A COMMUNITY UNDER ATTACK: first node in that chain is highly influential” [1]. The top 20 PROTESTANT LETTER NETWORKS IN THE nodes by this measure include 12 martyrs, 2 letter couriers and REIGN OF MARY I 6 financial sustainers (5 of which were women). Therefore we Ruth Ahnert, School of English and Drama, Queen Mary see that many of the most “influential” people in this commu- University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, U.K. nity were not those dying for their faith, but rather those infra- E-mail: [email protected] structural figures who served the needs of others. The significance of couriers and sustainers becomes more S. E. Ahnert, TCM Group, Cavendish Laboratory, J.J. marked as Mary I’s reign progresses. Studies have shown that Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, U.K. E-mail: one of the most effective ways to fragment a network is to [email protected] remove nodes with the highest betweenness [2]. The under- See for supplemental files ground Protestant community in the reign of Mary I was associated with this issue. placed under systematic attack by the authorities. Through the Submitted: program of burnings, 14 of the top 20 nodes for betweenness were removed between Mary I’s accession and the end of July Abstract 1558. If we compare the complete network with the network This article uses mathematical and computational techniques to that remains after this date (Fig. 1), it is clear that the execu- reconstruct and analyze the social and textual organization of the tions had a devastating effect on the shape of the Protestant underground community of Protestants living in England during the reign of Mary I from 289 surviving letters. community; but, crucially, the network does not fragment. This Keywords: Protestant Reformation, correspondence, quantitative is because the network retains its infrastructural backbone: we network analysis are left with a network in which sustainers and couriers (Bern- her, Cooke and one William Punt) have the highest between- Mary I of England is famed for her persecution of the ness. Bernher and Punt seem to have taken on increasingly Protestant church. During her short reign (1553-1558) at least important roles as leaders died, themselves providing leader- 284 “heretics” were burnt to death. This article is concerned ship within the underground London congregation. with the question of what a community does when it is placed By applying network analysis to the study of this important under systematic attack. In the case of the Marian Protestants, letter collection, we can provide an alternative view of Refor- those who were not imprisoned or executed had to practice mation history. Martyrs have dominated the history of the their faith in secret or exile. Despite this, the church survived Protestant church, from contemporary accounts of the Marian and left behind a significant body of letters, which provides a persecution through to modern scholarship. By contrast, this valuable source for network analysis. By stripping these letters work shows that we should not underestimate the role of ap- back to simple meta-data (identities of senders and recipients, parently minor figures in the maintenance of the faith during dates of composition, and reported social links), we are able to this period of intense persecution. As such, it offers a hypothe- partially reconstruct the social and textual organization of this sis about the organization and structure of underground com- dissident community. The 289 letters used for this study form a munities, from persecuted minorities to terror cells: that their Wittrance Richardson network with 377 actors (nodes), and 795 social interactions Wittrance Richardson Palmer

success andCooke longevity depends upon infrastructural figures. Palmer Cooke London London

(edges). By analyzing the topological properties of this net- Christopher Goodman Christopher Goodman Elizabeth Clarke Thomas Witton Elizabeth Clarke Thomas Witton William Fletewode Thomas Simpson William Fletewode Thomas Simpson

work we observed both expected patterns – that martyrs are Farneham Rosewel Farneham Hussey Rosewel Goring Bell Hussey Goring Bell Gerard The Frenchman Gerard Gerard The Frenchman Gerard All the true professor and lovers of God's holy gospel All the true professor and lovers of God's holy gospel Good Wife Cooper William Hunter Thomas Randolph Edward Frensham Good Wife Cooper William Hunter Thomas Randolph central to the organization of this community – and some sur- Edward Frensham Anne Knevet Ms Coningham Henry Jones John Oswald Alice Alexander Alice Anne Knevet Marmaduke Glover Cutbert Ms Coningham Master Nowell Henry Jones Henrye Aprice Henrye John Oswald Alice Alexander Alice Hugh Glover John Manning Marmaduke Glover Cutbert Master Nowell Henrye Aprice Henrye Hugh Glover John Manning Hancock Joan Warren Bockingham John Went Lancelot Hancock Joan Warren Isabel Foster Anon_289_female_E.K. Bockingham John Went Lancelot John Tudson John Harry Adlington Harry Richard Brice Carre Hugh Burrows Isabel Foster Anon_289_female_E.K. Hugh Burrows' wife Morley John Tudson John John Careless's co-religionists in London Thomas Harland Lother Harry Adlington Harry Richard Brice Carre Hugh Burrows Bartlett Green Hugh Burrows' wife Hobbes Morley Master Newport Cornelyus John Careless's co-religionists in London Thomas Harland Lother

