The Eastern Crisis, 1875

The Eastern Crisis 1875 -1878 in British and Russian Press and Society lames Phillips BA(Hons), MARes, PGDip Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2012 1 Abstract This thesis of 84,616 words uses the Eastern Crisis of 1875-78 to consider the Press in Great Britain and Russia. 5 case-study chapters consider respectively the reaction to the Bosnian and Hercegovinian revolt of 1875, the Bulgarian 'Atrocity Campaign' of 1876, the outpouring of public sympathy in Russia for the cause of the Serbs in 1876, the involvement of Greece in Eastern crisis, and the British 'Jingo' movement. For each case study, the relationship of the mass activity to the newspaper and periodical press is considered, as well as tracing the interplay between government and Press, and examining whether the Press was able to act as an intermediary between people and government. As this is a comparative study, these movements are considered not only through their own national Press, but through that of the other nation. A recurring theme throughout, is the running current of suspicion existing between Britain and Russia throughout this period, which is analysed in some detail, and shown to have been a highly significant factor in much of what was undertaken by both governments and individuals in Britain and Russia at this time. 2 Acknowledgements This Thesis represents the culmination of a project funded by the Arts and Humanities Research council. The dissertation was supervised by Dr Sarah Badcock and Dr Richard Gaunt, without who's proof-reading and comments on numerous drafts, it would not have reached completion. Such errors of fact or judgement as still remain are, of course, my own. The work would also not have been possible without the assistance of the Slavonic collection at the National Library of Finland. My thanks also go to those who have supported me through the sometimes long and arduous process of completing this work, especially my family, Georgina and Robin. 3 Contents • Note on definitions and terminology 6 • Chapter 1: Introduction and Literature Review 8 0 Society 10 0 The Press 18 0 Politics and Foreign Policy in Victorian Britain 24 0 Panslavism 31 0 The Eastern Question 37 • The Balkan Background 37 • Russo-Turkish Relations before Crimea 40 • Anglo-Turkish Relations before Crimea 43 • The Crimean War 47 • The Great Eastern Crisis 1875-1878 50 • Chapter 2: Methodology 53 0 The Press 54 0 Literature 59 0 Structure of this work 62 0 Boundaries of this work 64 • Chapter 3: The Forgotten Revolt 66 0 Background to the Revolt 67 0 The Opening Stages 68 0 The Arrival of the Powers 72 0 Russophobia 76 0 The Refugees 78 0 Lord John Russell and The League in Aid of 80 The Christians of Turkey 0 The Journals 88 0 Conclusion 90 • Chapter 4: The Bulgarian Horrors 92 0 The Bulgarian Background 92 0 Revolutionaries and the Revolt 94 0 The Daily News and the Breaking of the story 98 0 A more expeditious manner 100 0 Turning Turk 102 0 The Commission 105 0 Gladstone, The Bulgarian Horrors and 107 the question of the East 0 The Atrocities Campaign 113 0 Later Press portrayals of Turkey 116 0 Conclusion 120 4 • Chapter 5: The Russians March to War 122 0 Orthodox Accounts 123 0 Cherniaev and Kireev 125 0 Volunteering and Fund-Raising 130 0 Slavonic Fraternity 134 0 Russia in the eyes of the World 138 0 Russian Literature and the Eastern Question 142 0 The shape of government policy 147 0 Conclusion 151 • Chapter 6: Greece and the Eastern Crisis 153 0 Background: Greece in the concert of Europe 154 0 The Silent minority of the Balkans 157 0 Heroic Greece: The burden of the legacy 159 0 Gladstone's Greek Campaign 161 0 Greece and Turkey in conflict 165 0 Greeks and Slavs: A conflict of interests? 168 0 Greece and the Congress of Berlin 172 0 Conclusion 176 • Chapter 7: But by Jingo if we do ... 178 0 Background: Russophobia and Anglophobia 178 0 Foreign and Domestic Policy 183 0 Russia and Britain in each other's Press 1875-1878 186 0 Jingoism 197 0 Anglophobia in Russia before the Congress 206 0 Conclusion 207 • Chapter 8: Conclusion 209 0 Further Study 212 • Bibliography 215 5 Note on definitions and terminology Throughout this thesis, the term "Eastern Question" will be used to refer to the general perception in eighteenth and nineteenth Century Europe that the Ottoman Empire was in a state of terminal decline, and the dilemma thus faced by European politicians as to what or who should fill the void it left. The term "Eastern Crisis" will be used to refer to the flare-up in the Balkans between 1875 and 1878 that occupies the primary attention of this thesis. The term 'Britain' will be used through this work, including in translation of the Russian 'angJiio' which, despite being literally 'England' was used to refer to the political entity represented by Disraeli, Gladstone or any other of Victoria's Ministers. This is consistent with the common usage by British politicians of the time, as shown by the example of Gladstone who once, during a speech in Scotland paused to 'correct' himself for having said England, then within two or three lines had lapsed back into saying 'England' again. 