Transitions in Seed Sovereignty in Western Bhutan

Mai KOBAYASHI*, Rekha CHHETRI**, Katsue FUKAMACHI***, and Shozo SHIBATA***

Abstract: This paper attempts to examine Bhutan’s transitioning agricultural sector through shedding light on the history of the government initiated seed production and distribution programs, and its influence on farming households in western Bhutan. A framework for seed system development is used, based on the recognition that there are two district seed procurement systems: formal (outsourced commercial seed production) and informal (non-commercial household, or community-based). The analysis is based on a household questionnaire survey and interviews conducted in western Bhutan and Japan in 2014 and 2015. Emphasis is placed on Japan’s influence on the formal seed system, notably through the introduction of improved vegetable seed varieties in the mid-1960s, and hybrid vegetable seeds since 2006. The household survey revealed varied but sustained coexistence between the two seed systems, with a high rate of seed saving as a common thread in all communities. Variation between districts reflected degree and maturity of market integration, and the increasing popularity of hybrid seeds. Key Words: Formal and informal seed systems, Rural development, Seed sovereignty, Vegetable production, Western Bhutan Discussions of food self-sufficiency and food INTRODUCTION security have been central to the Bhutanese government’s vision of development since the Bhutan is a nation that has been celebrated for drafting and implementation of its first five-year its progressive approach to development. Their development plan in 1961 (Daly and Thinley, announcement to become the first 100% organic 2005; Minot, 2010; RGoB 1966, 1972). Despite nation was yet another confirmation of their extensive concern, little attention has been paid to commitment towards a paradigm of growth that how the peasant farming communities themselves values social and ecological well-being (Kobayashi are reacting and adjusting to the government’s et al., 2015). A significant motivation behind a development plans, particularly with regards to commitment to organic agriculture has been the impact of the changing practices of saving and rooted in a concern over sustaining the autonomy procuring seeds. of Bhutan as a nation. With more than half of the Bhutanese peasant farmers, much like peasant population (745,153 in 2014) engaged in farmers around the world, are increasingly being agriculture (NSB, 2014), high dependence on incorporated into the formal seed system where imported external inputs (such as synthetic seeds are an outsourced commercial product and a fertilizers and pesticides) was considered an material input, provided through a specialized and unnecessary risk to food security. Despite such often highly regulated supply chain (Louwaars, concerns, however, this land-locked country along 2007). This supply chain includes gene banks, the foothills of the eastern Himalayan mountain breeders, seed producers, marketers and range is in the midst of rapid socio-economic distributors which are outsourced. This is in changes alongside efforts to expand and modernize contrast to informal seed systems, where seed agricultural production. This study attempts to provisioning is contained and sustained within a examine the broader topic of agricultural household or community (FAO, 2004; Louwaars, modernization in Bhutan, by way of assessing its 2007). Based on this framework, this paper will seed provisioning practices as a lens. first contextualize how Bhutan has initiated,

______*Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, **College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan ***Kyoto University Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies

Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 21 incorporated and institutionalized its formal seed Table 1 Outline of three districts systems, particularly with relation to developmental aid coming from Japan. We then Agro Elevation Mean annual Avg. age of Avg. rain fall ecological (surveyed sites) temp. (C) Major crops respondents seek to understand how the two seed systems are (mm) Zone (masl)* (Min/ Max) (age range) [% female] evolving and coexisting. Amidst government Cool Wheat, Barley, Avg. 45.4 (26~73) 2175~2360 11.3 (-2~19) 2241 efforts to increase food self-sufficiency and food Temperate Brassicas [86.9%] security, how are farming communities GASA Located entirely within a National Park, Gasa was formally recognized as Bhutan’s first organic pilot district in 2004 strategically navigating their relationships with (n=30) (RNRRC, 2012). A car road leading to urban markets outside of the district was completed only in 2011. Through government encouragement and improved access, the number of households cultivating vegetables for the market the emerging formal seed system to assure a is increasing. sustainable source of high-quality seeds? And how Warm Rice, Apple, Avg. 44.5 (18~72) 2250~2840 15.2 (-3~25) 801 Temperate Asparagus [64.7%] do their reactions inform efforts to assure seed Figure 1 Map of Bhutan and survey sites PARO A large rice-production region, considered one of the most productive and prosperous dzongkhag in the country sovereignty, which, much like food sovereignty, is (n=51) with its fertile land and high accessibility. One of the communities surveyed is where Keiji Nishioka, an agricultural defined by Jack Kloppenburg as the right of The selected districts are Gasa, Paro and Wangdu specialist from Japan had his experimental farm (Dorji and Penjore, 2011). people, communities, and countries to determine Cool Potato, Turnip, Avg. 46.9 (16~74) Phodrang (hereby shortened to Wangdue) (Figure 2200~3000 22.2 (-4~30) 1099 how seeds are saved, replanted, and shared Temperate Buckwheat [58.6%] 1). The three districts represent different socio- WANGDUE Although wetland rice cultivation is common in the lower altitudes of this region, the selected field sites are known (Kloppenburg, 2014). economic and agro-ecological conditions for (n=66) as one of the earliest places to incorporate commercial potato cultivation. Today they have the largest average comparison. Characteristics of the three districts area of potato cultivation in the country (0.99ha/household) (Roder, Nidup & Chhetri, 2008). In recent years, a hydroelectricity project has created employment and expanded market opportunities in the region. 1. METHODS are further summarized in Table 1. Within each *masl = Meters above sea level district, three communities active in agriculture,

