PRELIMINARY STUDY
FOR
RURAL ELECTRIFICATION OF EASTERN PROVINCE
IN RWANDA
STUDY REPORT
MARCH 2008
ENGINEERING AND CONSULTING FIRMS ASSOCIATION, JAPAN
NEWJEC INC.
Study
Location Map
Contents
Executive Summary
Chapter 1 Introduction...... 1 - 1 1.1 Background and Objectives ...... 1 - 1 1.2 Scope of Works ...... 1 - 2 1.3 Study Area...... 1 - 3 1.4 Study Schedule...... 1 - 3 1.5 Study Team Member ...... 1 - 3
Chapter 2 Socio-economic Condition in Rwanda...... 2 - 1 2.1 Introduction...... 2 - 1 2.2 People and Culture ...... 2 - 3 2.3 Economy ...... 2 - 4 2.4 Key Statistics...... 2 - 6 2.5 Investment Climate ...... 2 - 7 2.6 Administrative System...... 2 - 8 2.6.1 Republic of Rwanda...... 2 - 8 2.6.2 Administrative Divisions ...... 2 - 10 2.6.3 Decentralisation in Rwanda ...... 2 - 12 2.7 Development Plans ...... 2 - 14 2.7.1 Vision 2020 ...... 2 - 14 2.7.2 Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS)...... 2 - 30 2.8 Foreign Assistance ...... 2 - 35
Chapter 3 Present Status of Power Sector in Rwanda...... 3 - 1 3.1 Introduction...... 3 - 1 3.1.1 Power Sector Situation...... 3 - 1 3.1.2 Power Sector Challenges...... 3 - 1 3.2 Organisation, Law and Regulations ...... 3 - 3 3.2.1 Organisation of Ministry of the Infrastructures ...... 3 - 3 3.2.2 Law and Regulations...... 3 - 6 3.2.3 Privatisation Program...... 3 - 8 3.2.4 ELECTROGAZ ...... 3 - 11 3.3 Power Demand...... 3 - 13 3.3.1 Households and Institutions ...... 3 - 13 3.3.2 Industry and Services ...... 3 - 14 3.2.3 Agriculture ...... 3 - 15 3.4 Power Supply ...... 3 - 15 3.4.1 Electric Power ...... 3 - 16 3.4.2 Renewable Energy ...... 3 - 18
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3.5 Power Trade and Cooperation...... 3 - 22 3.6 Development and Rehabilitation Programs ...... 3 - 23 3.7 Power Tariff...... 3 - 27 3.8 Matters of Concern...... 3 - 27
Chapter 4 Potential of Renewable Energy in Rwanda ...... 4 - 1 4.1 Climatic Conditions in Rwanda ...... 4 - 1 4.1.1 Geographical Characteristics ...... 4 - 1 4.2 Renewable Energy Potential ...... 4 - 3 4.2.1 Background ...... 4 - 3 4.2.2 Renewable Energy Potential ...... 4 - 3 4.2.3 Key Issues ...... 4 - 5 4.2.4 Energy Policy in Renewable Energy...... 4 - 6 4.2.5 Strategies...... 4 - 7 4.2.6 Action Plan/Programs in Renewable Energy...... 4 - 8 4.3 Existing ongoing Renewable Energy Project...... 4 - 9
Chapter 5 Present Situation of Power Sector in Eastern Province...... 5 - 1 5.1 Overview of Eastern Province ...... 5 - 1 5.1.1 General Description ...... 5 - 1 5.1.2 Economy and Infrastructure...... 5 - 2 5.1.3 Tourism and Culture...... 5 - 2 5.2 District and Development Plan ...... 5 - 3 5.2.1 District of Kayonza ...... 5 - 3 5.2.2 District of Kirehe ...... 5 - 7 5.2.3 District of Ngoma...... 5 - 11 5.2.4 District of Rwamagana...... 5 - 13 5.3 Site Reconnaissance...... 5 - 16 5.3.1 Rwamagana District...... 5 - 17 5.3.2 Kayonza District ...... 5 - 19 5.3.3 Ngoma District...... 5 - 19 5.3.4 Kirehe District...... 5 - 20
Chapter 6 Proposed Rural Electrification by Photovoltaic System with Pumped Storage Hydropower (PV + PS) ...... 6 - 1 6.1 Adequate Electrification Methods...... 6 - 1 6.2 Study on Proposed Rural Electrification by Photovoltaic System with Pumped Storage Hydropower (PV+PS)...... 6 - 6 6.2.1 Project Site ...... 6 - 6 6.2.2 PV Power Generation System...... 6 - 8 6.2.3 Consumer’s Load Assumption ...... 6 - 9 6.2.4 Assumption of Solar Radiation ...... 6 - 10 6.2.5 Outline of Rural Electrification by PV+PS...... 6 - 11 6.2.6 Plant Facilities...... 6 - 14 6.2.7 Project Schedule...... 6 - 15 6.2.8 Cost Estimates...... 6 - 16 6.2.9 Unit Capacity and Unit Energy Costs ...... 6 - 17
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6.2.10 Electrification of Households by Solar Home System...... 6 - 19 6.2.11 Comparison of Unit Energy Cost...... 6 - 21 6.2.12 Feasible Electric Tariff ...... 6 - 22
Chapter 7 Proposed Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines Project...... 7 - 1 7.1 Requirement of Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines ...... 7 - 1 7.2 Present Situation and Load Forecast...... 7 - 1 7.3 Study on Transmission Line Reinforcement Plan...... 7 - 6 7.3.1 Reinforcement of Distribution Lines ...... 7 - 7 7.3.2 Proposed Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines Project ...... 7 - 7 7.3.3 Project Schedule...... 7 - 9 7.3.4 Project Investment Plan ...... 7 - 9 7.3.5 Financial Plan...... 7 - 10
Chapter 8 Capacity Development and Project Organisation...... 8 - 1 8.1 Current Situations ...... 8 - 1 8.2 Organisations for Electrification Projects and Their Capacity Development ...... 8 - 2 8.3 Cooperation and Coordination with JICA Tumba College of Technology...... 8 - 5 8.4 Summary ...... 8 - 6
Chapter 9 Environmental Consideration...... 9 - 1 9.1 Environment Policy and Strategies ...... 9 - 1 9.2 Environmental Activities in Rwanda ...... 9 - 2 9.3 Environmental Laws and Framework ...... 9 - 4
Chapter 10 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 10 - 1 10.1 Conclusions...... 10 - 1 10.2 Recommendations...... 10 - 3 10.2.1 Short-term Project: Rural Electrification by PV+PS ...... 10 - 3 10.2.2 Medium/long-term Project: Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines...... 10 - 4
APPENDIX Appendix 1 Schedule for Field Investigation Appendix 2 Interviewed Persons List Appendix 3 Collected Data List
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List of Tables
Table 2-1 Rwanda’s Macroeconomic Indicators from 1995 to 2001 ...... 2 - 7 Table 2-2 Population Projection (in 1000’s) by Major Age Brackets ...... 2 - 21 Table 2-3 Key Indicators of Vision 2020 ...... 2 - 9
Table 5-1 Itinerary of Site Reconnaissance...... 5 - 17
Table 6-1 Unit Energy Cost including Initial Cost (PV+PS) ...... 6 - 18 Table 6-2 Unit Energy Cost excluding Initial Cost (PV+PS)...... 6 - 18 Table 6-3 Unit Energy Cost including Initial Cost (SHS)...... 6 - 21 Table 6-4 Unit Energy Cost excluding Initial Cost (SHS) ...... 6 - 21
Table 7-1 Load Forecast at Each Substation ...... 7 - 4 Table 7-2 Cost Estimates of Project ...... 7 - 9
Table 8-1 Related Parties, Their Function and Capacity Development Needs in Rural Electrification Project...... 8 - 7
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List of Figures
Fig. 2-1 Map of Rwanda...... 2 - 1 Fig. 2-2 Population ...... 2 - 3 Fig. 2-3 GDP at Market Price in 2006 ...... 2 - 4 Fig. 2-4 GDP (constant at 2000 Price)...... 2 - 5 Fig. 2-5 Transformation of Economic Activity 2000-2020 ...... 2 - 18
Fig. 3-1 Network Organisational Chart of Ministry of Infrastructure ...... 3 - 4 Fig. 3-2 Organisational Chart of MININFRA ...... 3 - 4 Fig. 3-3 Organisation Chart of NEDA...... 3 - 6 Fig. 3-4 Power Generation...... 3 - 17 Fig. 3-5 ELECTROGAZ National Network Diagram...... 3 - 20 Fig. 3-6 Rwanda Electric Network Diagram ...... 3 - 21 Fig. 3-7 Hourly Load Curve as of January 15, 2007 ...... 3 - 22 Fig. 3-8 Regional Rusumo Falls Hydropower and Multipurpose Project ...... 3 - 26
Fig. 4-1 Isohyetal Map (1961 to 1990)...... 4 - 1 Fig. 4-2 Monthly Rainfall in Rwamagana ...... 4 - 2
Fig. 5-1 Administrative Map of Eastern Province...... 5 - 1 Fig. 5-2 Administrative Map of District of Kayonza...... 5 - 4 Fig. 5-3 Administrative Map of District of Kirehe...... 5 - 8 Fig. 5-4 Administrative Map of District of Ngoma...... 5 - 12 Fig. 5-5 Administrative Map of District of Rwamagana...... 5 - 15 Fig. 5-6 Route Map of Site Reconnaissance...... 5 - 23
Fig. 6-1 Electrification Plan in Eastern Province ...... 6 - 2 Fig. 6-2 Jarama Sector ...... 6 - 7 Fig. 6-3 Number of Household vs. Distance from Centre...... 6 - 8 Fig. 6-4 Lake Karaba ...... 6 - 8 Fig. 6-5 Health Centre ...... 6 - 8 Fig. 6-6 Hourly Load Pattern...... 6 - 10 Fig. 6-7 Outline of Project Area ...... 6 - 12 Fig. 6-8 Day Time Power Generation Outline...... 6 - 13
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Fig. 6-9 Night Time Power Generation Outline ...... 6 - 13 Fig. 6-10 Overview of Project Site ...... 6 - 15 Fig. 6-11 Comparison of Equalised Unit Energy Cost ...... 6 - 22
Fig. 7-1 East African International Grid Plan...... 7 - 5 Fig. 7-2 Reinforcement Plan of Transmission Lines ...... 7 - 6
Fig. 8-1 Organisation after the Completion of Power Plant and Transmission/Distribution System ...... 8 - 6
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List of Abbreviations Abbrev. English AEPE Programme d’Alimentation en Eau Potable et Electricité AfDB African Development Bank AFREC Africa Energy Commission AGOA African Growth Opportunity Act AU African Union BDS Business Development Services BHN Basic Human Needs BRD Banque Rwandaise de Développement BTC Belgium Technical Cooperation CAA Civil Aviation Authority CBI Cross-Border Initiative CDC Committees of Community Development CDF Common Development Fund COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa °C Centigrade DDP District Development Plan DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo EAC East African Cooperation EC European Commission EDPRS Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy EIA Environment Impact Assessment ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessments EU European Union E/N Exchange of Notes FAWE Forum for African Women Educationalists FOB Free on Board GDP Gross Domestic Production GEF Global Environment Fund GoR Government of Rwanda GTZ Deutsche Gasellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit ICOR Incremental Capital Output Ratio ICT Information Communications Technology IDA International Development Association IMF International Monetary Fund IPCC Intergovernmental Panel of Experts on Evolution of Climate JAF Joint Action Forum JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JOCV Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers KfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (German Government-Owned Development Bank) MINICOM Ministry of Commerce, Industry, Investment Promotion, Tourism and Cooperatives MINALOC Ministry of Local Administration, Good Governance, Community Development and Social Affairs MINECOFIN Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
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Abbrev. English MININFRA Ministry of Infrastructures MINITRACO Ministry of Public Services, Transport and Communication MINITRAP Ministry of Public Services MINITRAPE Ministry of Public Services and Energy MINITERE Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forestry, Water and Mines MOFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs MTEF Medium-Term Expenditure Framework MW Mega Watt (1 million watt) NBI Nile River Basin Initiative NEDA National Energy Development Agency NEDO New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organisation NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NIS National Investment Strategy ODA Official Development Assistance ONATRACOM Office National des Transports en Commune OPEC Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries PIP Public Investment Programmes PRS National Poverty Reduction Strategy PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PSTA Strategic Plan of the Transformation of Agriculture PV Photovoltaic, Photovoltaic power generation system PV + PS Photovoltaic Systems with Pumped Storage Hydropower REMA Rwanda Environmental Management Authority RITA Rwanda Information Technology Authority RURA Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Agency Rwf Rwanda Franc SCADA Supervisory Control and Data System Acquisition SHS Solar Home Systems SINELAC Société Internationale d’Energie des Grands Lacs (International Electricity Supply Company of the Great Lakes) SNEL Société Nationale d’Electricité (National Electricity Supply Company) TCT Tumba College of Technology TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training VAT Value Added Tax UERP Urgent Electricity Rehabilitation Project UNDP United Nations Development Program UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Republic of Rwanda, fondly known as the land of a thousand hills, is located in East Africa. It is bordered by the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to the West; Uganda to the North; Tanzania to the East and Burundi to the South. With a total surface area of only 26,338 km2, the small size of this landlocked country makes it an ideal launching pad for regional trade. Its capital, Kigali, is only a way from the markets of Southern Uganda, Eastern DRC, Western Tanzania and Northern Burundi. This close proximity makes Rwanda an excellent choice as a location for business operations targeting these emerging markets.
Since the end of the civil war, Rwanda has made significant progress in rebuilding its economic and social infrastructure as well as positioning its tourist assets in the market place. As a result, the country is now viewed as the most secure place in the region. Internationally, it is hailed as the bedrock of good governance. Corruption is negligible. The crime rate is low. Tourism traffic is on the rise and Gross Domestic Production (GDP) growth rate has been strong, averaging 6% over the last 5 years up to 2005. Two important national development plans were issued by the Government of Rwanda (GoR), i.e. the Vision 2020 and the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). Vision 2020 aspires for Rwanda to become a modern, strong and united nation, proud of its fundamental values, politically stable. Rwanda’s EDPRS sets out the country’s objectives, priorities and major policies for the next 5 years (2008 - 2012). It provides a road map for government, development partners, the private sector and civil society and indicates where Rwanda wants to go, what it needs to do to get there, how it is going to do it, what the journey is going to cost and how it will be financed.
According to the progress against Rwanda Vision 2020 targets by Millennium Development Goal described in EDPRS, 2008 - 2012 (Draft 310807) August 2007 of Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN), the access to electric energy in % of population is as follows:
Vision 2020 Target Progress to Vision 2020 2000 2006 2010 Target 2020 Target Target 2.0% 4.3% 25% 35% Red
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For catching up electrification progress above, electric power developments and reinforcement of power transmission and distribution lines are urgently required in entire area of Rwanda.
The following are expected problems of the electricity sector.
• Rwanda is facing a deep deficit in electric energy.
• Since the insufficiency of available and consumed electricity (national production and importation) does not satisfy country needs, the importation of electricity from other country is required.
• According to ELECTROGAZ, the transmission losses are 22% of the technical loss and 8% of the commercial loss. This 22% of the technical loss is caused by insufficient transmission capacity of the transmission.
• According to ELECTROGAZ, electric tariffs are Rwf 42 per kWh (US¢ 8) in 2005 and Rwf 105 per kWh (US¢ 19) for industries and Rwf 112 per kWh (US¢ 20) for other consumers in 2007.
The Eastern Province brings together large parts of the former provinces of Kigali Ngali, Umutara and Kibungo. The province shares its northern border with Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania in the East. In the west there is the Northern Province and Kigali City, Burundi in the south while on its south-western border there is the Southern Province. The Eastern Province has districts of Bugesera, Gatsibo, Kayonza, Kirehe, Ngoma, Nyagatare and Rwamagana. Each district office has just prepared their District Development Plans (DDP) from 2008 to 2012. Those DDPs present several socio-economic data and their development plans in accordance with EDPRS and Vision 2020.
As the results of this Study, two electrification projects are suggested as a short-term project and a middle/long-term project as adequate electrification methods in the country. The short-term project is a rural electrification in the eastern region and the middle/long-term project is the Feasibility Study of the reinforcement of transmission and distribution lines so as to supply reliable and affordable electricity to the people in future as described below.
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(1) Short-term Project: Rural Electrification by PV (Photovoltaic power generation) with Pumped Storage Hydropower (PV+PS)
An adequate electrification method in the eastern region is to be a mini-grid system with a kind of hybrid power generation system: PV+PS. The benefits are clear: on the demand side, electricity can directly increase the productivity of rural industries and thus raise income and employment - on the supply side, electricity service provision becomes more sustainable in turn due to the improved capacity-to-pay of these anchor clients.
We suggest GoR requests the Government of Japan so that JICA can assist the regional development including the rural electrification by PV+PS project to meet the regional development targets. This Japanese grant aid program would assist GoR in the design and implementation of its national rural electrification strategy;
a) To implement innovative public/private electricity delivery mechanisms in several pilot sites with a special emphasis on PV+PS for productive use, for later replication on a national scale; and
b) To demonstrate in the pilot areas the potential of sustainable targeted business development service with significantly enhancing the development impact of rural electrification.
For this realization, collaboration assistance by regional development assistance, infrastructures (PV+PS) and technical cooperation (Tumba College of Technology (TCT)1 Project) to accelerate the regional development is recommended. This explains packaging of JICA’s (Japan International Cooperation Agency) grant aid activities such as the expert dispatch, Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV) and project-type technical cooperation programs. JICA experts and JOCV assist local organizations such as local government, agricultural and fisheries cooperatives, area cooperatives in order to lift up the land productivities and job opportunities.
(2) Medium/long-term Project: Feasibility Study of Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines
Electrification of all areas in the country should ideally be achieved by reinforcements of national transmission and distribution lines so as to equally supply reliable and affordable electricity to the people. The reinforcements of
1 To be described in Chapter 8.3
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transmission and distribution lines are required to transmit 401.8 MW of generated power to consumers in 2025 according to the load forecast and the power supply plan. The transmission loss has to be reduced. These reinforcements of transmission and distribution lines are also to catch up this load forecast even if a transmission line will be constructed from the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station to Birembo Substation, Kigali through Kabarondo Substation which will become as the first national backbone transmission line in Rwanda. In consideration of these requirements and the power trade and cooperation, the reinforcements of new transmission and distribution lines are suggested as the medium/long-term projects after the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project. These transmission lines will become portions of the national backbone transmission system. In consideration that several decades and enormous amount of investments are needed for this kind of projects, we suggest implementing the reinforcements of transmission backbone system in several phases as follows:
• A transmission line will be constructed from Birembo Substation, Kigali City to Mururu Substation via Kigoma and Karongi Substations as new reinforcement project after the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project.
• These transmission lines will be expanded to north, south and west areas in consideration of international electricity trades.
Reinforcement and rehabilitation of distribution lines in the Kigali metropolitan area, the Eastern Province and the rural electricity distribution network along the transmission lines described above are suggested when the transmission line reinforcement projects are carried out.
In this connection, we recommend GoR to request the Government of Japan that a feasibility study for this reinforcement of the transmission and distribution lines be assisted by JICA or the Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC), in order to realize the reinforcement of the transmission and distribution lines after the transmission and distribution line project related to the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project. Implementation of the projects which will stem from the study will allow for the reduction of the electricity supply deficit and increased access by the population to electricity. It will contribute to the improvement of the quality of electricity supply and strengthen trade in electrical energy in the sub-region.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Objectives
The Republic of Rwanda is a landlocked country located in central Africa having a national land area of 26,338 km2. The population is estimated at 8.2 million people with one of the highest population densities in Africa (340 inhabitants/km2) and a high population growth rate (3.2% per annum). The country borders on Uganda to the north, the United Republic of Tanzania to the east, the Republic of Burundi to the south and DRC to the west. Rwanda has a temperate climate, with two rainy seasons i.e. February to April and November to January. Average temperatures range from 16°C to 26°C. Frost and snow are possible in the Virunga Mountains in the north. Besides its excellent climate, the country is also known for its beautiful terrain with mostly grassy upland and scenic, gently rolling hills. Because of this beautiful landscape, Rwanda is fondly called the land of a thousand hills.
Rwanda is largely known for its 1994 genocide. Since the end of the civil war and genocide, however, Rwanda has made significant progress in rebuilding its economic and social infrastructure as well as positioning its tourist assets in the market place. As a result, the country is now viewed as the most secure place in the region. Internationally, it is hailed as the bedrock of good governance. Corruption is negligible. The crime rate is low. Tourism is on the rise and GDP growth rate has been strong, averaging 6% over the last 5 years up to 20052. During the same period, agriculture, industry and services registered growth rates of 4%, 8% and 7%, respectively.
