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Home , Art pottery, Biscuit (pottery), Biscuit porcelain, Ceramic art, Creamware, Delftware

Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 6(6): 790-795, 2010 © 2010, INSInet Publication

Evaluation of Materials on

Murat Bayazit and Elif Bayazit

Dumlupınar University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Ceramic Engineering, 43100, Kütahya, .

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the materials. In , and ceramic art mean art objects such as figures, , and made from and other raw materials by the process of . Some ceramic products are regarded as , while others are regarded as decorative, industrial or applied art objects, or as artifacts in . They may be made by one individual or in a factory where a group of people , make and decorate the ware. Decorative ceramics are sometimes called ". Ceramic , are important in art history and ceramic engineering.

Key words: Ceramic art, ceramic materials,ceramic engineering

INTRODUCTION Ceramics as Wall Decoration: The earliest evidence of glazed brick is the discovery of glazed bricks in the In art history, ceramics and ceramic art mean art Elamite Temple at , dated to the 13th objects such as figures, tiles, and tableware made from century BCE. Glazed and coloured bricks were used to clay and other raw materials by the process of pottery. make low reliefs in Ancient , most Some ceramic products are regarded as fine art, while famously the of (ca. 575 BCE), others are regarded as decorative, industrial or applied now partly reconstructed in , with sections art objects, or as artifacts in archaeology. They may be elsewhere. Mesopotamian craftsmen were imported for made by one individual or in a factory where a group the palaces of the Persian Empire such as . of people design, make and decorate the ware. The tradition continued, and after the Islamic conquest Decorative ceramics are sometimes called "art pottery". of Persia coloured and often painted glazed bricks or The word "ceramics" comes from the Greek keramikos, tiles became an important element in Persian meaning "pottery", which in turn comes from keramos, , and from there spread to much of the meaning "potter's clay." Most traditional ceramic Islamic world, notably the of Turkey products were made from clay, shaped and subjected to under the in the 16th and 17th heat, and tableware and decorative ceramics are centuries. Transmitted via Islamic Spain, a new generally still made like that. In modern ceramic tradition of developed in Spain and especially engineering usage, ceramics is the art and science of , which by the period produced making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials extremely large painted scenes on tiles, usually in blue by the action of heat. It excludes and and . tiles, typically with a painted made from glass tesserae. There is a long history of design covering only one (rather small) , were ceramic art in almost all developed cultures, and often ubiquitous in Holland and widely exported over ceramic objects are all the artistic evidence left from Northern Europe from the 16th century on. Several vanished cultures, like that of the Nok in Africa over 18th century royal palaces had rooms with 2,000 years ago. the walls entirely covered in porcelain. Surviving Cultures especially noted for fine ceramics include examples include ones at Capodimonte, , the the Chinese, Cretan, Greek, Persian, Mayan, Japanese, Royal Palace of Madrid and the nearby Royal Palace Dominican, and Korean cultures, as well as the modern of Aranjuez. Elaborate tiled stoves were a feature of Western cultures. Elements of ceramic art, upon which rooms of the middle and upper-classes in Northern different degrees of emphasis have been placed at Europe from the 17th to 19th centuries different times, are the shape of the object, its (Fig.1)[1,3,4,5,7,12,14]. decoration by , carving and other methods, and the glazing found on most ceramics[1-14].

Corresponding Author: Murat Bayazit and Elif Bayazit, Dumlup nar University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Ceramic Engineering, 43100, Kütahya, Turkey, Phone: +5556050023 E-mail:[email protected] 790 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(6): 790-795, 2010

