Transitions in Seed Sovereignty in Western Bhutan

Transitions in Seed Sovereignty in Western Bhutan Mai KOBAYASHI*, Rekha CHHETRI**, Katsue FUKAMACHI***, and Shozo SHIBATA*** Abstract: This paper attempts to examine Bhutan’s transitioning agricultural sector through shedding light on the history of the government initiated seed production and distribution programs, and its influence on farming households in western Bhutan. A framework for seed system development is used, based on the recognition that there are two district seed procurement systems: formal (outsourced commercial seed production) and informal (non-commercial household, or community-based). The analysis is based on a household questionnaire survey and interviews conducted in western Bhutan and Japan in 2014 and 2015. Emphasis is placed on Japan’s influence on the formal seed system, notably through the introduction of improved vegetable seed varieties in the mid-1960s, and hybrid vegetable seeds since 2006. The household survey revealed varied but sustained coexistence between the two seed systems, with a high rate of seed saving as a common thread in all communities. Variation between districts reflected degree and maturity of market integration, and the increasing popularity of hybrid seeds. Key Words: Formal and informal seed systems, Rural development, Seed sovereignty, Vegetable production, Western Bhutan Discussions of food self-sufficiency and food <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">INTRODUCTION </li><li style="flex:1">security have been central to the Bhutanese </li></ul>government’s vision of development since the drafting and implementation of its first five-year development plan in 1961 (Daly and Thinley, 2005; Minot, 2010; RGoB 1966, 1972). Despite extensive concern, little attention has been paid to how the peasant farming communities themselves are reacting and adjusting to the government’s development plans, particularly with regards to the impact of the changing practices of saving and procuring seeds. Bhutan is a nation that has been celebrated for its progressive approach to development. Their announcement to become the first 100% organic nation was yet another confirmation of their commitment towards a paradigm of growth that values social and ecological well-being (Kobayashi et al., 2015). A significant motivation behind a commitment to organic agriculture has been rooted in a concern over sustaining the autonomy of Bhutan as a nation. With more than half of the population (745,153 in 2014) engaged in agriculture (NSB, 2014), high dependence on imported external inputs (such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides) was considered an unnecessary risk to food security. Despite such concerns, however, this land-locked country along the foothills of the eastern Himalayan mountain range is in the midst of rapid socio-economic changes alongside efforts to expand and modernize agricultural production. This study attempts to examine the broader topic of agricultural modernization in Bhutan, by way of assessing its seed provisioning practices as a lens. Bhutanese peasant farmers, much like peasant farmers around the world, are increasingly being incorporated into the formal seed system where seeds are an outsourced commercial product and a material input, provided through a specialized and often highly regulated supply chain (Louwaars, 2007). This supply chain includes gene banks, <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">breeders, </li><li style="flex:1">seed </li><li style="flex:1">producers, </li><li style="flex:1">marketers </li><li style="flex:1">and </li></ul>distributors which are outsourced. This is in contrast to informal seed systems, where seed provisioning is contained and sustained within a household or community (FAO, 2004; Louwaars, 2007). Based on this framework, this paper will first contextualize how Bhutan has initiated, ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ *Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, **College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan ***Kyoto University Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 21 incorporated and institutionalized its formal seed systems, particularly with relation to developmental aid coming from Japan. We then seek to understand how the two seed systems are evolving and coexisting. Amidst government efforts to increase food self-sufficiency and food <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">security, </li><li style="flex:1">how </li><li style="flex:1">are </li><li style="flex:1">farming </li><li style="flex:1">communities </li></ul>strategically navigating their relationships with the emerging formal seed system to assure a sustainable source of high-quality seeds? And how do their reactions inform efforts to assure