According to Vision 2020 which was made by GoR in 2000 to show a long-term development strategy for 20 years, Rwanda seeks to fundamentally transform the country into a middle-income country by the year 2020. For this target, Vision 2020 raises flags of growth of annual income per capita from US$ 290 today to US$ 900 in 2020, reduction of poverty rate from 64% to 30% and prolongation of average life expectance from 49 to 55 years. Regarding electrification in the country, Rwanda recognizes that power supply is an engine of sustainable growth and development, and the rate of accessibility to electricity energy targets at 25% in 2010 and 35% in 2020 from present rate of
2 Source; “Rwanda Development Indicators 2005”, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
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6% of the population.
At present, however, 64% of the population are still under poverty line and over 90% of the poor people live in rural area3. Electrification ratio in the rural area is said less than 1%. According to Ubudehe survey4, major cause of poverty identified is lack of land. At present, more than 60% of households cultivate less than 0.7 ha and more than a quarter cultivate less than 0.2 ha. On the other hand, as a government policy, Imidugudu which is a rural grouped settlement program is ongoing. According to EDPRS, 70% of the population will be living in Imidugudu and the remaining 30% will reside in urban areas by 2020. By this Imidugudu, GoR aims to provide life bases for returnees from outside of the country in the late 1990s and to improve living standards in the rural area with new houses and sufficient infrastructure services in new place. In future, there would be some possibility that land scale for each household will become smaller as the population will have increased more, and the amount of earnings of the family would be decreased in the rural area unless land productivities are enriched and/or employments outside agriculture are created. Rural electrification in future should be planned taking account of this aspect.
This study aims to formulate a preliminary electrification plan in the southern part of Eastern Province that will contribute to the regional development through improvement for people’s living standard and employment resulted from small scale industrial activities.
1.2 Scope of Works
The objective of this study: “Preliminary Study for Rural Electrification of Eastern Province in Rwanda” is to draw up a preliminary rural electrification plan in Rwanda. Particular attention is paid to the use of renewable energy, mini or micro hydro, solar panel, wind turbine, biomass generation, etc. and the possibility of transmission system expansion, for the economy and sustainable operation in the future.
The followings are the scope of the works of this study.
3 Source; EDPRS: “Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2008-2012, Draft”, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning , August 2007 4 The 2006 Ubudehe survey results suggest it should be a core method of the government’s approach to fighting poverty because it is embedded in Rwandan mind sets and is seen as an approach that benefits the poor, primarily through increasing access to livestock, promoting social capital and unification, increasing participation in planning and decision-making, and empowering the poor and women (MINECOFIN), 2007.
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1) Collection of data and information 2) Survey of present situation and development plans in 4 districts of Eastern Province 3) Study on adequate electrification method 4) Study on preliminary rural electrification plan 5) Study on capacity development and project organisation 6) Making recommendation
1.3 Study Area
The study was conducted in 4 districts of Eastern Province in Rwanda; Rwamagana, Kayonza, Ngoma and Kirehe Districts.
1.4 Study Schedule
Investigation in Rwanda including site reconnaissance to the 4 districts was conducted from October 9 to 21, 2007. Refer to Appendix 1 for detail itinerary in Rwanda.
1.5 Study Team Member
The following engineers are dispatched to this study project.
Kazunori INOUE: Leader / Electrification Planning Shigeru TSUNEKI: Rural Electrification Planning Masaru NISHIDA: Social Environment Consideration
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CHAPTER 2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION IN RWANDA
2.1 Introduction5
Rwanda, fondly known as the land of a thousand hills, is located in East Africa. It is bordered by DRC to the West; Uganda to the North; Tanzania to the East and Burundi to the South. With a total surface area of only 26,338 km2, the small size of this landlocked country makes it an ideal launching pad for regional trade. Its capital, Kigali, is only a way from the markets of Southern Uganda, Eastern DRC, Western Tanzania and Northern Burundi. This close proximity makes Rwanda an excellent choice as a location for business operations targeting these emerging markets.
Fig. 2-1 Map of Rwanda6
The country has a temperate climate, with two rainy seasons (February to April, November to January). Average temperatures range from 16°C to 26°C. Frost and snow are possible in the Virunga Mountains to the north. Besides its excellent climate, the country is also re-known for its beautiful terrain with mostly grassy uplands and scenic, gently rolling hills. The abundant wildlife, including the rare mountain gorillas, is an icing on the cake, especially for lovers of nature.
5 National Telephone Directory 2005 of RWANDATEL 6 Source: WorldAtlas.com (http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/rw.htm)
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To many outsiders, Rwanda is largely known for its 1994 genocide. Since the end of the war and genocide, however, Rwanda has made significant progress in rebuilding its economic and social infrastructure as well as positioning its tourist assets in the market place. As a result, the country is now viewed as the most secure place in the region. Internationally, it is hailed as the bedrock of good governance. Corruption is negligible. The crime rate is low. Tourism traffic is on the rise and GDP growth rate has been strong, averaging nearly 10% over the last 3 years. Strong political leadership, driving a vision of a better future, has firmly liberated the country from the shackles of the 1994 nightmare. And to the Rwandan people, this decade is one of promise.
Rwanda is a Republic, having gained its independence on July 1, 1962. The highest office in the land is that of the President. The Executive, Legislature and the Judiciary work independently but also collaborate in ensuring that there is harmony in the management of the affairs of the state. For the last 10 years, Rwanda has been led by a coalition government. There are 6 political parties represented in the current Government. These are the Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF), Rwanda Democratic Movement (MDR), the Social Democratic Party (PSD), Liberal Party (PL), the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) and the Islamic Democratic Party (PDI).
The Transitional Government, was put in place by the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), immediately after it took power and put an end to the war and genocide in 1994, in line with provision of the Arusha Accord of 1993. A combination of previous Constitutions and Statutes as well as dictates of the Arusha Accord have provided the legal framework under which the Transitional Government was in charge of the leadership of the country. The year 2003 marked the end of transitional period. In September 2003, the people of Rwanda elected the President with members of parliament. In a referendum held on May 26, 2003, a new Constitution was voted into law by a massive majority of 93% of registered voters. Entrenched in this new fundamental law of the land are principles of democracy and good governance, individual freedoms, including freedom of speech, unity of the state, property rights and a firm rejection of the politics of divisionism.
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2.2 People and Culture
Nothing defines the Rwandan culture 15 3,000 better than the warm hospitality of its 2,500 people, the thrill of the Intore dancers and singers as well as the ordinary 10 2,000
people’s resilience and sprit of hard 1,500 work. The country has a population
Popuration (million) 5 1,000
of 8.129 million people according to (x1,000) Urban in Popuration the 2002 census. Over 80% of the 500
Rwandan population live in rural 0 0
areas. Fig. 2-2 shows the population 1980 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 Popuration Popuration in Urban of the country (blue) and urban area Fig. 2-2 Population (red). Annual growth rate of the total population is 3.9% from 2000 to 2006 and that of the urban area is 20.6%7. Especially, in these 2 years, this in the urban area shows more than 30%, by which rapid urbanisation can be seen. Rwanda is one of the few countries in Africa, with a single common language and culture.
Over centuries, the 3 socio-economic classes found in Rwanda, namely the Bahutu, Bahutsi, and the Batwa intermarried and many share clan linkages. Collectively, this helped to consolidate their commonality. Unfortunately, bad politic in the past failed to exploit this commonality as a basis for nation building. Instead, class distinctions were transformed into ethnic differences which were, in turn, used to sow seeds of discord and exclusionism that led to the genocide of 1994.
Rwanda’s population is predominantly Christian, with 56.5% Roman Catholics, 26% Protestants, 11.1% Adventists, 4.6% Muslim, 0.1% Indigenous beliefs and 1.7% belonging to no religious denomination (2001, est.). The country has 3 official languages, namely Kinyarwanda (vernacular and a national language), French and English. All the 3 languages are official. Most Rwandese (99.4%) speaks Kinyarwanda while small proportions are multi-lingual or at least bi-lingual. Kiswahili and other dialects from the region are also spoken, especially in major commercial centres.
A wide range of traditional handicrafts is produced in rural Rwanda, ranging
7 Source: (Selected Statistics on African Countries 2006 Volume XXV, African Development Bank (AfDB))
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from ceramics and basketry to traditional woodcarvings and contemporary paintings. A good selection of crafted artefacts can be viewed in the main market or street stalls in Kigali, while an excellent place to peruse and purchase modern art works is the capital’s Centre for the Formation of Arts.
A distinctively Rwandan craft is the cow dung ‘paintings’ that are produced by a local co-operative in the village of Nyakarimbi near the Rusumo Falls border with Tanzania. Dominated by black, brown and white whorls and other geometric abstractions, these unique and earthy works can be bought in Kigali, but it’s worth diverting to source to see how the paintings are reflected in local house decorations
2.3 Economy
Rwanda’s economy is still virgin GDP at market prices in 2006 both in terms of industrialisation,
foreign investor participation and Services Agriculture 39% 40% commercial engagement with
Manufacturing Industry w/o international markets. Of note is 12% Manufacturing 10% the fact that about 90% of the population primarily relies on Fig 2-3 GDP at Market Price in 2006 subsistence agriculture as a source of livelihood. Agriculture contributes 40% to GDP while industry and service contribute 22% and 39% in 20067, respectively.
The country’s main exports are tea and coffee. Other agricultural products such as pyrethrum and flowers have appeared on the country’s list of exports. The limited industrial output available generates products for local consumption only. Local manufactured products include cement, beverages, soaps, shoes, plastic goods, garments and cigarettes.
Though speculation exists as to the existence of precious minerals like oil, gold and several industrial minerals, previous Governments invested little or no effort in geological studies to determine the existence of such minerals. Even
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though it is certain that gold exists and is mined using primitive methods, there is no evidence that any studies were done to determine the presence or absence of commercially exploitable quantities. Other minerals known to exist in Rwanda include tin, coltan8 and significant reserves of methane gas in Lake Kivu.
Poor investments in economic diversification, coupled with poor management by previous Government derailed the country’s economic development for decades. By 1989, GDP growth was negative. By the time the genocide was over in 1994, the economy was in shambles. GoR, therefore, inherited a fundamentally flawed economy. No proper policies. No diversity. Poor export base. Poor masses. A few rich individuals, most of whom were in exile to escape accountability for their orchestration of the genocide. Despite these constraints, the Transitional Government initiated an economic stabilisation and recovery program whose implementation led to a major economic turn-around between 1994 and 2001. During this period, GoR restructured the country’s external debt through the Paris Club, secured a 3-year support from IMF/World Bank for its economic recovery program; abolished export taxes; initiated tax regime reform, established an investment code; initiated rehabilitation of the banking sector; liberalised trade, currency and wage regimes; achieved full current account convertibility, firmed up the independence of the Central Bank and launched the necessary restructuring and privatisation of public entities.
A dramatic and sustained GDP GDP at market prices (constant 2000 prices) growth rate and investor 3,000 confidence have continued to 2,500 characterize the Rwandan 2,000 economy. Between 1994 and 1997 GDP growth rate rose by 1,500 Million US$ nearly 60%. In the following 1,000
years, growth remained relatively 500 high (between 6% and 9%). The 0 last 5 years by 2005 have also seen 1980 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 spectacular GDP growth at an Agriculture Industry excluding manfacturing Manufacturing Services average rate of over 6%7. And Fig. 2-4 GDP (constant at 2000 price)
8 Coltan is the colloquial African name for columbite-tantalite, a metallic ore used to produce the elements niobium and tantalum.
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local entrepreneurs have led through ploughing their cash in the economy. The Government’s focus over the next 3 years is to secure macroeconomic stability, promote investments into value added economic activities and expands the export base so as to help reduce the external current account deficit.
2.4 Key Statistics
(1) Demographic Factors
• Population : 8.129 millions • Kigali City : 800,049 • Population growth rate : 1.16% (2002 est.) • Population density : 340/km2 • Literacy rate : 51%
(2) Surface Area
• Total area : 26,338 km2 • Land : 24,948 km2 • Water : 1,390 km2 • Land boundary : 893 km
(3) Economy
• GDP : Purchasing Power Parity - US$ 7.2 billions (2001) • GDP growth rate : 6.5% (2002 est.) • GDP per capita : Purchasing power parity - US$ 1,000 (2001 est.) • GDP per capita : US$ 280 (2002) • GDP composition by : agriculture - 46%; industry - 20%; and service - 34% sector • Inflation rate : 3.2% (2002 est.) • Labour force : 3.6 millions • Labour force - by : agriculture - 90% occupation • Unemployment rate NA • Exports : US$ 61 millions (Free on Board (FOB), 2001 est.) • Exports - partners : EU 56.9%, Pakistan 12.3%, US 9.2%, China 4.4%, Malaysia 4.4% (2000 est.) • Imports : US$ 248 millions (FOB, 2001 est.)
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• Imports - partners : Kenya 29.4%, EU 28%, US 10%, India 4.4%, Tanzania 2.2% (2000, est.)
2.5 Investment Climate
The best definition of Rwanda’s investment climate is its peace and stability as well as its commitment to democracy and good governance. The December 2002 World Bank report ranked Rwanda as Africa’s leading light in terms of good governance. International observers also hail the country for low levels of corruption and minimal crime rate compared to other parts of the continent. Many point at the safety and predictability of the Rwandan environment as a significant achievement. Beside its commitment to good governance, Rwanda has fully embraced the principles of free market economy. Since 1994, GoR embarked on a comprehensive liberalisation of its economy, initiated appropriate legislative reforms, promoted free trade and pursued regional integration targets as set out under the Cross-Border Initiative (CBI) and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). Apart from its COMESA membership, Rwanda has also been invited to join the Commission for East Africa Cooperation (EAC). Membership should happen during the next year.
In keeping with its regional integration commitments, Rwanda has reduced its tariff rates and eliminated all export taxes and other no-tariff barriers. Presently, Rwanda’s trade regime is one of the most open in sub-Sahara Africa. Under the existing regime, COMESA originating goods were slashed by 80% in 2002, 90% in 2003 and the country is getting ready for implementation of the COMESA free trade area before the end of 2004. COMESA membership will provide Rwanda-based enterprises a duty-free and quota free access to a huge market of nearly 380 millions consumers and a combined GDP of nearly US$ 170 billions. As one of the least developed countries, Rwanda also has duty and quota free access into the USA and European Union (EU) markets in line with provisions of the African Growth Opportunity Act (AGOA) and the Cotonou Arrangement, respectively. AGOA opens the lucrative USA markets to over 6,400 products from deserving African countries, Rwanda among them.
To promote better economic performance, Rwanda has also pursued an economic reform agenda centred on privatisation. By 1996, GoR enacted the Privatisation and Public Investment Act which provides for, among other things,
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the liquidation, hiring out, restructuring and partial or whole divestiture from non-performing public enterprises. The same law provides for the establishment of a Privatisation Secretariat to drive the process. Privatisation of public enterprises took off in 1998 with 90 entities earmarked for privatisation. Already, about 48 enterprises have been privatised, eight are at the final stages of privatisation, seven have been liquidated while 27 remain ‘unspoken’ for. 2 tea factories at Mulindi and Pfunda have been put on the action block. Other public enterprises set to be privatised by the end of the year are RWANDATEL (a telecommunication company), REDEMI (a mining company), Imprisco (a printing and stationary company) and Onatracom (a transport company). GoR also intends to sell its shares in MTN Rwanda-Cell. Formerly state-owned Hotel Diplomate, has been privatised and is now run under the Inter-continental chain of hotels. Kivu Sun at the shores of Lake Kivu and Akagera Game Lodge situated in the middle of Akagera Game Park and run by a South African concern, Southern Sun. This comprehensive privatisation program provides enormous opportunities for investment. Already, there has been significant international investor interested in all the state assets set for the auction block. The combination of political commitment to free market economy; the privatisation program, good governance, an attractive investment code and appropriate institutional reforms to support private sector development make Rwanda’s investment environment the equal of any in the region and continent.
2.6 Administrative System
2.6.1 Republic of Rwanda9
(1) Country Name
Republic of Rwanda
(2) Government of Rwanda
Republic: presidential, multiparty system
(3) Capital
Name: Kigali
9 Source: The World Fact Book, CIA (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rw.html)
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Geographic coordinates: 1 57 S, 30 04 E Time difference: UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington DC during Standard Time)
(4) Administrative Divisions
¾ North Province ¾ East Province ¾ South Province ¾ West Province ¾ Kigali Province
Prior to January 1, 2006, Rwanda was composed of 12 provinces, but these were abolished in full and redrawn as part of a program of decentralisation and reorganisation.
(5) Independence
July 1, 1962 (from Belgium-administered UN trusteeship)
(6) Constitution
New constitution passed by referendum on May 26, 2003
(7) Executive Branch
¾ Chief of state : President Paul KAGAME (since April 22, 2000) ¾ Head of : Prime Minister Bernard MAKUZA (since March 8, 2000) government ¾ Cabinet : Council of Ministers appointed by the President ¾ Elections : President elected by popular vote for a 7-year term (eligible for a second term); elections last held on August 25, 2003 (next to be held in 2010) ¾ Election : Paul KAGAME elected president in first direct popular vote; results Paul KAGAME 95.05%, Faustin TWAGIRAMUNGU 3.62%, Jean-Nepomuscene NAYINZIRA 1.33%
(8) Legislative Branch
Bicameral Parliament consists of Senate (26 seats; 12 members elected by local
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councils, 8 appointed by the President, 4 by the Political Organisations Forum, 2 represent institutions of higher learning; to serve 8-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies (80 seats; 53 members elected by popular vote, 24 women elected by local bodies, 3 selected by youth and disability organisations; to serve 5-year terms)
¾ Elections: Senate - members appointed as part of the Transitional Government (next to be held in 2011); Chamber of Deputies - last held September 29, 2003 (next to be held in 2008)
¾ Election results: Seats by party under the 2003 Constitution - RPF 40, PSD 7, PL 6, additional 27 members indirectly elected
(9) Political Parties and Leaders
¾ Centrist Democratic Party or PDC [Alfred MUKEZAMFURA] ¾ Democratic Popular Union of Rwanda or UDPR [Adrien RANGIRA] ¾ Democratic Republican Movement or MDR [Celestin KABANDA] (officially banned) ¾ Islamic Democratic Party or PDI [Andre BUMAYA] ¾ Liberal Party or PL [Prosper HIGIRO] ¾ Party for Democratic Renewal (officially banned) ¾ Rwandan Patriotic Front or RPF [Paul KAGAME] ¾ Social Democratic Party or PSD [Vincent BIRUTA]
2.6.2 Administrative Divisions10
(1) Northern Province
Northern Province comprises most of the former provinces of Ruhengeri and Byumba, along with northern portions of Kigali Rural. It is divided into the districts of Burera, Byumba, Gakenke, Ruhengeri, and Rulindo.
The capital city of Northern Province is Byumba.
10 Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Province%2C_Rwanda)
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(2) Eastern Province
Eastern Province comprises the former provinces of Kibungo and Umutara, most of Kigali Rural, and part of Byumba. It has 7 districts: Bugesera, Gatsibo, Kayonza, Kibungo, Kirehe, Nyagatare and Rwamagana.
The capital city of Eastern Province is Rwamagana.
(3) Southern Province
Southern Province comprises the former provinces of Gikongoro, Gitarama, and Butare, and is divided into the districts of Butare, Gatagara, Gikongoro, Gisagara, Gitarama, Kamonyi, Kyanza, and Nyaruguru.
The capital city of Southern Province is Nyanza.
(4) Western Province
Western Province comprises the former provinces of Cyangugu, Gisenyi, Kibuye, and a small portion of Ruhengeri. It is divided into the districts of Cyangugu, Gasiza, Gisenyi, Kibuye, Nogororero, Nyamasheke, and Rutsiro.
The capital city of Western Province is Kibuye.
(5) Kigali Province
Kigali Province comprises parts of the former province of Kigali Rural and the City of Kigali, and is divided into the districts of Gasabo, Kicukiro, and Nyarugenge.
Kigali is the provincial capital in addition to being the national capital.
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2.6.3 Decentralisation in Rwanda11
(1) Overall Objective
To ensure empowerment of local population by participating in planning and management of the development process for poverty alleviation, better service delivery and national reconciliation.
(2) Specific Objectives
• Enabling and reactivating local people to participate; • Strengthening accountability and transparency (political, administrative, financial); • Enhancing the sensitivity and responsiveness of public administration to local environment; • Developing sustainable economic planning and management capacity at local levels; and • Enhancing effectiveness and efficiency in the delivery of services.
The Decentralisation process cannot be realised (objectives, principles, values) unless there is a sufficient level of financial autonomy at local government levels.
The above can be enhanced through increased revenue potentials at local government levels efficiency & effectiveness in the exploitation of the identified or developed revenue potentials. This is possible only when the fiscal and financial management capacities (collection, budget, accounts and audit functions) are enhanced.
