flowing wares. -I SYNONOMOUS TER~S:flowing mulberry;flowing and mulberry;mulberry and flowing;F.M. ;~ ..

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1847 to 1868 I: DECORATION.COLOlR OR SHAPE: 1- *18~6 to 1850:flowered. mulberry sylvan;enamelled. ! *1851 to 1855:flower mulberry,enamelled;mulberry loretto;flowing mulberry verand;Sutherland muiberry Italian;flowing blue mulberry Naples(?);F.M.marble;M.marble; mulberry marble.

*1856 to 1860:blue mulberry(?) ;flowered mulberry;French and Paris mulberry (shapes .?);mulberry D.B.printed;line mulberry;mulberry,filled-in unique;Hong Kong mulberry;mulberry unique;flowing blue mulberry(?); mulberry marble;emperor mulberry marble.

*1861 to 1865:mulberry gem;mulberry green(?);F.B.rnulberry(?); mulberry turquoise(?);mulberry marble;M.rnarble.

CERAMIC FORMS:

*18~6 to 1850:baslns;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast plates;breakfast services/sets; butter stands;chambers;charnber ser~ices;cheese plates;cover dishes;cream ewers;cream jugs;cups and saucers;dinner plates;dinner set;dishes;egg cups; ewers and basins;handled cups and saucers;jugs;jugs and covers;jugs,in sets;meat dishes;milk jugs;pie plates;slop bowls;slop and sugar basins;square B&B plates;sugars;teapotsitea and breakfast sets;tea plates;toy mugs;vegetable dishes.

*1851 to 1855:basins;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast services;charnber services/sets; 4-!-

I 3.2.14.MULBERRY WARE . DEFINITION: " Mulberry is a shade of purplish-brown (puce) or purplish-gray used to decorate flowing wares. "I: SYNONOMOUS TER~S:flowing mulberry;flowing and mulberry;mulberry I and flowing;F.M. ;M .. "', PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1847 to 1868 I, , DECORATIO~.COLOCR OR SHAPE:

, *18~R to 1850:flowered mulberry sylvan;enamelled. ~1851' to 1855:flower mulberry,enamelled;mulberry loretto;flow~ng " mulberry verand;Sutherland mulberry Italian;flowing , , blue mulberry Naples(?);F.M.marble;M.marble; mulberry marble. "I', *1856 to 1860:blue mulberry(?l;flowered mulberry;French and Paris [~·~ : mulberry (shapes ?l;mulberry D.B.printed;line , . mulberry;mulberry,filled-in unique;Hong Kong mulberry;mulberry unique;flowing blue mulberry(?);

fI mulberry marble;emperor mulberry marble'. " *1861 to 1865:mulberry gem;mulberry green(?);F.B.mulberry(?); mulberry turquoise!?) ;mulberry marble;M.marble. It' _'.: CERAMIC FORMS:

r' *1846 to 1850:basins;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast plates;breakfast services/sets; butter stands;chambers;chamber ser~ices;cheese plates;cover dishes;cream ewers;cream jugs;cups and saucers;dinner plates;dinner set;dishes;egg cups; ewers and basins;handled cups and saucers;jugs;jugs and covers;jugs,in sets;meat dishes;milk jugs;pie I: :' plates;slop bowls;slop and sugar basins;square B&B ! I, " plates;sugars;teapots;tea and breakfast sets;tea plates;toy mugs;vegetab~e dishes. ... *1851 to 1855:basins;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and ~ saucers;breakfast services;chamber services/sets;

I'f

--. ~~-- ...... ,~ I.'~:4;

cups and saucers;dessert services;dinner services/ sets;handled bowls and saucers;ironstone dinner services;jugs;jugs and covers;jugs in sets;plates; toilet sets/services;toilette sets . 1I *1856 to 1860:bakers;basons;bowls;bowls and saucers;breakfast •.~'i bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers; breakfast services/sets;breakfast tea sets;butters: ) chambers;chamber services/sets;cover dishes;covered , ( I. .J dishes;crates;crates of earthenware;cups and saucers;dinner services/sets;dishes;earthenware; ewers;ewers and basins;flat plates;jugs;jugs,in sets;muffins;plates;round cover dishes;soup plates: sugar bowls;toilet services/sets;toilet ware; toilette sets;vegetables;ware.

*1861 t9 1865:bowls;bowls and saucers;cover dishes;cups and saucers;dinner ware;dishes;jugs;mugs;plates;toilet sets;toiletware;twifflers.

*1866 to 1868: CllPS and saucers ;_plates; toilet sets.

SUHtvlARY: MulberFY wares were often advertised along with flowing blue wares,and appear to have been popular from the late 1840s to the end of the period studied.They were available in a wide range of forms.

.--:--if. ---.' -~- _. ------_.. __ ... - 3.2.15.WILLO~ WARE

DEFINITION: ·. . . Willow ware refers to ceramics decorated with the popular I willow pattern.According to Miller (1991:p.8) by 1814,willow was the cheapest transfer-printed pattern available,and was classed in a separate category in the potters' records. It is thought that the willow pattern was one of the earliest underglaze printed patterns used to decorate ceramics, and has remained a common and recognisable pattern to this day. Although there are many variations of this pattern!the standard , willow pattern basically has a pagoda,a bridge,three figures!a I .. boat,two birds in the sky and a rrominent willow tree in its design.This pattern depicts the escape of two lovers across a bridge,pursued b~ the girl's father.The two doves in the sky represent the transformation of these two lovers.

SYNONUMOUS TER~S:willow pattern;willow·printed;printed willow.

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1824 to 1866

12ECORJ.TION,COLOUR OR SHAPE:

*1831 to 1835:bllle

*1836 to 18~O:blue psinted;blue.

*1841 to 1845:dark blue;blue.

*1846 to 1850:blue;coloured;pale;dark;blue edge;dark blue.

*1851 to 1855:bluejlight blue;blue printed.

*1856 to 1860:blue;dark;dark blue;purple.

*1861 to 1865:blue;brown.

CERAMIC FORMS:

*1821 to 1825:dinner service

*1831 to 1835:dishes;earthenware;plates;sets of dishes;soup tureens. I

~1836 to 1840:baking dishes;cheese plates;covered dishes;dinner plates;dishes;flat dishes;muffins;plates;pudding t plates;slabs;soup and sauce tureens;tureens; twifflers;vegetable dishes.

, *1841 to 1845:bakers;baking dishes;breakfast cups and saucers; cheese plates;cover dishes;covered dishes;dinners; dinner plates;dishes;flat dishes;muffins;oblong dishes;pie dishes;pie plates;plates;salads;salad I bowls;soups;soup plates;soup and sauce tureens; ;tureens;twifflers;vegetable dishes;ware.

I ~1846 to 1850:bakers;baking dishes;basins;bowls;breakfast bowls and saucers;butters;carved dishes;cheese plates; co~er dishes;covered dishes;dinner plates;dinner I services;di~hes;earthenware;ewers and basins;flat baking dishes;flat dishes;flat plates;muffins; muffin plates:mustards and peppers;oval dishes;pie dishes;pie plates;plates;pudding plates;salads; I sauce boats;soup_plates;soup and sauce tureens;soup tureens and ladles;square salad bowls;suppers: , tableware:teapots;toy mugs;tureens;twifflers; vegetable dishes;ware.

*1851 to 1855:bakers;baking dishes;bowls;bowls and saucers; breakfast plates;butters;butters dishes;cheese I plates;cover dishes;covered dishes;dessert plates; dinner plates;dinner services;dishes;flat dishes; jugs;meat dishes;muffin plates:oval dishes;pie I dishes;pie plates;plates;pye plates;sauce tureens; soup plates;soup tureens;supper;tableware; I twifflers;twiffler plates;vegetable dishes;ware. *1856 to 1860:bakers;bakers' dishes;baking dishes;bowls and saucers;butters;butter boats;cover dishes;covered bakers;covered dishes;dinner plates;dinner sets; I dinner ware;dishes;flat dishes;flat plates;gravies; meat dishes;muffins;pie dishes:pioffles{?';plates; sauce tureens;soups;soup plates;square covered I dishes;twifflers;twiffler plates;vegetable dishes; ware. I *1861 to 1865:bakers;baking dishes;cover dishes;custards; dinnerware;dishes;flat dishes;flat plates;muffins; mustards,peppers and salts;plates;soup plates; I twifflers;vegetable dishes;ware,assorted. I *1866 to 1868:cover dishes;flat dishes;plates.

I • sn·j!'jARY:

The ceramic forms listed in the advertisements as available are predominantly tablewares,and to a lesser extent tea and breakfast wares.There is only one possible reference to toilet wares (ewers and basins).Willow ware was available in a variety of colours.Various shades of blue are the most common colours recorded,but this ware was also available in brown and purple. References to Broseley,a pattern similar to the common willow pattern but in mirror image,were quite common in the advertisements.The advertisements indicate a period of , availability for this pattern from c.1842 to 1864,and the pa~tern is mainly described as being on breakfast and tea wares.

J

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I, J 3.2.16.MARBLE WARES

j DEFINITION: , • In general,the term marble refers to patterns found on " ceramic vessels Khich imitate the qualities of this stone. ~' Marbling could be achieved by thinly applying splashes of , coloured slip,painting streaks of colour onto the vessel,or by means of a transfer-print.