that are also accessible by car, and within one (Asparagus racemosus) from the forests (Nakao & daikon (radish), Usui peas, Tetsu Kabuto Qualitative and quantitative data were collected day’s travel from a major market center, were 1.1 Survey sites and data collection Nishioka, 2011; Matsushima et al., 2006). (pumpkin), and a variety of Chinese cabbage using three methods: 1) archival research and selected. Surveyed households were randomly Vegetable cultivation for human consumption and known as ‘Kyoto 1’. In 1978, a government-led literature review of primary and secondary source identified to obtain a sample size representing income generation is a relatively recent scientific research project on vegetable production documents; 2) unstructured and semi-structured more than 50% of the total households within each phenomenon. Interviews and a review of was initiated with the launching of the Vegetable interviews; and 3) a household questionnaire community. contemporary and historic literature shed light on Seed Production Project led by FAO and the survey. The unstructured and semi-structured In all, 147 households were surveyed. One how little, besides chilies, turnips, buckwheat and Danish International Development Agency interviews were conducted with peasant farmers, representative from each household was asked to grains (such as wheat and barley), was routinely (DANIDA) (Wangchuk, Pradhan & Wangdi, 1990). as well as regional representatives, researchers, participate in the structured questionnaire survey. cultivated. Yoshiro Imaeda (2008) described the According to an interview with a longtime and extension workers within the Ministry of In addition to basic information about the absence of markets and the non-availability of government employee who worked in Bhutan’s Agriculture and Forests, foreign development aid household, respondents were asked multiple- fresh produce in the capital city of Thimphu when seed sector since 1979, the seeds first introduced workers and volunteers, particularly with the choice questions on changing trends in their he first arrived in 1981. through this program were open pollinated (JICA), both overall agricultural practices, particularly To strengthen Bhutan’s national security amidst varieties of cabbage (var. Copenhagen Market) current and former. The household survey was regarding the saving and procurement patterns of Japan International Cooperation Agency the changing geo-political context in the late and cauliflower (var. White Top, White Summer conducted during the period between January and cultivated crop varieties. 1950’s, the importance of domestic seed production and Progress), due to their suitability in various March, and again in October, 2014, with the was emphasized in the first five-year development climatic conditions. In 1984, the National assistance of regional extension agents, as well as 2. RESULTS plan. A government-led initiative to begin their Agriculture Seed and Plant Production Program students from the College of Natural Resources, own breeding program was initiated only after the (NASEPP) was established, whose mandate was to Royal University of Bhutan. 2.1 Historical context the formal seed sector arrival of Keiji Nishioka (respectfully known as produce and supply the domestic need for Bhutan is host to a diverse range of agro- The transitions taking place at the household Dasho Nishioka, the father of modern agriculture improved varieties of seed and fruit plants ecosystems. The climate varies from wet sub- level must first be contextualized within larger in Bhutan), who served as an agricultural (Tshering and Domang, 2004). NASEPP was later tropical in the lower elevation (100~600 meters trends taking place, leading up to the government- specialist under the Colombo Plan, from 1964 to privatized in 1995 and became the Druk Seed above sea level (masl)) in the south to alpine in the led introduction of the formal seed system. 1992 (Dorji and Penjore, 2011). He was stationed Corporation (DSC). The DSC struggled as a north (3600~7500masl). For comparison, survey Farming households throughout Bhutan have primarily in Paro and established a model farm in private business, and was reinstated under the sites were all selected within the mid-hill regions always had a strong tradition of harvesting an 1966, known as Bangdey Farm. This was where auspices of the government in 2010, and is (2000~3000 masl) of western and west-central extensive variety of wild edible plants, such as Nishioka introduced a number of open pollinated referred today as the National Seed Center (NSC). Bhutan, where the greatest socio-economic orchids (Cymbidium hookeianum), young ferns vegetable seeds from Japan, which are still known The production and dissemination of improved changes are currently taking place. (locally called na-kwe), and wild asparagus by their Japanese names, including the Tokinashi open pollinated vegetable seed varieties were

22 Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5

Table 1 Outline of three districts

Agro Elevation Mean annual Avg. age of Avg. rain fall ecological (surveyed sites) temp. (C) Major crops respondents (mm) Zone (masl)* (Min/ Max) (age range) [% female] Cool Wheat, Barley, Avg. 45.4 (26~73) 2175~2360 11.3 (-2~19) 2241 Temperate Brassicas [86.9%] GASA Located entirely within a National Park, Gasa was formally recognized as Bhutan’s first organic pilot district in 2004 (n=30) (RNRRC, 2012). A car road leading to urban markets outside of the district was completed only in 2011. Through government encouragement and improved access, the number of households cultivating vegetables for the market is increasing. Warm Rice, Apple, Avg. 44.5 (18~72) 2250~2840 15.2 (-3~25) 801 Temperate Asparagus [64.7%] PARO A large rice-production region, considered one of the most productive and prosperous dzongkhag in the country (n=51) with its fertile land and high accessibility. One of the communities surveyed is where Keiji Nishioka, an agricultural specialist from Japan had his experimental farm (Dorji and Penjore, 2011). Cool Potato, Turnip, Avg. 46.9 (16~74) 2200~3000 22.2 (-4~30) 1099 Temperate Buckwheat [58.6%] WANGDUE Although wetland rice cultivation is common in the lower altitudes of this region, the selected field sites are known (n=66) as one of the earliest places to incorporate commercial potato cultivation. Today they have the largest average area of potato cultivation in the country (0.99ha/household) (Roder, Nidup & Chhetri, 2008). In recent years, a hydroelectricity project has created employment and expanded market opportunities in the region. *masl = Meters above sea level