prising facts: that letter carriers and financial sustainers were Bartlett Green Homes Mrs Roberts John Philpot's godly brethren Filles Hobbes Master Newport Cornelyus William Aylesbury William Mistress Cotton Elizabeth Bernher Homes Mrs Roberts John Philpot's godly brethren Filles John Trew's sister-in-law Trew's John the flock in London William Aylesbury William Elizabeth Careless Mistress Cotton Elizabeth Bernher John Trew's sister-in-law Trew's John John Philpot's sister the flock in London Anon_234_female_E.K. Elizabeth Careless William Hunter's mother Margaret Careless John Philpot's sister Anon_234_female_E.K. William Hunter's mother Margaret Careless Master Crooch John Clements John Grove Master Marshall's wife Master Crooch John Clements Mistress Martipole John Grove Master Marshall's wife Master Mering Mistress Martipole Rice Aprice Rice Master Marshall Master Mering Rice Aprice Rice Master Marshall Anon_218 Master Fokes Anne Glover Thomas Philpot Anon_218 Master Fokes Anne Glover Thomas Philpot more significant than we may have previously suspected. Thomas Whittle Thomas Whittle Margery Cooke's mother Richard Woodman Traiford John Careless's co-religionist AC John Careless's co-religionist Anon2_218_S Margery Cooke's mother Richard Woodman Traiford John Careless's co-religionist AC John Careless's co-religionist Chyttenden Anon2_218_S Northumbrians Sister Chyllerde Chyttenden Mary Glover Rafe Whitfield Thomas Upcher Northumbrians Sister Chyllerde Mary Glover Rafe Whitfield Mistress Lounford Mistress Heath Thomas Upcher Dorothy Punt Mistress Lounford Mistress Heath Master Heath Dorothy Punt John Careless's co-religionist EH Margery Cooke's husband widow of Hugh Ridley William Turner William Master Heath John Careless's co-religionist EH Thyme/Thynne Margery Cooke's husband widow of Hugh Ridley William Turner William Thyme/Thynne Agnes Glascocke William Cooper Richard Cox Agnes Glascocke Barthram Calthorpe William Cooper Richard Cox Barthram Calthorpe John Careless John Cavell John Careless John Cavell Alice Shipside John Glover Cole Richard Chambers Alice Shipside John Glover Cole Augustine Bernher Richard Chambers Augustine Bernher The influence of a node within a social network is typically John Ridley Elizabeth Ridley John Ridley Elizabeth Ridley Boyer Boyer Robert Drake Thomas Sampson Robert Drake Thomas Sampson Richard Spurge Richard Spurge godly women from William Tyms's parish of Hockley, Essex parish of Hockley, Tyms's godly women from William Thomas Spurge godly women from William Tyms's parish of Hockley, Essex parish of Hockley, Tyms's godly women from William Thomas Spurge Nicholas Hopkins Nicholas Hopkins Edward 'Erkenwald' Rawlins George Ambrose George Edward 'Erkenwald' Rawlins George Ambrose George Anne Hooper William Porrege Anne Hooper John Philpot William Porrege John Ledley Robert Cole John Philpot Stephen Gratwick John Ledley Robert Cole Stephen Gratwick Elizabeth Fane Daniel Hooper Elizabeth Fane Sir John Cheke Robert Skelthorpe Daniel Hooper Sir John Cheke Robert Skelthorpe Margery Cooke Edmund Grindal John Trew John Margery Cooke Robert Glover Edmund Grindal John Trew John Robert Glover William Punt William Punt a female sustainer Anon_189 a female sustainer a female sustainer Anon_189 a female sustainer quantified by measuring its centrality. Betweenness centrality Master Monger Master Monger William Tyms's congregation in Hockley, Essex congregation in Hockley, Tyms's William Mr Martin William Tyms's congregation in Hockley, Essex congregation in Hockley, Tyms's William Mr Martin Tyms - all Gods faithfull seruantes Tyms John Jackson Tyms - all Gods faithfull seruantes Tyms John Jackson George Shipside Ms Colfoxe George Shipside Ms Colfoxe Anon_170_C Joyce Hales Nicholas Ridley Anon_170_C Joyce Hales Nicholas Ridley Robert Harrington Robert Harrington William Tyms William Thomas Hall William Tyms William Edward Crome Thomas Hall Nicholas Ridley II Edward Crome Amos Tyms Amos Nicholas Ridley II Amos Tyms Amos Cuthbert Warcup Cuthbert Warcup Monger Monger John Warren John Warren Joan Wilkinson Joan Wilkinson Elsing Elsing Mary Marlar Mary Marlar Mistress Wod Mistress Wod William Tyms's friends in Hockley, Essex friends in Hockley, Tyms's William Cornelius Stevenson William Tyms's friends in Hockley, Essex friends in Hockley, Tyms's William Cornelius Stevenson Chamber Chamber John Hullier John Hullier Elsing's wife Elsing's wife Rachel Hooper Anne Warcup Rachel Hooper Anne Warcup Anon_170_B Anon_170_B Richard Proude Richard Proude Mistress Pierpoint Mistress Pierpoint Mr Shorte Mr Shorte Richard Porrege Richard Porrege John Barry John Barry William Kempe William Kempe M. Vicar M. Vicar Heinrich Bullinger Heinrich Bullinger Hugh Latimer Hugh Latimer Mother Pike Katherine Phineas Mother Pike Thomas Cranmer