This in turn instils confidence in the population and promotes community participation in the planning and contribution to the execution of the plan; the reverse is true if confidence is lacking.
All this is geared towards ensuring balance between the local government resources (human, financial, logistical and administrative) and local governments’ developing support systems and avenues and establishing equitable revenue distribution and management systems.
11 Source: Decentralisation in Rwanda: Strengthening Decentralisation for Poverty Reduction (http://www.ard-rwanda.org.rw/presentationmusoni.htm)
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(3) Principles to be adhered to
• National unity, indivisibility, and even development; • Local autonomy, identity, interests and diversity; • Separation of political and administrative-technical authority; • Transfer of responsibility with matched resources.
(4) Strategic Approaches
• National level (focal points and forums) • Province/Kigali City (focal points and forums) • Local governments • Other stake holders (at different levels and from different fields) • Deconcentration • Delegation • Devolution • Incremental: planned, gradual and incremental transfer will be used to avoid slide back effect or spectacular failure
(5) Strategies for Strengthening Decentralisation for Poverty Reduction
• Local Government Finance Department established and operational • Local government structures institutional strengthening and coordination • Promotion of participation of the Private Sector and Involvement of Civil Society, including the media • Strengthening fiscal and financial management capacities at local government levels • Mainstreaming poverty reduction strategies in the planning and implementation of the fiscal decentralisation process • Instituting and strengthening monitoring & evaluation structures to ensure efficiency, effectiveness, accountability & transparency • Mechanism for strengthening community participation • Mechanism for community participation
(6) Funding Mechanisms
• Boosting local government own resources - transfer of property tax, licensing fees and tax on rent • Government transfer of 3% (formerly 1.5%) of National Domestic Revenue as equalisation fund
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(7) Common Development Fund (CDF) funding mechanism
• Rationale of CDF12 (equity, harmonisation of delivery systems) • Some donor support for local development, with intention to have all donor funds channelled through CDF • 10% of National Domestic Revenue to be channelled through CDF
(8) Challenges and Future 5-year Program
• Lack of capacities (capacity building from a holistic view) - urgent need to develop sustainable fiscal & financial management capacities at local government levels. • Unstandardised modes of service delivery (some are still centralised while others have been decentralised): designing of sectoral decentralisation programmes for improved service delivery very urgently required. • Financial resources still very low versus expectations. Yet the aim is increasing household income. • Resistance-mentality: - (central government, local government, community level) needed: sensitisation, widening participation in development, strengthening local government associations. • Coordination and harmonisation: all stakeholders, for synergy, collaboration & complementarily
2.7 Development Plans
This Chapter presents summary of 2 important national development plans recently issued by GoR.
2.7.1 Vision 202013
(1) Introduction
The Vision 2020 is a result of a national consultative process that took place in 1998-99. There was broad consensus on the necessity for Rwandans to clearly define the future of the country. This process provided the basis upon which this Vision was developed.
12 CDF is a Government owned development fund for districts, towns, and the City of Kigali. This fund has legal status and is under the Ministry of Local Government, Good Governance, Community Development and Social Affairs (MINALOC). 13 Abstract of Rwanda Vision 2020, July 2000 (MINECOFIN)
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Since 1994, GoR has stabilised the political situation, whilst putting the economy back on track with considerable assistance from development partners. However, the challenges remain daunting.
The Rwandan population is expected to double to around 16 million by 2020, unless family planning improves, in which case the population is projected to reach 13 million. Given that the major aspiration of Vision 2020 is to transform Rwanda’s economy into a middle income country (per capita income of about US$ 900 per year, from US$ 290 today), this will require an annual growth rate of at least 7%. This will not be achieved unless the society transforms from a subsistence agriculture economy to a knowledge-based society, with high levels of savings and private investment, thereby reducing the country’s dependence on external aid.
Economic growth, alone, is not sufficient to bring about the necessary rise in the standard of living of the population. To vanquish hunger and poverty, growth must be pro-poor; giving all Rwandan’s the chance to gain from the new economic opportunities. Vision 2020 aspires for Rwanda to become a modern, strong and united nation, proud of its fundamental values, politically stable and without discrimination amongst its citizens.
In view of the aspirations and challenges outlined above, it is important to develop a new Vision for Rwanda and translate it into an achievable program based on the following pillars: Reconstruction of the nation and its social capital anchored on good governance, underpinned by a capable state; Transformation of agriculture into a productive, high value, market oriented sector, with forward linkages to other sectors; Development of an efficient private sector spearheaded by competitiveness and entrepreneurship; Comprehensive human resources development, encompassing education, health, and Information Communications Technology (ICT) skills aimed at public sector, private sector and civil society. To be integrated with demographic, health and gender issues; Infrastructural development, entailing improved transport links, energy and water supplies and ICT networks; Promotion of regional economic integration and cooperation.
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(2) Major Objectives of Vision 2020
Rwanda seeks to fundamentally transform Rwanda into a middle-income country by the year 2020 as mentioned in Vision 2020. This will require achieving annual per capita income of US$ 900 (US$ 290 today), a poverty rate of 30% (64% today) and an average life expectance of 55 years (49 years today).
Taking into account Rwanda’s extremely scarce resources, prioritisation and sequencing will be crucial. This section shows prioritisation in the short, medium and long run. It acknowledges the interdependencies and complementarities between different policies and developments. For example, industry and service sector development cannot be realised without a competitive stock of skills, infrastructure and financial services.
In the short run the key issues of stabilizing the economy, reducing aid dependency and developing exports will be vital. The following section will discuss these in detail.
(a) The Short Term: Promotion of Macroeconomic Stability and Wealth Creation to reduce Aid Dependency
Rwanda will put into place macroeconomic stabilisation policies that are conducive for private sector development. This, together with expanding the domestic resource base and increasing exports, is the only way to lessen aid dependence.
The imbalances highlighted in “Table 2-1 Rwanda’s Macroeconomic Indicators from 1995 to 2001” have been a source of macroeconomic instability and have led to an unsustainable debt burden and dependency on foreign aid. To reduce this dependency it will be crucial to develop effective strategies to expand the tax base, attract foreign investors and address the debt situation. Also, diversification and the development of non-traditional exports need to be promoted, as well as addressing the anti-export bias in public policies.
Envisaged policies, some of which are already being formulated and implemented include trade liberalisation, privatisation, tax reforms, competitive exchange rates and market driven interest rates. GoR will desist from providing services that the private sector can deliver more efficiently and competitively. With these policies in place the economy
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will be able to take up the challenge of transforming from an agrarian subsistence economy into a sophisticated knowledge-based society.
Table 2-1 Rwanda’s Macroeconomic Indicators from 1995 to 2001 ASS Indicators 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 (1999) Inflation Rate CPI 48.2 13.3 11.7 6.8 -2.4 3.9 3.4 (%) GDP deflator 50.4 10.2 15.6 2.0 -5.2 1.3 0.7 12 Savings less (In % of GDP) -19.0 -19.2 -17.4 -17 -16.7 -16.3 -16.4 -2.6 investments (In Rwf 10) -64.4 -81.9 -97.1 -105.6 -107.7 -115.0 -123.7 Internal absorption (% of GDP) 122.8 120.3 124.6 120.4 118.7 113.7 -113.9 102.6 Global fiscal Grant excluded -13.7 -13.2 -9.2 -8.3 -9.7 -8.9 -9.5 -5.6 deficit (% of GDP) Grant included -2.4 -5.8 -2.5 -30 -3.8 0.1 -1.1 -4.5 Current deficit balance -20.5 -19.2 -17.3 -16.8 -17.1 -16.9 -16.3 (% of GDP) 4.5 -0.2 -3.2 -9.4 -7.6 -5.1 6.5 GDP per capita (US$) 227 263 470 Debt servicing (% of exports) 20 14 17 26 25 10
(b) The Medium Term: Transforming from an Agrarian to a Knowledge-based Economy
Even if Rwanda’s agriculture is transformed into a high value/high productivity sector, it will not, on its own, become a satisfactory engine of growth. There has to be an exit strategy from reliance on agriculture into secondary and tertiary sectors. The issue, however, is not simply one of a strategy based on agriculture, industry or services, but rather, identifying Rwanda’s comparative advantage and concentrating strategies towards it. For instance there is a plentiful supply of cheap labour, a large multi-lingual population, a strategic location as the gateway between East and Central Africa as well as its small size, making it easy to build infrastructure (resources permitting). The industries established would need to address basic needs, for which there is a readily available market, as these products can satisfy local demand and even move towards export.
As for services, in the medium to long-term, this sector will become the most important engine of Rwanda’s economy. Since Rwanda is landlocked and has limited natural resources, GoR should take a lead role in designing policies geared towards encouraging investment in services, to acquire and maintain a competitive edge in the region.
It should be noted that the elaboration of such policies will not be sufficient to achieve a knowledge based economy. Major infrastructural investment
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will be required in the areas of energy, water, telecommunication and transport to reduce costs, whilst increasing their quality and reliability. Improvements in education and health standards will be crucial for providing an efficient and productive workforce.
Sectoral contribution to GDP (%)
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020
agriculture industrie services
Fig. 2-5 Transformation of Economic Activity 2000-2020
(c) Long-Term: Creating a Productive Middle Class and Fostering Entrepreneurship
The developmental process and capital formation cannot - in the long run - be achieved by the state or by donor funds alone. While both of these must contribute, the backbone of the process should be a middle class of Rwandan entrepreneurs. Productive entrepreneurship must be fostered to perform its traditional role of creating wealth, employment and vital innovations through opportunities for profit.
Stimulating the private sector, particularly with regard to the promotion of exports and competitiveness is not achievable without broadening and deepening the financial sector such as banking, insurance and the application of information technology. Provision of high quality educational services in sciences and technology will be necessary for consolidating development gains made in the short and medium term. Rwanda also aims to find a niche market in the region, for example, becoming a telecommunication hub.
It is envisaged that with these reforms, Rwanda will transform from a
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subsistence agricultural economy to a knowledge-based society, with a vibrant class of entrepreneurs.
(3) Pillars of Vision 2020
(a) Good Governance and a Capable State
Rwanda will become a modern, united and prosperous nation founded on the positive values of its culture. The nation will be open to the world, including its own diaspora. Rwandans will be a people, sharing the same vision for the future and ready to contribute to social cohesion, equity and equality of opportunity.
The country is committed to being a capable state, characterised by the rule of law that supports and protects all its citizens without discrimination. The state is dedicated to the rights, unity and well-being of its people and will ensure the consolidation of the nation and its security.
Social and economic transformation is as much about states as markets. In effect, the role of the state is indispensable for wealth-creation and development. However, currently in Rwanda the low capacity of the state hinders this transformation. This situation calls for rapid development and deployment of public sector skilled human resources, who grasp the needs of other sectors - in particular the private sector - and can translate them into sound policies and strategies. In short, the society needs a small but effective, flexible public sector that can lay the foundations for Rwanda to be competitive in the modern international economy.
The state will ensure good governance, which can be understood as accountability, transparency and efficiency in deploying scarce resources. But it also means a state respectful of democratic structures and processes and committed to the rule of law and the protection of human rights in particular.
People’s participation at the grassroots level will be promoted through the decentralisation process, whereby local communities will be empowered in the decision making process, enabling them to address the issues, which affect them, the most.
A reconstruction of the Nation of Rwanda and its social capital, anchored on good governance and an effective and capable state is considered a
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minimal condition to stimulate a harmonious development of other pillars.
(b) Human Resource Development and a Knowledge-based Economy
Apart from raising the general welfare of the population, improvements in education and health services can be used to build a productive and efficient workforce. This will be essential for Rwanda to become a sophisticated knowledge-based economy.
(i) Education
Rwanda is committed to reaching “Universal Education for All”, which is one of the most important Millennium Development Goals. However, there is clearly a need to educate and train people at all levels: primary, secondary and tertiary, with special attention paid to the quality of education. This has been declining, due in a large part to low calibre teaching staff and therefore, GoR will organise intensive teacher training programs.
Major emphasis will be placed on vocational and technical training in the fields of technology, engineering and management. This will be targeted at secondary school leavers, as well as various sections of society (with particular emphasis on youth and women). To encourage skills development, micro-credit schemes will be promoted specifically to extend finance to self-employed young technicians. Special emphasis will be given to innovative, small-scale entrepreneurs. To promote efficiency and continuous upgrading of skills, appropriate programs will be launched in the national institutions aimed at on-the-job-training, in-service training and distant learning.
Rwanda lags behind in professional training, with the most acute deficiency being apparent in the fields of applied and natural sciences and ICT. Although the country will continue to rely on imported technology from advanced countries, well-trained, specialised nationals will be essential to run as well as maintain technological systems ranging from medicine and agriculture to industry and telecommunications.
Absolutely crucial for achieving Vision 2020 will be to properly link education policies, with sector development and labour policies. It is crucial to understand that the investment needed for the development of the secondary and tertiary sectors, will not be effective without a
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skilled labour force.
(ii) Health and Population
The Rwandan population is estimated at 8.2 million with one of the highest population densities in Africa (340 inhabitants/km2) and a high population growth rate (3.2% per annum). This demographic trend is one of the major causes of the depletion of natural resources and the subsequent poverty and hunger. The demographic dynamic is the result of a number of factors: (1) the high fertility rate of women, itself linked to, (2) a pro-birth culture, (3) low child death rates, and (4) the relatively low general mortality rate.
Rwanda considers its population as its fundamental resource and banks on it for its future development. With the success of current and future population policies, Rwanda projects to reduce the fertility rate within 20 years from 6.5 to 4.5 children and the population growth rate to 2.2%.
Table 2-2 Population Projection (in 1000’s) by Major Age Brackets Age bracket 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 2020 00-04 1177 1456 1529 1519 1694 1889 05-09 1121 1110 1384 1462 1630 1818 10-14 611 1102 1093 1365 1522 1697 15-19 474 1052 1082 1077 1201 1338 20-24 445 865 1027 1059 1181 1317 25-64 2044 2340 2951 3693 4117 4590 65+ 248 238 234 245 272 305 Total 6120 8163 9299 10420 11617 12954 (Source: - 3rd General Census of Population and Housing, 2002; - ONAPO, SEDS, 1996)
Although the state of health of the Rwandan population has improved significantly over recent years, it is still inadequate. The prevalence of malaria (40% of hospital consultations in health centres) and of HIV-AIDS (11.2% of the total population) is high and constitutes a major economic problem.
To achieve the improvements, health policies must be targeted at the poorest members of the population to improve access to healthcare, the quality of that healthcare and to reduce its cost. Family planning is crucial for reducing both birth rates and the prevalence of HIV-AIDS. Envisaged and current population policies should go hand in hand with
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strategies to overcome problems in the health sector. Indeed, poverty remains a major cause of poor health and vice versa.
(c) Private Sector-led Development
For Rwanda’s development the emergence of a viable private sector that can take over as the principle growth engine of the economy, is absolutely key. Not only will such a development be conducive for economic growth, but it will also ensure the emergence of a vibrant middle class of entrepreneurs, which will help develop and embed the principles of democracy. Although foreign direct investment will be encouraged, a local-based business class remains a crucial component of development.
GoR will not be involved in providing services and products that can be delivered more efficiently by the private sector. It is, therefore, committed towards a comprehensive privatisation policy that will help reduce costs and prices and widen consumer choice. The State will only act as a catalyst; ensuring that infrastructure, human resources and legal frameworks are geared towards stimulating economic activity and private investment.
The development of the financial sector will be crucial, as it is currently underdeveloped and poorly adapted to the economic needs of the country. The financial sector must be able to provide the necessary capital for private sector development. GoR will also promote local business through the introduction of export processing zones, in which foreign operators could have local partners.
The development of Rwanda’s private sector will not limit itself to the formal sector. The informal sector will also be developed, in such area as retail trade, repair workshops and garages, handicrafts and metal works.
Particular attention will be paid to the labour market. During the 40 years of colonialism, the Rwandan economy has been able to generate only 200,000 jobs outside agriculture. If family planning services improve, the population is still projected to reach 13 million by 2020, of which 7 million people will be earning a living on off-farm activities. Therefore, it will be necessary to create 1.4 million jobs outside agriculture. Given the trends of the Rwandan economy over the past decades, this is clearly a huge challenge, in which the private sector needs to play a pivotal role.
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(d) Infrastructure Development
The rehabilitation and development of infrastructure is a crucial aspect in lowering the costs of doing business in Rwanda, which will attract domestic and foreign investment.
(i) Land Use Management
Land use management is a fundamental tool in development. As Rwanda is characterised by acute land shortage, a land use plan is needed to ensure its optimal utilisation in urban and rural development. Currently, Rwanda’s land resources are utilised in an inefficient and unsustainable manner, which limits the profitability of land and infrastructure, whilst aggravating the national capacity to retain rainwater. To address this, a modern land law providing security of tenure and freedom of exchange will be instituted.
Rwanda will pursue a harmonious policy of grouped settlements based on economic activity. Rural settlements organised into active development centres will be equipped with basic infrastructure and services. This system of settlement will serve as an entry point into the development of non-agricultural income generating activities. Land will be reorganised and consolidated so as to create adequate space for modern and viable farming.
(ii) Urban Development
Rwanda is characterised by low but accelerating urbanisation. This has happened in a rapid and uncoordinated manner, meaning that social services and employment opportunities are lagging behind. From now until 2010, each town will have regularly updated urban master plans and specific land management plans. The country will develop basic infrastructure in urban centres and in other development poles, enabling the decongestion of agricultural zones. The proportion of those living in towns and cities will increase from 12% to 30%, (from 5% in 1995). The income differential between towns and rural areas should remain within reasonable proportions, due to the decentralisation of economic activities to the country.
(iii) Transport
Rwanda is landlocked with high transport costs to the ocean ports of
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Kenyan and Tanzania. Therefore, it is imperative to develop, alternative lower costs of transport to the sea, notably through a regional rail extension to Isaka, Tanzania and an extension to the Ugandan railway system. A combined rail and water system that can link to the Banguela railway will be considered. Furthermore, a second airport capable of serving, as a regional hub for the great lakes region will be developed. For the internal market, Rwanda has a reliable and safe transport network of feeder roads, however, this will continue to be extended and improved.
(iv) Communication and ICT
Telecommunication coverage in Rwanda is very low. The communication policy will take advantage of the small size of the country, its high population density and the single local language to attract investors so that the sector can be liberalised. By 2020, Rwanda projects to have internet access at all administrative levels, for all secondary schools and for a large number of primary schools. Telephone services will be widespread in rural areas and efficiency of public services will have increased through the application of e-government principles.
(v) Energy
Inadequate and expensive electricity supply constitutes a limiting factor to development. Wood is the source of energy for 99 % of the population, which leads to massive deforestation and soil destruction. Imported petroleum products consume more than 40% of foreign exchange. Rwanda will therefore increase energy production and diversify into alternative energy sources.
To achieve this, Rwanda has considerable hydroelectric potential, in addition to large deposits of renewable methane gas in Lake Kivu, estimated at 60 billion m3. In rural areas direct solar energy or photovoltaic energy can be used, whilst up to 1/3 of 155 million tons of peat deposit is currently exploitable. Rwanda projects that by 2020, at least 35 % of the population will be connected to electricity (up from the current 6%) and the consumption of wood will decrease from the current 94% to 50% of national energy consumption.
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(vi) Water
Only 52% of Rwandans have access to clean water. Daily consumption of water is estimated at 8.15 litres per person in rural areas, far below the international standard of 20 litres. The country is endowed with reserves that could provide enough water for both consumption and agricultural purposes. These include substantial rainfall (between 900 & 1,800 mm per year) and the abundance of lakes, streams and watercourses. Furthermore, there is an abundant supply of high altitude water in the western part of the country, which may be used in providing water by gravity to the southern and south-eastern regions of the country that face water shortages.
In order to achieve the goals for water set out in Vision 2020, the country will have to increase the rate of access to potable water by 2.5 percentage points, annually from the current rate of 52% so that the whole of the Rwandan population will have access to drinkable water by 2020.
(vii) Waste Management
Access to drainage and sewage disposal services is 85% of the population, whilst 64% of latrines do not meet the required hygienic standards. Consumption of dirty and unsafe water is at the origin of various water-borne diseases. The unplanned and disorganised construction of towns without a suitable drainage system exacerbates sanitary problems. Sewerage and rainwater can destroy public roads or stagnate, creating ideal breeding grounds for both human and animal diseases. Since most houses are situated on the summit and on the slopes of hills, water sources are in constant danger of pollution by domestic sewerage and other human activities carried by the stream of water. The environmental impact of deficient waste management is barely taken into account by human settlements and industrial installations
By 2020, the rural and urban areas are to have sufficient sewerage and disposal systems. Each town is to be endowed with an adequate unit for treating and compressing solid wastes for disposal. Households will have mastered and be practicing measures of hygiene and waste disposal.