(Asparagus racemosus) from the forests (Nakao & daikon (radish), Usui peas, Tetsu Kabuto Nishioka, 2011; Matsushima et al., 2006). (pumpkin), and a variety of Chinese cabbage Vegetable cultivation for human consumption and known as ‘Kyoto 1’. In 1978, a government-led income generation is a relatively recent scientific research project on vegetable production phenomenon. Interviews and a review of was initiated with the launching of the Vegetable contemporary and historic literature shed light on Seed Production Project led by FAO and the how little, besides chilies, turnips, buckwheat and Danish International Development Agency grains (such as wheat and barley), was routinely (DANIDA) (Wangchuk, Pradhan & Wangdi, 1990). cultivated. Yoshiro Imaeda (2008) described the According to an interview with a longtime absence of markets and the non-availability of government employee who worked in Bhutan’s fresh produce in the capital city of Thimphu when seed sector since 1979, the seeds first introduced he first arrived in 1981. through this program were open pollinated To strengthen Bhutan’s national security amidst varieties of cabbage (var. Copenhagen Market) the changing geo-political context in the late and cauliflower (var. White Top, White Summer 1950’s, the importance of domestic seed production and Progress), due to their suitability in various was emphasized in the first five-year development climatic conditions. In 1984, the National plan. A government-led initiative to begin their Agriculture Seed and Plant Production Program own breeding program was initiated only after the (NASEPP) was established, whose mandate was to arrival of Keiji Nishioka (respectfully known as produce and supply the domestic need for Dasho Nishioka, the father of modern agriculture improved varieties of seed and fruit plants in Bhutan), who served as an agricultural (Tshering and Domang, 2004). NASEPP was later specialist under the Colombo Plan, from 1964 to privatized in 1995 and became the Druk Seed 1992 (Dorji and Penjore, 2011). He was stationed Corporation (DSC). The DSC struggled as a primarily in Paro and established a model farm in private business, and was reinstated under the 1966, known as Bangdey Farm. This was where auspices of the government in 2010, and is Nishioka introduced a number of open pollinated referred today as the National Seed Center (NSC). vegetable seeds from Japan, which are still known The production and dissemination of improved by their Japanese names, including the Tokinashi open pollinated vegetable seed varieties were

Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 23

this case as tubers, in Wangdue) (Figure 2). Average and range in GASA 100 80.0 78.4 76.2 73.0 Trading or bartering of seeds within or between 60.0

56.9 80 54.0 46.7

43.3 communities is an important way to strengthen 41.2 40.0 GASA 60 33.3 29.4 27.5 27.5 25.4 and diversify seed stock in informal seed systems. PARO 40 7.9 6.3 In such a way, peasant farmers were also found to 20 WANGDUE

be trading seeds. Figure 3 shows the variations in % Households 0 TRADE RECEIVE BUY % HOUSEHOLD seed procurement patterns between the three RICE CHILI BEAN MAX 22.2 91.7 41.7 communities within each district. The average (OTHER CHILI) POTATO MIN 16.7 72.2 27.8

. within each district is marked as (u), and the AVE 20.0 80.0 33.3 WHEAT/BARL EY/BUCKWHE AT

VEG THAN vertical bar represents the range (maximum and minimum) within each district. In each district, Figure 2 Variety of seeds being saved Agerage and range in PARO households procuring seeds through trading with 100 considered an important strategy for rural Bhutan Alpine Seeds, which is Bhutan’s sole other households (marked as “trade”) were 20.0%, 80 development. Open pollinated varieties were used, private seed company, established in 2000. 19.6%, and 31.7% in Gasa, Paro, and Wangdue, 60 and hybrid seeds were intentionally banned from In 2006, a former employee of Takii Seed respectively (Figure 3). 40 20 import, in order to prevent communities in Company in Japan came to Bhutan as a senior In order to assess how peasant farmer

% Households 0 general, and Bhutan as a whole, from becoming JICA volunteer and was stationed at what was households were engaging with the emerging TRADE RECEIVE BUY overly dependent on external material imports. then known as the DSC. Seeing the limitations to formal seed systems, the survey questioned how MAX 28.6 100.0 90.0 Encouraging increased self-sufficiency to maintain the national breeding programs and the degree to else, besides non-monetary forms of exchange, MIN 11.8 70.0 64.3 its autonomy was thus important. Other reasons which improved self-sufficiency was to contribute were households acquiring seeds. As previously AVE 19.6 82.4 80.4 for banning hybrid seeds included the high upfront to overall food security, he was shocked to find a mentioned, peasant farmers in Bhutan receive fully subsidized seeds from the government Average and range in WANGDUE economic cost, the higher demand for nutritional formal seed system still functioning without the 100 inputs, inherent om hybrid seed cultivation, and a use of hybrid seeds. He quickly assessed and (marked as “receive” in Figure 3) in effort to 80 concern that foreign seed companies would sell facilitated efforts to transform the existing seed increase national food self-sufficiency and 60 lower quality seeds to small countries like Bhutan, provisioning system and pushed to allow limited stimulate rural economic development. The survey 40 that did not to have the technical means to varieties of hybrid seeds to be imported. Having found that the majority, but interestingly not all, 20 evaluate the quality of hybrid seeds (interview been contemplating their benefits for some time, households were receiving seeds provided by the 0