quantifies the number of times a specific node lies on a short- Oporinus Katherine Phineas Thomas Cranmer Oporinus John Searchfield John Searchfield William Lawrence William Lawrence Humphrey Middleton Humphrey Middleton Catherine Hall John Cotton Catherine Hall Robert Ferrar John Cotton John a Lasco Robert Ferrar John a Lasco Dr Albun Hill Dr Dr Albun Hill Dr Mr Lavatar John Bradford John Butler Mr Lavatar John Gibson John Bradford John Traves John John Butler John Gibson John Traves John Cambridge congregation Cambridge congregation Thomas Avington Thomas Lucy Harrington Thomas Avington Thomas Lucy Harrington Henry Hart Humphrey Hales Henry Hart John Hooper Rodolph Gualter Humphrey Hales John Hooper Roger Newman Rodolph Gualter Roger Newman Anna Bullinger Anna Bullinger Theodor Bibliander William Downton Theodor Bibliander John Bradford's mother William Downton Laurence Saunders John Bradford's mother Laurence Saunders Christopher Froschover Richard Gibson John Hooper's wife Anon_99 John Hall Christopher Froschover Richard Gibson John Hooper's wife Anon_99 John Hall Richard Bleacher M. William Brasburge Richard Bleacher M. William Brasburge R. Bolton Richard Bleacher's wife Rowland Taylor Rowland John Hullier's Cambridge congregation town of Walden Nicholas Sheterden R. Bolton Richard Bleacher's wife Rowland Taylor Rowland John Hullier's Cambridge congregation town of Walden Nicholas Sheterden W Charelton Master Royden W Charelton est path between two other nodes, which allows us to think Master Royden Simon Jen I. Wild Edward 'Erkenwald' Rawlins's wife Simon Jen George Heton I. Wild Edward 'Erkenwald' Rawlins's wife Margaret Butler George Heton Mary Honeywood Master Osbourne Margaret Butler James Haddon Thomas Lever Conrad Pellican's wife Rodolph Gualter's wife Mary Honeywood Master Osbourne John Hooper's co-religionists in London James Haddon Richard Hopkins's wife Thomas Lever Conrad Pellican's wife Rodolph Gualter's wife Town and University of Cambridge Town John Hooper's co-religionists in London Richard Hopkins's wife John Hooper's brethren, relievers and helpers John Schmutz Elizabeth Browne Town and University of Cambridge Town Anne Fitzwilliam John Spenser Alice Seddon John Hooper's brethren, relievers and helpers John Schmutz Elizabeth Browne John Bradford's brothers and sisters Roger Bradford Anne Fitzwilliam John Spenser Alice Seddon John Utenhovius Roger Shalcross Theodor Bibliander's wife John Bradford's brothers and sisters Roger Bradford John Utenhovius Roger Shalcross Theodor Bibliander's wife Sir Laurence Hall citizens of London Sir Laurence Hall Lancashire and Cheshire, Manchester Roger Shalcross's wife citizens of London Dr Albun Hill's wife Dr female co-religionist, A. B., widow female co-religionist, Coker Lancashire and Cheshire, Manchester Roger Shalcross's wife Laurence Bradshaw unnamed London merchant Dr Albun Hill's wife Dr female co-religionist, A. B., widow female co-religionist, Coker Laurence Bradshaw John Harman unnamed London merchant unnamed Freewiller Elizabeth Longsho John Harman unnamed Freewiller Elizabeth Longsho Anon_247_Anne the Christian congregation, prob. London Master