SYNONOMOUS TERMS:marbledjmarble pattern.

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1834 to 1866

DECOR:,TION, COLOU: OR SHAPE:

*1831 to 1835:marble gold

*1836 to 1840:broKn marble

*1846 to 1850:Pompeian marble;blue marblejjasper marble;printed marble;Essex,blue marble.

*1851 to 1855:blue marble:patent marble;light o~ue marble:green marble;dove marble;F.M.marble;M.marble';mulberry marble;flown,green marble.

*1856 to 1860:flowing blue,marble;russet marble;flowered marble; mulberry marble;new Italian Clayton marble (Ridgway-manufacturer);blue and marble;F.B.and marble;flown marble;emperor mulberry marble;Canton blue marble;blue marble.

*1861 to 1865:flowing blue marble;Ohio unique marble;Palermo marble;Scottish marble;mulberry marble;M.rnarble; octagon marble;flowered marble.

*1866 to 1868:printed and flowing blue,marble

" Q..ERAMIC FORMS: ,I'I" to 1835:tea and coffee set

*1836 to 1840:services 50

*1846 to 1850:breakfast and tea;breakfast teas;chamber services/ r sets;ewers,basins and chambers;toilet sets. *1851 to 1855:bowls;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast services;chamber services/sets;cups and saucers; cups and saucers,large size;dessert services/sets; dinner sets;jugs;plates;porter mugs;toilet J- . services/sets;toilette sets.

*1856 to 1860:basins;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast sets;chamber services/sets; covered dishes;dishes;jugs,4 in a set;mugs;plates; sugar bowls,butters,and ewers;toilet sets;toilette sets.

*1861 to 1865:chamber sets;jugs;mugs;sets jugs;toilet sets; toiletware.

*1866 to 1868:toilet sets

SUHlvlARY:

Marble wares were available in the colony in a variety of ceramic forms,as well as colours.Printed marble wares are first referred to in the advertisements in 1849,and flow colours appear in the ad\'ertisements from 1854. I I 51

I 3.2.17.IRONSTONE CHI~A WARES

DEFINITION: J The terms ironstone and stone china refer to a vitreous or semi-vitreous ware produced in Britain in the nineteenth century. This opaque ~are is characterised by both its heaviness and durability.According to Miller (1991;p.10),most ironstone produced befoFe 1830 was heavily decorated.commonly combining painting or enamelling ~ith printing.It is thought that this ware was developed by British manufacturers such as ,Davenport, Turner and Mason to fill a gap in the market that was created when the British East India Company ceased importing oriental porcelains in the last decade of the eighteenth century (Miller,1991;p.10).

SYNONOMOUS TERMS:stone China;~ew Stone China;Ironstone;White Stone;Ironstone chip ware;imitation ironstone('?):Ironstone "China";royal ironstone; white ironstone;pearl stone china;petrified white China (for steamers).

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1824 to 1866

DECORATION,COLOUR OR SHAPE:

*1821 to 1825:gilt parrot pattern (cost 25 pounds)

*1831 to 1835:pink and green,shell and sprig emb~ssed pattern; Italian scenery:Blue Gadroon Villa;Pink embossed landscape;embossed brown flower;blue.

*1836 to 1840:~ith gold handles and mountings;painted and gjlt; plain green birds:gilt.

*1841 to 1845:gilt and plain;blue and green.

*1846 to 1850:gold edge;blue;gilt and painted;coloured.

*1851 to 1855:mulberry,fruit basket,dark blue fibre;gilt;gilt­ blue,green,pink,and Japan;gilt handles and knobs.

*1856 to 1860:gilt handles;blue,sage,and whiteivine patternigilti dip. I I I I (~ERA!'nC FOR~S: *1821 to 1825:dinner serVIces I *1826 to 1830:dinner services/sets ~1831 to 1835:dessert servlces:dinner services/sets;e~ers.basins. I and chambers.

I "'18-11 to i8·j:'l:baso:1s:chamber ser\'ices/sets:djnne"dessert,aIld bre.'lh":fast ser\'ice;dinner and dessert services; dinner services/sets;jugs;~able services;toilet ser\'ices/sets:toilet wRre:toilette services.

~IH~G to i8~1):breRkf~st plates;dessert services;dinner services/ I scts:jllg"s. ~lo51 t~) lr.S5:butters:cheese plates;dessert plates:dinner: plat.es; d ir:fler sen.-ices/sets; jugs; jugs (sets); long dinner I set;pie plates;soup plates;soup tureens,with stands;tea sets;t~ifflers. I ~1856 to 1860:dinner services/sets;jugs,four sizes;jugs,in sets. *1861 to 1865:bowls,saucers:chambers;jugs;muffinsitwiflers.

"'la6S to 1868:dinner services

SUMMARY:

Ironstone china wares were predominantly marketed in the I: advertisements as sets.Vessels manufactured from this ware are referred to as being decorated with various colours until the end of the 1850s. I f I I I I 3.2.18.~HITE GRA~ITE WARES DEFINITION:

I v,'hite g'ranite is a trade term used to describe a group of plain ~hite wares that,like stone china.~ere vitreous or semi­ vitreous.

SYNONO:1UUS TERH~:,,-hite granite· Irol1stone;,.,hite ~:::'9.nit,e chitl8; ~ranite;granite ware.

I PERIOD OF AYAILABILITY:c.18~4 to 1867 I *185R to 1860:go1d I

*1841 to 18~5:breakfast and coffee services;dinner,breakfast and I tea sets.

*1846 to 1850:baking dishes;basins;breakfast:breakfast sets: I chambers;dinner plates;dishes:ewers;pla~es:soap trays;twiflers.

*1851 to 1855:baking dishes;bowls;chambers;cheese plates;cups and I saucers; dinner plates; dinner sec,-ices; dishes; jugs: pie plates;plates;vegetable dishes.

I *1856 to 1860:baker's;bowls;bowls,saucers;covered dishes;dishes; London teas;muffins;plates;sugars;teapots; I th'ifflers. *1861 to 1865:dinner~are;jugs;toiletware.

I SUMMARY: White granite wares advertised consisted primarily of .,. I breakfast,dinner,tea and coffee services.There is only one reference to this ware being decorated,and this is with gold. I

I· I I I

3.2.19.PEARL WHITE ~ARES

DEFINITION:

The definition provided here is tentative.There are references to a ware with this name in Miller {1980;p.3 & p.11 J. The documents he examined suggest that pearl white ware existed throughout most of the nineteenth century, but that it was continually evolving.The Staffordshire potters price fixing list of 1846 lists the costs of a number of pearl white ware ves~els, 8nd Miller believes this may have been a term applied to a whiter version of pearlware (Miller,1980;p.1/).This is supported in a description from the American Centennial Exhibition of 1876 in Philadelphia which states that:

", .. the demand for plain white goods ~as been cultivated,and a beautiful pearl-whiTe article is nOK demanded in lieu of the old blue-gra:v tinted Kares of Staffordshire."12

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1851 to 1868

" DECORATIOl\.COLOUR OR. SHAPE: Il "

*1856 to 1860:enamelled;embossed. :1

*1866 to 1868:with red coral handles,gilt IHavilandsJ

QERAHIC FOR~1S:

~1851, to 1855:ewers,basins and chambers;jellies (all manufactured by Copeland).

~18~6 ,to 18S0:bakers;chambers;cover dishes:dessert services:eKers and basins;meat dishes;soup and sauce tureens. ;;--*l'861 t;o 1865: butter stands

rl1~Potters Gazette 27,1877:2,Quoted in Hil1er 1980:18 .

• ,"f

----:-.-----..,.-r-.-,-_----.- . .. " •

~1866 to 1868:bakers and stands;baking dishes;bowls:breakfast cups and saucers;butters and stands;dinner seryices;e,,;ers;gravy dishes;muffins;soup and sauce , tureens.

SU~MARY:

I This ware was ayailable in a variety of forms and was often decorated.Pearl white ware is marketed in the adyertisements as a I distinct ware-type. I I I

I ! ~

(.

. _j.~i [~~j~l~ ., , : I~:l j ,r

56

3.2.20.WHITE AND GOLD WARES

DEFINITION:

Although no definition of this ware could be found,it appears to refer to ceramics that were decorated with gilding.Although the term white and gold implies a plain ~are with gold decoration,this term was used to describe ceramic vessels that were also painted,enamelled or embossed.It may be a term that Has used to describe ceramics that had a predominantly ~hite background and applied gilding,regardless of other forms of decoration.This definition is only tentative.

SYNONOMOGS TERMS:gold and white;~hite and gold edge;white china and gold;white and gilt;W.& G. ;white and gold plain.

PERIOD OF A\-AILABILITY:c.1837 to 1868

CERAtvlIC FORl-iS:

*1836 to 1840:breakfast sets;china breakfast services;china mugs , with names;china,tea and breakfast services;china " tea and breakfast services,royal and Grecian shape: china tea service;lettered mugs.