1 Stapleton, following the example of Grainger, also argues that for this period the terms 'English' and 'British' are essentially synonymous. 2 Although many historians would dissent from this view, it is one which will be adopted for the purpose of this thesis. The names of Russian publications and titles of articles therein will be given in English, accompanied by an appropriate transliteration of the Russian on their first appearance, and in isolation thereafter. Quotations will appear in English only, except where a reference to the Russian is needed to illustrate a linguistic nuance. Many place names in the nineteenth Century were rendered differently from today. For the Balkan Principalities, the older forms 'Servia,' 'Roumania' etc, will be retained only in direct quotations, with the more modern 'Serbia' and 1 D.W. Bebbington, The Mind of Gladstone: Religion, Homer & Politics, (Oxford, 2004), p.27S. 2 J. Stapleton, 'Political thought and national identity in Britain, 1850-1950,' in S. Collini, R. Whatmore & B. Young (Eds.) History, Religion and Culture: British Intellectual History, 1750- 1950, (Cambridge, 2000), p.24S. 6 'Romania' used otherwise. 'Constantinople' will be used throughout, rather than 'Istanbul.' The names of the Romanov Tsars will be translated into their familiar English equivalents, 'Nicholas,' 'Alexander' and so forth, rather than the transliterated 'Aleksandr,' 'Nikolai.' However, for other personal names, transliteration will be used according to the Library of Congress system, so 'Tolstoi,' 'Dostoevskii,' rather than the more archaic forms- 'Tolstoy' 'Dostoevsky,' (the exception of course being direct quotations from or references to English-language publications which are using the older form.) The feminine form of Russian surnames ends in -a. However, for the Russian expatriate in London, Olga Novikova, the form 'Novikov' will be used to minimise confusion for English speakers, as this is the form used in the vast majority of the (principally English) secondary works which refer to her, as well as her own writings. Imperial Russia in the nineteenth century was still using the Julian calendar, placing it roughly twelve days behind Europe. All dates referred to in the main body of the text will be according to the Gregorian calendar, but quotations from the Russian Press will contain both dates in the footnote, with the Russian date appearing in brackets (this is the reverse of how the date appeared in publication, where the Russian date was given prominence and the Gregorian-style date was given only in brackets for reference. However, such an approach seems both inappropriate and likely to cause confusion in a comparative piece). Some of the articles discussed and referenced here, were printed in British journals anonymously. These have been cross-referenced with the Wellesley Index to Victorian Periodicals for the probable identity of the author, and this information has been added in a footnote where appropriate. 7 Introduction and Literature Review This study seeks to consider Britain and Russia during the period 1875-1878 and, using their actions and reactions around the flare-up of the Eastern Question, examine the relationship between the Press, society, and government. The precise publications to be considered will be detailed below,l but broadly speaking, the focus will be on daily newspapers as well as literary and political journals and periodicals. This study will be concerned with how mass social movements were represented in the Press, and to what extent it is possible to observe a role being played by the Press either in creating these public movements, or in mediating between public and government at this time. As the so-called 'Great Eastern Crisis' is the focal point, the exact time-scale will be from the spring of 1875 when the Hercegovinian revolt first broke out until the summer of 1878, when the various European Powers concluded their agreements at the Congress of Berlin. Evidently, neither of these events were truly delineated epoch-changers, the Hercegovinian revolt was initially little-regarded as just one in a long series of disturbances, and the Congress of Berlin had consequences and ramifications over a wide-ranging time-period. Medlicott for example argues strongly that the dividing point between significant events comes before the Berlin Congress, at the time when the various powers agreed to convene, and that the crisis did not truly end until 1881.

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