% Households TRADE RECEIVE BUY government, with 80.0%, 82.4%, and 73.0% in Nishikawa, 2014). To assure that peasant the Ministry of Agriculture took this as an MAX 53.3 90 86.8 Gasa, Paro, and Wangdue, respectively (Figure 3). households had access to sufficient seeds, opportunity to give permission to initiate limited MIN 18.4 66.7 26.7 Given physical and economic access, households government extension agents supplied every importation of hybrid seeds in 2006 (Nishikawa, AVE 31.7 73.0 68.3 household with fully subsidized seed samples, 2014; Tshering and Tensin, 2007). Varieties of are also able to purchase seeds. The survey along with technical assistance through cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli were the first to showed a large regional variation, with 33.3%, Figure 3 Inter-regional variations in seed exhibitions and demonstrations; and distributed be imported, later expanding to carrot, 80.4%, and 68.3% in Gasa, Paro, and Wangdue, procurement patterns leaflets and books to raise awareness about watermelon, and squash (Nishikawa, 2015). respectively (Figure 3). We can see that the vegetable cultivation and seed saving (Wangchuck 2.2 Seed sourcing greatest variation was found in Wangdue, where households in Gasa were procuring their seeds et al., 1990). Such seed distribution programs have Results from the household questionnaire survey households buying seeds ranged from 26.7% to exclusively from the government (Pattern F), and persisted to this day. Today, peasant farmers’ will be highlighted to assess how peasant farmers 86.8%, depending on the community. In a smaller percentage, 13.3%, was procuring their requests for desired varieties of seed are made to are relating to the emerging formal seed system to comparison, variations within other districts were seeds from all three sources (Pattern A) (Figure 4). the local agriculture extension agent, who will assure a sustainable source of high-quality seeds. less. This could partially be attributed to the large In contrast, in Paro, the largest number of then process the request through the NSC and/or The household questionnaire survey results variation in access and agroecological conditions households, 45.1%, both received as well as the Horticulture Division, under the national showed that 96.7%, 98.0%, and 96.8% of the found within Wangdue being the largest district in purchased their seeds (Pattern C), while 17.6% government’s Department of Agriculture. What is peasant farmers in Gasa, Paro, and Wangdue, Bhutan. were acquiring their seeds from all three sources distributed will depend on the budget allocation respectively, are continuing their practices of The diversity in seed procurement patterns or (Pattern A), and another 17.6% were solely buying for each district, and available stock at the NSC. If saving seed at some capacity. The variety of seeds the degree of opportunism was further examined their seeds, not taking advantage of the peasant farmers are unable to receive sufficient differed according to agroecological conditions but through cross assessment of the three variables. government program (Pattern G) (Figure 4). quantity, quality or a desired variety of seed from also their relationship to the market (as seen in Figure 4 shows a regional comparison of eight Further in Wangdue, we found 28.8% of the the government, they can opt to purchase seeds the high percentage of farmers saving the major different patterns of seed procurement (Patterns A households both buying and receiving seeds from directly from the NSC, commission agents or from cash crops of chili seeds in Paro and potatoes, in to H). Particularly notable was how 53.3% of the the government (Pattern C), and 18.2% taking

24 Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5

this case as tubers, in Wangdue) (Figure 2). Average and range in GASA 100

73.0 78.4 80.0 76.2 Trading or bartering of seeds within or between 60.0

56.9 80 54.0 46.7

. within each district is marked as (u), and the AVE 20.0 80.0 33.3 WHEAT/BARL EY/BUCKWHE AT

Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 25

53.3 Nonetheless, the informal seed systems largely GASA (n=30) reflected traditional crop varieties common in each 45.1 PARO (n=51) V%/!21),#!P3]$)41! DK:K EF:J region, represented by foods that are staples in ,%$!),/&$&1/&4 WANGDUE (n=66) IS:F Bhutan, such as rice, barley, buckwheat, chili,