*1841 to 1845:breakfast sets;china breakfast and coffee sets; "china" breakfast and tea services;china dinner~ tea,breakfast and toilet services;china mugs;china services;china tea and breakfast services.

*1846 to 1850:breakfast sets,Grecian edge;breakfast,tea and coffee sets:china basins;china breakfast cups and saucers;china breakfast plates;china breakfast and tea sets;china breakfast and tea sets(embossedl­ Portland,Paris,Geneva,Modena (shapes ?l;china chamber services;china dinner services/sets;china handled breakfast bowls and saucers;china tea services;creams;dinner services;egg cups;plates; porcelain china tea and coffee sets;porcelain dinner sets;slop basins;tea,breakfast and coffee sets;tea and breakfast services;tea services.

*1851 to 1855:basins;bowls;breakfast cups and saucers(embossed); breakfast services/sets;breakfast services/sets .' lembossed);butters;butter basins;cake plates;

~, ' .. • • chamber services/sets;china:china breakfast cups and saucers;china breakfast plates;china breakfast services;china breakfast services(plain and • embossed);china breakfast and tea services;china muffins;china mugs,names;china sets;china tea, breakfast,and coffee services;china tea and coffee • services;cups and saucers;dessert sets;dessert sets (enamelledl;dinner sets:ewers,basins and chambers; jllgs;milk jugs;mugs;ornamental cups and saucers in pairs:plates;services;sugars;tea and breakfast services;tea and coffee servicesitea services/ I sets;toilet sen"ices;toilette sets. *1856 to 1860:basons;boKls;bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and sallcers;breakfast services/sets;breakfast and tea cups and sallcers;breakfast and tea services/sets; breakfast ware;chambers;chamber services/sets; china;china bowls and saucers;china breakfast cups and saucers;china breakfast services/sets; china breakfast Kare;china dinner services;china tea services;cups and saucers;dinner services; I sets;dishes;egg cups;muffins;plates;tea sets; toilet services/sets;toilette services.

*1861 to 1865:boKls and saucers;breakfast bowls and saucers; I breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast services/ sets;butters and standsjchinajchina bowls and SClJll::"erS; china breakfasts: china breakfast sets: I china breakfast and tea cups and saucers;china breakfast ware;china creams;china cream jugs;china dishes;china egg cups;china muffins;china plates; china slop basins;china tea and breakfast services/ I sets;china tea sets;china toast racks;china toilet services/sets;dinner services;egg cups;flat candlesticks and extras;Greek breakfast sets;Greek I and French breakfast sets;greek and paris pattern tea sets;jugs;London teas;muffins;mugs;mugs with names;plates;teas;tea sets;toilet services/sets; I toilet sets(gilt);toilet sets(with edge line); toilette sets:toy tea sets. ~ . .. ·1866 to 1863:boKls;bowls and saucers;breakfast services/sets; I breakfast,tea,and coffee set;breakfast ware; butters;chambers;chamber sets;china;china,assorted casks;china breakfast services/sets;china cups and saucers;china,in sets and dozens;cups and saucers; ~ dinner set;egg cups;figured china tea services; havelock toilette sets;hen boxes;plates;sugarsj toilet services/sets;toilet ware.

"s. ..

I

. ~hite and gold ~~res ~ere available in a ~ide variety of forms and could be decorated in a variet~ of ways,including embossing,painting and enamelling.The~ were a heavily advertised ware.White and gold decoration is listed in the advertisements as I being available on china and porcelain. I I I I I I I I I I 'I II · . I, ,. I I ... .. •

:3 • 2 . 21 . .!:!OLj) EDGE :\\D GOLD BAND wARES

No definition of these wares could be found.They appear. however,to refer to ceramic vessels that are decora~ed with single or mUltiple gold bands or lines.often at the edge of the piece.They may refer to one category of white and gold ware that ""as a,"ailable.The ad,"ertisements do not indicate v;hether the:-" I were decoraterl in other ways. SYNONOMOUS TER~S:gold edged;white china with gold edge;white and gold band;white gold band;white China with gilt '- edge and line;broad gold band;white and gold edge and line;gold rims;white china gold bands; gold edge line;gilt edge;gold edge and foot I lines(Copeland-manufacturer);white China.gold edge and line;gold ~and and line;white and gold line(s);gold edge and line;white and gold.broad , and narrow band;white and gold!narrow and broad line;golden lines:gold line:plain gold b8nd; I globe,gold edge;globe,gold edge and line. PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1844 to 1868

I CERA:H C FORMS:

*1841 to 1845:breakfast plates;breakfast sets;dessert services: I, dinner services.

*1846 to 1850:bowls;China breakfast cups and saucers;china I breakfast sets;china plates;egg cups;French shape china;plates;tea and breakfast sets .

*1851 to 1855:bowls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers; breakfast sets;China breakfast ser~ices;china • breakfast and tea sets;china mugs;china,tea services;cups and saucers;Greek,china tea and II breakfast sets;muffins;mugs;teas;tea sets. *1856 to 1860:bedroom sliding candlesticks;board(?) and butter plates;bowls and saucers;breakfast bowls and ~ saucers;breakfast sets;china cups and saucers;china dinner services;cups and saucers;dinner services/ sets;handb~sins;muffins;porcelain howls and saucersiPorcelain china bowls and saucers;slop

1': .

... "t III

I 00

bo";} s; sugar bOh'ls; tea cups and saucers; teas and I sctllcers;toilet sets;t<)ilet sets.e";ers and basins. *1861 t.o 1865:B.B.plates:breakfast cups and sA.ucers:china bOh'}s I and saucers. *1866 to 186~:breakfast teas;teas;toilet sets.

I SU"ltvlAH.Y:

These ~ares ~ere Ct\'ailable lD a variety ef forms,althou~h this type of decoration appears popular on breakfast and tea ser,:ices. I I ,I I I I I • s} • 3.2.22.SPRIGGED OR SPRIG WARES

• DEFINITION:

No defini tion of these .....'ares could be found. Hughes and • Hughes describe sprigged work as "relief decoration shaped in a separate mould,removed and immedjatel;.' applied or sprigged on to 11 the body of the ware before firing".13MaJe~ski ~nd Q'Brien. ho .....·ever,define sprig decorC\tion as '·sl11.~1.11 floral. elements scattered O\'er a plnin background".The e:'"~amples they deplct h~-l\"i? painted decorC\tion.ii

SYNONOMOLS TERMS:embossed sprig(s);gold bC\nd C\nd sprig;gold ed~e 11 and sprig;gold edge line and sprigs;gold edged leC\f and sprig;bol.lrbon sprig;solid spri~;plain and gold sprig;white and gold edge line,and I sprigged:E.L.& sprig;edge lined C\nd sprigged; lined and sprigged;sprig and border.

PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1844 to 1867

Although there are a few references to sprig wares before this date,the first date of a\'ailability has been taken as 1844.It is after this date,that references become constant.

CERAHIC FCR~JS:

*1841 to 1845:breakfast cups and saucers;embossed white china breakfast and coffee sets.

*1846 to 1850:basins;bowls;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast plates;breakfast services;china;china breakfast cups and saucers;cups and saucers;jugs;mugs;plates; p '.( ne h ( ..' j pIa + E'S , m11 f fin oS ; s 10 [J .3 n d s 11 g a I' b a. sin s ; "_ e a I C\nd breakfast services;toilet services/sets;toilet Kare. I 13B.& T.Hughes 1968,The Collector's Enc,"lTclopaedia of English Ceramics,p.140. I 14T.Majewski & M.J.O'Brien 1987,"The Use & tvlisuse of Nineteenth-Century English & American Ceramics in Archaeological Anal ys is" in M. B. Schi ffer (ed.), Advances in Archaeol og i cal }f'e thod & Theor.Y 11, p. 157 & Fig. 5 . ,. •

62 I

~ 1 8 :, 1 to j 8:);) : chi nab rea k r 3. s t s e n- i (' e s i set s I-~ '" *185ti to 1860:bo~ls;bo~ls and saucers;butter tubs;china bo~ls and saucers;coffee cups;creams;cups and saucers;dishes; egg cups;milk jl.lgs;muffins:muffins and covers; slops; sugars; sligar boxes; teapots; ,.:hj t.e china tea I and coffee sets. *18611.0 lon5:bOlds and s::-lucers;B6-J?, plates:breakfbst cups HnJ sa u c e r s ; b re .q k f Cl S t set s ; :) IJ t t e r san d :; tan d s ; cL i t 1 a B.B.plates;co'ered muitins;creams;cups and saucers; I dinner sen:ices:dishes;egs; cups;milk jUg's;muffins; slops;sugars;tall milks.

I *186b to 1868:bo~ls and saucers;china breakfast sets;china cups and saucers.