places, often financed by a local ruler. Soft-paste porcelain was made at in the 1680s, but the first important production was at St.Cloud, letters-patent being granted in 1702. The Duc de Bourbon established a soft-paste factory in the grounds of his château in Chantilly in 1730, a soft-paste factory was opened at Mennecy, and the Vincennes factory was set up in 1740, moving to larger premises at Sèvres in 1756. The superior soft-paste made at Sèvres put it in the leading position in Europe in the second half of the 18th century. The first soft-paste in was demonstrated in 1742, apparently based on the Saint- Cloud formula. In 1749 a patent was taken out on the first bone , subsequently perfected by Josiah . The main English porcelain makers in the 18th century were at Chelsea, Bow, St James's, Bristol, Fig. 1: Ceramic wall decoration Derby and . Porcelain was ideally suited to the energetic curves of the day. The products Tin-glazed Pottery: Tin-glazed pottery, or , of these early decades of European porcelain are originated in in the ninth century, from where it generally the most highly regarded, and expensive. The spread to Egypt, Persia and Spain before reaching Meissen modeler Johann Joachim Kaendler and Franz in the , Holland in the 16th century and Anton Bustelli of Nymphenburg are perhaps the most England, and other European countries shortly outstanding ceramic of the period. Like other after. Important regional styles in Europe include: leading modelers, they trained as sculptors and Hispano-, , Delftware, and English produced models from which moulds were taken. By Delftware. By the the Hispano- the end of the 18th century owning porcelain tableware Moresque ware of Al-Andaluz was the most and decorative objects had become obligatory among sophisticated pottery being produced in Europe, with the prosperous middle-classes of Europe, and there elaborate decoration. It introduced tin-glazing to were factories in most countries, many of which are Europe, which was developed in the Italian still producing. As well as tableware, early European Renaissance in maiolica. Tin-glazed pottery was taken porcelain revived the taste for purely decorative figures up in the from the sixteenth to the of people or , which had also been a feature of eighteenth centuries, the potters making household, several ancient cultures, often as . These decorative pieces and tiles in vast numbers,[19] usually were still being produced in China as blanc de Chine with blue painting on a white ground. Dutch potters religious figures, many of which had reached Europe. took tin-glazed pottery to the British Isles, where it European figures were almost entirely secular, and soon was made between about 1550 and 1800. In France, brightly and brilliantly painted, often in groups with a tin-glaze was begun in 1690 at in Brittany, modelled setting, and a strong narrative element[1-13]. followed in Rouen, and Lunéville. In the 18th century, Josiah (1730–1795) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION formulated a white body from which he could make light and durable . As these were Applied art is the application of design and almost as white as tin-glazed pottery and better in aesthetics to objects of function and everyday use. other ways, they replaced it in the 19th century. There Whereas fine serve as intellectual stimulation to has been a revival in the twentieth century by studio the viewer or academic sensibilities, the potters[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,12,13,14]. incorporate design and creative ideals to objects of utility, such as a cup, magazine or decorative park Porcelain: For several centuries Chinese porcelain had bench. There is considerable overlap between the field reached Europe in an expensive trickle, and from the and that of the ; to some extent they are 16th century onwards there were attempts to imitate it, alternative terms. The fields of , such as the soft-paste made in , design, , . None was successful until a recipe for hard- decorative art and functional art are considered applied paste porcelain was devised at the Meissen factory in arts. In a creative and/or abstract context, the fields of in 1710. Within a few years, porcelain architecture and are considered applied factories sprung up at Nymphenburg in (1754) arts. Many applied art objects are collected, for and Capodimonte in Naples (1743) and many other instance ceramics, textiles, jewellry, glass, furniture,

791 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(6): 790-795, 2010

children's toys, cars, electric guitars, as well as various forms of images produced in commercial contexts, such as film posters or old advertisements. Fine art describes an art form developed primarily for aesthetics and/or concept rather than utility[2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]. Today, the fine arts commonly include visual and performing art forms, such as painting, , music, dance, theatre, architecture, photography and . However, in some institutes of learning or in fine art, and frequently the term fine arts (pl.) as well, are associated exclusively with the visual art forms. Art is often a synonym for fine art in this sense, as employed Fig. 3: Tea service, Austria, Vienna, about 1936. in the term "art gallery".Historically, the fine arts were no. C.34 to E-1982 limited to painting, sculpture, architecture and . A few from ceramic art materials were Made by (1902-95),Austria, shown in Figures 2-11[1-14]. Vienna,About 1936,Red earthenware, burnished Museum no. C.34 to E-1982.Given by Lucie Rie. Lucie Rie is one of the 20th century's most celebrated potters. The flaring bowls and vases of her post-war period in Britain are greatly admired for their subtlety and delicacy.This group of teawares exemplifies her earlier, Viennese period, which responds to , but also draws on classical and archaic art. These pieces reflect Rie's interest in Roman burnished redwares).