Chambers Thomas Riddleston Anon_247_Anne the Christian congregation, prob. London Master Chambers Thomas Riddleston Richard Nicholl Master Chester Conrad Pellican Richard Nicholl Richard Hopkins Master Chester Thomas Sorrocold Conrad Pellican Steven Cotton Master Royden's wife Parson of Mottram Bow churchyard congregation William Fitzwilliam Richard Hopkins Thomas Sorrocold's wife Thomas Sorrocold Steven Cotton Master Royden's wife Parson of Mottram Bow churchyard congregation William Fitzwilliam Thomas Sorrocold's wife George Marsh's congregation at Church Langton about the routes Protestant communications took. The top 20 Christopher Lister Margaret Bradford George Marsh's congregation at Church Langton Elizabeth Bradford Christopher Lister Justice Sir James Hales James Bradshaw Margaret Bradford brethren and sisters Elizabeth Bradford Justice Sir James Hales James Bradshaw brethren and sisters Lord Francis Russell Father John Traves Father John Lord Francis Russell Father John Traves Father John Master Pierpoint Henry Burgess Master Pierpoint Henry Burgess professors of the gospel in Lichfield Cuthbert Simpson professors of the gospel in Lichfield Nicholas Sheterden's mother Laurence Saunders's wife and friends Elizabeth Warren Cuthbert Simpson Nicholas Sheterden's mother Laurence Saunders's wife and friends William Mowrant Elizabeth Warren Joanna Saunders Walter Sheterden Walter William Mowrant Joanna Saunders Walter Sheterden Walter Mr Hurland Mr Hurland Anne Smith George Marsh's friends in Manchester Rowland Taylor's wife, children and friends Taylor's Rowland nodes by this measure are mostly predictable: 14/20 are mar- Anne Smith Robert Smith George Marsh's friends in Manchester Rowland Taylor's wife, children and friends Taylor's Rowland Samuel Saunders Robert Smith Samuel Saunders congregation of Freewillers scattered through Suffolk, Norfolk, Essex and Kent congregation of Freewillers scattered through Suffolk, Peter Martyr congregation of Freewillers scattered through Suffolk, Norfolk, Essex and Kent congregation of Freewillers scattered through Suffolk, Peter Martyr Anon_202 Sister B.S. Anon_202 Sister B.S. George Marsh Edward Saunders Nicholas Sheterden's wife George Marsh Edward Saunders Nicholas Sheterden's wife John Flood Watts Robert Smith's female friend and her husband John Ardeley John John Flood Nicholas Watts Robert Smith's female friend and her husband tyrs; another is a leader of the separatist group known as the Ardeley John Nicholas Margaret Taylor Margaret John Simpson Alexander Robert Bracher Richard Wright Margaret Taylor Margaret John Simpson Alexander Robert Bracher Richard Wright Thomas Bentham Dirick Carver Rafe Bradshaw Thomas Bentham Father Herault Dirick Carver George Tankerfield's wife Tankerfield's George Rafe Bradshaw Father Herault Thomas Iveson John Launder George Tankerfield's wife Tankerfield's George Anne Smith's parents Robert Smith's brother Thomas Iveson John Launder William Andrew William Cuthbert Simpson's wife Robert Smith's children Anne Smith's parents Robert Smith's brother Katherine Smith John Crompton William Flower William Andrew William Cuthbert Simpson's wife