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(e) Productive High Value and Market Oriented Agriculture
Rwanda’s economic policies since independence are said to have targeted agriculture as the main engine of economic growth. However, the agricultural sector has continued to perform poorly, with consistently declining productivity. It will be necessary to formulate and implement realistic developmental policies that move beyond past delusions of viable subsistence-based agriculture.
Contrary to conventional wisdom, the most important issue retarding Rwanda’s agricultural development is not land size, but low productivity associated with traditional peasant-based subsistence farming. Agricultural policy orientation will have to be overhauled, promoting intensification so as to increase productivity and achieve growth rates of 4.5% to 5% per year. This can only happen through the production of high value crops and modern livestock management. The vision aims to replace subsistence farming by a fully monetised, commercial agricultural sector by 2020.
The key policy areas that need urgent attention to bring about this transformation include the following: Institutional and legal reforms to ensure security of land ownership; Development of a market in land assets; Extensive research and extension services; Investment in rural infrastructures; Use of high yielding varieties and intensive input use, especially fertilisers; Promotion of agro-based manufacturing; Environmental control measures to halt the decline in soil fertility; and Rural Financing Schemes and Markets.
As mentioned above, a viable economic strategy for Rwanda requires diversification away from the agricultural sector. Agriculture will have to be developed to permit spin-off effects, beginning with the development of agro-businesses that can then provide spill-overs into other sectors of the economy. Furthermore, it can be very much expected that the above priority policy areas will not only be supportive to agriculture, but will also
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benefit the whole of the rural economy.
(f) Regional and International Integration
Rwanda considers regional economic integration as one of the crucial elements of achieving Vision 2020. To this end, it will be necessary to pursue an open, liberal trade regime, minimizing barriers to trade as well as implementing policies to encourage foreign direct investment. Furthermore, the need to adopt policies to promote competitive enterprises, exports and entrepreneurship rather than protecting failing industries cannot be over-emphasised. Economic zones for ICT based production will be crucial for enhancing competitiveness of Rwandan firms.
The vision of accessing larger regional markets will be accompanied through a program of investing in infrastructure to promote Rwanda as a communication and telecommunication hub. Furthermore, taking advantage of Rwanda’s comparative strategic position should be exploited in terms of entrepot functions in trade and commerce. Export processing zones, coupled with the industrial reforms noted above, will enable the country to consolidate its niche in services and communication sectors and take advantage of growing regional co-operation in the Great Lakes/ Eastern African Region.
(4) The Road Map
This road map lays out how the Rwanda Vision 2020 will be realised through the country’s planning process. It also establishes a set of yardsticks against which Rwanda can measure the progress towards achieving the targets. Macroeconomic projections and the underlying assumptions clearly showing the financing requirements to realize the Vision are also made.
(a) Rwanda’s Planning Process and the Realisation of Vision 2020
To ensure smooth implementation of the Vision 2020 and achievement of the aspirations described above, it will have to be reflected in the whole planning process and, particularly, medium and short-term instruments. Therefore, the long-term aspirations of the Vision will translate into medium-term programmes of the National Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) as well as the National Investment Strategy (NIS).
PRS is operationalised through medium-term sector strategies that will
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inform provincial and DDP. The Sector strategies and the decentralised development plans will be implemented through the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF); 3-year fully integrated budgets that mainstream the Public Investment Programmes (PIP) of these agencies and translate into concrete action plans costed through annual budgets. The poverty reduction achieved through MTEF will be monitored and will feed back into the elaboration of Sector and Provincial plans.
(b) Financing of Vision 2020: Macroeconomic Assumptions and Projections
The implementation of the Vision 2020 takes into account the necessity to achieve aspirations of the Rwandans. The assumptions for the macroeconomic perspectives over the period until 2020 can be summarised as follows:
(i) The population growth rate is assumed to average 2.7% until 2020;
(ii) To transform into a middle income country with per capita income of about US$ 900 Rwanda will need to achieve above 7% GDP annual growth rate over the period,
(iii) Based on the Incremental Capital Output Ratio (ICOR) approach, the country needs to annually invest 30% of GDP in order to achieve the targeted economic growth of 7%;
(iv) Initially, agriculture is the major engine of growth representing more than 45% of GDP until 2010 whilst industry and services represent 20% and 37% respectively. Afterwards, the industrial and services sectors take over so that by 2020, services will contribute 42%, industry 26% and agriculture 33% of GDP.
(v) Private investment would account for an average of 20% of GDP and public investment 8%;
(vi) The public capital expenditure is assumed to increase to Rwf 605 billion.
(5) Key Indicators of Vision 2020
The key indicators of Vision 2020 are shown in “Table 2-3 Key Indicators of Vision 2020”.
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Table 2-3 Key Indicators of Vision 2020 Situation Target in Target in Inter-national Indicators In 2000 2010 2020 level 1. Rwandan population 7,700,000 10,200,000 13,000,000 2. Literacy level 48 80 100 100 3. Life expectancy (years) 49 50 55 4. Women fertility rate 6.5 5.5 4.5 5. Infant mortality rate (0/00) 107 80 50 6. Maternal mortality rate ( 0/00.000) 1070 600 200 7. Child Malnutrition (Insufficiency in %) 30 20 10 8. Population Growth rate (%) 2.9 2.3 2.2 9. Net primary school enrolment (%) 72 100 100 100 10. Growth secondary school enrolment (%) 100 100 11. Secondary school transitional rate (%) 42 60 80 12. Growth Secondary school enrolment (%) 7 40 60 13. Rate of qualification of teachers (%) 20 100 100 100 14. Professional and technical training centres 50 106 15. The rate of admission in tertiary education. (0/00) 1 4 6 16. Gender equality in tertiary education (F %) 30 40 50 50 17. Gender equality in decision-making positions (% of females) 10 30 40 18. HIV-AIDS prevalence rate (%) 13 11 8 0 19. Malaria-related mortality (%) 51 30 25 20. Doctors per 100,000 inhabitants 1.5 5 10 10 21. Population in a good hygienic condition (%) 20 40 60 22. Nurses per 100,000 inhabitants 16 18 20 20 23. Laboratory technicians per 100,000 inhabitants 2 5 5 24. Poverty (%< 1 US US$/day) 64 40 30 25. Average GDP growth rate (%) 6.2 8 8 26. Growth rate of the agricultural sector (%) 9 8 6 27. Growth rate of the industry sector (%) 7 9 12 28. Growth rate of the service sector (%) 7 9 11 29. Gini Coefficient (income disparity) 0.454 0.400 0.350 30. Growth national savings (% of GDP) 1 4 6 31. Growth national investment (% of GDP) 18 23 30 30 32. GDP per capita in US $ 220 400 900 33. Urban population (%) 10 20 30 34. Agricultural population (%) 90 75 50 35. Modernised agricultural land (%) 3 20 50 36. Use of fertilizers (Kg/ha/year) 0.5 8 15 37. Financial credits to the agricultural sector (%) 1 15 20 38. Access to clear water (%) 52 80 100 100 39. Agricultural production (kcal/day/person (% needs) 1612 2000 2200 40. Availability of proteins/person/day (% of needs) 35 55 65 70 41. Road network (km/km2) 0.54 0.56 0.60 42. Annual electricity consumption (kWh/inhabitants) 30 60 100 43. Access to electric energy (% of population.) 2 25 35 44. Land portion against soil erosion (%) 20 80 90 45. Level of reforestation (ha) 46. Wood energy in the national energy consumption (%) 94 50 50 47. Non-agricultural jobs 200.000 500.000 1.400.000
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2.7.2 Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS)
(1) Introduction
Rwanda’s EDPRS is both a document and a process. As a document, EDPRS sets out the country’s objectives, priorities and major policies for the next 5 years (2008-2012). It provides a road map for government, development partners, the private sector and civil society and indicates where Rwanda wants to go, what it needs to do to get there, how it is going to do it, what the journey is going to cost and how it will be financed. The strategy provides a medium-term framework for achieving the country’s long-term development goals and aspirations as embodied in Rwanda Vision 2020, the 7-year GoR programme, and the Millennium Development Goals.
EDPRS breaks with the past in two ways. Firstly, the strategy redefines the country’s priorities. Rwanda’s first Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) covered the period 2002 to 2005. It was elaborated in a post-conflict environment where the primary emphasis was on managing a transitional period of rehabilitation and reconstruction. Having made considerable progress during this transition, it is time to take stock and reassess the importance of different policy objectives. Secondly, this strategy document advocates a different way of doing things in Rwanda. In particular, it makes the case for consolidating and extending the decentralisation of public spending when accompanied by robust accountability mechanisms. EDPRS also recognises the key role of the private sector in accelerating growth in order to reduce poverty.
The priorities of the strategy are embodied in 3 flagship programmes: sustainable growth for jobs and exports, Vision 2020 and governance. EDPRS assigns the highest priority to accelerating growth to create employment and generate exports. It will achieve this through an ambitious, high quality PIP aimed at reducing the operational costs of business. This big push will create strong incentives for the private sector to increase its investment rate in subsequent years. With two thirds of the population aged less than 25 years, particular emphasis will be placed on creating jobs for young people. Vision 2020 is a highly decentralised integrated rural development programme designed to accelerate extreme poverty reduction in Rwanda. It is currently being piloted in thirty of the poorest sectors of the country. Governance seeks to build on Rwanda’s reputation as a country with a low incidence of, and zero
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toleration for corruption and that has initiated innovative home-grown mechanisms for conflict resolution, unity and reconciliation. In the next 5 years, Rwanda plans to develop a regional comparative advantage in ‘soft infrastructure’, that is, those aspects of governance, such as well-defined property rights, efficient public administration, transparency and accountability in fiscal and regulatory matters.
(2) Summary of EDPRS14
(a) Rwanda’s EDPRS provides a medium-term framework for achieving the country’s long-term development aspirations as embodied in Rwanda Vision 2020, the 7-year GoR programme, and the Millennium Development Goals.
(b) The strategy builds on strong achievements in human capital development and promotes 3 flagship programmes. These flagships serve as a means to prioritise actions by GoR, mobilise resources for development and improve policy implementation through more co-ordinated interventions across sectors.
(c) The first flagship, sustainable growth for jobs and exports, will be driven by an ambitious, high quality PIP aimed at systematically reducing the operational costs of business, increase the capacity to innovate, and widen and deepen the financial sector. This means heavy investment in “hard infrastructure” by GoR to create strong incentives for the private sector to increase its investment rate in subsequent years. The second flagship, Vision 2020, will accelerate the rate of poverty reduction by promoting pro-poor components of the national growth agenda. This will be achieved by releasing the productive capacity of the poor in rural areas through a combination of public works, credit packages and direct support. Finally, the third flagship, Governance provides an anchor for pro-poor growth by building on Rwanda’s reputation as a country with a low incidence of corruption and a regional comparative advantage in “soft infrastructure”.
(d) In order to implement EDPRS strategy, the sectoral allocation of public expenditure will be distributed to maintain momentum in the social sectors
14 2008-2012 Draft (310807), MINECOFIN, August 2007
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such as education, health and water and sanitation, while also targeting agriculture, transport and ICT, energy, housing and urban development, proper land use management and environmental protection.
(e) In agriculture, the main programmes include the intensification of sustainable production systems in crop cultivation and animal husbandry; building the technical and organisational capacity of farmers; promoting commodity chains and agribusiness, and strengthening the institutional framework of the sector at central and local level.
(f) Environmental and land priorities involve ecosystems, the rehabilitation of degraded areas and strengthening newly established central and decentralised institutions. Special attention will be paid to sustainable land tenure security through the planning and management of land registration and rational land use, soil and water conservation, reforestation, preservation of biological diversity and adaptation and mitigation against impacts of climate change.
(g) In education and skills development, the emphasis is on increasing the coverage and the quality of 9 year basic education, strengthening Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), and improving the quality of tertiary education.
(h) The concerted effort to build scientific capacity will be based on the objectives of knowledge acquisition, and deepening, knowledge creation through scientific research, knowledge transfer and developing a culture of innovation, in particular, protecting intellectual property.
(i) In infrastructure, the objectives are to reduce transport costs within the country and between Rwanda and the outside world, and to ensure security of energy supplies by increasing domestic energy production from several sources. Efforts will be made to promote investment in, and the growth of, the information and communications technology industry. In meteorology, the aim is to provide a wide range of timely, high quality information to different groups of users.
(j) The habitat sub-sector will develop planning tools for restructuring the country’s settlement patterns, consistent with the contemplated rural and urban land use and environment protection schemes, and develop master plans for new urban residential zones and Imidugudu sites.
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(k) In addition to reducing the costs of doing business, GoR will promote competitiveness and private sector development through Business Development Services. In manufacturing, GoR will promote value addition in existing product lines in agro-processing, including coffee and tea, handicrafts and mining, and development of new products including silk, pyrethrum, hides and skins and flowers. GoR will also provide the incentives for foreign direct investment and create industrial parks and export processing zones.
(l) The service sector is fundamental for the transition towards a knowledge-based society. GoR will exploit the country’s potential comparative advantages in financial services, tourism, transport and logistics. The financial sector will be opened-up further too foreign capital, modern and dynamic management and technologies. GoR will promote tourism opportunities by improving tourism infrastructure and services, creating more attractions, including eco-tourism sites, encouraging private sector investment, better marketing and forming regional and international links.
(m) In health, the objectives are to maximise preventive health measures and build the capacity to have high quality and accessible health care services for the entire population in order to reduce malnutrition, infant and child mortality, and fertility, as well as control communicable diseases. This includes strengthening institutional capacity, increasing the quantity and quality of human resources, ensuring that health care is accessible to all the population, increasing geographical accessibility increasing the availability and affordability of drugs, improving the quality of services in the control of diseases and encouraging the demand for such services.
(n) High population growth is a major challenge facing Rwanda. Slowing down population growth requires innovative measures, including the strengthening of reproductive health services and family planning and ensuring free access to information, education and contraceptive services.
(o) The water and sanitation sector aims to ensure sustainable and integrated water resources management and development for multipurpose use including increased access for all safe water and sanitation services.
(p) In social protection, the objective is to achieve effective and sustainable social protection for the poor and vulnerable. The sector will provide
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social assistance to the most needy while supporting the able-bodied to progress out of extreme vulnerability and poverty into more sustainable means of self-support. To achieve this, a single, coherent strategy is being designed, and joint funding arrangements sought, to replace the current plethora of small programmes in this area.
(q) Special attention is also given, in EDPRS, to the challenges and opportunities facing young people, in order to strengthen the youth’s participation in the social, economic and civic development of Rwanda.
(r) The objectives in governance include maintaining peace and security through defence against external threats and participation in peace keeping missions, preserving and strengthening good relationships with all countries, continuing to promote unity and reconciliation among Rwandans, pursuing reforms to the justice system to uphold human rights and the rule of law, and empowering citizens to participate and own their social, political and economic development in respect of rights and civil liberties. This programme also covers a wide range of public sector reforms which include deepening decentralisation and enhancing accountability at all levels of government, enhancing public sector capacity, strengthening public financial management and improving procurement, institutionalising performance-based budgeting and increasing the transparency and predictability of policy-making. Finally, the programme puts emphasis on supporting the development of “soft infrastructure” for the private sector through implementing the commercial justice, business and land registration programmes, improving economic freedoms, improving the regulatory and licensing environment for doing business, and promoting principles of modern corporate governance.
(s) EDPRS incorporates a number of cross-cutting issues which include gender, HIV, the environment, social inclusion and youth. Wherever possible, issues relating to cross-cutting issues have been integrated into the discussion of sectoral policies and programmes.
(t) Experience from the first PRSP (2002-2005) showed that progress was achieved in some areas, but implementation problems held back progress in others. Measures are in place to ensure that implementation of EDPRS proceeds more smoothly and consistently. Greater efficiency can be achieved by improving incentives to execute policy and by relaxing the constraints which prevent policies from being carried out. To this end, a
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variety of measures are being implemented, including public administration reforms to promote accountability, measures aimed at achieving a closer alignment between donors and EDPRS priorities, a greater role for markets and the private sector, and improved monitoring systems at sectoral and district levels.
(u) The implementation of EDPRS will require Rwf 5,151 billion over the 5 years 2008-2012. This amount includes public recurrent expenditure, public capital expenditure and private investment. The public component amounts to Rwf 3,434 billion and represents two-thirds of the total cost of EDPRS. The extra public financing requirement is Rwf 352 billion, equivalent to US$ 700 million over 2008-2012, or an average of US$ 140 million per year.
(v) EDPRS mainstreams a system of monitoring and evaluation at national, sub-national and sectoral levels to improve public sector performance. This document proposes an indicator system of 4 linked matrices which can be used by domestic stakeholders to monitor national development (EDPRS), by external stakeholders to exercise accountability for grants and loans (Performance Assessment and Policy Matrix), and, to a limited extent, by sector specialists to track performance over a rolling 3-year budget period (the Medium Term Expenditure Framework).
2.8 Foreign Assistance
The following ministries are the counterpart of the Ministry of Infrastructures (MININFRA) for multilateral and bilateral aid in power sector.
¾ MINECOFIN is negotiating, in collaboration with MININFRA, with partners in Energy Sector. ¾ Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forestry, Water and Mines (MINITERE) deals with MININFRA all issues on water, lands and environment. ¾ Ministry of Commerce, Industry, Investment Promotion, Tourism and Cooperatives (MINICOM) is involving mainly in oil production and power trade.
Multilateral and bilateral donors and their activities are cooperating in Rwanda are as follows:
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¾ World Bank was financing the project named “Urgent Electricity Rehabilitation Project (UERP)” and several studies on energy sector; ¾ United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) is financing energy projects in small hydropower development in order to develop income generating activities: small business, agro-industries, etc.; ¾ United Nations Development Program (UNDP) was financing several studies and workshops on energy sector; ¾ African Development Bank (AfDB) was financing the projects in small hydropower studies and its implementation; ¾ European Commission (EC) is seeking to finance in renewable energy : PV systems and micro hydropower plants; ¾ Belgium /Belgium Technical Cooperation (BTC) was financing studies and development of energy projects in small hydropower; it is financing the execution works for transmission line; ¾ Global Environment Fund (GEF) is seeking to finance in sustainable energy development project; ¾ Government of Dutch is financing public private partnership in order to develop a small hydropower plants; ¾ SNV- Holland was involving in development of biomass (improved stoves ) and biogas; ¾ GTZ - Germany was financing in energy sector; ¾ KfW - Germany was financing in power sub-sector, mainly in transmissions lines; ¾ Banque Rwandaise de Développement (BRD) is Rwandan Bank which is partner for finance as loans in energy projects ¾ CDF is Rwandan public institution which was financing the projects requested by districts among them energy projects.
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CHAPTER 3 PRESENT STATUS OF POWER SECTOR IN RWANDA
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Power Sector Situation
Domestic energy demand has grown rapidly due to population growth and the increase in economic activities during the last 10 years
Biomass based fuels dominate the energy scenario, with an estimated 95% of the total energy supply made up of firewood, charcoal, and agricultural residues. This is likely to remain so in the near or even medium term future, unless income levels substantially increase. Until that time, wood fuels will continue to be used, which in itself is not so much a problem but rather an opportunity as it provides an opportunity for rural income generation.
Other abundant, but so far not fully tapped, indigenous energy sources which could be harnessed to meet the growing energy requirements include; hydropower, peat, methane gas, solar, wind, and geothermal energy. Hydropower potential is estimated at 300 MW, geothermal between 170 MW and 320 MW, methane gas in Lake Kivu is estimated at 55 billion m3 of proven reserves.
Rwanda continues to rely on imported petroleum products; Electricity generation is mainly hydro-based, while thermal plants will soon provide 15 MW electricity for peak loads. Discussions on the development of methane gas for electricity are ongoing. The dissemination of renewable energy technologies has been limited to the promotion of improved stoves, improved charcoal production techniques, solar, biogas and to a lesser extend photovoltaic. Initiatives to increase utilisation of peat for electricity generation and windmills are being explored.
3.1.2 Power Sector Challenges
The following is a brief summary of the key policy elements:
(1) Meet the crisis of blackouts caused by delayed investment and drought
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(2) Provide economic power by developing the use of Lake Kivu methane, and by bringing on line more hydropower.
(3) Enhance overall electrical infrastructure to meet demand growth and supply quality needs - generation, transmission and major distribution construction and rehabilitation.
(4) Deliver a program of rural electrification on the basis of enhanced distribution networks, micro hydro and solar power.
(5) Implement a wood and charcoal efficiency and substitution strategy to counter the deforestation crisis.
(6) Continue steady progress to a viable electricity and gas sector, consistent with meeting social needs.
(7) Commence utilisation of Kivu methane gas for other than power generation.
(8) Determine options for response to oil prices and petroleum products costs, and their impact on the economy. Reduce reliance on petroleum products.