Fig. 2: Bubbles , England, Staffordshire, In production 1920–41. Museum no. C.90-1988

Designed by Daisy Makeig-Jones (1881-1945); made by & Sons England, Staffordshire.In production 1920-41., printed and painted, with lustre glazes and additional gold print.Museum no. C.90-1988.Given by Suzanne and Fig. 4: Vase with clematis, Netherlands, The Hague, Frederic Weinstein.Wedgwood's Fairyland 1904. Museum no. C.41-1972 was populated by elves and fairies. The design followed contemporary book illustration, but the shapes Netherlands, The Hague1904,Bone china, painted and density of decoration derive from Chinese in enamels.Made at the Rozenburg porcelain factory; of 1680-1720. The colours were inspired in designed by J. Juriaan Kok (1861-1919); painted by J. part by the Russian Ballet. The decoration was a Schellink (1876-1958) and J.M. van Rossum (1881- technical tour de force, achieved by a complex layering 1963).Museum no. C.41-1972. The short-lived of and overglaze painting and ). Rozenburg factory produced some of the world's best

792 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(6): 790-795, 2010

Art Nouveau ceramics. The style is typified by Made by Bourne, Baker & Bourne,England, elongated organic shapes and sinuous curving lines. Staffordshire.About 1830.Lead-glazed earthenware, Rozenburg china is so thinly cast that the material is transfer-printed before glazing Museum no. 53- often described as 'eggshell porcelain'. The painted 1870.Given by Mrs Illidge. Formerly in the London decoration here combines elements of French and showrooms of Messrs Neale & Bailey Although not Belgian styles with the spareness and intended for use, this tour de force of Staffordshire generous white of Japanese design). pottery illustrates a typical product of 19th-century ceramics: blue-and-white, transfer-printed earthenware. In , a design was printed onto and then transferred to the surface of an unglazed pot. The technique transformed the Staffordshire industry and the market for cheap, earthenware pottery worldwide).

Fig. 5: bottle, , Mashiko, about 1931. Museum no. Circ.348-1939

Made by Hamada Shoji (1894-1978), Japan, Mashiko.About 1931.Stoneware, with off-white glaze.Museum no. Circ.348-1939.Given by the Society Hamada Shoji was a leading of the Japanese folk movement. He was closely associated with its founder, Yanagi Soetsu, and Fig. 7: Hebe, Denmark, , 1871. Museum the pioneer English studio potter, , with no. Misc.124-1921 whom he worked in the 1920s. Like other members of the movement, he was an admirer of Korean ceramics. Made by Bing & Grøndahl; modelled by C.O.A. This is evident in the bottle's faceting and off-white Schjeltved after Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770 1844), glaze). Denmark, Copenhagen 1871. porcelain.Museum no. Misc.124-1921 Given by Her Majesty's Commissioners. Shown at the International Exhibition, London, 1871. This life-size sculpture is probably the largest porcelain figure ever made in a single piece. Hebe was the Greek goddess of youth and a cup-bearer for the gods. The figure was modelled after a sculpture of 1816 by the Danish Neo-classical artist Bertel Thorvaldsen. The Danish firm of Bing & Grøndahl specialised in making replicas of famous statues in biscuit (unglazed) porcelain.

Fig. 6: Thirty gallon jug, England, Staffordshire, about 1830. Museum no. 53-1870

793 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(6): 790-795, 2010

for 'Alhambra' design. Théodore Deck was a leading French potter and . He worked in a range of oriental and historic styles.Shown at the International Exhibition, 1862)

Fig. 8: Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, France, Sèvres, about 1788. Museum no. C.367&A-