The acl\-ert isements suggest that sprigged decoration could be I two things.It ma~ refer to vessels decorated with embossed sprig or floral elements.The use of the term sprig along with gold edged decoration suggests also that it may refer to a foliage or I floral decoration in gilt.These two types of decoration are fotlnd on vessels recovered from nineteenth century contexts in "-., Australia.The advertisements indicate that it was primaril~ used --. on breakfast,tea and coffee wares,and the ~erm china is oiten I used to describe the fabric of these vessels. I I

I;. ,.i· I III

11! 63

3.2.23.BLUE SPRIGGED WARES

• DEFINITION: No definition of these wares could be found.The term, • however,may refer to ceramic vessels decorated with a purplish-blue floral and foliage relief design.This is a common form of decoration found on vessels recovered from nineteenth •, century sites in Australia. SYNONOMOUS TERMS:blue sprig

I PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1857 to 1867

I CERAHI C FOR~1S: I *1856 to 1860:cup~ and saucers *1861 to 1865:bowls and saucers;china;china cups and saucers; I plates. , *1866 to 1868:china;china breakfast sets;cups and saucers. .§..UMMARY:

This ware had a limited period of availability and is restricted to occurring primarily on breakfast and tea wares. • 64

• 3.2.24.BLUE FIGURED WARES • DEFINITION: No definition of this ware could be found. The use of the term raised in one reference to describe this ware suggests that • it may have been some form of relief design.

SYNONOMOUS TERMS;blue and figured;blue figures;W.G.blue figuz'ed; blue and ",hite figured and gold;blue raised I figured;figured blue,enamelled. I , l PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1837 to 1868 L ~ r ; CERAMIC FORMS: ,i _" - *1836 to 18+0:China jugs ,,., 1 *1846 to 1850:breakfast cups and saucers;butters;carved su~ars; china muffin plates;china tea set;milk jugs; teapots.

*1851 to 1855:china bowls and saucers;china breakfast services/ I sets. *1856 to 1860:breakfast services/sets;china;porcelain china bowls and saucers;teapots;teas and saucers.

I *1861 to 1865:breakfast sets;china breakfast ware;china cups and saucers;milks;muffins;sets;teas.

*1866 to 1868:bo"'ls and saucers;breakfast cups and saucers; breakfast services/sets;butters;china;china­ assorted casks;china cups;china cups and saucers; I china plates;6ups and saucers;dishes;egg cups; plates;sugars.

1I SUMMARY:

Wares that were decorated in this fashion were often listed I as being manufactured of china.This decoration seems to be found primarily on breakfast and tea wares. 65

3.2.25.LUSTRE WARES I DEFINITION: Lustre refers to a shiny metallic decoration used on ceramic vessels to imitate various metals.This decorative technique was first used in England in the earlier part of the nineteenth century,althollgh it has a longer history of use.Lustre wares Kere produced in a variety of colours.It could form an all-over coating or ~as often used in conjunction with other forms of I decoration,such as transfer-printing,painting and enamelling. Lustre could be applied to both red or brown and white ceramic bodies. Basically,the technique of lustre decoration involved I applying a solution which contained whatever metallic oxide was required to produce the colour onto the ceramic ware,usually with a brush.The ware ~as then fired:the heat of the oven or kiln dreK I out the oxygen and organic matter in the solution. leaving the lustre film on t.be s.urface of the yessel. I , PERIOD OF AVAILABILITY:c.1821 to 1866 DECORATION,COLOUR OR SHAPE: I *1821 to 1825:g01d lustre;blue and lustre. *1836 t.O 1840:gold lustre

*1841 to 1845:gold lustre;dandy lustre;gold lustre (blue printed).

*1846 to 1850:gold lustre;gold figure lustre;blue and orange band;Brunswick lustre;lustre lines;enamelled lustre;blue star;blue ground;dotted marble;orange ground bordered;embossed;japan.

*1851 to 1855:turquoise lustre;lustre japan.

*1856 to 1860:gold lustre;gold lustre blued;steel lustre (new);

*1861 to 1865:gold lustre;china lustre;lustre,band,and printed.

*1866 to 1868:silvered lustre;silver lustre;figured gold and silver lustre. , 66 CERAHIC FORMS:

*1821 to 1825:jugs;mugs;screw goblets(?);sets of jugs;teapots; ware. , *1831 to 1835:jugs *1836 to 1840:figured jugs,Victoria shape;jugs;toy cans;toy , grotto jugs;toy jugs. *1841 to 1845:figure jugs;grotto peppers;grotto salts;jugs;jugs, in sets;jugs,sizes;mugs;mustards,peppers,salts; I porter mugs;toy cans;toy grotto jugs.

*1846 to 1850:cups and saucers;ewers and basins;figured Victoria I jugs;jugs;jugs-Dover,Bedford,rose flowered,Peter Poacher;mugs;mustards;octagon fancy muffins;salts; stag jugs;toy cans;toy grotto jugs:toy jugs;toy I mugs. *1851 to 1855:breakfast cups and saucers;jugs;jllgs.in sets;mugs; salts;toys.

*1856 to 1860:bowls;breakfast ware;jugs;London figured jugs; I London teas;mugs;polka jugs;sugar bowls;teapots. *1861 to 1865:B&B plates;breakfast cups and saucers;breakfast sets;cabinet and breakfast sets (china ware);cans; dandy jugs;egg cups;jugs;jugs,in sets;low mugs;milk I jugs;muffins;mugs;slops;teapots;tea sets. I *1866 to 1868:jugs;mugs;teapots. I SUHHARY: ,;:----- . Lustre decoration was used on a variety of ceramic forms, but most commonly occurs in the advertisements on various types of jugs and mugs.Although a variety of colours are mentioned,gold lustre seems to have been the most common type available.

i .. I, .~-

• 67 • 3.3.SUMMARY:A MODEL OF AVAILABILITY OF CERAMICS ADVERTISED FOR SALE IN SYDNEY c.1803 TO 1868 •I: The data presented in the previous section has been summarized in diagram-form (Figure 51.The period of availability for each decorative type or ware (listed on the left-hand side of _:' the table) is represented as a horizontal bar. The slanting of the ends for each bar indicates that these date ranges are not fixed or definite dates,but were obtained purely from references that I," were found to these wares in the ceramic advertisements. " , ,The focus of this model is on ceramics manufactured in - , , , Britain during the nineteenth century. The prevalence of British ,, ' ceramics in the Sydney advertisements is not suprising l; considering the fact that Britain dominated the world ceramic market throughout most of the nineteenth century. Absent in this I' , model are oriental porcelains.Although the term china is used in i> the advertisements to describe a type of ceramic fabric or i ware~it does not refer exclUSively to oriental porcelains.~hen the presence of oriental ceramics has been established,primarily from shipping data,descriptions of the decoration of these wares are rarely provided.Japanese and European ceramics were also referred to in the advertisements,although the limited number of references to them may be indicative of a restricted supply of these goods.Advertisements referring to these ceramics also rarely provide details of decoration. The most striking feature of this model is the apparent nonavailability of many ceramic types before 1820.0f the twenty five groups of ceramics discussed in this model,only four groups appear in pre-1820 advertisements. These are Queen's ware,edged wares,printed wares and blue printed wares.From around 1840, however,a wider range of ceramics were available to consumers. Between 1850 and 1860,every ceramic type included in this model could be purchased,with the exception of Queen's ware.In general terms,the model indicates that the range of ceramic types available on the Sydney market in the earlier part of the ,nineteenth century was restricted.By around the middle of the century,however,consumers could choose from a broader and more diverse range of ceramics.In archaeological terms,this feature may be manifested in the range of ceramics that are recovered from deposits.The model indicates that ceramic assemblages from .. ,' . early nineteenth centur'y si tes may be more limi ted in terms of the range of decorative types present,than s~tes which date to the later part of the nineteenth century. One of the factors that may account for the limited range of ceramics present in the first few decades covered by the model concerns the nature of the documents themselves.Advertisements are not a random sample of data on availability,but considered as a whole represent a body of information that retailers and I I 68 I I FIGURE 5

I Model of Availability for Advertised Ceramics 1803-1868

I 1803 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850' 1860 1868 Cn:amwarc I I Queen's Waxc Whitewarc