28.8 O%2(4!()X&!/%!21&! DM:N maize, turnips and radishes. Crop varieties e3]$)41 existing in the informal seed systems were also 18.2 17.6 17.6 16.7 15.7 13.3 % HOUSEHOLD DF:K g1),#!P3]$)41 12.1 JJ:F found embedded in practices surrounding the 10.6 10.0 7.6 6.7 6.7 reciprocal exchange of benefits, based on the 3.3 3.3 A!e^gi-e^Ta 2.0 2.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 GD:M bartering of seeds, harvested food and services. IN:I The rich constellation of interdependencies EI:I 9-*- .:;< Patterns: A B C D E F G H =-&1 .:>" between farming households cultivating in ?-.8/%( .:@@ Y"i"! W"\^! O"VYag-! different regions is largely dictated by the Pattern A: Trading + Receiving free seeds from Gov. + Buying Pattern B: Trading + Receiving free seeds from Gov. Figure 5 Use of hybrid seeds agroecological setting and the relationship each Pattern C: Receiving free seeds from Gov. + Buying Pattern D: Trading + Buying community has to the market. For example, Paro, Pattern E: Only Trading seeds, 66.7% in Gasa, 29.4% in Paro, and 27.0% in where there is high market access and the highest Pattern F: Only Receiving free seeds from Gov. Pattern G: Only Buying Wangdue responded affirmatively that they would rate of urbanization between the surveyed sites, Pattern H: Not getting seed from outside the household 45% of the households were receiving seeds from like to use hybrid seeds if they had the means and Figure 4 Regional comparison of seed procurement patterns the opportunity (Figure 5). the government as well as buying their own seed. By contrast, more than half the respondents in advantage of all three sources of seeds (Pattern A) rice, and rice or potatoes for chili. In one 3. DISCUSSION Gasa (53%) showed high levels of dependency, (Figure 4). community in particular, 90.0% of the households with exclusive reliance on the government for 2.3 Varietal variation in different seed systems mentioned that they were bartering chili for rice. From the introduction of cash crop varieties from their seeds, perhaps due to their greater Varieties of seeds that are traded, bought and/or In Gasa, while details about bartering practices Japan through Keiji Nishioka to the imports of remoteness, in addition their relationship to the received from the government differed according were not collected, reports have mentioned hybrid vegetable seeds initiated in 2006, Bhutan market has not yet been fully established having to the region. Among those who specified, we bartering of wheat and rice for the brewing of has attempted to diversify its informal seed only completed a road for cars to pass in 2011 found that seeds procured through the formal seed alcohol (ara), since rice cannot be grown by those systems through formal government-led (Table 1 and Figure 4). A comparatively lower systems, i.e. receiving from the government or living in higher altitudes (Duba et al., 1995). assistance from foreign countries, particularly percentage of households, 13% in Gasa, and 18% buying, were mainly those which were introduced 2.4 Popularity of hybrid seeds Japan, in order to strengthen and expand in both Paro and Wandgue, was maximizing their and familiarized since 1978, such as asparagus, Hybrid seeds have been considered a successful cultivation of food products. In order to assure opportunities and taking advantage of all three broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, carrot, tomato, yet controversial addition to the agricultural seed self-sufficiency at the household, community surveyed options for seed procurement (Figure 4). onion, and garlic. Whereas species of seeds within landscape. To envision how the agricultural and national levels, the Bhutanese government Even though the introduction of hybrid seeds in the informal seed system, i.e. saved and traded, landscape may transition in the future we initially allowed only open pollinated varieties to Bhutan, which began in 2006, was quick to take included rice in Paro, rice and vegetable evaluated the popularity of the hybrid seeds that be produced and distributed. This reinforced the root, the survey showed high variance in their use (unspecified variety) seeds in Gasa, and barley, have been introduced since 2006. We asked practice of saving seeds, as the surveyed clearly between the districts, with more than half in Paro buckwheat, wheat, beans, chili, maize, radishes, whether farming households are taking advantage showed more than 96% of households in each using hybrid seeds (52.9%), while Gasa was turnips, and potatoes in Wangdue. Furthermore, of this new technology, and if not, whether they district were saving seeds in some capacity. particularly low at 13.3%. If we take into account seeds within the informal seed system were found would like to take advantage of it in the future. Further look into variety, however, shows that the desire to use hybrid seeds if they had an embedded within a larger relationship of Results showed varied incorporation of hybrid more than half of the surveyed households were opportunity (Figure 5), overall interest in hybrid reciprocity, where peasant farmers exchange seeds. On the one hand, 13.3% in Gasa, to 52.9% saving vegetable seeds. While this indicates the seeds (current use and desire to use in future) cultivated foods and services. Surveyed results in Paro, and 34.3% in Wangdue reported that they successful interaction and integration of the added up to more than 60% in all regions. showed that 23.5% of the surveyed households still were already using hybrid seeds (Figure 5). formal and the informal seed systems as an Variation in current usage could be attributed to trade rice in exchange for chili, butter, oil Despite hybrid seeds in Bhutan being ten times arrangement for site-specific adaption to physical access and the economic means by which (mustard), meat, or vegetables. Rice, straw, and more expensive than the open pollinated production and market challenges, this also to buy expensive hybrid seeds. Those in Paro were labor were mentioned as exchanged for livestock counterparts in the markets today, respondents presents a need for further investigation into what able to afford them due to their comparative products, such as butter or cheese. In Wangdue, replied that they use hybrid seeds because of their vegetable varieties are being saved and why, given advantage in market access and to new 39.4% of the households mentioned that they higher quality and yield. On the other hand, the increasing popularity of seeds that are not technologies, as the NSC is located in Paro. In the bartered: labor was traded for butter, meet for among respondents who were not using hybrid designed to be harvested and saved, such as the case of Wangdue, the reason behind the relatively hybrid vegetable seeds. low usage and low interest in the hybrid seed may

26 Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 ! 53.3 Nonetheless, the informal seed systems largely GASA (n=30) reflected traditional crop varieties common in each 45.1 PARO (n=51) V%/!21),#!P3]$)41! DK:K EF:J region, represented by foods that are staples in ,%$!),/&$&1/&4 WANGDUE (n=66) IS:F Bhutan, such as rice, barley, buckwheat, chili,

Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 27 ! be due to their well-established potato production, market-oriented mode of production, later of formal seed systems. The answers to such Matsushima et al. (2006) Bhutan Oh-koku ni Okeru Shokuyo- lowering their need to diversify their production. represented by the introduction of hybrid seeds. questions will further deepen our understanding yasei-shokubutu no Riyo to sono Dento Chishiki ni kansuru Turnips are also extensively cultivated in With the establishment of domestic as well as of the transitions taking place and the dynamic Chosa-houkoku (Daiichiji) 「ブータン王国における食用野生植 Wangdue, but a significant portion is for livestock international markets, alongside extensive process in which seed sovereignty is constantly 物の利用とその伝統知識に関する調査報告（第一次）」 feed, for which hybrid varieties would be too support from the Bhutanese government and negotiated. [Research report on wild edible plant species and associated expensive and unnecessary. In the case of Gasa, foreign development agencies, there has been a traditional knowledge], Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture the enforcement of organic agricultural standards push to increase overall vegetable production over SHINSHU UNIVERSITY. Vol. 42, No. 1-2, p37~47. (Written could be contributing to the low usage of hybrid the past four decades, and a consequential need to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in Japanese) seeds. Although no formal organic certification has change what, why and how certain seeds are Minot, Nicholas, and Nidup Pelijor (2010) Food Security and been established, the National Organic Standards acquired. Depending on when a community Deepest gratitude goes to the faculty, staff and students of the Food Self-sufficiency in Bhutan. International Food Policy of Bhutan adhere to basic international standards started to actively sell their produce in the College of Natural Resources, the staff of the Royal University of Research Institute “Agricultural and Food Policy Research that place importance on planting materials well market, the degree of dependence on the Bhutan head office, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests District and Capacity Strengthening” Project. Policy and Planning adapted to local conditions, which, to the extent government for its integration, such as in the case Administrative Officers and Extension Officers in Gasa, Paro and Division and Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal possible, are produced under organic conditions of Gasa with its organic designation, the degree of Wangdue not only for making our research possible, but for all the Government of Bhutan, Thimphu. (RGoB, 2011). Hybrid seeds are characteristically access and dependence on formal seed systems welcome and the companionship provided. Also to Kyoto University Nakao S., and Nishioka K. (2011) Flowers of Bhutan. Hokkaido not organic. While hybrids are utilized for their varied greatly. Global Environmental Studies program for their support to conduct University Press: Sapporo, Japan. uniform and high yielding characteristics, they This study attempted to capture one perspective this research. inevitably require the cultivator to continue in Bhutan’s dynamic process of agricultural REFERENCES Nicholson, P. (2012) Food sovereignty, a basis for transforming purchasing the seeds each season. When asked transition. While this study placed particular Daly, G., S. Thinley (2005) Food Security Assessment Report. the dominant economic and social model: An interview of about the use of hybrid seeds, an organic farmer in focus on influences from Japan, further United Nations World Food Programme: Thimphu, Bhutan. Paul Nicholson, La Vía Campesina. CETIM : Geneva. Nishikawa, K. (2015) JICA Senior Volunteer in Bhutan Gasa mentioned that it would be “against the investigation is warranted on the consistent Dorji T.C., and D. Penjore (2011) Dasho Keiji Nishioka – A norm” to use them. But in spite of that, more than presence of India throughout Bhutan’s process of Japanese who lived for Bhutan. Dorji Penjore, Thimphu, 2006~2008, stationed in Druk Seed Company working on a quarter of the households indicated an interest modernization, and the more recent but intimate Bhutan. Seed Processing and Commercialization. Interview on June, 30. Kyoto, Japan in hybrid seeds, suggesting a potential increase in relationship with Thailand, through the Thailand Duba, S., Ghimiray M., and Gurung T (1995) Farmers’ Need future demand. International Cooperation Agency (TICA). Assessment in Goenkhatoe and Goenkhame Gewogs of Gasa: NSB (2014) Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2014. National As Paul Nicholson states, food sovereignty, and A Farming Systems Research Report. Renewable Natural Statistical Bureau, RGoB: Thimphu, Bhutan. CONCLUSION hence seed sovereignty, is a process, and an RGoB (2011) National Organic Standards of Bhutan, Ministry Resources Research Centre (RNRRC) Bajo, Working Paper inherently dynamic one (Nicholson, 2012). Further No. 1. RGoB: Bajo, Bhutan. of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan A brief history of the introduction and research to assess the future impact of the market FAO (2004) Seed multiplication by resource-limited farmers. (RGoB): Thimphu, Bhutan. integration of the formal seed systems in Bhutan and government policies on the preferential Proceedings of the Latin America Workship. April 7〜11. RGoB (1972) Third Five Year Development Plan. Royal was described, with a particular focus on the treatment and coexistence of the informal and Government of Bhutan (RGoB): Thimphu, Bhutan. Goiânia, Brazil. influence from Japan. An assessment was then formal seed systems among peasant farmer Imaeda, Yoshiro (2008) Bhutan ni Miserarete 「ブータンに魅せ RGoB (1966) Second Five Year Development Plan. Royal made of the various states in which the formal communities is necessary to assess the dynamics られて」 [Enchanted by Bhutan], Iwanami Books, Tokyo. Government of Bhutan (RGoB): Timphu, Bhutan. seed systems are coexisting with the informal seed of how the rights to determine and shape seed RNRRC (2012) Organic Outreach Program – Gasa Dzongkhag systems in Western Bhutan. The coexistence systems are transitioning. (Written in Japanese) (Proposal Document). Renewable Natural Resources between the two seed systems was based on a In line with the possibilities in expanding Kloppenburg, J. (2014) Re-purposing the master’s tools: the Research Centre (RNRRC) Bajo, Department of Agriculture, distinct division of labor, so to speak, between dependence on formal seed systems, it is open source seed initiative and the struggle for seed Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, RoGB: Bajo, Bhutan. varieties represented by the two seed systems. important to note that Bhutan’s emphasis on sovereignty. The Journal of Peasant Studies. Vol41, No.6, Roder, W. Nidup K., Chhetri, G. (2008) The Potato in Bhutan. With regards to the informal see system, it was organic agriculture may be playing a critical role p1225〜1246. found that more than 96% of the households in the in preventing the introduction of genetically Louwaars, N. (2007) Seeds of Confusion: The impact of policies Bhutan Potato Development Program. Department of surveyed districts practiced seed saving. The modified organisms (GMO). The sustained on seed systems. PhD Dissertation, Wageningen University, Agriculture, RGoB: Thimphu, Bhutan. Wangchuk, K., Pradhan, P., and Wangdi, C. (1990) Vegetable varieties that they saved, however, were distinct adherence to GMO-free standards would play a The Netherlands. from what was introduced through the formal seed significant part in protecting not only the Mahesh G., & Wangdi N. (2011) Diversifying Farming System, Production and Policy in Bhutan. In Vegetable Research and Development in South Asia, p.75 〜 79. Asian Vegetable systems. The formal seed systems, starting with environment but the intrinsic sovereignty of Conservation, Development and Sustainable Use of Crop the tested and imported varieties familiarized peasant farmers. Questions remain whether Genetic Resources for Livelihood and Food Security. Research and Development Center: Shanhua, Taiwan. Tshering, C. and Domang (2004) The Seed Potato System in through Nishioka and the FAO/DANIDA genetic and varietal diversity found within Biodiversity Use and Conservation in Asia Program 2002- vegetable seed production project in the 60’s and cultivated crops have been diversified or simplified 2010. p55 〜 57. Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan and the way forward. Agricultural Marketing 70’s, expanded to include the import dependent as a result of a government mediated introduction Thimphu, Bhutan: Services. Ministry of Agriculture, RGoB: Thimphu, Bhutan.