seed sovereignty, which, much like food sovereignty, is defined by Jack Kloppenburg as the right of people, communities, and countries to determine how seeds are saved, replanted, and shared (Kloppenburg, 2014). Figure 1 Map of Bhutan and survey sites The selected districts are Gasa, Paro and Wangdu Phodrang (hereby shortened to Wangdue) (Figure 1). The three districts represent different socioeconomic and agro-ecological conditions for comparison. Characteristics of the three districts are further summarized in Table 1. Within each district, three communities active in agriculture, that are also accessible by car, and within one day’s travel from a major market center, were selected. Surveyed households were randomly identified to obtain a sample size representing more than 50% of the total households within each community. In all, 147 households were surveyed. One representative from each household was asked to participate in the structured questionnaire survey. In addition to basic information about the household, respondents were asked multiplechoice questions on changing trends in their 1. METHODS 1.1 Survey sites and data collection Qualitative and quantitative data were collected using three methods: 1) archival research and literature review of primary and secondary source documents; 2) unstructured and semi-structured interviews; and 3) a household questionnaire survey. The unstructured and semi-structured interviews were conducted with peasant farmers, as well as regional representatives, researchers, and extension workers within the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, foreign development aid workers and volunteers, particularly with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), both current and former. The household survey was conducted during the period between January and March, and again in October, 2014, with the assistance of regional extension agents, as well as students from the College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan. Bhutan is host to a diverse range of agroecosystems. The climate varies from wet subtropical in the lower elevation (100~600 meters above sea level (masl)) in the south to alpine in the north (3600~7500masl). For comparison, survey sites were all selected within the mid-hill regions (2000~3000 masl) of western and west-central Bhutan, where the greatest socio-economic changes are currently taking place. <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">overall </li><li style="flex:1">agricultural </li><li style="flex:1">practices, </li><li style="flex:1">particularly </li></ul>regarding the saving and procurement patterns of cultivated crop varieties. 2. RESULTS 2.1 Historical context the formal seed sector The transitions taking place at the household level must first be contextualized within larger trends taking place, leading up to the governmentled introduction of the formal seed system. Farming households throughout Bhutan have always had a strong tradition of harvesting an extensive variety of wild edible plants, such as orchids (Cymbidium hookeianum), young ferns (locally called na-kwe), and wild asparagus 22 Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 Table 1 Outline of three districts Agro ecological Zone Elevation (surveyed sites) (masl)* Mean annual Avg. rain fall Avg. age of respondents (age range) [% female] <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">temp. (C) </li><li style="flex:1">Major crops </li></ul>(mm) (Min/ Max) Cool Temperate Wheat, Barley, Brassicas Avg. 45.4 (26~73) [86.9%] <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">2175~2360 </li><li style="flex:1">11.3 (-2~19) </li><li style="flex:1">2241 </li></ul>GASA (n=30) Located entirely within a National Park, Gasa was formally recognized as Bhutan’s first organic pilot district in 2004 (RNRRC, 2012). A car road leading to urban markets outside of the district was completed only in 2011. Through government encouragement and improved access, the number of households cultivating vegetables for the market is increasing. Warm Temperate Rice, Apple, Asparagus Avg. 44.5 (18~72) [64.7%] <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">2250~2840 </li><li style="flex:1">15.2 (-3~25) </li><li style="flex:1">801 </li></ul>PARO (n=51) A large rice-production region, considered one of the most productive and prosperous dzongkhag in the country with its fertile land and high accessibility. One of the communities surveyed is where Keiji Nishioka, an agricultural specialist from Japan had his experimental farm (Dorji and Penjore, 2011). Cool Temperate Potato, Turnip, Buckwheat Avg. 46.9 (16~74) [58.6%] <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">2200~3000 </li><li style="flex:1">22.2 (-4~30) </li><li style="flex:1">1099 </li></ul>WANGDUE Although wetland rice cultivation is