Edgc<.l Wares

Spongc<.l W=

Dipped W= I , . t Printed W= I I

llIue Printc<.l Wares

Brown l'rintc<.l W= I

G= l'rintc

Howing & Flowing D1ue

Flowing G=

Mulberry W=

Willow Ware

MarlJle W=

Ironstone China

White Gr.milc

Pearl White

White and Gold

Gold Edgc:,lGold Iland

Spriggc<.liSprig

D1ue Spriggc<.l

D1ue Rgurcd

Lustre 'j • , •, ' • 69 I: auctione~rs who used this medium to communicate selected or chose to convey to consumers.ln this sense,the ceramic advertisements reflect the marketing practices of those responsible for their , construction. There are most likely a large number of factors which influenced the contents of the ceramic advertisements ranging from practical considerations such as the size and cost of the advertisement,to more complex issues concerning marketing practices.Throughout the period,ceramics were marketed either by - decoration,function or ware,or any combination of these I categories.Of the 3,030 ceramic advertisements used in this analysis.some two-thirds (2.031) were of advertisements where ceramics'were marketed in't~rms of their function or fabric or both,and which contain no mention of decoration'.The remainin~ one-third (999) of the advertisements referred to the decorati;n of partic~lar'ceramic forms or wares.The marketing of ceramics bv fu~ction or ware'is a noticable feature of the p r e-1820 advertisements.Of the 415 ceramic advertisements dating ~r~m 1803 to ~820 used ~n the analysis,only ~~ of them refer t~ Oh the ceramICS advertIsed were decorated.Tnls su~~ests that In the main,retailers marketed ceramics in terms of t~; function and to a lesser extent,the fabric of their wares.It may be that the :ma11 size of the ceramic market and the fluctuating nature of rade in Svdnev in the earlier part of the nineteenth C~ntury,me~nt ihat consumers we~e more concerned with acquiring ~~eces !or th~ function ~hey fulfilled,rather than ~heir " ofcOratlon,thls trend beIng reflected In the marketlng praC~lces retailers. ~ The majoritv of advertisements referring to the decoration ~~ C~rami~s du~i~g t~is early period,describe the decorat~o~ of d e ceramlc objects In very general terms,often only provIdIng fetails of the colour of the wares.One factor that may account or Why advertisements from this earlier period contain only g~neral statements concerning the decoration of the ceramics ~ fered for sale could have been insufficient knowledge on the ~et '1 . a1 el'S behalf of technical and trade terms used to describe ~eramics.The majority of retailers who dealt in ceramics in dre-1820 advertisements were general retailers or auctioneers who mealt in a wide range of goods.Specialization in the ceramic ma~ket did not begin until late in the 1820s,and by the 1850s the c aJority of advertisements are for the wholesale exchange of t~rami~s.It is interesting to note that beginning around 1820 t ere 1S an increase in the adoption and use of more detailed and t~Chnical terms by ceramic retailers.This could possibly reflect e appearance of dealers who are specializing in the sale of C era ' kn m1cs,and would therefore most likely have an increased chOWledge of ceramic forms.On the other hand,it may reflect poan~es in the marketing practices of retailers.The other Sv~slbility,of course,is that the range of ceramics available in ~ ney in the earlier part of the nineteenth century was as

------" 'suo11Jas ~u~MoTToJ aq1 u~ paJoTdxa aq TT1M sanss1 asaql'slsa~~ns lapow aql SB pa11w11

~, 1 o!.. 11

71

• -1.0. TESTING THE l'lUDEL .( 4.1.MILLER & THE AVAILABILITY,& POPULARITY OF 19TH CENTURY .' ENGLISH CERAMICS 4.1.1. [NTRODUCTIO~

Another documentary source of evidence concerning the availability of nineteenth cent11ry ceramics are ~holesale potters' and merchants' records.A number of these records have been located and studied by George L.Miller.They include a series of Staffordshire potters' price fixing lists from 22 different I' years between 1770 and 1885,individual potters' price lists,

" " , ' potters' invoices ~ith discount information,catalogues,jobbers' bills,account books and bills of lading (Miller 1980 & 1991). '-- The focus of these t~o papers has been on using these •I vnrious documents to generate a series of index values based on the cost of CC ware.These index values,referred to as CC index values,provide a method of measuring the relative cost of ceramics recovered from archaeological deposits,as well as providing a framework that facilitates the comparison of expenditure patterns on ceramics from different sites.This technique has been ~idely used by American historical archaeologists studying consumer behaviour,although a number of researchers have identified limitations concerning the application of this technique.In particular,historical archaeologists have attempted to explain the value or relative cost of a ceramic assemblage in terms of the social and economic status of those individuals who may have contributed to the formation of the assemblage.It has been recognised,however, that a multitude of factors,such as household size and composition,individual tastes and accessibility to markets, can also influence the value of a given assemblage. IS

lST.H.Klein 1991, "Nineteenth-Century Ceramics & Models of Consumer Behavior" in Historical Archaeology 25(2),p.83. 72

'* . 1 .2. THE :--lODEL

The comparative model presented here has been derived from descriptive data presented bv Miller on the decoration of common types of English ceramics (p~imarily tea,table and toilet wares) found on North American sites occupied from the 1790s to the 1880s (Miller 1991:pp.5-11 ).This discussion of the availability and popularity of various English ceramic types is based upon evidence from three different sources-archaeological evidence, documentary evidence (primarily wholesale potters' records) and modern literature on nineteenth century ceramics. The information presented by Miller has been summari~ed in diagram-form by Andrew Wilson (Figure 6).16Similar to the model of availability for"advertised ceramics presented above (Fig.5), the period of availability or popularity of each decorative type is represented as a horizontal bar.The period covered by this model extends from 1780 to 1900.Excluded from Fig.6 are several categ"orjes discllssed by tvliller including "willm, \-,7 a re " ,blue printed and blue painted ~ares,gold-banded earthen~are,basalt ~are and English porcelains. Figure 6 represents a general model of the availability and popularity of nineteenth century British ceramics imported into ~orth America.This model focuses primarily on presenting data relevant to the popularity of ceramic types discussed by Miller.Although at times it is difficult to distinguish whether Miller is referring to popularity or availability,there are several instances ~here he makes a distinction between the t~o. In these cases,Wilson has detailed periods of popularity in his diagram. For example,both CC and edged ~ares were produced into the 1890s,although the dates that they declined in popularity have been used in this model.Wilson has also included whiteware in this diagram.According to Miller,however,CC ware persisted in potters' records into the 1890s,although from 1830 the colour of this ware is what most archaeolo~ists would consider to be whiteware.Whitewares were usually decorated,and as such would l have been classified accordin6 to their decoration. => J"

16r . d 1 . am 1n ebted to Andre~ Wilson for al oWlng me to use this diagram. ). 73 J ! FIG.6 I,

Ii Availability & Popularity of Ceramic Decoration (after Miller 1991)

17&0 1790 ISOO 1110 1120 1130 1840 IISO llGO 1170 IX&O 1190 1900

1VlrU1C __ I I

I I /

I I

I I

I I

VJnEoUs SroNEWAAE

!'. I I 4.1.3.DISCGSSION

For the purposes of this analysis,only the period extending from 1803 to 1868 in Miller's model (Fig.G) will be considered. There is only one ceramic type in Fig.6 that was not available during this period.These are band-&-line wares,a common institutional ware prevalent in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.With the exception of this ware and mocha ware {which Kas probably referred to in the Sydney advertisements as a dipt ware),references to every ceramic type included in the model derived from Miller can be found in the Sydney advertisements, even though they may not have been included in the model that was generated from these advertisements. There are ten classes of ceramics common to both models. Figure ( represents a comparison of the periods of availability or popularity given for these wares in Figs.5 and 6.The infilled horizontal bar represents the period of availability of the ware derived from references in the Sydney advertisements (Fig.5), while the empty horizontal bar below represents the availability or popularity of the ware based on data provided by Miller (Fig.6) . The periods of availability and popularity indicated by the two models differ for a number of types considered in Fig.7.A number of these differences can be explained by differences in the perspective of these two models.For example,Wilson places an ending d~te of the popularity of creamware as 1830.Although this ware was produced into at least the 1890s,it is from this period that a lighter colour ware emerges,and is more commonly found in utilitarian forms such as chambers and bowls,which were less involved in "status" display (~1iller 1991;p.51.The advertisements,however,indicate that CC ware was available between c.1823 and 1868 primarily in these utilitarian forms. Some differences,however,are more difficult to· explain.An example of this is broKn,green,red and purple printed wares.The advertisements indicate that green and brown printed wares were available for only a limited period of time from the mid-1840s to the mid-1860s.This,however,is considered to be the period when printed wares were declining in popularity.Considering these 'colours were a popular alternative to blue printed wares in England and America from the 1820s,if not earlier,and have been recovered from archaeological contexts in Sydney dating to the first half of the nineteenth century,their appearance at such a late date seems odd.In particular,why are there no references to this ware during its greatest period of popularity?One of the :- factors that may explain this is the tendency of an advertisement to describe the colour of the ceramic ware,not the decorative technique involved.While there are many references to ceramics that are green,brown or pink,it is unclear whether these references are to printed wares.This,however,may only partially I I '". 75 I FIG.7:THE AVAILABILITY & POPULARITY OF TEN CERAMIC TYPES COMMON FIGURES 5 & 6 . I TO ," ,. I , ' 1I 1'803 IB/O 1820 1830 IS40 1850 1860 1t68S

CREAMWARE I v I WHITfWI9Re £DaED WARES ~_... ___ ... __ • __.. _-IIIIIt_r I

SPONGED WI1ReS ./ I:-~ \, - I DIPPED Wl')RES

'" BROWN, CtRfEN I RED I;"', a PURPLE P!