In order to achieve the overall objectives of economic growth and poverty reduction, there is a need for substantial improvements within the energy sector, both on the demand and supply sides. The following are some of the challenges:
(a) Increased Electricity Supply and Distribution
Electricity generation capacity is expected to double by 2015 to 125 MW in order to meet the projected increase in demand from industry, agriculture, commerce and the general population. No investment has been made during the last 20 years in generation facilities. There is a need to promote and enhance private investment in electricity generation while balancing government investment that complements weak private sector in Rwanda; and in the medium term in transmission and distribution segments in order to meet the growth in demand.
(b) Regional Interconnection
Regional and international interconnection of power systems is
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essential for Rwanda and its neighbouring countries to reach the projected economic growth. Electricity supply would thereby be more reliable and secure for the benefit of all sectors of the economy.
(c) Rural Electrification
Electricity needs to be made available for economic activities in rural areas, rural townships and commercial centres. Rural electrification is, therefore, a case of national interest and a prerequisite for a balanced socio-economic growth for all in Rwanda.
(d) Reaching Rural Households
Around 90% of the population has very low purchasing power and depends mainly on wood fuel for cooking and kerosene for lighting, which have negative consequences to the environment and the quality of life, especially to the rural poor. There is severe need for energy supply to the rural population, especially reducing the burden to women and children, and the reversal of deforestation if energy efficiency is promoted in cooking and lighting. Radical improvement in household energy efficiency has enormous potential benefit for the population.
3.2 Organisation, Law and Regulations15
3.2.1 Organisation of Ministry of the Infrastructures (MININFRA)
The power sector of Rwanda is administrated by MININFRA. The organisation chart of MININFRA is shown in “Fig. 3-1 Network Organisational Chart of Ministry of Infrastructure” and “Fig. 3-2 Organisational Chart of MININFRA”.
15 Source: MININFRA (http://www.mininfra.gov.rw)
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Fig. 3-1 Network Organisational Chart of Ministry of Infrastructure
Fig. 3-2 Organisational Chart of MININFRA
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(1) History
The name MININFRA is recent. The chronological list of its names is as follows: ¾ From 1962 to 1965: Ministries for the Technical Businesses ¾ From 1965 to 1973: Ministry of Public Services (MINITRAP) ¾ From 1973 to 1980: Ministry of Public Services and Energy (MINITRAPE) ¾ From 1980 to 1994: Ministry of Public Services, Water and Energy ¾ From 1994 to 1997: Ministry of Public Services and Energy ¾ From 1997 to 1999: Ministry of Public Services ¾ From 1999 to 2002: Ministry of Public Services, Transport and Communication (MINITRACO) ¾ From November 15, 2002 to date: Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA)
(2) Organisational Network
MININFRA covers 5 sectors of the economy; transport, energy, ICT, habitat and urbanisation, and meteorology. The organisational structure of MININFRA consist of 5 organisational units tasked with specific functions administered by a Secretary General and Represented at Cabinet level by 2 Ministers; Minister of Infrastructure and the Minister of State for Energy and ICT respectively.
(a) ICT Unit - is tasked with the management of ICT (b) Planning Unit - the planning unit is a cross sub-sector unit and is tasked with program management budgeting and planning. (c) Finance Unit - is tasked with the management of Financial Resources of the Ministry (d) Human Resources & Administration Unit - this unit is tasked with the human resource management and general administrative functions of the whole Ministry (e) Capacity Building & Support Unit - this is a special unit tasked with Capacity Building and Technical Assistance for all sub-sectors
Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Agency (RURA) is technically independent, in order to guarantee the interests of the investors and the individuals and RURA is connected to MININFRA.
This institutional reorganisation such as the creation of a National Energy Development Agency (NEDA) connected directly in MININFRA and
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controlling the Sector isolated of the electricity of ELECTROGAZ, as well as the creation of a Farming Electrification Agency is in progress. Planned organisation of NEDA is shown in “Fig. 3-3 Organisation Chart of NEDA”.
Director General (DG)
(+ 1S)
Internal Audit and Management Control Central Secretariat
UACG : (1) SC : (1)
Studies, Promotion and Administrative, Financial and Technical Department Foreign Relations Department Human Resources
DT : (8) = 1D+6P+1S DECPD : (6) = 1D+ 4 P+ 1S DAFRH : (6) =1D+4P+1S
Renewables Studies, Planning Cooperation , Administrative Energies Service Follow up and Promotion and and Financial and Evaluation Documentation HR Service 3 Service Service 2 1 Rational Use of Legal Affairs Energy Service 1 1 Energy Observatory Electricity and ICT Methane Gas 1 2 1
Personnel : 23 including : 3 Directors (D), 16 Professionals (P) et 4 Secretaries (S)
Fig. 3-3 Organisation Chart of NEDA
3.2.2 Law and Regulations
Legislative texts
• Law No. 2/92 of March 11, 1992 creating National Poste Office (ONP) • Law No. 44/2001 of November 30, 2001 organising telecommunications • Law No. 39/2001 of September 13, 2001 creating RURA • Law No. 32/2002 of October 2, 2002 creating the Rwanda Information Technology Authority (RITA)
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• Law No. 10/78 of May 8, 1978 creating l’Office National des Transports en Commun (ONATRACOM)
• Law No. 14bis/98 of November 5, 1998 modifying the Law No. 20/89 of September 11, 1989 concerning the establishing of the National Road Fund and fixing its resources
• Law No. 118/76 of April 20, 1976 creating ELECTROGAZ • Law No. 18/99 of August 30, 1999 raising the monopole of ELECTROGAZ • Law No. 21/2004 of August 10, 2004 creating organisation Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)
Lawful texts
• Ministerial decree No. 2/DC/04 of June 7, 2004 on the instructions relating to the publication in the official journal of the modifications to be made to the licences of telecommunications
• Ministerial decree No. 3/DC/04 of June 7, 2004 on the networks and services of telecommunications not requiring a licence of telecommunication
• Ministerial Decree No. 4/DC/04 of June 7, 2004 on the yearly rentals by the services of public utility
• Ministerial decree No. 5/DC/04 of June 7, 2004 on the general conditions and the principles of invoicing in the agreement of interconnection
• Ministerial decree No. 6/DC/04 of June 7, 2004 on the demands of installation of the terminal facilities and the infrastructures of telecommunications on the domains public and private.
• Ministerial decree No. 7/DC/04 of June 7, 2004 determinant contents of the register of the activities of the regulation council as regards telecommunications
• Ministerial decree No. 8/DC/04 of June 7, 2004 on the additional or specific types of agreements, decisions, practices, and codes of conduct which are considered to be anti-competing or constitutive of an abuse dominant position
• Ministerial decree No. 9/DC/04 of June 7, 2004 on the conditions having to be built-in in the licences of telecommunications and radio communication
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3.2.3 Privatisation Program16
(1) Background
Rwanda’s Government of National Unity has embarked on a program of comprehensive economic and social reforms necessitated by the tragic genocide which befell the country in 1994.
Recognizing that impetus of economic growth in Africa and elsewhere has been in the private sector, Rwanda felt it should not be left behind and has put in place an ambitious privatisation program of its state-owned enterprises. It started with a declaration by the President Bizimungu on April 11, 1996, a Privatisation and Public Investment Law enacted, which gave GoR powers to liquidate, hire out, restructure and divest partially or wholly any public enterprise, depending on the legalities of its creation.
In August 25, 1996, GoR directed that 46 enterprises be privatised as soon as possible and GoR shares in an additional 18 enterprises be ceded to the private sector. The Privatisation Program started to be implemented in October 1997 and since then, 20 enterprises have been sold, four are under liquidation, and the process of selling another five is almost complete.
Privatisation in Rwanda, like everywhere else, carries with it a number of challenges and opportunities. The way the players in the field respond to these challenges will determine Rwanda’s economic future.
On the other hand, the range of opportunities for investors runs the gamut from acquiring a growing business to increasing efficiency through better management of the acquired enterprise.
A crucial underlying assumption is that privatisation is not an end in itself, but can be an instrument for making the government more efficient and the economy more productive when it is part of broader social reforms.
Ultimately, the success of privatisation depends on developing a fully functioning market economy.
16 Source: Rwanda Economy Website (http://www.gov.rw/economy/index.htm)
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(2) Privatisation of Rwanda Public Utility for Production, Transport and Distribution of Electricity and Water (ELECTROGAZ)
The Cabinet meeting of May 24, 2000 resolved that the national water and power company ELECTROGAZ should be restructured and privatised. Water and electricity shall be managed separately from methane gas.
The successful investor shall be required to: ¾ Re-organize the functions of ELECTROGAZ departments; ¾ Account for assets and liabilities; and ¾ Increase the supply of water and electricity to various parts of the country.
(a) Supervising Ministry Ministry of Energy, Water and Natural Resources
(b) Economic Sector Energy, Water, Gas
(c) Specific Activities Production, transport, marketing and distribution of electricity, water and gas
(d) Shareholders Wholly owned by GoR. Registered capital amounts to Rwf 430,002,133.
(e) Personnel ELECTROGAZ has 789 permanent employees and about 700 others to be recruited soon.
(f) Market Share ELECTROGAZ has the monopoly of producing and distributing water, electricity and gas in Rwanda. Its turnover is of the tune of Rwf 7,626,643,118 (1997).
(g) Fixed Assets Net fixed assets are estimated at Rwf 32,386,246,413 (1998).
(h) Debtors The company is owed Rwf 23.982.448.705 in debts (1998) of which:
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Customers: Rwf 18,321,698,590
Government: Rwf 5,360,750,115
(i) Creditors The company’s debts (1998) are: Short term: Rwf 35,916,977,375 Long-term: Rwf 19,591,433,356f TOTAL: Rwf 55,514,410,731
(j) Government Subsidies Subsidies received from GoR amount to Rwf 4,481,264,808. They were effected in 1994.
(k) Donations Received ELECTROGAZ has received from donors the following: ¾ Mukungwa FED grant: 300,800,000 ¾ Mukungwa OPEC grant: 41,187,175 ¾ Swiss Government network grant: 79,152,000 ¾ KfW network grant: 212,701,807 ¾ KfW materials aid: 13,537,765 ¾ KfW Nyabisindu grant: 50,209,662 ¾ KfWF and Fichtner nt grant: 1,198,011,503 ¾ UNDP Terminals grant: 11,517,401 ¾ Bd Aep Kgl 2000 2p grant: 1,200,000 ¾ GTZ grant: 70,300,000 ¾ Arno grant: 20,623,232 ¾ UNICEF grant: 206,242,592 ¾ European Community grant: 99,508,423 ¾ TOTAL Rwf 2,304,991,623
Grants from Arno, GTZ, European Community and KfW were effected after the war.
(3) Potential
As regards water, 4 projects are underway in order to ensure self-sufficiency in water for Kigali City. These are River Yanze Dam, Lake Muhazi, Nyabarongo River and Lake Mugesera. A better supply system is planned for Butare, Kibungo, Rwamagana, Cyangugu, Gisenyi, Byumba and Gikongoro.
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For electricity, 40% of all energy consumed in 1997 was imported. That is the reason why priority is to repair infrastructure destroyed during the war, to acquire basic necessary materials and to draw up a master plan allowing ELECTROGAZ to plan an electricity network. The enterprise would also wish to have a better decision making autonomy and better coordination with the supervising ministry.
As regards to Lake Kivu methane gas, ELECTROGAZ and the authorities concerned in GoR are engaged in talks with MOSGASS, a South African company specializing in that field.
3.2.4 ELECTROGAZ17
ELECTROGAZ has so far been the sole vertically integrated electricity supplier in the country.
(1) Company History
The beginning of ELECTROGAZ goes back to the colonial period of Rwanda-Urundi.
REGIDESO was founded in 1939 in the then colonial Rwanda -Urundi, with its Headquarters in Bujumbura.
In 1963, REGIDESO Rwanda and REGIDESO Burundi were separated.
On April 20, 1976, REGIDESO Rwanda became ELECTROGAZ by Decree No. 18/76 of April 20, 1976, and by the same decree, it was granted monopoly for the production and distribution of water and electricity for 99 years.
On August 30, 1999, Law No. 18/99 removed the monopoly and liberalised the 2 sectors.
In 2003, ELECTROGAZ was placed under a management contract with Lahmayer International to manage and restructure ELECTROGAZ in collaboration with Hamburg Water Works for 5 years.
On March 31, 2006, the management contract was terminated and it reverted to GoR through the Board of Directors and the Management of the company.
17 ELECTROGAZ Company Profile (http://www.electrogaz.co.rw)
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(2) Description of the Electricity Network
In 2005, in addition to the dwindling hydroelectric power generation, ELECTROGAZ with the help of GoR installed Jabana and Gatsata diesel generators to alleviate the power crisis in the country. This was closely followed by the rental power from Aggreko.
Production unit Installed power Current production (MW) (MW) Hydroelectric power plant Ntaruka 11.5 1.2 Mukungwa 12.0 3-5 Giseni 1.8 0.5-0.9 Gihira 1.0 0.9
Thermal power plant Gatsata 4.7 4 Jabana 7.8 7 Gikondo rental power 10 10 Mukungwa rental power 5 5
The above domestic production is supplemented by imported electricity from Rusizi I (2.5 MW) and Rusizi II (6-8).
The electricity transmission is facilitated by the high voltage cables with 110 kV and 70 kV. The transmission network length is 370 km; made of 253 km (110 kV) and 96 km (70 kV).
The distribution network is composed of 15 sub-stations (high and low voltage), and these include: 4 power dispatch substations which are Gikondo, Jabana, Kigoma and Karongi.
(3) Construction of Transmission Lines and Rehabilitation of Distribution Network
・ Electrification of 3 centres in Eastern Province at Musenyi, Karangazi and Matimba (works expected to be completed in August 2007);
・ Construction of the Kibuye-Karongi 110 kV line, and the transformation station in the Western Province (completion of works predicted in September 2007);
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・ Construction of Nzove-Shyorongi 30 kV line and electrification of rural centres (works expected to be started in June 2007);
・ Rehabilitation of the sub-station Camp Belge in Musanze District in the Northern Province (completion of works predicted in November 2007);
・ Construction of electric lines and ring main circuit of Birembo-Rubungo and Birembo-Remera (works to expected be started in August 2007);
・ Construction of a transformation post of 110/30/15 kV in Birembo (Kigali) (completion of construction predicted at the end of 2008);
・ Installation of a 20 MW thermal power station in Jabana (works expected to be completed mid 2008);
・ Replacements of the Gikondo and Jabana low voltage switchgears (works expected to be finalised mid 2007);
・ Connection to the grid of 4-5 MW from methane gas pilot project (completion of works predicted at the end of 2007);
・ Implementation of the fibre optic cable and SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data System Acquisition) for the online management of the national network (works expected to be started mid 2007 and be completed in 2009);
・ Involvement in the rehabilitation projects of electric lines supplying pumping stations, electric lines in Kigali City, Mukungwa, Gisenyi and Gihira Hydropower Plants, Gikondo and Jabana Substations (completion of works expected at the end of 2008).
3.3 Power Demand
3.3.1 Households and Institutions
The household sector constitutes the largest share of the total energy consumption, mainly through its use of wood fuel. The essential end uses are heating (including cooking, brewing, smoking, firing, boiling, and ironing, lighting, and electric appliances).
In rural areas, firewood and human energy are the most used energy sources. Electricity, even in areas where it is readily available, is rarely used for cooking due to its high cost. Firewood will, even given a radical increase in use of
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electricity, be an important source of energy for households in the foreseeable future. However, this source has other negative impacts in houses, including, indoors pollution causing both health risks and safety problems to the end-user and is also time-consuming to collect. Lighting in rural areas is in most cases provided by kerosene. In urban households, charcoal remains by far the most popular fuel for cooking. The use of other energy sources such as solar, biogas and LPG is limited despite various promotional efforts.
Persistent poverty situation both in rural and urban areas is a major obstacle for development of the energy sector because the people’s purchasing power is low. There are major differences in accessibility and affordability of energy products across rural areas. For most of the households, the high cost of commercial energy and the related appliances is a big constraint. There is, therefore, a need to facilitate economic growth through employment creation; and establishing markets for energy efficient end-use technologies.
Private entrepreneurs need to be stimulated in order to address demand and a growing household market. Among others, another factor to consider is tax incentives on end-use equipment and appliances in order to encourage their adoption.
There is a need to change the prevailing inefficient practices in energy use, and institute basic standardisation of energy end-use appliances. In order to address issues related to standardisation, safety, health, education, awareness, and maintenance, there is a need for institutional co-operation and co-ordination is required, thus sufficient human and financial resources would be needed.
3.3.2 Industry and Services
The industry and services sector is one of the major consumers of energy, particularly electricity and petroleum. It includes among others manufacturing industries, wholesale and retail shops, hospitals, hotels, restaurants, etc.
In most manufacturing industries, energy is used inefficiently due to old equipment and outdated technologies as well as capacity under-utilisation. Because of massive energy losses in the sector, there is a necessity to promote energy audits and encourage energy efficiency and conservation measures.
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3.2.3 Agriculture
The economy of Rwanda is dependent on agriculture, which employs over 80% of the workforce. It is also the major source of food supply and raw materials for the industrial sector. Subsistence farming is the most common activity and women are the main stakeholders in most agricultural activities.
Of the total energy demand in agriculture, 90% is met from human energy, 10% petroleum products, electricity and others. Drying and processing of agricultural products is mainly by traditional applications of firewood. Many agricultural activities contribute towards deforestation, through extensive farming and slash-and-burn practices.
The energy and agricultural policy must be co-coordinated to ensure increased output and efficiency in agricultural production, timely delivery and efficient use of energy inputs into agriculture and increased use of tractors as well as use of renewable energy resources. This policy harmonisation also includes the promotion of environmentally friendly technologies and methods through collaboration with other ministries and institutions.
The main energy challenge within agriculture is to ensure supply of sufficient and cost-effective energy to meet the requirements for improved agricultural activities, including agro-processing and irrigation.
There is need to create a commercial environment and encourage entrepreneurs to develop and distribute energy products and technologies in order to improve efficiency in agricultural production and add value to agricultural products. Furthermore, methods and approaches on how to maximize the use of alternative sources of energy such as micro hydro, solar, wind, biomass, and other renewable energies, need to be developed and commercialised.
3.4 Power Supply
The energy supply in Rwanda is summarised based on Energy Policy for Rwanda October 2004 as follows:
In Rwanda, untapped resources for power generation are about 1,400 MW. Feasibility studies for potential hydropower sites within Rwanda include:
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Nyabarongo (27.5 MW), Rukarara (9.0 MW), Mukungwa II (3.0 MW), etc.); boundary Hydropower sites from which Rwanda has a quota of 1/3: Rusumo Falls (60 MW), Rusizi 500 MW (from which 72 MW are currently exploited). Small hydropower sites can provide 30 MW, up to 700 MW from the methane gas and 170 - 340 MW from geothermal resources. In addition Rwanda has peat reserves estimated at 152 millions tons of exploitable dry peat, a daily sunshine of 5.5 kWh/m2 suitable for solar energy exploitation and an estimated 2.3 millions tons of wood fuel annually.
3.4.1 Electric Power
In Rwanda, installed generation capacity is extremely low at 41.31 MW from both hydro and thermal generation facilities. Hydro accounts for 26.74 MW, while thermal generation is now at 14.57 MW. The following table shows the generation sources presently in use.
Plant Date of Installed Designed/ Production/ installation (year) Capacity(MW) Contracted(GWh) Import 2003(GWh) HYDROPOWER Mukungwa 1982 12.45 48 71.1 Ntaruka 1959 (Rehab. 1997) 11.25 22 35.2 Gihira 1985 1.84 10 6.6 Gisenyi 1969 (Rehab.1980) 1.2 5.5 4.8 26.74 THERMAL Gatsata Diesel(original) 1970 2 5.6 - Jabana 2004 7.8 34.2 - Gatsata 2 2004 4.77 21.7 - 14.57 IMPORTS Ruzizi I (DRC) 1958 3.5 0 2.5 Rusizi II (DRC,Rw, Bur) 1989 (2001.03.03) 12 66.6 116.1 15.5 TOTAL GENERATION CAPACITY 56.81 213.6 236.3
The transmission and distribution network in Rwanda and the Rwanda electric network diagram are shown in “Fig. 3-5 ELECTROGAZ National Network Diagram” and “Fig. 3-6 Rwanda Electric Network Diagram”, respectively.