common in the lower altitudes of this region, the selected field sites are known (n=66) as one of the earliest places to incorporate commercial potato cultivation. Today they have the largest average area of potato cultivation in the country (0.99ha/household) (Roder, Nidup & Chhetri, 2008). In recent years, a hydroelectricity project has created employment and expanded market opportunities in the region. <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Meters above sea level </li><li style="flex:1">*masl = </li></ul>(Asparagus racemosus) from the forests (Nakao & Nishioka, 2011; Matsushima et al., 2006). Vegetable cultivation for human consumption and daikon (radish), Usui peas, Tetsu Kabuto (pumpkin), and a variety of Chinese cabbage known as ‘Kyoto 1’. In 1978, a government-led scientific research project on vegetable production was initiated with the launching of the Vegetable Seed Production Project led by FAO and the <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">income generation is </li><li style="flex:1">a</li><li style="flex:1">relatively recent </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">review of </li><li style="flex:1">phenomenon. Interviews and </li><li style="flex:1">a</li></ul>contemporary and historic literature shed light on how little, besides chilies, turnips, buckwheat and grains (such as wheat and barley), was routinely cultivated. Yoshiro Imaeda (2008) described the absence of markets and the non-availability of fresh produce in the capital city of Thimphu when he first arrived in 1981. To strengthen Bhutan’s national security amidst the changing geo-political context in the late 1950’s, the importance of domestic seed production was emphasized in the first five-year development plan. A government-led initiative to begin their own breeding program was initiated only after the arrival of Keiji Nishioka (respectfully known as Dasho Nishioka, the father of modern agriculture in Bhutan), who served as an agricultural specialist under the Colombo Plan, from 1964 to 1992 (Dorji and Penjore, 2011). He was stationed primarily in Paro and established a model farm in 1966, known as Bangdey Farm. This was where Nishioka introduced a number of open pollinated vegetable seeds from Japan, which are still known by their Japanese names, including the Tokinashi Danish (DANIDA) (Wangchuk, Pradhan & Wangdi, 1990). According to an interview with longtime <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">International </li><li style="flex:1">Development </li><li style="flex:1">Agency </li></ul>agovernment employee who worked in Bhutan’s seed sector since 1979, the seeds first introduced through this program were open pollinated varieties of cabbage (var. Copenhagen Market) and cauliflower (var. White Top, White Summer and Progress), due to their suitability in various climatic conditions. In 1984, the National Agriculture Seed and Plant Production Program (NASEPP) was established, whose mandate was to produce and supply the domestic need for improved varieties of seed and fruit plants (Tshering and Domang, 2004). NASEPP was later privatized in 1995 and became the Druk Seed Corporation (DSC). The DSC struggled as a private business, and was reinstated under the auspices of the government in 2010, and is referred today as the National Seed Center (NSC). The production and dissemination of improved open pollinated vegetable seed varieties were Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 23 GASA PARO WANGDUE Figure 2 Variety of seeds being saved considered an important strategy for rural development. Open pollinated varieties were used, and hybrid seeds were intentionally banned from import, in order to prevent communities in general, and Bhutan as a whole, from becoming overly dependent on external material imports. Encouraging increased self-sufficiency to maintain its autonomy was thus important. Other reasons for banning hybrid seeds included the high upfront economic cost, the higher demand for nutritional inputs, inherent om hybrid seed cultivation, and a concern that foreign seed companies would sell lower quality seeds to small countries like Bhutan, that did not to have the technical means to evaluate the quality of hybrid seeds (interview Nishikawa, 2014). To assure that peasant households had access to sufficient seeds, government extension agents supplied every household with fully subsidized seed samples, Bhutan Alpine Seeds, which is Bhutan’s sole private seed company, established in 2000. In 2006, a former employee of Takii Seed Company in Japan came to Bhutan as a senior JICA volunteer and was stationed at what was then known as the DSC. Seeing the limitations to the national breeding programs and the degree to which improved self-sufficiency was to contribute to overall food security, he was shocked to find a