~ ... ~

! ft •••• 76

explain the absence of these wares in earlier contexts,as blue printed wares are frequently mentioned in ceramic advertisements from 1817.It is unclear at this stage why there are so few references to brown,green,red and purple printed wares.Although black printed wares have been recovered from nineteenth century archaeological contexts,there are also no references in the Sydney advertisements to these wares. While there are differences between the availability periods I for many of the ceramic types examined in Fig.7,there are a number of ceramic groups where the periods of availability and popularity are remarkably similar.In particular.there is little I difference in the two mo~els between ihe availability periods of flowing colours and white ~ranite wares.This would seem to indicate that the model of-availability derived from the Sydney advertisements may also be a model of ~ashionability and I popularity.It Rlso suggests that by the 1840s,the Sydney market was ~n integral par~ of the world ceramic'market,importing the most fashionable wares of the time.Clearly,it was not a backwater I for the d 11mping of English goods. For example,the earlies~ known advertisement referring to flowing wares in Nor~h America is from 1844 (MIller 19~1 :0.9) .The first reference to these wares in the Sydney ad~~rtisem~~ts is only two years later in 1846,where they I appear in quite substantial quantities. The Sydney advertisemen~s,however.are somewhat limited in the extent to which they indicate nineieenth century ceramic I; . fashionability.According to Miller,there are a number of major I changes in the popularity of ceramics during the period studied.In particular,the popularity of printed wares and heavily decorated ironstone wares declines,to be replaced to a large extent by an increase in the demand for olain white ironstone • wares in the mid-1840s.While the SYdney ~dvertisements attest to the growing popularity of white an~ goid wares and white granite wares beginning in the mid-1840s,it does n6t attest to a parallel decline in the popularity of other wares.Printed wares were available in the colony in quite substantial quantities for most of the period studied,and the advertisements indicate that brown and green printed wares were only available during the period that they were meant to be decli~ing in popularity. While the model of availability derived from the ceramic advertisements appears to be reflectin~ trends in ceramic fashionability from around the mid-nin~teenth century,it does not se~m to be an indicator of popularity in the earlier period. WhIle the absence of printed wares other than blue has already been discussed,the advertisements do not indicate any preferences in the shade of blue used to decorat~ printed wares. For example,Miller notes that between c.1818 and 1830,there was a demand in the American market for verv dark blue printed wares (Miller 1991:p.9).In the Sydney adveriisements,however,both pale and dark colours occur together. 7f

4.2.THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE:CERAMICS FRO~ THE REGENTVILLE PRIVY DEPOSIT c.1825-1869

4.2.1.THE SITE AND DEPOSIT

The site of Re~entville is situated on the south-western outskirts of Penrith.N.S.K. ,on a low hill overlooking the eastern side of the Nepean River.The construction of the Regentville mansion complex began in 1823 for Sir John Jamison,one of the wealthiest and more prominent members of colonial society at the time.It is believed that it took some two years to complete. Excavations undertaken since 1985 have revealed that the complex" was arranged according to a strict symmetrical design.It consisted of a main house flanked on either side by two wings.A court~ard enclosed both ~hese wings as well as other subsidiary build ings at the back of the house (Figure 8). Documentary evidence su~gests that there ~ere four major occupati9n periods in the site's historr.Jamison resided on the site until his death in 1844.Aft.c"r this date,the mansion y;as transferred to his family,although the sequence of occupation is unclear for the period between 1844 and 1860.During this period, there are two not ices for the sale of the complex in The Sydne:v Norning Herald (18,,],7 and 1849) , ''''hile an ad"vertisement in 1848 for the sale of the household effects of William Gibbes,Jamison's son-in-law, states that he is intending to move to his estate at Regenb·ille. 17 From 1860, a private mental asylum for the well-to-do was operating on the site.It was then converted in 1864 to a hotel known as The Regentville Inn,and the house remained in this use until it was destroyed by fire in Nay,1869. The site was abandoned shortly afterwards. Recent excavations at the site have revealed the remains of a privy and associated drainage system situated behind the west flanking wing of the house, designated on Fig.8 as the Billiard Room.These deposits are the subject 6f the following discussion.

liThe two sale notices are in December,1847 and July,1849.The reference to William Gibbes appears in The Sydney Morning Herald on April 17,1848. ------

, i 78

FIG,8:SCHEMATIC PLAN OF THE REGENTVILLE MANSION SITE

House Block

Billiard Room CO:lCh House t r -'- Servants' Qunners / Kitchen

Area 2 I-r Excavation

Stables

L ~------~ ~------I I I 79 , 4.2.2.AVAILABILITY.FASHIONABILITY AND ASPECTS OF CONSUMERISM AJ REGENTVILLE:SOME PRELIMINARY RESULTS

The deposits associated with the privy and drainage system ~ere rich in artefacts.Preliminary analysis of these finds are taking place at the time of writing,and investigation of the qllantities of ceramic artefacts recovered proved beyond the I Ijmits of this study.The privy was used to discard a broad range of hOllsehold artefacts including ceramics.glass,.;are and food refuse.Also,the deposits associated with thjs feature accumulated I o,-er the ~dlOle oc·cupation of the site.The dated ceramic artefacts recovered from the deposits extend over the period of occupation. of the site (Fig.91. Examination of the ceramic assemblage recovered from the privy reveals that there was quite an astonishing range of ceramics used on the site.Of the twenty-four groups of ceramics that the model derived from the Sydney adv~rtisements indicate were available during the period that the site was inh~bited.there are only four types of ceramics which do not appear in t.bis deposit (Fig.lOI.Fi~tlre 10-·is a graphic representation of this feature. The basj s of "the diagram is t.he fI~ - i - model of availability of advertised ceramics presented in Section 3.3 (Fig.51.The lighter colour bars represent those wares which were not present in the assemblage.They are flowing green [ . wares,mulberry wares,blue figured wares and lustre wares. - Transposed onto this diagram is the period that Regentville was inhabited Ic.1824-l8691!divided into the four major periods of occupation.The darker blocks represent those phases of occupation when the acquisition of ceramic~ and other ho~sehold goods was more likely to have taken place,Jamison furnishing his new house in a style suited to his wealth and taste,the proprietor of the mental asylum outlaying 1,500 pounds to refurbish the house.According to this diagram,not only was there a wide range of ceramics available on the Sydney market.but that at Regentville the majority of th~se ~ares we~e purchased at some time during the site's existence. While Fig.lO indicates the range of ceramics purchased,an examination of the dated ceramics listed in Fig.9 seems to indicate that there is a correlation between both the documentary eVidence and the archaeological evidence from Regentville concerning the fashionability of ceramics during the nineteenth century.In particular,we see in the dates of the marked ceramics a similar pattern described by Miller.Of the six manufacturers marks identified and dated before l850,four are from transfer­ printed sets,~hile the other two marks are found on heavily decorated wares,one of these being an ironstone dinner servic~ manufactured by Mason.While transfer-printed wares are still I I I 80

found after 1850 ("ALBA" Tea Service),"'e see at Regentville the emerging popularity of plain ",hite and gilt wares (for example,the E.& C. Challinor Saucers). Although only a number of preliminary observations can be made at this stage,two prominent features have emerged.The ceramics recovered from the privy at Regentville suggest that fashionability may be a strong motivator in consumer choice. Trends in fashionability evident in documentary sources of data concerning ceramic availability,also appear to be reflected in the types and dates of ceramics recovered from Regentville. The other,and more puzzling,feature that has emerged,is the breadth of ceramics that were recovered from the site.Does the fact that these deposits represent the accumulation of choices that have been made by a number of different households or institutions during the site's occupation fully explain this situation?Clearly,further work is needed in this area. -I:

I:~ , , :J "( I

- 81 - FIG.9

Dated Marked Ceramics from RegentviIle Privy 1824-1869

11100 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890

Spade DIuc, o:d A &ill """""'"

lE. & G. !'biml'" Rc.! TP Toilet Sa

J. D. Dn.... D... _ TP pt.""

G. I'himl'" C ..... TP Toilet Sa

J. &. G. Mw", Undlostlcl< lIoldQ­

J1u1sc. Nuoa ~ Addcdf:l -AUlA- Tea Service

E. & c. o..u;"", s....,... ..

• 02

• FIG.IO • Advertised Ceramics Present in RegentviIle Privy 1824-1869

• 1803 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1868

Crc.amware

• Quem's W:.rc

WhilCW:ltc

Edged Wosa

Sponged W1U ..

Dipped W1U'"

Printed W.arCl

muc I'riruro W:ucr.

llro\VJl Printed Wara

Green Prinled W:ua

flowing & flowing Diu<:

Ao wing Green

Mulberry Was ..

WiUow Ware

M"blc W:u ..

Jronstooc Olina

While Gunile

Pcasl While

While and Gold

Gold EdgclGold D.tnd

Spriggcd/Sprig

Dlue Sprigged

Dlue figured

Lustre

JGmison FamilJ 1844-1860 I Sir John JomiJon 1824-1844 I I I

83 -I

5.0.DISCGSSION A~D COMMENT:THE CERAMIC MARKET l~ THE COLO~Y OF I: N.S.W. c.1800-18iO

Studies of consumer behaviour focus essentially on the direct relationship between consumers or individuals and the - goods they select.This relationship,however.represents only one stage of what is a complex system of exchange between producers I: and consllme:rs.While purchasing patterns are prilllaril~' studied through the examlnation of the goods (or their remains) t.hat consumers have acquired,it has been recognised that external market forces ma~ have an impact on the purchasing decisions of '. f, consumers.1HFor example,changes in prices and production • decisions are likely to have an influence on purchasing patterns. Essential to any study of market availability and consumer behaviour,therefore,is an a~areness of not only the nature of the market itself,but the mechanisms that influenced the supply of goods. . The ceramic advertisements llsed in this study contain data relevant to the Qrganisation and structure of the Sydney cer~mic market during the nineteenth century.While modes of exchinge between conSllmers and distributors ha\'e been discussed in a previous section,the advertisements also shed light on the natllre of the market itself. The period on which this study focuses was one of ~reat change in the social,political and economic fabric of ~.S.W .. During this period,the colony grew at a rapid rate.ln 1806,the colony of ~.s.w. had a total population of only 8,593.Thls figure grew at quite a rapid rate,particularly in the years after the discovery of gold.In 1851,the population of Sydney was estimated to be 54,000,and this figure had nearly doubled to 96,000 in 1861.The increase in population meant that the size of the market for goods and services must also have been expanding at quite Cl rapid rate. The ceramic advertisements from the first two decades studied reveal that the retailers and auctioneers responsible for these advertisements dealt in a large and diverse range of consumer goods,of which ceramics constituted one type of good available.Generally,these establishments catered for both wholesale and retail purchasers.As a result of the currency problems experienced in the early years of the colony,a system of barter was prevalent.ln many cases,agricultural produce was accepted as payment for these goods.