“Fig. 3-4 Power Generation” shows electricity production (kWh) in Rwanda; hydro (thin purple) and diesel (brown) and imported (thin blue) and exported (red) electricity. As social and economic recovery has led vigorous energy consumption since the end of the civil war, energy production grows year by
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year except recent years; 2004 and 2005. In recent 3 years, the hydropower stations could not sufficiently generate energy because of water shortage caused by the recent chronic drought. As shown in “Fig. 3-4 Power Generation”, Rwanda relies upon imported electricity from International Electricity Supply Company of the Great Lakes (SINELAC)/National Electricity Supply Company (SNEL)18 because of cheaper tariff than the cost of diesel power generation, which is counted US¢ 26 per kWh. Basically, operation of high cost diesel units is second choice after import from SINELAC/SNEL, which have been employed as standby power for emergency. However, in these years, there was no way to meet power demand except operating the diesel units. In “Fig. 3-4 Power Generation”, it can be seen that the energy generated by hydropower have reduced since 2000 compared to the energy in 1999, especially in these 3 years.
To supplement the power shortage in 2005 and 2006, the diesel power stations were increasingly operated, which causes high generation cost.
250
200
150
100 GWh
50
0
-50 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Local Production by Hydro Local Production by Diesel Export Import
Fig. 3-4 Power Generation (Source; ELECTROGAZ)
18 SINELAC is a generation company of Ruzizi II established by Rwanda, Burundi and DRC. SNEL is a national electricity company of DRC which owns Ruzizi I.
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The high cost of electricity and its low reliability constitutes a major challenge and hindrance, especially for the commercial and service industries.
There is very limited access to electricity. At present, 6% of the population has access to electricity. In the rural area, the electrification ratio is less than 1%. There are significant technical and non-technical as well as commercial losses in the ELECTROGAZ inefficient infrastructure.
Electricity needs to be made reliable and affordable to customers with very low demand, for lighting and limited domestic purposes. A system of threshold pricing for rural areas and industries could, therefore, be considered. In the new emerging energy market, prices have to be monitored, and predictable as well as transparent mechanisms established for necessary adjustments.
It is necessary to encourage private investment in development projects, based on a rational exploitation and management of resources, and protection of the environment. Security of electricity supply needs to be enhanced through utilisation of other local energy sources, including methane gas, off grid mini hydro, other renewable energy sources and from regional grid interconnections.
There is need to liberalize and regulate the electricity sector. The thrust shall be based on private initiatives and investment for exploitation of the local energy sources while balancing the role of GoR. The prime factors determining the magnitude and pace of economic exploitation of energy reserves are the governance of the sector; the development of the domestic energy demand; and the energy trade possibilities in the region.
3.4.2 Renewable Energy
Rwanda’s energy demand is characterised by a low per capita consumption of commercial energy (petroleum and electricity) and a high dependence on non-commercial energies, including biomass fuels in the form of firewood, charcoal and bio-waste. Biomass energy for the foreseeable future will remain the main energy source. Other potential renewable and alternative energy sources are micro hydro, geothermal, wind and solar energy and peat.
While Rwanda has enough renewable energy potential to sustain its energy needs, harnessing of the renewable energy sources is very limited.
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Inappropriate and inefficient technologies dominate most energy conversion and utilisation appliances. Today, there is a lack of adequate indigenous capacity to design, manufacture, market and distribute as well as install and maintain renewable energy technologies. Furthermore, investment in renewable energy and the overall interest of commercial actors over the years have been insignificant.
There is need to promote efficient conversion and end-use energy technologies and practices in order to minimize health hazards primarily affecting women and children, and environmental degradation.
There is also a low level of awareness and understanding of available practices, technologies and resources, thus contributing to reluctance towards utilisation of renewable energy. There is a need to address economic, cultural and social barriers on the local capacity to design, develop, manufacture, market, distribute and provide after-sales services.
The challenge is to establish an institutional framework with conceptual, administrative and financial resources to play the mobilizing, co-coordinating and guiding role in the development of renewable energies. The institutional framework needs to have a legal backing and mechanisms to establish standards, guidelines and codes of practice and norms for safe use of environmentally friendly renewable energy technologies.
Biomass, particularly wood fuel should be conserved through efficient conversion and end-use technologies which could be complemented by tree growing at household level and beyond.
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Fig. 3-5 ELECTROGAZ National Network Diagram (Source: ELECTROGAZ)
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EC. 2004
D
Substation Hydro Power Station Station Power Thermal Hydro Power Hydro in Plan
S
UREAU DES PLAN DES UREAU
B
RWANDA ELECTRIC NETWORK DIAGRAM NETWORK ELECTRIC RWANDA
TECHNIQUEELECTRICITE EPARTEMENT D
110kV 70kV 15kV 6.6kV Vers Bubanza 30kV Futur e
LECTROGAZ E
Fig. 3-6 Rwanda Electric Network Diagram (Source: ELECTROGAZ)
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3.5 Power Trade and Cooperation
Cooperation between neighbouring countries in the region and international bodies is vital for development and economic growth for Rwanda. Rwanda is a member of various bodies in the region, including the African Union (AU), the Nile River Basin Initiative (NBI) and soon a member of EAC.
Africa Energy Commission (AFREC) has been initiated by AU to spear head energy cooperation among member states. The new EAC Treaty envisions an improved and expanded trading environment by promotion of investment codes, proper regulation of the private sector and development of an East Africa Power Master Plan.
There is a challenge to maximize the potential gains from the regional and international energy trade and cooperation. Rwanda needs to attain a stronger and closer interaction between the energy planning processes with other countries in the region, notwithstanding limitations of resources to undertake Rwanda’s obligations in the regional and international bodies.
Rwanda imports electricity through cross-border interconnections of about 22 MW from DRC and about no importation from Uganda on January 15, 2007 as shown in “Fig. 3-7 Hourly Load Curve as of January 15, 2007”.
January 15, 2007
60
50
40
30
20 Electricity (MW) Electricity
10
0 1:00 3:00 5:00 7:00 9:00 0:00 11:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 19:00 20:30 22:00
Hydropower Diesel Imported Power
Fig. 3-7 Hourly Load Curve as of January 15, 2007 (Source: ELECTROGAZ Electricity Hourly Record)
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3.6 Development and Rehabilitation Programs
Electric energy potentials in Rwanda are as follows:
¾ Nyabarongo Power Station : 27.5 MW ¾ Rukarara III Power Station : 9.2 MW ¾ AKanyaru : 3.87 MW ¾ Mukungwa 2 : 2.2 MW ¾ Rusumo Falls : 60 MW of which Rwanda has 20 MW ¾ Rusizi III-DRC : 80 MW of which Rwanda has 27 MW ¾ About 700 MW from methane gas of Kivu Lake
The development and rehabilitation programs are as follows:
(1) Emergency Action Plan
(a) Extension of the Power station of Gatsata by the installation of 4.77 MW thermal plant
(b) Installation of an additional capacity of 7.8 MW at Jabana
(c) Rehabilitation of the turbine -generator set No.4 of Rusizi 1 to import up to 6 MW from SNEL
(2) Development and Rehabilitation of Power Plants
(a) Rehabilitation of Mukungwa, Gihira and Gisenyi hydropower plants
(b) Development of the following power plants taking into account the least cost option: ¾ 30 MW thermal power plant running on methane gas at Kibuye ¾ 30 MW thermal power plant running on methane gas at Gisenyi ¾ Nyabarongo hydroelectric power plant of 27.5 MW ¾ Rukarara hydroelectric power plant of 9.2 MW ¾ Emergency thermal power plant of 15 MW for the Kigali City
(c) According to MININFRA, 20 hydropower stations are under construction including the following power stations. Most are located in the western area: ¾ Nyamyotsi I : 100 kW, Nyabiho District, completed in 2007.02 ¾ Nyamyotsi II : 100 kW, by UNDP
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¾ Mutobo : 200 kW, by UNDP ¾ Aaatobwe : 200 kW, by UNDP ¾ Janja : 200 kW ¾ Mukungwa II : 2,900 kW ¾ Rugezi : 2,200 kW ¾ Aashashi : 200 kW ¾ Nyabahanga : 200 kW ¾ Nyirabukombohobo : 500 kW ¾ Nghili I : 400 kW (Runyombgi District) ¾ Ruhwo : 170 kW
(3) Development and Rehabilitation of Transmission and Distribution Lines
(a) ELECTROGAZ transmission and distribution network rehabilitation (b) Construction of the 110 kV Kibuye - Karongi high voltage line (c) Construction of the 110 kV Gisenyi - Mukungwa high voltage line (d) Construction of the 30 kV Kilinda - Kaduha - Gikongoro and Mata - Nshili medium voltage line (e) Construction of the 30 kV Kora - Karisimbi medium voltage line (f) Construction of the 30 kV - Kigali - Kiyumba medium voltage line (g) Construction of the Kibuye - Karongi line (h) Construction of the Gisenyi - Ruhengeri line (i) Construction of the Kilinda - Kaduha - Gikongoro and Mata - Nshili line (j) Construction of the Kora - Karisimbi line (k) Construction of the Kigali - Kiyumba line
(4) Solar Home System (SHS)
Electrification of public institutions located from very far from the distributions SHS:
(a) Health centres (b) Primary and secondary schools (c) District offices (d) Telecentres (e) Water pumping stations in rural areas
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(5) Power Transmission Lines related to Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station19
The site retained for the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station is at the border between Tanzania and Rwanda, on the Akagera River, 2 km downstream of its confluence with the Ruvubu River in Burundi as shown in “Fig. 3-8 Regional Rusumo Falls Hydropower and Multipurpose Project”. The Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station Construction Project was identified as a key project and as the best hydropower generation option for the socio-economic development of the sub-region formed by the Akagera Basin.
This project comprises 2 major components: the construction of the hydropower station; and the construction of the high voltage lines which will transmit the electric power generated by the station to grids in Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania including rural electrifications. The power transmission lines concerned are: the Rusumo-Gitega (Burundi) line (200 km); the Rusumo- Birembo (Rwanda) line (150 km); and the Rusumo-Biharamulo (Tanzania) line (100 km).
This plan is to transmit about 20 MW by each of the power transmission line above by 2013 and the power is imported by Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania. Rural electricity distribution network along the line corridors and connection of consumers by 2013 will be established.
This feasibility study is being implemented and it is expected to be completed in March 2009.
19 Multinational: Nile Basin Initiative (Proposal for the Award of an African Development Foundation (ADF) Grant of UA 2.57 million to Finance the Study on Power Transmission Lines related to the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station), African Development Fund - September 2006
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Fig. 3-8 Regional Rusumo Falls Hydropower and Multipurpose Project (Source: Multinational: Nile Basin Initiative, African Development Fund - September 2006)
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3.7 Power Tariff
ELECTROGAZ has been suffered from severe shortage of river and lake water in these years, which directly affected hydropower operation in the country. To overcome this hydropower shortage, ELECTROGAZ began to operate diesel power station from 2004 and have been increasing supply of the costly diesel based electricity as shown in “Fig. 3-4 Power Generation”. As a result, ELECTROGAZ had no way except increasing their electricity tariff from Rwf 42.00 (1997-2004) to 81.26 per kWh during 2005 and to unexpected values of Rwf 112.00 (US¢ 20) starting on December 2005. VAT of 18% is not included in this tariff.
As of September 2006, 4 diesel power stations are being operated with total capacity of 27.5 MW. Out of 4 diesel power stations, 2 stations are run by a local private company with total capacity of 15 MW. ELECTROGAZ purchase the electricity from the local company at US¢ 33.5 per kWh.
3.8 Matters of Concern
(1) Access to Electric Energy
According to the progress against Rwanda Vision 2020 targets by Millennium Development Goal described in EDPRS, 2008-2012 (Draft 310807) August 2007 of MINECOFIN, the access to electric energy in % of population is as follows:
Vision 2020 Target Progress to Vision 2000 2006 2010 Target 2020 Target 2020 Target 2.0% 4.3% 25% 35% Red
For catching up electrification progress above, electric power developments and reinforcement of power transmission and distribution lines is urgently required entire area of Rwanda.
(2) Problems of Electricity Sector
The following are expected problems of the electricity sector.
- Rwanda is facing a deep deficit in electric energy.
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- Since the insufficiency of available and consumed energy (national production and importation) to satisfy country needs in electricity, the importation of electricity from other country is required.
- According to ELECTROGAZ, the transmission losses are 22% of the technical loss and 8% of the commercial loss. This 22% of the technical loss is caused by not sufficient transmission capacity of the transmission lines against required transmitting energy. Electrical power is always partially lost by transmission. This applies to short distances such as between components on a printed circuit board as well as to cross country high voltage lines. The major component of power loss is due to ohmic losses in the conductors and is equal to the product of the resistance of the wire and the square of the current:
2 Ploss = IR For a system which delivers a power, P, at unity power factor at a particular P voltage, V, the current flowing through the cables is given by I = . V 2 2 2 ⎛ P ⎞ RP Thus, the power lost in the lines, Ploss = RI = R⎜ ⎟ = . ⎝V ⎠ V 2 Therefore, the power lost is proportional to the resistance and inversely proportional to the square of the voltage. A higher transmission voltage reduces the current and thus the power lost during transmission. In addition, a low resistance is desirable in the conductors. To reduce conductor resistance, large diameter of the conductors should be applied. While copper cable could be used, aluminium alloy is preferred due to its much better conductivity to weight ratio making it lighter to support, as well as its lower cost. The aluminium is normally mechanically supported on a steel core.
Problems are summarised as follows: ¾ Low level of access to electricity ¾ Energy deficit ¾ High transmission loss ¾ High tariff mainly the industrial tariff ¾ Low technical and financial performance
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CHAPTER 4 POTENTIAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN RWANDA
4.1 Climatic Conditions in Rwanda
4.1.1 Geographical Characteristics
Rwanda is geographically situated in Central Africa between 1°04' and 2°51' latitude south and 28°45' and 31°15' longitude east. It has an area of 26,228 km2 with an average density of 321 inhabitants/km2 and 433 inhabitants/km2 for physiological density.
(1) Topography
Rwanda has an accident and mountainous relief whose altitude varies between 900 m and 4,507 m. Elements of relief are: ¾ Congo-Nile Crater overhanging Lake Kivu with an altitude varying between 2,500 m and 3,000 m. It is dominated to the Northwest by a range of 5 volcanoes of which Karisimbi is the highest with 4,507 m. ¾ The centre plateau presents a relief of mountains with an altitude varying between 1,500 m and 2,000 m. ¾ The low lands of Southwest in the Bugarama plain of an altitude of 900 m which constitute an integral part of Africa Rift Valley tectonic depression.
(2) Climate
Rwanda enjoys a moderate tropical climate due to its high altitude. Average temperature turns around 20°C with no significant differences. The rainfalls are abundant however despite some irregularities. Wind is generally low about 1 to 3 m/s.
In high regions of Congo-Nile crater, temperatures vary between 15°C and 17°C with abundant rains. Fig. 4-1 Isohyetal Map (1961 to 1990) The volcanoes region has lower (Source; Initial National Communication, June 2005)
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temperatures reaching less than 0°C in some areas.
In intermediary altitude zones, temperatures vary between 19 to 29°C with an average rainfall of about 1,000 mm/year. Rainfalls are less regular which sometimes lead to dry periods.
In low altitude zones (East and Southeast), temperatures are higher and the highest can reach 30°C in February and July-August. Maximum absolute temperature of 32.8°C was registered at Karama-Plateau station in Southeast at September 4, 1980. Temperature contrasts are more pronounced comparatively in the rest of the country. Rainfalls are less abundant (700 to 970 mm/year).
It is the variability of rainfalls which determines seasons in Rwanda. Hence, the climate of the country is characterised by an alternation of four seasons, two rainy and two dry seasons. There is however a fact that rains are generally distributed on the whole year regardless of some irregularities.
RWAMAGANA MONTHLY MEAN RAINFALL
180 RWAMAGANA 160 162.3 145.2 140 137.6
120 107.5 100 99.2 100.1 98.2
80 72.3 64.3
MEAN RAINFALL 60
40 27.3 20 19.9 10.4 0 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC MONTHS
Fig. 4-2 Monthly Rainfall in Rwamagana (Source; Rwanda Atlas, Meteorological Agency)
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4.2 Renewable Energy Potential20
4.2.1 Background
In Rwanda, as other developing countries, biomass is dominant source of energy with 94% of the national energy balance; oil products 5%, and electricity 1%. More than 99% of the electricity generated from hydropower plants and thermal are consumed in urban areas while less than 1% is used in rural areas.
Due to hilly topography of the country, the cost of transmission lines is expensive and such situation is hampering the rural energy supply programs. 65% of Rwandan are living under the poverty line with less than US$ 1 of expenses per day. That is why Rwanda is embarked in a PRSP which will be from 2007 EDPRS and Vision 2020 Objectives according to the Millennium Development Goals, and energy is recognised as the most important useful input specially in rural areas to create income generation activities and ensure living standards improvement.
Rwanda has a large range of renewable resources that can improve its energy situation: solar energy, micro hydropower, wind energy, biomass and geothermal energy resources. Apart from the biomass, the contribution of all these resources in the national energy balance is still limited.
4.2.2 Renewable Energy Potential
(1) Solar Energy
Rwanda has a daily sunshine of 4 - 5.5 kWh/m2/day. Solar energy can be used for the production of electricity by photovoltaic systems (PV), solar heating systems, water pumping systems, crops drying and solar cooking systems. Electricity from PV will improve working conditions in different domains:
¾ Education for lighting of study rooms in the evening, laboratories and ICT ¾ Health to improve the quality of health care in the rural areas where the clinics and health centres are located at remote area off national grid: lighting, refrigerators for vaccine storage, sterilisation needs.
20 Source: Renewable Energy Section Official’s Report of Ministry of Infrastructures
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¾ ICT for power supply of ICT’s equipment ¾ Households for lighting, television and radio ¾ Commercial enterprises and stores for lighting, food conservation, public telephone, etc. ¾ Public street lights
(2) Micro Hydropower
Rwanda has many streams with potential for micro hydro installations, but up to now most of them are not exploited. This mode of electrification constitutes an interesting alternative for decentralised rural electrification. However Rwanda has some experiences in micro hydro installations as before 1994 about 21 installations were in operation of which nine were supplying electricity in rural area. Most of those installations have been destroyed during the 1994 war; only 4 units are still operating.
(3) Wind Energy
In Rwanda, the average wind speed is not available due to the lack of wind data. 2 sites have been exploited so far:
¾ A wind generator of 1.1 kW with a wind speed between 5.5 and 8.5 m/s has been installed on Karisimbi Mount (4,507 m). The system was designed for electricity supply for radio and television transmitter, but presently it doesn’t work (it is replaced by the electric line from national grid). ¾ A wind turbine for water pumping, with a capacity of 3 m3/hour, installed in Nyagatare District, in ex-Umutara Province. It is working but faces maintenance problems. Now it is under-rehabilitation.
Until now some attempts are ongoing in some sites.
(4) Biomass Energy
Biomass (wood fuel, charcoal and agricultural residues) plays a great role in the energy consumption in Rwanda. It is used for cooking and heating in households, and institutions. Wood fuel is also used in industries for the production of heat. Because of the low purchasing power of the population, biomass (wood fuel and charcoal) is the accessible energy resource to 99% of
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the population in urban as well as in rural areas.
Despite its predominance in the energy balance, biomass has a deficit estimated to 4 million m3 per year and its overexploitation to meet the energy needs is one of the reasons of the galloping deforestation in the country. Some features illustrate the gravity of this phenomenon: before 1994 all community institutions (schools, barracks, hotels, religious institutions, etc.) and small and medium enterprises (bakeries, brickyard, tile works, etc.) used 91,505 tons of wood fuel for their energy needs when in 2000 these institutions consumed 214,000 tons of wood fuel, equivalent to 11,000 ha of forest destroyed every year.
Most of technologies used for consumption (traditional stoves) are not efficient.
Initiatives for biomass conservation (new technologies dissemination, reforestation, etc.) have been undertaken by GoR, NGOs and private sector; but their impact on the deforestation flagging remains limited.
(5) Geothermal Energy
In Rwanda, geothermal resources have been found in 3 areas: Bugarama - Rusizi District in the Ex-Cyangugu Province; Nyamyumba - Rubavu District in Gisenyi Province and Gitesi District in ex-Kibuye Province (along the Kivu Lake). For these sites, the thermal water temperature on the surface is about 150°C. The geothermal potential in Rwanda is estimated between 170 - 340 MW. A detailed feasibility study, including the geological and geotechnical prospecting, is very urgent in order to confirm the potential and the location where a geothermal power plant could be erected.
4.2.3 Key Issues
(1) Key Issues in General
¾ Insufficient research and development institutions with very few skilled personnel and facing budgetary constraints ¾ The energy sector has not been considered as a priority especially in allocating budgetary resources or by donors ¾ Lack of reliable data on energy potential and consumption needs ¾ Lack of an adequate framework for the energy development in rural area ¾ Issue of rural energy fund
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(2) Key Issues of Renewable Energy
¾ Non efficient use of biomass in case of wood fuel and charcoal ¾ Very low use of renewable energy ¾ Very high cost of imported renewable Energy equipments. ¾ Low awareness of energy conservation ¾ Low awareness of standards ¾ Lack of information on energy conservation ¾ Technologies and equipments used are of low efficiency ¾ Deforestation due to excessive consumption of biomass
(3) Cross-cutting Issues
¾ Energy trade and co-operation ¾ Energy information system ¾ Environment, health and safety ¾ Investment ¾ Gender issues ¾ Capacity building, (including education and training, human resources development, research & development, and technology transfer)
4.2.4 Energy Policy in Renewable Energy
The energy policy’s objective in renewable energy is to promote development and utilisation of new and renewable energy resources.
