Radionuclide and Heavy Metal Contamination of Drinking Water Sources in the Wonderfonteinspruit Catchment, South Africa
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RADIONUCLIDE AND HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION OF DRINKING WATER SOURCES IN THE WONDERFONTEINSPRUIT CATCHMENT, SOUTH AFRICA BY TAFADZWA MARARA (22082905) MSc ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SUPERVISORS : DR . L.G PALAMULENI : PROF. E.E. EBENSO DATE OF SUBMISSION : NOVEMBER 2012 (This thesis is submitted in fulfillment of the Master of Science degree in Environmental Sciences) DECLARATION I, TAFADZWA MARARA (student number: 22082905), hereby declare that this research is my original work. Unless specifically stated, all the references listed have been consulted. The work of this dissertation is a record that has been done by me and has not been previously accepted for any higher degree or professional qualification at any other educational ins~ n. U, Signed ......... .' ........ Y. .... .~~<?': .. : ....... ..... .................. ..... .. MISS TAFADZWA MARARA Date ......... .......:1-'6.... -.. .0'3... ........ - .~0.........13 . This di ssertation has been submitted with my approval as a university supervisor and would certify that the requirements for the applicable Masters of Environmental Science degree rules and regulations have been fulfilled . Signed .. .... ......~~·~······························ ····· Dr .L.G. PALAMULENI Date ........ ...... .. ... ~ .-:-.-.. .C? .3 .~.. ?.-4.Z?.l~ ....... ................. Signed ............... ... ......... .... ...... ........ ............................... PROF E. EBENSO Date ....... ...... .......... ....................... .. .......... ...... ............... cc.NO.: --:~· --··--:~~-.:_---:.! u .-.·.ii~ "'"' ' ' L::~---- Page i · ABSTRACT The Wonderfonteinspruit (WFS) catchment is home to thousands of people, amongst them a significant number of informal settlement inhabitants, which largely rely on the Wonderfonteinspruit for domestic consumption on a daily basis or during water scarce periods. This research was aimed at: establishing the water sources and uses, the water quality and consequently the health risks arising from consumption of the water. Another aim was to investigate the challenges associated with accessing potable drinking water, and the effectiveness of the implementation of the water institution in South Africa with special reference to this catchment. Using questionnaires administered to communities, mines and the municipalities, data was gathered on the drinking water sources, from which water samples were collected and analyzed for heavy metals (As, Cd, Pb, Zn, Cd) and radionuclides (U isotopes) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) in the dry and wet seasons. In addition, the radiological absorbed dose and risk quotients for the various contaminants were computed using the contaminant concentrations. Research in the area has shown that there are radionuclides and heavy metals trapped in sediments of the Wonderfonteinspruit River. The findings revealed that there is significant usage of river water from the WFS for domestic consumption, either as an alternative or a main water source especially in the informal settlements. The quality of water from this river is not in compliance with the SANS 241 and WHO 2011 drinking water standards for As and U, thus statistically significant associations were observed between the concentrations of these contaminants in water and the occurrence of skin lesions and kidney inflammation respectively. As such, informal settlements of Carletonville, Bekkersdal and Khutsong are at potential risk of serious health problems as a result of their usage of the WFS for domestic consumption. A review of contemporary literature and government publications revealed that the poor implementation of the water institution could be attributed to non-collaboration between the various stakeholders. This study developed useful indices which can be used to measure community perception and a model for integrated waste and water resources management. Findings from this study are thus pertinent as they provide a baseline from which further epidemiological studies can be undertaken. Furthermore, these findings also have serious policy implications and could then be used in advancing water resources management in South Africa. I NWU· LLJBRARY_ Page ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In carrying out this research I was supported by various people in their different capacities. Therefore I would like to express my deepest gratitude, firstly, to my main supervisor Dr. L. G. Palamuleni, for her support, valuable mentorship and guidance during the course of the research. I also would like to thank my co-supervisor Prof E.E. Ebenso for his valuable contribution. Special thanks goes to the Research coordinator Prof. T.M Ruhiiga and the Head of the department of Geography and Environmental Sciences Prof T.A Kabanda, and all the other staff members especially Mr. L Makhoba for assisting me during the surveys. My appreciation is also extended to the North West University, Mafikeng campus for the financial assistance, technical support and use of resources pertinent to the research. My gratitude also goes to Father D.Sehlabaka, thank you for the spiritual and financial assistance during the course of my degree training, may God bless you. To the Nqhele Family in Carletonville thank you so much for opening your home to me I could not have done this without you. Special mention also goes to Mr. K.Dzinavatonga, Mr C Morulana, Mr S.K. Bett, Mr T.H. Kabanda, (Merafong, Mogale and Westonaria municipalities), Rika Huyser, Dr C.N. Ateba and the Set Point Laboratories, for all their assistance and support. My friends and colleagues, (Nyengeterai, Sammy, Nthabiseng, Linda, Fatima and Dimakatso), I will always value the times that we spent together sharing ideas ,attending conferences, assisting each other; and yes the craziness will indeed be greatly missed. To my family (Petronella , Wellington and Tinashe) and in particular my mum, you were there with me from the very beginning and at every stage, you encouraged me, supported and inspired me , and in you ,I found a reason to carry on. My Mum has been a role model, and my source of inspiration from the day I came into the world .She has always been there even when the world seemed like it was against me, she has taught me, that success comes with determination, will power, ambition and prayer. The reason I am dedicating this to you is because you have sacrificed all for me to be here, I want to do you justice, and make you proud. I love you. All the above mentioned people I believe were sent to me by The Almighty and I thank Him, for taking me from strength to strength, for protection and guidance, for overcoming all the obstacles. Thank you Lord! Page iii DEDICATION To my mother, Felistas Evelyn Marara. Page iv Table of Contents DECLARATION ...........................................................................................................1 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... 111 DEDICATION ................................................................................. .......................... IV LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. VIII LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... IX LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................... X DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS ................................................................................... XI CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................· .. 1 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................1 1.1 Water Resources and Sustainable Development.. ................................................................. 1 1.2 Challenges within the Wonderfonteinspruit Catchment - South Africa .............................. 2 1.3 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................................3 1.4 Justification of the Study .......................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................................. 5 1.6 Description of the Study Area ..................................................................................................7 1.6.1 Study Area .. ........ ....... ..... ... ...... ... ..... ... .. ... ............ .... .. ............... ...... ..... ... .. ... ..... .... .. .... ... ...... 7 1.6.2 Geology ...................... ..... ........ .. .. .... .. .. ... ............ ... ... ....... ..... ... ............... ... ................... .. ... ..... 9 1.6.3 General Socio-Economic Aspects ..... ... ... .. .. .... ..... ...... .... .. ........ ....... ...... .. .. ... ................ .. ...... ... 9 1.7 Research Ethics ....................................................................................................................... 10 1.8 Organization of Chapters ........................................................................................................10 1.9 Limitations to the Study .........................................................................................................