28 Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 be due to their well-established potato production, market-oriented mode of production, later of formal seed systems. The answers to such Matsushima et al. (2006) Bhutan Oh-koku ni Okeru Shokuyo- lowering their need to diversify their production. represented by the introduction of hybrid seeds. questions will further deepen our understanding yasei-shokubutu no Riyo to sono Dento Chishiki ni kansuru Turnips are also extensively cultivated in With the establishment of domestic as well as of the transitions taking place and the dynamic Chosa-houkoku (Daiichiji) 「ブータン王国における食用野生植 Wangdue, but a significant portion is for livestock international markets, alongside extensive process in which seed sovereignty is constantly 物の利用とその伝統知識に関する調査報告（第一次）」 feed, for which hybrid varieties would be too support from the Bhutanese government and negotiated. [Research report on wild edible plant species and associated expensive and unnecessary. In the case of Gasa, foreign development agencies, there has been a traditional knowledge], Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture the enforcement of organic agricultural standards push to increase overall vegetable production over SHINSHU UNIVERSITY. Vol. 42, No. 1-2, p37~47. (Written could be contributing to the low usage of hybrid the past four decades, and a consequential need to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in Japanese) seeds. Although no formal organic certification has change what, why and how certain seeds are Minot, Nicholas, and Nidup Pelijor (2010) Food Security and been established, the National Organic Standards acquired. Depending on when a community Deepest gratitude goes to the faculty, staff and students of the Food Self-sufficiency in Bhutan. International Food Policy of Bhutan adhere to basic international standards started to actively sell their produce in the College of Natural Resources, the staff of the Royal University of Research Institute “Agricultural and Food Policy Research that place importance on planting materials well market, the degree of dependence on the Bhutan head office, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests District and Capacity Strengthening” Project. Policy and Planning adapted to local conditions, which, to the extent government for its integration, such as in the case Administrative Officers and Extension Officers in Gasa, Paro and Division and Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal possible, are produced under organic conditions of Gasa with its organic designation, the degree of Wangdue not only for making our research possible, but for all the Government of Bhutan, Thimphu. (RGoB, 2011). Hybrid seeds are characteristically access and dependence on formal seed systems welcome and the companionship provided. Also to Kyoto University Nakao S., and Nishioka K. (2011) Flowers of Bhutan. Hokkaido not organic. While hybrids are utilized for their varied greatly. Global Environmental Studies program for their support to conduct University Press: Sapporo, Japan. uniform and high yielding characteristics, they This study attempted to capture one perspective this research. inevitably require the cultivator to continue in Bhutan’s dynamic process of agricultural REFERENCES Nicholson, P. (2012) Food sovereignty, a basis for transforming purchasing the seeds each season. When asked transition. While this study placed particular Daly, G., S. Thinley (2005) Food Security Assessment Report. the dominant economic and social model: An interview of about the use of hybrid seeds, an organic farmer in focus on influences from Japan, further United Nations World Food Programme: Thimphu, Bhutan. Paul Nicholson, La Vía Campesina. CETIM : Geneva. Nishikawa, K. (2015) JICA Senior Volunteer in Bhutan Gasa mentioned that it would be “against the investigation is warranted on the consistent Dorji T.C., and D. Penjore (2011) Dasho Keiji Nishioka – A norm” to use them. But in spite of that, more than presence of India throughout Bhutan’s process of Japanese who lived for Bhutan. Dorji Penjore, Thimphu, 2006~2008, stationed in Druk Seed Company working on a quarter of the households indicated an interest modernization, and the more recent but intimate Bhutan. Seed Processing and Commercialization. Interview on June, 30. Kyoto, Japan in hybrid seeds, suggesting a potential increase in relationship with Thailand, through the Thailand Duba, S., Ghimiray M., and Gurung T (1995) Farmers’ Need future demand. International Cooperation Agency (TICA). Assessment in Goenkhatoe and Goenkhame Gewogs of Gasa: NSB (2014) Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan 2014. National As Paul Nicholson states, food sovereignty, and A Farming Systems Research Report. Renewable Natural Statistical Bureau, RGoB: Thimphu, Bhutan. CONCLUSION hence seed sovereignty, is a process, and an RGoB (2011) National Organic Standards of Bhutan, Ministry Resources Research Centre (RNRRC) Bajo, Working Paper inherently dynamic one (Nicholson, 2012). Further No. 1. RGoB: Bajo, Bhutan. of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan A brief history of the introduction and research to assess the future impact of the market FAO (2004) Seed multiplication by resource-limited farmers. (RGoB): Thimphu, Bhutan. integration of the formal seed systems in Bhutan and government policies on the preferential Proceedings of the Latin America Workship. April 7〜11. RGoB (1972) Third Five Year Development Plan. Royal was described, with a particular focus on the treatment and coexistence of the informal and Government of Bhutan (RGoB): Thimphu, Bhutan. Goiânia, Brazil. influence from Japan. An assessment was then formal seed systems among peasant farmer Imaeda, Yoshiro (2008) Bhutan ni Miserarete 「ブータンに魅せ RGoB (1966) Second Five Year Development Plan. Royal made of the various states in which the formal communities is necessary to assess the dynamics られて」 [Enchanted by Bhutan], Iwanami Books, Tokyo. Government of Bhutan (RGoB): Timphu, Bhutan. seed systems are coexisting with the informal seed of how the rights to determine and shape seed RNRRC (2012) Organic Outreach Program – Gasa Dzongkhag systems in Western Bhutan. The coexistence systems are transitioning. (Written in Japanese) (Proposal Document). Renewable Natural Resources between the two seed systems was based on a In line with the possibilities in expanding Kloppenburg, J. (2014) Re-purposing the master’s tools: the Research Centre (RNRRC) Bajo, Department of Agriculture, distinct division of labor, so to speak, between dependence on formal seed systems, it is open source seed initiative and the struggle for seed Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, RoGB: Bajo, Bhutan. varieties represented by the two seed systems. important to note that Bhutan’s emphasis on sovereignty. The Journal of Peasant Studies. Vol41, No.6, Roder, W. Nidup K., Chhetri, G. (2008) The Potato in Bhutan. With regards to the informal see system, it was organic agriculture may be playing a critical role p1225〜1246. found that more than 96% of the households in the in preventing the introduction of genetically Louwaars, N. (2007) Seeds of Confusion: The impact of policies Bhutan Potato Development Program. Department of surveyed districts practiced seed saving. The modified organisms (GMO). The sustained on seed systems. PhD Dissertation, Wageningen University, Agriculture, RGoB: Thimphu, Bhutan. Wangchuk, K., Pradhan, P., and Wangdi, C. (1990) Vegetable varieties that they saved, however, were distinct adherence to GMO-free standards would play a The Netherlands. from what was introduced through the formal seed significant part in protecting not only the Mahesh G., & Wangdi N. (2011) Diversifying Farming System, Production and Policy in Bhutan. In Vegetable Research and Development in South Asia, p.75 〜 79. Asian Vegetable systems. The formal seed systems, starting with environment but the intrinsic sovereignty of Conservation, Development and Sustainable Use of Crop the tested and imported varieties familiarized peasant farmers. Questions remain whether Genetic Resources for Livelihood and Food Security. Research and Development Center: Shanhua, Taiwan. Tshering, C. and Domang (2004) The Seed Potato System in through Nishioka and the FAO/DANIDA genetic and varietal diversity found within Biodiversity Use and Conservation in Asia Program 2002- vegetable seed production project in the 60’s and cultivated crops have been diversified or simplified 2010. p55 〜 57. Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan and the way forward. Agricultural Marketing 70’s, expanded to include the import dependent as a result of a government mediated introduction Thimphu, Bhutan: Services. Ministry of Agriculture, RGoB: Thimphu, Bhutan.

Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 29

Tshering K. and Tensin K. (2007) Hybrid versus open ＜RESEARCH REPORT＞ pollinated vegetable seeds in Bhutan. RC Wengkhar News Business Sector Efforts and Challenges to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals: and Views. Renewable Natural Resources Research Center, A Case Study from Japan Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Vol. 1, No. 19, p2〜7. Yuka HAYAKAWA* RGoB: Mongar, Bhutan. Abstract: To achieve the new global agenda—the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—UN member states and all stakeholders in civil society have their own respective roles to play. The SDGs are to be implemented in the spirit of global partnership. The business sector is expected to contribute in various ways, such as by promoting sustainable consumption and production, decent work for all, and so on. This paper sheds light on two international initiatives aim to promote business engagement in implementation of the SDGs: the Business Call to Action (BCtA) and the United Nations Global Compact (UNGC). This paper asks how they can enhance contributions from the business sector to achieve the SDGs by 2030, and asks what kinds of additional functions are necessary. To answer these questions, this paper compares the current services of the BCtA and the UNGC with actual needs as revealed by a survey by the UNGC Network Japan (GCNJ) and interviews with Japanese companies. The paper concludes with key factors needed for the BCtA and the UNGC to help the business sector be effectively involved in implementation of the SDGs. Keywords: business engagement, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), multi-stakeholder governance

INTRODUCTION is a basic principle of the SDGs, particularly for their implementation. Some targets of the SDGs The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were require cooperation from the business sector. For adopted in 2015 as a component of “Transforming example, Goal 12 (Ensure sustainable consumption our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable and production patterns) cannot be achieved Development.” The SDGs are critically important without cooperation from the private sector, for sustainable development as they mark a including changes in “business-as-usual” business “paradigm shift for people and planet” (UN 2014). behaviour. Goal 12.6 specifically calls for companies They are expected to show the way for a “to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate transformation towards sustainability. As the sustainability information into their reporting cycle” SDGs are intended to be universal goals that affect (UN 2015). These examples indicate that multi- all people, multi-stakeholder engagement is a stakeholder governance is needed as a mechanism critical element for sustainable development for sustainable development. (Bäckstrand 2006; Biermann et al. 2007). The In fact, representatives of the business sector who business sector in particular is expected to be a key were involved in the UN processes to develop the driver for delivering the SDGs, as it can bring SDGs had expressed their opinions and proposals innovation, responsiveness, and efficiency, and for what the SDGs should include. In the High provide specific skills and resources (Scheyvens et Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 al. 2016). Agenda (HLP), initiated by the UN Secretary The SDGs’ documentation clearly states the need General in 2012, Paul Polman (CEO of Unilever) for all stakeholders to collaborate to realise a and Betty Maina (CEO of the Kenya Association of transformation of society towards sustainability. Manufacturers) joined in on the discussions on the Global partnership with all stakeholders in society SDGs. In the Open Working Group on Sustainable

* Graduate School of Decision Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology / Research Fellow of Japan Society for th e

Promotion of Science 30 Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5