Overall strategy is the application of technologies for a better use of new and renewable energy resources.
The specific strategies are following: ¾ Establish financing mechanisms to reduce the costs ¾ Establish standards, technical manuals for the utilisation of renewable energy technologies ¾ Establish Training and Development Centres in new and renewable energy applications. ¾ Include in the primary and secondary schools programmes and courses on potentials and utilisation of new and renewable energy ¾ Remove import duties and different taxes on renewable energy equipment for affordable cost of energy in rural area
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4.2.5 Strategies
(1) Strategies in Demand Side
¾ Promote alternative power sources to replace wood-fuel and charcoal ¾ Promote technologies for energy saving ¾ Promote utilisation of improved stoves ¾ Promote cooking techniques for energy saving ¾ Sensitize industry and commerce sectors for energy conservation ¾ Meet the energy audit cost in industry ¾ Promote training and incentive to adopt technologies for energy saving ¾ Improve cooperation with institutions dealing with the energy and environment control ¾ Introduction of right tariffs
(2) Strategies in Supply Side
¾ To bring new electricity Generation into service, ¾ Increase oil products storage capacity ¾ Regional integration in energy sector ¾ The network rehabilitation and expansion ¾ To Provide affordable services ¾ Isolated mini-grids in rural areas: development of micro hydropower plants and off-grid solar PV system ¾ Methane gas utilisation ¾ Include an environmental aspect in all energy projects
(3) Strategies for Solar Energy Development
¾ To set up local manufacture ¾ Encourage local assembly units of PV modules ¾ Remove import duties and different taxes on PV equipments
(4) Strategies for Micro Hydropower Development
¾ Establish financing mechanisms through soft loans ¾ Establish standards, technical manuals for design, manufacture, implementation and management of micro hydropower stations ¾ Training and development of local skills in design, manufacture, implementation and management of micro hydro projects
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(5) Strategies for Wind Energy Development
¾ Assessment of wind characteristics and potential over the country ¾ Prepare Rwanda’s wind atlas /map ¾ Determine potential sites for wind energy development
(6) Strategies for Biomass
¾ Ensure gradual decrease of firewood and charcoal utilisation in the households and institutions ¾ Promote alternative power sources to replace firewood and charcoal (Lake Kivu contains some 55 billions of Nm3 of methane gas from which 40 - 45 billions are economically exploitable and whose renewal rate is estimated to 150 millions of Nm3 per year) ¾ Promote cooking techniques for energy saving ¾ Promote improved techniques of carbonisation ¾ Development of peat exploitation (deposits with 152 millions of tons) to replace firewood and charcoal.
(7) Strategies for Geothermal Development
¾ Geological and geotechnical prospecting ¾ Potential assessment
4.2.6 Action Plan/Programs in Renewable Energy
(1) Rural Electrification
Rwanda is one of countries with the lowest energy consumption in the world and thus it cannot reach the Millennium Development Goals without enough and affordable energy particularly in the rural area for income generating activities others than subsistence farming.
To overcome the challenge a programme of considerable scope must be carried out including at least:
(a) Assessment of renewable energy resources: wind, geothermal and micro hydro
(b) Development of a rural electrification master plan The main objective is to meet electricity needs of different sectors as
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agriculture, health, education, water supply, households and small enterprises in rural area by the exploitation of renewable energy resources and the methane gas of Lake Kivu, and the extension of the grid when it is possible.
(c) Implementation of identified projects under a soft financing mechanism so as to make energy affordable in rural area
(2) Households Energy in Urban Area
As said in the background, Rwanda is facing an energy crisis of all kinds especially in biomass with 4 million of m3 of deficit per year; charcoal which is the only accessible source of energy for cooking in urban households becomes more and more scarce and expensive.
It is therefore urgent to solve the problem because the situation is worrying and to that effect various options can be combined such:
(a) The production of charcoal by using papyrus stretching out 23,000 ha in marshes (b) Implementation of a project to substitute wood and charcoal in public institutions (prisons, schools, military camps, etc.) by peat (c) Dissemination of improved charcoal stoves (d) Popularisation of efficient and improved kilns for carbonisation (e) Rational management of forest and wood fuel supply
(3) Domestic Energy in Rural area
According to the 2002 National Census, 87% of Rwandan are living in rural area and using traditional energy (wood, crops) to meet their energy needs mainly for cooking and lighting.
Despite the deficit in biomass energy it is evident that even the energy used is lost due to the traditional stoves associated with indoor pollution harming health and causing respiratory diseases.
4.3 Existing ongoing Renewable Energy Project
To achieve its objectives in renewable energy for the next years, Rwanda has to carry out a long-term programme including the following realistic activities:
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Programme of renewable energy development which will lead to:
¾ The construction of 30 micro hydro stations ¾ The construction of a 1 MW solar power station in Kigali on mount Jali ¾ The construction of 1,500 digesters for biogas at national wide ¾ The installation of solar systems in 210 health centres, 217 secondary schools, 4 district offices and 311 sector offices ¾ The construction of 500 km of primary network for methane gas distribution
A programme to substitute firewood and charcoal both in rural and urban areas is to be done with the following activities:
¾ The substitution of firewood in public institutions and of charcoal in urban area ¾ The dissemination of improved stoves and improved carbonisation techniques
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CHAPTER 5 PRESENT SITUATION OF POWER SECTOR IN EASTERN PROVINCE
5.1 Overview of Eastern Province21
5.1.1 General Description
The Eastern Province brings together large parts of the former provinces of Kigali Ngali, Umutara and Kibungo. The province shares its northern border with Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania in the East. In the west there is the Northern Province and Kigali City, Burundi in the south while on its south-western border there is the Southern Province. The Eastern Province has districts of Bugesera, Gatsibo, Kayonza, Kirehe, Ngoma, Nyagatare and Rwamagana as shown in “Fig. 5-1 Administrative Map of Eastern Province” below.
District of Myagatare Eastern Province
District of Gatsibo
District of Kayonza District of Rwamagana
District of Ngoma District of Bugesera District of Kirehe
Fig. 5-1 Administrative Map of Eastern Province
21 Source: Rwanda Development Gateway (http://www.rwandagateway.org)
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5.1.2 Economy and Infrastructure
Major economic activities are livestock keeping and agriculture. The Eastern Province is home to the nation’s milk-producing cattle keepers. Other livestock kept include sheep, goats, poultry, pigs, bees and fish.
Major crops grown include Rice, maize, beans, sorghum, cassava and potatoes. The province intends to promote the cultivation and processing of, cassava and Banana- based products. There is a variety of farm products cultivated in the higher altitude north and in the lower altitude central, east and southern parts of the province.
In areas with marshlands, they grow corn, vegetables, beans, soya, pepper, pineapple and rice. The priority is the growing of coffee, passion fruit, strawberry, and vanilla. It is worth noting here that the province is exposed to natural calamities especially drought in the District of Bugesera and erosion in the north of the province.
The power needs of the province are served by an electric power transitions line managed by ELECTROGAZ. The Northern Province engages in trade with other provinces and neighbouring countries providing mostly milk, beans, bananas, sorghum, maize, beef, hides and skins, cheese, butter and honey in exchange for fruits and Irish potatoes from other provinces.
The greatest problem affecting the agricultural sector in the Province is seasonal drought.
5.1.3 Tourism and Culture
The famous Igishakamba cultural dance which is said to be portraying the beauty of long - honed Ankore cows and the general way of life of the semi - pastoral inhabitants of this province has been tipped to be another potential tourist attraction.
While travelling north to Uganda, one is able to appreciate repeating scenes of very beautiful, white - horned cattle grazing along the farms and near the road. Traditionally, the province has many tourist attractions, the most famous of
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them being the wild animals found in the Akagera National Park. This park is home to various large animals like lions, hippopotamus, buffalos, giraffes, and antelopes to name but a few. Rusumo Falls that separate Rwanda and the United Republic of Tanzania has attracted many visitors. There is also the Akagera River that feeds into the Nile River which snakes through the Province too.
5.2 District and Development Plan
In the southern part of Eastern Province, former Kibungo Province, e.g. districts of Kayonza, Kirehe, Ngoma and Rwamagana, which is a target area of Japan’s development cooperation policy, poverty rate is relatively higher and electrification rate is lower than that of the other part of the country. Rural electrification in the region is one of desired infrastructures and can provide opportunities for more efficient economic activities, hence can be the impetus of economic development and improvement of living standard of people in the region.
5.2.1 District of Kayonza22
(1) Summary of District and Development Plan
The District of Kayonza is one of the 7 districts constituting the Eastern Province. It is located at the Eastern Province and is bordered by the District of Gatsibo in North, the District of Rwamagana in the West, the District of Ngoma in South-west, the District of Kirehe in the South East and the Republic of Tanzania in the East. The District of Kayonza covers an average surface of 1,954 km2. It is divided into 12 administrative Sectors and 50 administrative Cells.
The District of Kayonza is composed of hills and slopes whose altitude is between 1,400 m and 1,600 m. The relief is characterised by the plates at broad nodes and the hills with soft slopes except in the East where one finds some slopes stiff and stony.
The characteristic climate is hot and wet there. The recorded average annual temperature lies between 18°C and 26°C. As for average annual pluviometry, it generally varies between 1,000 mm and 1,200 mm, March and April being
22 DDP of Kayonza (2008 - 2012), June 2007
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sprinkled more. The District of Kayonza, as the remainder of the country, knows a climate at four seasons: the small rain season usually goes from mid-September to mid-December. It is followed by a small dry season which arrives at mid-February. Comes then the great rainy season which, starting from mid-May, yield in its turn the place at a great season dries and this one extends until mid-September.
The hydrographic network of the District of Kayonza understands little river at the bottom of the hills. The district has a part of the Lake Muhazi, the lake Ihema and 3 small lakes Rwibishuhe, Kabigabiro and Cyabatanzi as well as vast marshes.
Fig. 5-2 Administrative Map of District of Kayonza
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The total objective of the district is to ensure the socio-economic well being of the population by supervising all the actors of the development working in the district and by taking care that all their shares tally with the national policy as regards development.
For the realisation of the mission assigned with the district, plans are worked out by each one of these units under the supervision of the Vice Mayors, that in charge of finances and the economic development and that in charge of the social affairs. The coordination of all the activities of the district is ensured by the Mayor.
The aims have to the horizon of the year 2012 and plans of various units have the following:
• To decrease the rate of illiteracy in the district; • To increase the rate of training of the population; • To make youth the pillar of the durable development by a solid education; • To modernize teaching more and more; • Promotion of the Rwandan culture; • To promote the sport and the leisure; • To decrease the infant mortality rate; • To maintain the rate of 100% of adhesion of the population to the mutual insurance companies of health; • To take care of the wellbeing of the households; • To support the policy of the kind to give the men and the women same chances to profit from the public services; • To integrate more women in the authorities which make decisions; • To improve the health services rendered to the population of the District; • To ensure the installation of the mechanisms aiming at the protection of the child; • To reinforce the capacities of the actors of the private sector; • To improve the agri-breeding to increase its production; • To promote industries and to contribute to the developments of the secondary industry; • To encourage the initiatives of the abstract sector; • To reinforce the activities of the craft industry to make it more powerful; • To contribute to the increase in the production intended for export; • To put in execution the national policy aiming at the promotion of employment;
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• To take care of the application of the principles of good governance; • To more reinforce the unit and the reconciliation of the population; • To ensure the protection of vulnerable, escapees of the genocide and marginalised; • To contribute to the economic development of the country by the installation of good infrastructures; • To give to more than 90% of the population the access to drinking water; • To improve at 100% the rural and urban settlement; • To modernize the towns of Kabarondo and Kayonza; • Apply the land law to improve management of the use of the ground; • To reinforce the capacities of the personnel of the district; • To improve the living conditions of personnel; and • To develop ICT in the district.
(2) Electrification Plan
The rural electrification is to be regarded as only 1 project even if its realisation is long-term. This project thus takes its direction if it aims at the health centres, the public centres programmed for the regrouping of the disseminated populations (Imidugudu), the schools and other development poles identified in the district.
The improvement of the situation of electrification aims at centres identified as follows:
a) Electrification of Health Centres
• Extension of Mukarange health centre • Electrification of Nyamirama health centre • Extension of Kabarondo health centre • Extension of Rwinkwavu hospital • Electrification of Rushenyi (Kabare) health centre • Extension of Ndego health centre • Electrification of Nyamiyaga (Gahini) health centre • Electrification of Rwimishinya (Rukara) health centre • Electrification of Buhabwa (Murundi) health centre • Electrification of Nyamugali (Mwiri) health centre
b) Electrification of the Secondary and Primary Schools
• Mukarange joint base
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• Nyamirama modern school • Ruramira secondary school • Rwinkwavu joint base • Murama secondary school • Rushenyi (Kabare) secondary school • Ndego secondary school • Rugarama (Gahini) Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE)23 school • Rwimishinya (Rukara) secondary school • Mwiri secondary school • Other schools
c) Electrification of Public Centres
The public centres to electrify are inter alia markets and trade centres, Sector offices and Cells as well as Imidugudu.
In the absence of the hydraulic power, electrification of certain health centres and certain schools will be implemented by solar energy.
5.2.2 District of Kirehe24
(1) Summary of District and Development Plan
The District of Kirehe, which counts a population of 229,468 and one surface of 1,225.4 km2, is located at the South-East of the Republic of Rwanda to 133 km of the Kigali capital. It divides with United Republic of Tanzania, the border is of Rwanda. The Akagera River constitutes the natural limit between the district and United Republic of Tanzania. In the South, the district is also frontier Republic of Burundi and the United Republic of Tanzania. In the West the district divides its border with the District of Ngoma and the District of Kayonza in the North.
The District of Kirehe counts 12 Sectors, subdivided in 60 Cells.
In general the relief of the District of Kirehe is that of the areas of the low plates. However, there is an assembly line which divides the area into two geographical entities, characterised by a plain of low altitude of more or less 1,350 m of
23 FAWE (http://www.educacionenvalores.org) 24 District Development Plan of Kirehe (2008 - 2012), June 2007
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altitude, punctuated by insulated hills and those of the hills and mountains with plates at the tops (Mount Mahama and an assembly line of Migongo). The average altitude of the District of Kirehe is of 1,500m.
As regards hydrography, fauna and flora, the principal water court of the district is the Akagera River which surrounds in the South-East the district and continuous to be thrown in Lake Victoria. Fauna is very dense is very varied.
Fig. 5-3 Administrative Map of District of Kirehe
The vegetation of the District of Kirehe is of the savanna type of the east timbered with prevalence of acacia. Apart from natural timbering which tends to disappear completely, one meets domanial timbering of the district and timbering belonging to the private ones.
The development is a multidisciplinary crossroads. Indeed, the phenomena demographic, economic, social, political, etc. are closely dependent. Education, employment, urbanisation, statute of the women, fruitfulness, mortality, morbidity and environment are inseparable. They form a “system”: a variation of the level of education induced, for example, a modification of all
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the other phenomena what, in return, also makes vary the level of education. A development thus fits in complexity. To act, it is important to take account of the existence of these interactions.
DDP of Kirehe is the result of the concerns of the population in all the fields of the durable development. It was built on an analysis “Forces, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats” since the base of the administration of the district until its top. For its good execution, it is imperative that the population is implied, as craftsman of the development and first beneficiaries. With this intention, it is recommended of:
• To organize development community committees so that they are better impregnated methods of planning and execution of the projects of developments at end to follow well the execution of the plan of developments;
• To set up a committee of follow-up of setting pursuant to the projects resulting from DDP, as underlined in the chapter on the follow-up and the evaluation.
The district intends to build its development on 3 essential pillars: the agri modern breeding, dynamic private sector and gravitational tourism as follows: a) A Modern Agri-breeding
The installation of the basic infrastructures and the establishment of a master line of occupation and land use will allow the development of the modern pastoral sector. b) Private Sector and Development Engine
The installation of the basic infrastructures (energy, roads, water, etc.) combined with the increase in the pastoral production is among the elements - keys being able to allow the development of a dynamic private sector. But to promote the private sector requires also the realisation of other activities. In optics to develop its private sector, the district proposes the following activities:
• To set up the basic infrastructures (energy, road, etc.); • To identify all the potentialities of the district and to put them at the knowledge of general public by making booklets, by establishing an website, etc.;
• To develop all laws and codes on the foreign private investment and intern;
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• To maintain a safety total of the goods and people; and • To encourage the private ones to invest in the creation and the exploitation of the units of transformation of the agricultural production (pineapple, bananas, patchouli, geranium, of the products of the bee-keeping, etc.) and in creation of the common sales agencies of the artisanal products.
All these activities combined with the institutional elements: a lasting peace, a state of right, a strong democracy, with the geographical position of Kirehe (frontier of Tanzania and Burundi) in the context of economic integration (COMESA) is factors likely to instigate the private sector of the district and to start again its economic development.
c) Attractive Tourism
The District of Kirehe has step badly of potentialities in the tourist field. The Rusumo Falls constitute of it already a perfect illustration. But of other potentialities only ask to be exploited (pleasant lakes and landscape with sight on the lakes and national park). With this intention, certain activities must be made beforehand.
It is in particular about:
• To identify all the sites being able to be the subject of the tourist visits; • To arrange these sites; • To make known these sites with general public, via the development of the folders, booklets, the press, Internet, etc.; and
• To interest the investors deprived to build hotels and reception centre.
(2) Electrification Plan
The following electrifications are planned:
• Construction of middle voltage transmission line from Zaza to boarder by ELECTROGAZ;
• Construction of middle voltage transmission line from Rwinkwavu - Nasho by ELECTROGAZ; and
• Electrification of public buildings by solar power.
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5.2.3 District of Ngoma25
(1) Summary of District and Development Plan
The District of Ngoma is an administrative entity which belongs to the Eastern Province, created in 2006 with the administrative reform. Its surface is 735.92 km2 and its population amounts to 235,109 including 126,959 women or 54% and 108,150 men or 46% and a density of 309 inhabitants per km2, according to the census of 2006.
The relief of the district influences its climate, from where the presence of a moderate climate of low altitude. The annual average temperature is with the turn of 20°C. Average precipitation is of 1,100 mm per annum. The thermal and pluviometric rate/rhythm is marked in the whole by the alternation of the dry season and the rain season, with interannual variations related to the general movement of the masses of air coming from the Indian Ocean. Generally the great dry season starts earlier and finishes later compared to the other areas of the country, from where a pluviometric deficit whose consequences are felt on the agricultural and pastorale production.
• The small season of rain (mid-October - at the end of December) • The small season dries (at the beginning of January semi April) • The great rain season (semi April - semi May) • The great season dries (semi May - semi October)
The volume of annual precipitations on the whole of the district lies between 900 and 1,400 mm of rains.
The natural vegetation of the District of Ngoma is dominated by a degraded shrubby savanna. It is a typical vegetation of the savannas of the African Eastern basin, with vast extended the graminaceous ones strewn with shrubs of various species.
The West of the district is formed by a vast wetland consisted the depression - lake of Akagera which offers to the sight a typical landscape of lakes and marsh. The marshy hollows are occupied by the vegetation of marsh sheltering the last representatives of fauna and the watery flora. One as finds in the talwegs some rare relics of the natural forest to dimensions as negligible as their existence passes often unperceived.
25DDP of Ngoma (2008 - 2012), June 2007
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With the increasing demographic pressure due to the various waves of interior immigrations, the search for new arable and pastorale lands pushed the population to colonize the slopes and the hollows, thus involving an accelerated degradation of the grounds and natural vegetation.
Fig. 5-4 Administrative Map of District of Ngoma
Within the framework of decentralisation, the District of Ngoma has 3 decentralised entities with knowing: Sectors, Cells and the villages (Imidugudu). Separately the villages, the other entities have the Committees of Community Development (CDC). These entities make it possible the population to take part in the determination of its socio-economic destiny. For better mobilizing and exploiting all the local potentialities, the district organised the civil company and the Sector deprived in a forum called “Joint Action Forum (JAF)”. However, in spite of the carried out actions, accordingly, the District of Ngoma being lately created as follows encounters multiple problems involved in the framework politico administrative and socio-economic, presented: a) On the Administrative Politico Level Insufficiency of institutional and technical capacities of the decentralised entities
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b) From the Economic Point of View - Weak agricultural production and of breeding - Insufficiency of basic infrastructures
c) On the Human and Social Level - Bad quality of teaching - Bad health of the population
For this situation, it was elaborated in DDP in order to achieve the following goals: - To develop human resources and to improve quality of teaching; - To increase the institutional and technical capacities; - To increase the productions of agricultural and of breeding; - To develop the basic infrastructures; and - To improve the health and the good social being.