, i lST.H.Klein 1991, "Ninete'enth-Century Ceramics & Models of i Consumer Behavior" in Historical Archaeology 25(2),p.87. , !

\lI :1 ~ 11

• 8~ -' Beginning in the late 1820s,however,the advertisements I: attest tO'an increasing specialization amongst retailers who "'5 dealt in ceramics.Between 1826 and 1840.the advertisements record the presence of eight establishments who specialized in the sale I: of c~ramic goods. 19 The advertisements indicate that the move .'~ ~ towards specialization had essentially been carried to its full , extent b~-the middle of the nineteenth centllry.From this period , ' "'" oIl,advertisements are primarily for the ~holesale auction of ." ; ce-:--amics. The allct ioneers invol \'ed usually acted as middlemen bet~een the importers and ~holesale warehouses on one hand,and j retailers on the other. The larger ~arehouses tha~ are seen to be operating were also wholesale and export establishments.

1,. ' Advertisements pertaining to retail activity are limited,and it is difficult to gauge the degree of specialization in ceramics at, a retail level. I Specialization in the sale- of specific commodities implies two things.FirstJy,that the market for these goods is of a size ttlat ~ill sustain specialization,and secandlv,that the volume of _: goods available at a market level is of a suff~cient quantity to , , ,qllo~ specialization to occur. Figure 11 represen'Ls chan~es in the ql-ianti ty or volume of earthenware and china ,imported, into N. S. IV. het~'een 1828 and 1851.The units given are in:packages and crates.For the periods where broken lilIes occur,tne data has been given in another unit.Jt is unclear ~hat volume af ceramics these two measurements indicate,but a crate probably held a greater volume of ceramics than did a package.If this is the case, the . volume of ceramics imported into the colony of N.S.W. began to increase at a steady pace after 1843.The largest increase took place between 185~ and 1856,~hen the quantity of ceramics i:" , imported doubled from 6:681 to 14,052 packages.This increase in supply may reflect the response of importers to an increase in

~ :-~' J :: ,\ 19These establishments are as follows:David Hayes,the ~ew Pottery I " Warehouse,No.20,George-st. (first mentioned in 18261;William r~ , Henson,Staffordshire Warehouse,No.63,George-st. (first mentioned ~~ in 1830);Thomas Smidmore,Staffordshire Warehouse,George-st. ; (first mentioned in 1833';Nathaniel M'Cullock,Spode's London ~arehouse,George-st. (first mentioned in 1833);Joseph Gould,Staffordshire Warehouse,No.15,George-st. {first mentioned in 1834);W.H.Tibbey,China,Glass and EarthenJare Warehouse,Cumberland House ,George-st. (first mentioned in , , 1834);Levick & Younger,Sheffield,Birmingham & Staffordshire j f,.' Warehouse,Lower George-st. (first mentioned in 1834);John :t~· z~:-· Cohen,Glass & China Warehouse.No.63.Geor2e-st. (first mentioned in 1836).A number of these fi~ms sp~cialized in both earthenware and glassware,or earthenware and other commodities such as ironmongery.

~ =l6!Ik.. ='a=oJ~ 85

FIG.l1:IMPORTS OF EARTHENWARE & CHINA INTO N.S.W. 1828-1857

\

\ \ G1000 ./ / \ / \ CRATEs 5, COO r / / / l}IOOol / ./ , / 3 000 I ./ ./ ./ 210001 / ./ / Ilcool '" I

" ,. E

.~ -1 1 j f i 86

demand generated by the rapid increase in population size and the economic prosperity that was brought about by the discovery of gold in Australia in the earlier part of the decade. C-hanges in the quant i ty of ceramics imported into the colony do not seem to reflect the increasing specialisation and implied stability in the ceramic market from the late 1820s.From 1828 to 1838,growth in the level ef earthenware and china imported is slow and uneven,characterised by a pattern of increase then decline.T}lis pattern would seem rather ~o indicate a continuation of the instability that was a feature of early trading activities in t.he colony.Accordjn!2' to Hainswort.h.the Sydney market j..,'as characterised b~c intervals of scarci ty and glut. If certain commodities were scarce in the colonY,news of this would spread to shippers in London or other areas.In response,they would export cargoes of these goods to the colony,often saturating the market.News of this glut would slowly filter back to the e~porters of these commodities and supply would again be restricted,thus creating another period of scarcity and so on.~uThe distance of Sydney frem markets such as London al~o made (". :) mm I1 n i C El t i .:) n bet ,,; e e 11 age n t s cl i f fie ul t . ,..\1 t h 0 u g h the I eve 1 0 f ~eramics imported increased quite dramatically between 1838 and 1840 ffrom 635 to 2,900 packagesl,in the following two years there is again a decline back to the 1838 level.This decline,however,may reflect the economic depression which occurred both in England and Australia in the early 1840s.The haphazardness that characterises the level of ceramics imported into the colony of X.S.W. does not appear to support the evidence from the ceramic advertisements that the ceramic market in Sydn~y from the late 1820s was a market that was growing in size,and that it was beginning to move towards specialisation in terms of the retailers who distributed these goods. The quantity of advertisements that were placed in the two newspapers by retailers also do not appear to indicate any changes in the level of activity in the ceramic market. Figure 12 represents changes in the number of advertisements for the sale of ceramics between 1828 and 18S7 (the same time-span for which there is data available on the volume of imports into the colonyl.Figures used to construct this diagram were derived from advertisements pertainin~ to the sale of new ceramic goods,excluding advertis;ments referring to the sale of the classes of ceramics that were outlined in Section 2.4 .. Peaks in the number of advertisements occur in 1834,1841,1846 and 1854.The number of advertisements per year,however,tend to cluster either side of a figure of fifty. Significant increases in the number of ceramic advertisements do not correspond with substantial

20 D. R. Hainsworth 1981, The Sydne.y Traders, p. 108. rI'

87

FIG.12:FR~~UEN~~ OF ADVERTISEMENTS FOR THE SALE OF CERAMICS HL... l:\-lP.::> I

NUMBER OF RDVERTISEHENTS

loo

60

50

40

30

20

10 '"~~~-.

88

increases in the level of imports of ceramics into the colony (Figure 11). It must be remembered that this figure represents changes only in terms of the sample taken,but from 1835 there was a consistent sampling of the ne~~papers.Increases in the volume of ceramics imported into the colony are more likely to be reflected not in the number of adve~tisements for these wares,but in increases in the quantities that were being sold at each sale. The advertisements indicate that durin~ the period st.udied, the ceran;ic m,trkpt in the colon:v of - N. S. \v. underwent a numbpr of fundamentcd changes. The most -important of these \,-as the emergence in the late 18205 of retailers and warehouses specializing in "Cbe sale of ceramics.Soecializ-:J.tion implies not only that the market is of a lar~e eno~gh size to sustain this process, but that the supply and ~ange of-goods is of a le\-el that allows s~ecialization ~o occur.It also implies increasing organisation and structure ~ithin the market. Figures rel::it in~ too the ,-olump of ceramics imported int_o the colon~- of ~\. S. w. ,ho\'"~ver, c:o not reflect or support this trend. Before 18-:10, trade in cEr;iITlics tended to ilucL.uate from year to :-ear.-~lsl"\.the qll",ntjt\- of cera:nics imported into the colony ~.;'as qll~te small.-For exampie,only 19-! pack~ges of earthenware and eluna Wet-e imported into !\. S. \-.'. in 18JO. a fi~:ure that. seems 10,,­ considering the Increased level of activit~ the advertisements attest to.Figure 11 indicates that it Yo-as not until the 1850s that any Sltbstantial increases in the volume of imported ceramics occurred,and this ~as most likelv a response to increased demand by the rapid in size after the discovery c~usedof gold. gro~th po~ulatio~

\ S -" i~hile the quantitv. of ceramics imported into the -colony of __ .~.w. appear to indicate a trade that was sporadic in nature until well into the 18~Os.the advertisements indicate that the ~eramic,market Was emergi~g as a distinci and structured entity from q\llte an early period.This fOl'malization and organisation of the ceramic market is reflected on a ceramic basemark recovered from recent eXca'-a.tions at 2/1-273 Pitt St. ,Sydney.It appears on the base of a blue printed plate and reads as follows:

"Ships/Colonies/& Commerce/for Sydney Ne,,' South \':ales/James Simmons"21

There are a number of references to James Simmons In the two ne~spapers between 1827 and 1832.He was a retailer and auctioneer ~ho dealt in a general range of consumer goods.This mark suggests that even at this relatively early date,Sydney must have

2lD B - . aIrstow & G.~ilson 1990,271-273 Pitt St. ,Sydney.Historical Archaeological Exca v ation,p.l04 & Fig.32. 89 represented a viable market to English ceramic manufacturers,and that Sydney retailers were directly involved and active in this international trade network. 90

6.0.COl\CLUSIONS

Ceramic advertisements are a ...-aluable source of evidence on the availability of nineteenth century ceramics in the colony of N.S.W .. They are,however,a complex body of data whose content was ~overned and shaped by those individuals who chose this medium to ~ommunicate.Essentially,they are tools used in the marketing of c era mic s , an d I i k e any ad \' er t is erne n t , the i r r 01. e i s not 0 n I y to inform consumers of the ?:oods -::.\-ailable, but to er,t:i ce the consumer lo purchase tllese goods.It is difficult to ascertain the extent to which the content or these ad',-ertisements reflect the persuasive nature of ad\-ertisements.lt ~ould appear in general, ho~ever,that many of the advertisements are more descriptive than persuas i \'e .iLl the i r na tu re. Some th'O- t hi rds 0 f - the ::idvert- i sements \.;bich formed the body of data used in this study describe only lhe function of tlle ceramics for sale,their ~are-type,or a combination of both.lt is difficult to assess ho~ a consumer ',v 0 11 1 d cb 0 0 s e bet \, e ens ay. ten d i f fer e n t s tor e saIl sell i n g chi_ n a ClipS and saucers. The decoration of ceramics may be Lhe k~y to the competitive marketing of ceramics,and the model of availability generated from the advertisements can only be interpreted in this context. There are certain limitations that can be seen in the application of the model.The dating of the ceramic types in this model is based upon references in the advertisements.Archaeological evidence,ho~ever,indicates that many of the wares considered in the model were available earlier or later than their given dates. This has been seen for bro~n and green printed wares.The advertisements indicate that these wares were onl~ available from the 1840s on,while they have been reco\-ered from deposits dating to the 1820s and 1830s.Considered alone,the model is an unreliable source for the dating of nineteenth century ceramics. It is also difficult to ascertain the validity of this model in demonstrating trends in the ceramic market. The model of availability suggests that before 1820 there ~as only a limited range of decorated ceramics available to consumers.Of the 25 groups of ceramics which appear in the model,only 4 appear in pl'e-1820 advertisements.From 1820,however,there is an increase in the range of ceramics available.It is unclear if this reflects a trend in the market,or whether it is an artificial construct created by the nature of the advertisements from this period.A preoccupation with function and the lack of specialist ceramic knowledge have been cited as factors which may partly explain this phenomenon.lt is most likely the result,llowever,of changes in the marketing of ceramics.While it has been demonstrated that at Regentville there was a large range of ceramics available for consumption,further research needs to be undertaken to establish 91

~hat ceramic types are commonly recovered from pre-1820 archaeological contexts,and if this range is as limited as the model suggests. The model presented in this study is not only a general model of availability,but to a certain extent reflects ceramic fashionability.Compariso n of this model with the model derived from Miller shows a correlation between fashionability and availability in the American and Sydney markets.Ceramics R\Oailable in O\Oerseas markets could be purchased in Sydney at the time,while the adYertlsements also indicate that the Sydney mari.;et responded to and follo\,'ed general trends in the fashionabil i ty of nineteenth century ceramics. The ad':ert isements indicate more clearly than o~her SOllrces of evidence,that even though ~ares may decline in popularity,they are still available for consumption. Two major features have emerged from the preliminary analysiS of recent excavations at Regentville.Firstly,the ceramic assemblage reco\Oered conta ins an astoni shing range of ceramic ~ypes,and secondly,there is a strong correlation between the availability model and general purchasing patterns.In particular,general trends in the fashionability of ceramic types evident in the madel of availability,are reflected at Regentville in terms of the date ranges of mar.ked cerami'c s. Tho se ceramic s dated to before 1850 are predominantly tran~fer-printed wares, whereas from 1850 plain white and gilded Kares become increasingly popular,although transfer-printed Kares are still present.Khile the model of availability is indicative of Khat consumers were able to purchase,archaeological evidence from sites such as Regentville,represents the next stage,that of consumption.At the present l~vel of analysis,the ce=am~cs recovered from Regentville suggest that consumers who were active on the site selected a wide range of ceramics,and that fashionability may have been another of the variables which influenced consumer choice during the nineteenth century. The model of availability presented in this study provides a framework for the comparison of sites.It is not,however,a model that explains consumer behaviour,but rather explores one of the variables which influenced the purchasing patterns of nineteenth century consumers.Perhaps future studies using this model will be the most valuable when concentrating on ceramics that are absent in an assemblage,as well as those that are present.A knowledge of availability at a regional level such as this,provides a control that can aid in the formulation of alternative hypotheses of consumer behaviour if the absence of known types of ceramics occur at a site. While this study has focused on presenting data relevant to the types of ceramics available in Sydney from c.1800 to 1870,it has also explored a number of mechanisms that may have influenced the supply of ceramics during this period.This analysis demonstrates that from the late 1820s,the ceramic market in 92

Sydney was growing in its complexity,and was able to support even at this early stage specialization in its ranks.A wide and diverse range of ceramics were available during the period studied.The Sydney market was an integral part of the It . international ceramic trade network,and was supplied during the f nineteenth century with a large range of ceramics that "were not to be excelled for elegance or utility". 93

7.0.FURTHER AREAS OF RESEARCH

There are a number of avenues that further research into both the advertisements ~hemselves and into the area of consumer behaviour could follow':

*Although data ~as collected,~here were a number of categories of information contained within the advertisements that ~ere not

considered in this study.Data concerning ceramic.prices 1 shipping activities,second-hand sales and the relationship between ceramic forms and dietary practices are possible areas which future research could concentrate on.

*The archaeological evidence used to evaluate the validity and application of this model is from one site only.One of the greatest constraints encountered during the course of research was found ~o be difficulties in trying to gain access to both site reports and excavated material.Perhaps th~ greatest str~ngth of this model is that it provides a framework or context that facilitates site comparison. Future application and

expansion of thlS model is necessar~.For example 1 how representative is the site of Regentville compared to other sites in Sydney?What evidence is there from other sites in Sydney of nineteenth century ceramic availability?Futllre application of this model,however,would perhaps be more valuable focll sing not on the presenc e 0 f ceramic t;;pes, bu t. the it' absenc e . and the fac~ors that may account for this.Exploration of the accessibility or sites to markets and the possible effects of isolation on the archaeological record may also be a fruitful area of research.

*The study of consumer behaviour in historical archaeology, though complex in its nature,has provided much insight into past human behaviour.While this area of research has not gained much ground in Australian historical archaeology,many practitioners are now beginning to explore this area of research and utilize the quite extensive body of American and English literature on this subject.While archaeological evidence is perhaps the best Source of data on the purchasing patterns of consumers,there are other sources of documentary evidence that may be useful, primarily account books and records of ceramic retailers.

~~Ceramics constiute one type of artefact that has been used to study consumer behaviour.Perhaps the most valuable studies of purchasing patterns will be those that combine the analysis of 93

'i.O.FURTHER AREAS OF RESEARCH

There are a number of avenues that further research into both the advertisements ~hemselves and into the area of consumer behaviour could follow:

*Although data h-as collected,there Kere a number of categories of information contained within the advertisements that were not considered in this study.Data concerning ceramic prices,shipping activities,second-hand sales and the relationship between ceramic forms and dietary practices are possible areas which future research could concentrate on.

*The archaeological evidence used to evaluate the validity and application cf this model is from one site only.One of the greatest constraints encountered during the course of research was found ~o be difficulties in trying to gain access to both site reports and excavated material.Perhaps the greatest strength of this model is that it provides a framework or context that facilitates site comparison.Future application and expansion of this model is necessary. For example,how representa t i \'e is the site of Regentv i lIe compared to ot. her sites in Sydney?What evidence is there from other sites in Sydney of nineteenth century ceramic availability?Futllre application of this model,however,would perhaps be more valuable focus i ng not on the presenc e 0 f cerami c t;;pes , but the it' absenc e . and the fac~ors that may account for this.Exploration of the accessibility of sites to markets and the possible effects of isolation on the archaeological record may also be a fruitf0l area of research.

~The study of consumer behaviour in historical archaeology, though complex in its nature,has provided much insight into past human behaviour.While this area of research has not gained much ground in Australian historical archaeology,many practitioners are now beginning to explore this area of research and utilize the quite extensive body of American and English literature on this subject.While archaeological evidence is perhaps the best source of data on the purchasing patterns of consumers,there are other sources of documentary evidence that may be u~eful, primarily account books and records of ceramic retailers.

~Ceramics constiute one type of artefact that has been used to study consumer behaviour. Perhaps the most valuable studies of PUrchasing patterns will be those that combine the analysis of

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various artefact types such as faunal and other food remains, ceramics and glass. 95

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