Freewillers. But it also highlights Anne Smith, Barthram Robert Smith's children Katherine Smith John Crompton William Flower Thomas Whittle's wife John Denley Thomas Hawkes Robert Langley Thomas Whittle's wife John Denley Thomas Hawkes Robert Langley Richard Bradshaw Ellis Crompton Thomas Hawkes's congregation in (Coggeshall?) Essex Richard Bradshaw Ellis Crompton Thomas Hawkes's congregation in (Coggeshall?) Essex

Calthorpe, William Bowyer, Augustine Bernher, and Margery James Lever James Lever Elice Fogge Elice Fogge Clement Throgmorton Clement Clement Throgmorton Clement Thomas Hawkes' wife Rose Allin Rose Robert Samuel Anne Lock Robert Samuel's congregation at Barholt? Thomas Hawkes's son Cooke – figures almost entirely absent from historical accounts Thomas Hawkes' wife Alice Smith Rose Allin Rose Robert Samuel Anne Lock Robert Samuel's congregation at Barholt? Thomas Hawkes's son Alice Smith Hugh Fox John Alcock John Hugh Fox John Alcock John Alice Mount John Alcock's co-religionists in Hadleigh, Suffolk John John Knox Alice Mount John Bland Jane Grey of the Marian persecutions. Significantly, these figures occupy Alcock's co-religionists in Hadleigh, Suffolk John John Knox Christian congregation (at Barholt, Suffolk?) John Bland Jane Grey Robert Allen Robert Rose Hickman

Fig. 1: The entire letter network up Ellen Ewring to 28 July 1558 (left), and the Christian congregation (at Barholt, Suffolk?) Robert Allen Robert John Devenish Rose Hickman Ellen Ewring John Devenish Sir William Lock John Bland's sister Female prisoners in the Counter similar roles in their relationship to the celebrated martyrs of Sir William Lock John Bland's sister

letter network of those individuals that wereFemale prisoners in the Counter still alive on 28 July Richard Roth co-religionists in London, Newcastle, and Berwick Anthony Hickman John Johnson William Mount Richard Roth co-religionists in London, Newcastle, and Berwick Anthony Hickman Katherine Grey John Johnson William Mount 1558 (right).Katherine Grey

the Marian reign, funneling letters, goods, and oral messages John Bland's father John Bland's father Ralph Allerton Ralph Robert Purcas Ralph Allerton Ralph Robert Purcas

between prisoners and communities elsewhere in England. William Bongeor William Bongeor References and Notes Elizabeth Folkes Elizabeth Folkes Thomas Reynold Bernher was a valuable letter courier, and Cooke was one of a Agnes Smith/Silverside Thomas Reynold Agnes Smith/Silverside former parishioners in Much Bentley, Essex former parishioners in Much Bentley, group of (mostly female) financial sustainers, who sent *This Essex former parishioners in Much Bentley, paper was presented as a contributed talk at Arts, Humanities, and Com- th Protestant prisoners money, clothes, food, and other means of plex Networks – 4 Leonardo satellite symposium at NetSci2013. See http://artshumanities.netsci2013.net - For a full account of this research see physical and emotional support. The significance of those fi- Ruth Ahnert and Sebastian E. Ahnert, ‘Protestant Letter Networks in the Reign nancial sustainers is emphasized further when we measure the of Mary I: A Quantitative Approach’, English Literary History (forthcoming). eigenvector centrality of each node. A node that has a high 1. Stephen P. Borgatti, “Centrality and Network Flow,” Social Networks eigenvector score is one that is adjacent to nodes that are them- 27(2005) p. 61. selves high scorers: “the idea is that even if a node influences 2. M. Girvan and M.E.J. Newman, ‘Community Structure in Social and Biolog- just one other node, who subsequently influences many other ical Networks,” PNAS 99 (2002), pp. 7821-7826. nodes (who themselves influence still more others), then the