formal seed system still functioning without the use of hybrid seeds. He quickly assessed and facilitated efforts to transform the existing seed provisioning system and pushed to allow limited varieties of hybrid seeds to be imported. Having been contemplating their benefits for some time, the Ministry of Agriculture took this as an opportunity to give permission to initiate limited importation of hybrid seeds in 2006 (Nishikawa, 2014; Tshering and Tensin, 2007). Varieties of cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli were the first to be imported, later expanding to carrot, watermelon, and squash (Nishikawa, 2015). <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">along </li><li style="flex:1">with </li><li style="flex:1">technical </li><li style="flex:1">assistance </li><li style="flex:1">through </li></ul>exhibitions and demonstrations; and distributed leaflets and books to raise awareness about vegetable cultivation and seed saving (Wangchuck et al., 1990). Such seed distribution programs have persisted to this day. Today, peasant farmers’ requests for desired varieties of seed are made to the local agriculture extension agent, who will then process the request through the NSC and/or the Horticulture Division, under the national government’s Department of Agriculture. What is distributed will depend on the budget allocation for each district, and available stock at the NSC. If peasant farmers are unable to receive sufficient quantity, quality or a desired variety of seed from the government, they can opt to purchase seeds directly from the NSC, commission agents or from 2.2 Seed sourcing Results from the household questionnaire survey will be highlighted to assess how peasant farmers are relating to the emerging formal seed system to assure a sustainable source of high-quality seeds. The household questionnaire survey results showed that 96.7%, 98.0%, and 96.8% of the peasant farmers in Gasa, Paro, and Wangdue, respectively, are continuing their practices of saving seed at some capacity. The variety of seeds differed according to agroecological conditions but also their relationship to the market (as seen in the high percentage of farmers saving the major cash crops of chili seeds in Paro and potatoes, in 24 Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 this case as tubers, in Wangdue) (Figure 2). Average and range in GASA 100 80 60 40 20 0Trading or bartering of seeds within or between communities is an important way to strengthen and diversify seed stock in informal seed systems. In such a way, peasant farmers were also found to be trading seeds. Figure 3 shows the variations in seed procurement patterns between the three communities within each district. The average within each district is marked as (u), and the vertical bar represents the range (maximum and minimum) within each district. In each district, households procuring seeds through trading with other households (marked as “trade”) were 20.0%, 19.6%, and 31.7% in Gasa, Paro, and Wangdue, respectively (Figure 3). TRADE 22.2 RECEIVE 91.7 BUY 41.7 27.8 33.3 MAX MIN AVE <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">16.7 </li><li style="flex:1">72.2 </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">20.0 </li><li style="flex:1">80.0 </li></ul>Agerage and range in PARO 100 80 60 40 20 0In order to assess how peasant farmer households were engaging with the emerging formal seed systems, the survey questioned how else, besides non-monetary forms of exchange, were households acquiring seeds. As previously mentioned, peasant farmers in Bhutan receive fully subsidized seeds from the government (marked as “receive” in Figure 3) in effort to increase national food self-sufficiency and stimulate rural economic development. The survey found that the majority, but interestingly not all, households were receiving seeds provided by the government, with 80.0%, 82.4%, and 73.0% in Gasa, Paro, and Wangdue, respectively (Figure 3). Given physical and economic access, households are also able to purchase seeds. The survey showed a large regional variation, with 33.3%, 80.4%, and 68.3% in Gasa, Paro, and Wangdue, respectively (Figure 3). We can see that the greatest variation was found in Wangdue, where households buying seeds ranged from 26.7% to 86.8%, depending on the community. In comparison, variations within other districts were less. This could partially be attributed to the large variation in access and agroecological conditions found within Wangdue being the largest district in Bhutan. TRADE 28.6 RECEIVE 100.0 70.0 BUY 90.0 64.3 80.4 MAX MIN AVE 11.8 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">19.6 </li><li style="flex:1">82.4 </li></ul>Average and range in WANGDUE 100 80 60 40 20 0 TRADE 53.3 RECEIVE 90 BUY 86.8 26.7 68.3 MAX MIN AVE <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">18.4 </li><li style="flex:1">66.7 </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">31.7 </li><li style="flex:1">73.0 </li></ul>Figure 3 Inter-regional variations in seed procurement patterns households in Gasa were procuring their seeds exclusively from the government (Pattern F), and a smaller percentage, 13.3%, was procuring their seeds from all three sources (Pattern A) (Figure 4). In contrast, in Paro, the largest number of households, 45.1%, both received as well as purchased their seeds (Pattern C), while 17.6% were acquiring their seeds from all three sources (Pattern A), and another 17.6% were solely buying their seeds, not taking advantage of the government program (Pattern G) (Figure 4). The diversity in seed procurement patterns or the degree of opportunism was further examined through cross assessment of the three variables. Figure 4 shows a regional comparison of eight different patterns of seed procurement (Patterns A to H). Particularly notable was how 53.3% of the Further in Wangdue, we found 28.8% of the households both buying and receiving seeds from the government (Pattern C), and 18.2% taking Journal of Environmental Information Science 45-5 25 GASA (n=30) PARO (n=51) WANGDUE (n=66) <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Patterns: </li><li style="flex:1">A</li><li style="flex:1">B</li><li style="flex:1">C</li><li style="flex:1">D</li><li style="flex:1">E</li><li style="flex:1">F</li><li style="flex:1">G</li><li style="flex:1">H</li></ul>Pattern A: Trading + Receiving free seeds from Gov. + Buying Pattern B: Trading + Receiving free seeds from Gov. Pattern C: Receiving free seeds from Gov. + Buying Pattern D: Trading + Buying Pattern E: Only Trading Pattern F: Only Receiving free seeds from Gov. Pattern G: Only Buying Pattern H: Not getting seed from outside the household <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Figure 4 Regional comparison of seed procurement pattern </li><li style="flex:1">s</li></ul>advantage of all three sources of seeds (Pattern A) (Figure 4). rice, and rice or potatoes for chili. In one community in particular, 90.0% of the households mentioned that they were bartering chili for rice. In Gasa, while details about bartering practices were not collected, reports have mentioned bartering of wheat and rice for the brewing of alcohol (ara), since rice cannot be grown by those living in higher altitudes (Duba et al., 1995). 2.3 Varietal variation in different seed systems Varieties of seeds that are traded, bought and/or received from the government differed according to the region. Among those who specified, we found that seeds procured through the formal seed systems, i.e. receiving from the government or buying, were mainly those which were introduced and familiarized since 1978, such as asparagus, broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, carrot, tomato, onion, and garlic. Whereas species of seeds within the informal seed system, i.e. saved and traded, included rice in Paro, rice and vegetable (unspecified variety) seeds in Gasa, and barley, buckwheat, wheat, beans, chili, maize, radishes, turnips, and potatoes in Wangdue. Furthermore, seeds within the informal seed system were found 2.4 Popularity of hybrid seeds Hybrid seeds have been considered a successful yet controversial addition to the agricultural landscape. To envision how the agricultural landscape may transition in the future we evaluated the popularity of the hybrid seeds that have been introduced since 2006. We asked whether farming households are taking advantage of this new technology, and if not, whether they would like to take advantage of it in the future. Results showed varied incorporation of hybrid seeds. On the one hand, 13.3% in Gasa, to 52.9% in Paro, and 34.3% in Wangdue reported that they were already using hybrid seeds (Figure 5). Despite hybrid seeds in Bhutan being ten times more expensive than the open pollinated counterparts in the markets today, respondents replied that they use hybrid seeds because of their higher quality and yield. On the other hand, among respondents who were not using hybrid <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">embedded within </li><li style="flex:1">a</li><li style="flex:1">larger relationship of </li></ul>reciprocity, where peasant farmers exchange cultivated foods and services. Surveyed results showed that 23.5% of the surveyed households still trade rice in exchange for chili, butter, oil (mustard), meat, or vegetables. Rice, straw, and labor were mentioned as exchanged for livestock products, such as butter or cheese. In Wangdue, 39.4% of the households mentioned that they bartered: labor was traded for butter, meet for

Transitions in Seed Sovereignty in Western Bhutan

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