Made at the Sèvres porcelain factory; Louis XVI modelled by Louis-Simon Boizot (1743-1809).France, Fig. 10: Punchbowl with ship, England, Liverpool, Sèvres.About 1788..Museum no. 1765–70. Museum no. 3615-1901 C.367&A-1983.The use of biscuit (unglazed) porcelain for ceramic sculpture was a major innovation of the Possibly painted by William Jackson.England, Vincennes and Sèvres factories in the 1750s. Sèvres Liverpool1765-70.Tin-glazed earthenware, with biscuit figures were originally intended as dessert table decoration painted into the glaze and enamelled decorations, but were also displayed in room interiors details.Museum no. 3615-1901.Punchbowls painted with from the 1760s. They were more expensive to make ships were a speciality of the Liverpool . than glazed and enamelled figures, as flaws in the Punch had been introduced to Europe from south-east modelling or firing could not be concealed.Presented to Asia.English potters had produced tin-glazed Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore, India, in 1788). earthenware since the 16th century. It was later painted in the style of pottery, as here, and so became known as 'delftware).

Fig. 11: Tea and coffee service, England, Staffordshire, about 1775. Museum no. 414/1155 to C-1885. Fig. 9: Alhambra vase, France, , 1862. Museum no. 18-1865 Made at Josiah Wedgwood's factory; transfer- printed in Liverpool by Guy Green (died 1799) Made by Joseph-Théodore Deck (1823-91).France, England, Staffordshire.About 1775., transfer- Paris1862.Earthenware, inlaid with coloured clays and printed in enamel.Museum no. 414/1155 to C- painted.Museum no. 18-1865.This vase is a faithful 1885.Given by Lady Charlotte Schreiber.This selection replica of a celebrated lustreware jar recovered from from a Wedgwood tea and coffee service illustrates the Alhambra, the palace fortress in Granada of the last two of England's key contributions to ceramic history: Islamic dynasty to rule Spain. Tourists visited the creamware, a type of tough earthenware, and transfer- Alhambra in the early 19th century, sparking a craze printing, an invention that revolutionised ceramic

794 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(6): 790-795, 2010

decoration worldwide. Creamware was cheap, durable 8. Jared D. 1998. "Japanese Roots". Discover and well-suited to dinner and tea services. It was (Discover Media LLC). hugely popular between 1765 and 1820. Transfer- http://www.discover.com/issues/jun- printing, perfected around 1750, enabled manufacturers 98/features/japaneseroots1455/. Retrieved 2006-03- to achieve high-quality decoration at a low cost). 23. 9. Ling, D., 1991. Laponite used as a poulticing REFERENCES material on ceramic eathenwares at the , Conservation News 46. 1. Alan, C.S., 1973. Tin Glazed Pottery, Faber and 10. Robert, M.B., 1995. "New Looks at Old Pots: Faber. Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of 2. Ahmad, H.Y., 2008a. "re Glass". History of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Science and Technology in , 03-29. : Annual on and Architecture 3. Ahmad, H.Y., 2008b. "Lazaward And Zaffer (Brill Academic Publishers) XII. ISBN In Islamic And Western Lustre Glass 9004103147. Mason (1995), pp: 1. And Ceramics". History of Science and 11. Simon, K., 2003. "The Oldest Pottery in the Technology in Islam, pp: 03-29. World" (PDF). Current World Archaeology (Robert 4. Born of Clay, 2005.Ceramic from the National Selkirk): pp. 44–49. Museum of the American Indian, 2005 http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa1/C Smithsonian Institution. WA_issue_1.pdf. Retrieved 2006-03-23. 5. Cooper, E., 2000. Ten Thousand Years of Pottery 12. Stringer, C., 2006. Homo Britannicus, Alan Lane, .British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2701-9. ISBN 9780713997958. 6. Henderson, J., S.D.M. McLoughlin and D.S. 13. Tanya, H., 1989. "From A Potter's Book to The McPhail, 2004. "Radical changes in Maker's Eye: British Studio Ceramics 1940-1982", technology: evidence for conservatism and in The Harrow Connection, Northern Centre for experimentation with new glass recipes from early Contemporary Art, 1989. and middle Islamic , ", Archaeometry 14. The New York Times, 2006. Art Review Museum 46(3): 439-68. of American Indian's 'Born of Clay' Explores 7. Hogan, C.M., 2006. Comparison of Mayan sites in Culture Through Ceramics By Grace GluecK, southern and western , Lumina Technologies. Published: July 1.

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