(2) Electrification Plan
The following electrifications are planned: • At the end of 2012, electrification of 14 trade centres by extension of the ELECTROGAZ lines; • Electrification of 60% of villages by solar energy; and • 6 km of public lighting in Kibungo Town.
5.2.4 District of Rwamagana26
(1) Summary of District and Development Plan
The evaluation of the first phase of the process of decentralisation in Rwanda (2001-2003) showed that in spite of the crossed step, some constraints and challenges still remained. It is to deal with these constraints and challenges that the second phase (2004-2008) was initiated for amongst other things putting the emphasis on the reinforcement of the capacities of the various actors. In the implementation of this second phase, some measures such as administrative reform and the restructuration of the territory (2005) were taken.
The District of Rwamagana with a surface of 691.6 km2, resulting from this restructuration of the territory, is one of the 7 districts which make the Eastern
26 DDP of Rwamagana (2008 - 2012), June 2007
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Province. Its population is estimated at 223,653 inhabitants divided in 14 Sectors and 82 Cells and 474 villages.
The District of Rwamagana has the role; (i) Of implementing the policies of the state; (ii) To render the services and to help the sectors to render the services of quality; (iii) To establish, coordinate and implement the programs of local development; and (iv) To promote solidarity and the cooperation with other districts.
Within the framework to better fulfil this mission, the District of Rwamagana, as all the other local governments must implement dynamic strategies allowing him to promote the durable development and to accelerate the fight against the poverty which falls under the main national demands of GoR and consequently to contribute to the achievement of the Objectives of the Millennium Development Goals.
The analysis of the situation of the district shows that the principal challenges which currently emerge and which constitute obstacles with the development of the economy of the district are mainly; 1. Weak rate of drinking water service (48%); 2. High illiteracy rate (62% of the population); 3. Predominance of traditional agriculture (more than 80% of the population) and misses modern technology in agriculture and breeding; 4. High rate of prevalence of the AIDS (5.8%); 5. High morbidity due to paludism (39%); 6. Insufficiency of electricity (only nearly 0.2% access to electricity); 7. Insufficiency of qualified labour; 8. Insufficiency of school infrastructures (maternal, primary, secondary, professional and university); 9. Weak income of households; 10. Weak precipitation, disturbances climatic and the environmental pollution (strong pressure on wood bus more than 95% of the households living the district uses wood for cooking); and 11. Negative impact of the genocide of 1994.
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Fig. 5-5 Administrative Map of District of Rwamagana
By continuing one canvassed of participative strategic planning of bottom to the top, the District of Rwamagana worked out this DDP containing principal the strategic axes on which the district referred to define its principal objectives of development so much economic, social environmental.
DDP lies within the scope of the Vision 2020, in the sense that it touches all the pillars of the Vision 2020 as it is shown by it in the strategies of its implementation; (i) good the governance political and economic, (ii) the rural economic transformation, (iii) the development of the services and industry, (iv) the development of human resources,
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(v) the development of tourism and the promotion of the private sector, (vi) regional and international economic integration, and (vii) the reduction of poverty.
In addition, it is in conformity with the priorities and the guidelines laid down in the various strategies of GoR, in particular EDPRS, the Strategic Plan of the Transformation of Agriculture (PSTA), the good governance, the policy of decentralisation, the promotion of the private sector and the other sectoral strategies.
Because of the current situation of the District of Rwamagana and have regard to the problems which prevail for the moment, of opportunities and potentialities so much intern that external which exist, the District of Rwamagana aspires, by 2012, to obtain a first tourist city with a true image of an urban area, characterised by activities of modern, industrial agri-breeding and competitive on the regional and international market; powerful in ecological safeguarding; offering effective basic services; with a competitive population on the labour market; where safety, social cohesion and peace reign.
(2) Electrification Plan
The following electrifications are planned:
• Electrification of Nyagasambu and Ntunga trade centres • Electrification of Nyakariro and Munyaga Sector offices • Extension of the street lighting in Rwamagana Town • Power supply of the public buildings by solar energy
5.3 Site Reconnaissance
During stay in Rwanda from October 9 to 21, 2007, the Study Team conducted a site reconnaissance in Eastern Province from October 15 to 17, 2007.
The objectives of this site reconnaissance are; i) to collect latest socio-economic data and information of each district, ii) to collect documents and information related to regional development, iii) to grasp the present situation of each district, especially electrification, and iv) to survey topography and socio-economic conditions of the candidate sites for our proposed rural electrification by PV+PS (refer to Chapter 6).
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Fortunately, each district office had just prepared their DDP from 2008 to 2012 and kindly provided it for us. This DDP presents several socio-economic data and their development plans in accordance with the national development plan: Vision 2020.
The itinerary is shown in “Table 5-1 Itinerary of Site Reconnaissance” and route of the site reconnaissance in “Fig. 5-6 Route Map of Site Reconnaissance”.
Table 5-1 Itinerary of Site Reconnaissance Date Activities October 15 Leaving Kigali 08:00 Meeting(10:00)Eastern Provincial Office /Rwamagana District Office Meeting(13:30) Kayonza District Director of Infrastructure October 16 Leaving Kigali 07:00 Meeting(10:00) Ngoma District Deputy Mayor Site reconnaissance in Ngoma Meeting(14:00) Kirehe, Director of Infrastructure Site reconnaissance in Kirehe October 17 Leaving Kigali 08:00 Site reconnaissance, off highway area, Jarama Sector of Ngoma District
5.3.1 Rwamagana District
The Provincial Office and District Office are located in Rwamagana Town just beside the national road to the Rusumo Falls. The town is developed along the national road, which is approximately 60 km far from Kigali City along the road and around 1.5 hour ride. There is a site office of JICA rural water supply project. The Study Team had an interview in both offices and made site reconnaissance.
The followings are the findings;
1) Interview
The following information was obtained through the interview with Executive Secretary of the Province and Deputy Mayer of the District;
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pineapple, and coffee. - The District Office has campaigned for promotion of plantation of the abovementioned main crops. Present issue concerned is that the crops are sent to markets without any processing and adding any value because of no such processing facilities. - In Rwamagana Province, Kirehe District and Nasho and Rwinkwavu in Kayonza District are priority areas for electrification. Kirehe District has no transmission line extent from the national power grid at present and not yet electrified. Nasho and Rwinkwavu have been developing maize plantations, which require electricity for processing but no electricity although Nasho has a plan of transmission line extension.
2) Site Reconnaissance
The District Officer guided us to the new villages sitting on hill ranges with elevation of nearly 1,700 m located between the national road running from Kigali to Rwamagana and the west part of the Lake Muhazi.
The village we visited in the Fumbwe Sector is a new one being developed by the settlement program of Imidugudu. The Fumbwe Sector office is just new and a health centre next to the Sector office and secondary school are under construction. The number of household is 3,645 according to the officer. Since the water level of the Lake Muhazi is 1,443 m, the height of the hill range is enough high in terms of hydraulic head of PV+PS. The site for a upper reservoir to store the water might be available on this hill slope, the site should be as close to the lake as possible to shorten penstock length and, of course, lower reservoir should be the Lake Muhazi. Topography on the north of the village seems to be preferable for PV+PS.
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5.3.2 Kayonza District
The District Office is located beside the national road in Kayonza town, which is some 20 km far and 0.5 hour ride from Rwamagana town.
1) Interview
The following information was obtained through interview with Director of Infrastructure of the district; - Kayonza District is planning extension of low transmission line of 15/30 kV as mentioned in DDP. - Priorities of electrification are given to the same kind of facilities as those given in Rwamagana District. - The District Office has a plan to develop an industrial estate, which needs electricity. Moreover, a new Sector office also requires electricity which is now under construction in the village that Imidugudu is ongoing.
2) Site Reconnaissance
A district officer guided us to a candidate site for the new industrial estate and Sector office after interview at the district office. - Plan of the industrial estate is a just plan at present. The Study Team found that there are no infrastructures such as electricity, water supply, drainages at the site. The Study Team saw just local road and gradual field. - The new Sector office of the Gahini Sector sits on the hill range on the north of the eastern edge of the Lake Muhazi. The office is located beside the new resettled village. According to the district officer, the office will be electrified by PV.
5.3.3 Ngoma District
The District Office is located in Kibungo town, which is approximately 30 km far and some 0.5 hour ride from Kayonza town.
1) Interview
The following information was obtained through interview with Deputy Mayer of the district.
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- The district is planning to extend transmission lines to the several regions and electrify them as mentioned in DDP. The project will be financed by CDF. In the last year, CDF of Rwf 150 million was introduced for the district development. - There are transmission lines running beside the national road in the district. However, for example even a school under this transmission line can not receive electricity because of lack of budget to buy a transformer. Such case is not special in the district. - Extension of the transmission line needs much budget and needs long period. Therefore, some area especially in the south will be remained for a long period without electricity, such as Jarama and Gahare.
2) Site Reconnaissance
The district officer allowed us to visit Jarama on the next day of the interview where electrification by the transmission line would be expected to be much delayed in the district.
The site we visited belongs to Irarire and Jarama Villages in Jarama Cell of Jarama Sector. The villages sit on the top of hill range viewing the Lake Sake on the north. The region borders on Burundi in a few kilometres to the south. The villages consisting of 1,400 households are the typical ones made by the resettlement program of Imidugudu. Roads are constructed orderly and houses fall into rank along the roads. Public facilities are completed but there is no electricity except a health centre which has PV and generates power for few hours per day. Houses and public buildings are located in a limited area and the height of the hills seems to have a height of nearly 100 m. Moreover, there is s small lake: Lake Karaba at the foot of the hill, by which enough volume of water will be available. According to inhabitants, water level of the lake is stable through a year.
According to the site reconnaissance, Jarama is the best site for the system for PV+PS. The details of the villages are mentioned in “Chapter 6 Rural Electrification by PV+PS”.
5.3.4 Kirehe District
The District Office is located in Kirehe town, which is approximately 40 km far and around 1 hour ride from Kibungo.
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1) Interview
An interview with Director of Infrastructure was made in the district office. The following are the information we obtained. - There is no transmission line extended from the national grid in the district at present although extension project from Ngoma to Kirehe is planned as listed in DDP. The project cost is estimated to be Rwf 1.25 billion. - The district office will be moved to back side of the present office and now under construction. The new office will be electrified with 13.6 kW PV system, of which solar panels have already been installed on the roof of the battery house. - The district consists of 12 Cells and all of the Cell offices are planned to be electrified by PV within this year. - 5 health centres in the district have already equipped with PV system. The district is planning to install such PV system in all schools. - A secondary school is equipped with a diesel generator for power supply to class rooms and a dormitory. - Plan of biogas to be installed in each household has been fallen through because it was found to be costly. - Kamugarura is hilly and there are villages, trading centres and schools in a limited area. In addition, there is a small stream with water even in dry season. The site is located just on the north of the national road between Kirehe and the Rusumo Falls, where we can approach by car for a few minutes through a branch road from the national road. There are other candidate sites in the district such as the Ruseke River of Nasho Sector, Kagese of Nasho Sector, Muyonza River of Kigarama Sector.
2) Site Reconnaissance
The Study Team visited the candidate site in Kamugarura for PV+PS recommended by Director of Infrastructure of the Kirehe District. Findings are presented hereinafter. - Topography is fair from our observation so far. The hill slopes are rather too gentle, and height of the hills is low, which mean long penstock is required and output (kW) would be small. - No topographic map is available. Therefore, locations of structures such as
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villages, schools, health centres and public facilities are unknown. - The stream we saw in the flat and wide plain at the bottom of hills is so small to recognize its flow. - The area may be one of priority areas for electrification although further investigations especially ones focused on social conditions are necessary. However, electrification by PV+PS seems not to be appropriate from economic view point.
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Trading Centre Secondary School in Fumbwe Sector
Candidate Industrial Estate
Small Stream crossing National Road
PV for Kirehe Provincial Office Legend Ntunga Trading Centre ● ● ● : Reconnaissance Route ■ : Candidate Site of PV+PS
Primary School Kamugarura: Candidate Site for Electrification
Lake Karaba Recommended Site for Case Study (PV+PS) Fig. 5-6
Route Map of Site Reconnaissance Rusumo Falls 5 - 23
CHAPTER 6 PROPOSED RURAL ELECTRIFICATION BY PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM WITH PUMPED STORAGE HYDROPOWER (PV + PS)
6.1 Adequate Electrification Methods
Electrification in the country should ideally be achieved by expansion of national transmission lines so as to supply reliable and affordable electricity to the people. However, it needs several decades and enormous amount of investments as experienced in Japan and the western countries.
According to the energy policy for Rwanda October 2004, the following development and rehabilitation of the transmission and distribution lines are planned. (a) ELECTROGAZ transmission and distribution network rehabilitation (b) Construction of the 110 kV Kibuye - Karongi high voltage line (c) Construction of the 110 kV Gisenyi - Mukungwa high voltage line (d) Construction of the 30 kV Kilinda - Kaduha - Gikongoro and Mata - Nshili medium voltage line (e) Construction of the 30 kV Kora - Karisimbi medium voltage line (f) Construction of the 30 kV Kigali - Kiyumba medium voltage line (g) Construction of the Kibuye - Karongi line (h) Construction of the Gisenyi - Ruhengeri line
Based on the energy policy, DDP of Kayonza, Kirehe, Ngoma and Rwamagana and information obtained during the site reconnaissance, electrification areas in the Eastern Province could be prioritised into 3 areas; the electrification area to be planned; the area to be electrified in next step after the planned electrification; and other area to lastly be electrified as shown in “Fig. 6-1 Electrification Plan in Eastern Province” below.
According to the geological situation, Akagera National Park and near Burundi boarder, South area of the District of Ngoma, would lately be electrified.
During the decades for completion of electrification by the transmission expansion, population of some regions might remain under low living standard without electricity and regional disparities will be enlarged.
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In this respect, off-grid (decentralised) electrification consisting of Solar Home System (SHS) or mini-grids with renewable energy sources such as PV hybrid system, micro hydropower, and wind power should be necessary in rural areas where electrifications by the national transmission line might be delayed for long time due to prioritised expansion program.
Electrification Plan in Eastern Province
110kV : Border of Eastern Province 70kV
30kV 6.6kV
Planed
Kigali
Planed Electrification Area
Area to be Electrified in Next Step
Fig. 6-1 Electrification Plan in Eastern Province
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Concept of Proposed Rural Electrification by PV with Pumped Storage Hydropower (PV+PS)
Rwanda has a daily sunshine of 4 - 5.5 kWh/m2/day. Solar energy can be used for the production of electricity by PV systems, solar heating systems, water pumping systems, crops drying and solar cooking systems. Regarding hydropower potential, the Eastern Province has less potential compared to the western region because of hilly terrain.
In consideration of these geographic and climatic conditions above, an adequate electrification method in the eastern region is to be a mini-grid system with a kind of hybrid power generation system: PV+PS. This PV+PS power system consists of a water pumping facility working with PV power and a micro hydropower, basically. As the details of the power system are explained in “Chapter 6.2 Study on Proposed Rural Electrification by Photovoltaic Systems with pumped Storage Hydropower”, the concept of this power system is that pumped up water in day time with PV power in an upper reservoir generates power by the micro hydropower station in night peak time without any batteries. For day time demand, PV will supply power directly to the grid. Therefore, even if the system includes PV, the system is environmentally friendly because of no waste of batteries. This is also one of merits in terms of economy because of no replacement of batteries in future. Even this power system includes a hydropower; the system requires only hydraulic head although small volume of water is also required. The required water could be available in small streams or lakes nearby. This power system has been developed in the International Cooperative Demonstration Project Utilizing Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems promoted by the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organisation (NEDO)27. The effectiveness of the system was demonstrated in the pilot project in Laos in 2005.
The reasons why the mini-grid with PV+PS is the adequate electrification method in the eastern region are the followings;
(a) Sufficiently Strong Sunshine for PV but Less Potential of Hydropower
The eastern region is characterised by the following topography and meteorology: - Hilly land and wide flood plains of the Akagera River;
27 NEDO, Japan (http://www.nedo.go.jp/)
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- A lot of lakes in the flood plains; - Small streams with gentle river slope; - Small amount of precipitation ranging from 900 mm to 1,400 mm; and - Strong sunshine.
Compared to the mountainous area forming the West Rift Valley in the west of the country, the eastern area is characterised by highland with a lot of hills laying on the extensive flood plain of the Akagera River which snakes along the northern and eastern borders and flows into the Victoria Lake. Because of the flood plains, there are several lakes. Several streams flowing on the hill side and into the lakes and the Akagera River are seen on topographic maps. However, the catchment areas of the most streams are small and the discharges seem also small according to some streams observed during our site reconnaissance in October 2007. Small amount of precipitation is one of the reasons. From our preliminary survey so far, potential of ordinary type of mini hydropower seems to be small in terms of hydrology, while strong sunshine seems to be sufficient for PV power generation.
For PV+PS, hydraulic head will be able to easily be obtained as constructing the upper reservoir on the top or on the slope of the hills and small volume water will be available in the existing natural lakes scattered around the hills.
(b) Needs of Regional Development
According to DDP of Kayonza, Kirehe, Ngoma and Rwamagana, main livelihood in those districts is agriculture with a traditional style. The local governments of these districts are making efforts to improve welfare of inhabitants. One of political measures is ongoing Imidugudu promoted by GoR, by which inhabitants scattered in the region have been being resettled in newly constructed villages. This Imidugudu is introduced to efficiently construct infrastructures such as pubic structures, roads, water supply by concentrating inhabitants. Another purpose of the Imidugudu was to provide places to live for returnees from outside of the country in the late 1990s. In future, there would be some possibility that existing farmland is divided into small lands due to high population density and income from the land will be reduced as the population will have increased more. To avoid such case, land productivity should be increased, for example by introducing fertilizer or multi cropping by irrigation system,
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and/or create other jobs than agriculture.
On the other hand, this dense population is advantageous for the mini-grid because the mini-grid can efficiently reach a large number of households by the minimum length of distribution lines. This advantage leads good economic performance of the mini-grid. Moreover, the mini-grid will provide new job opportunities. After electrification, people enjoy lighting and communications (radio/TV) and improved public services such as health care, education. Some households may make handicrafts using night lighting or may open a coffee shop to be able to serve cold drinks with a refrigerator. Since the mini-grid have generally enough power for day time demand, the community can utilize this power for increasing land productivity and creating job opportunities as follows;.
a) Increase of Land Productivities
• Motive power for rice mill • Pumping up water for irrigation to plant variable plantation such as vegetables, fruit on the hill slope • Pumping up water for water supply to the community living on the top of hills
b) New Job Opportunities
• Workshop using welding, sawing • Coffee washing • Refinement of plant oil such as sunflower, sorghum • Fish firming28 in the lakes and ice production for delivery • Stockbreeding production such as cheese, ham, sausage • Beekeeping production
The pilot project - PV+PS we proposed hereinafter - will pay special attention to the productive use of electricity by rural family and small industries. The benefits are clear: on the demand side, electricity can directly increase the productivity of rural industries and thus raise income and employment - on the supply side, electricity service provision becomes more sustainable in turn due to the improved capacity-to-pay of these anchor clients.
28 Fish firming and beekeeping have already conducted in Kayonza district according to DDP.
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6.2 Study on Proposed Rural Electrification by Photovoltaic System with Pumped Storage Hydropower (PV+PS)
6.2.1 Project Site
Based on the following conditions favourable for the proposed system, Jarama Cell is selected as the project site and it consists of Irarire and Jarama Villages.
- Isolated area near Burundi border with more advancement of Imidugudu - Far away (more than 10 km) from existing transmission network - Public facilities within 1,500 m radius - Village centre located on the top of the hill (for enough hydraulic head) - Lake (stable water source) located at the foot of the hill
Jarama Sector consists of 5 Cells including Jarama Cell and 44 villages including United Nation High Commissioner for Refuges (UNHCR) supported villages in Ngoma District.
(1) Population
Estimated population is 4,378 according to the officials of Jarama Sector during site reconnaissance.
(2) Existing Public Facilities
There are following public facilities in Jarama Sector as shown in “Fig. 6-2 Jarama Sector”.
- Sector Administrative Office (being relocated and upgraded by CDF budget) - Health Centre (with PV facility providing electricity for 2 hours/day)
- Warna Primary School and Primary School (2,796 students, with 1st grade secondary school, children from 3 Cells, mainly from 4 villages: Irarire, Karenge, Jarama, Ihanika, and the renovation funded by Japanese Embassy, completed in 2006)
- Trading Centre (under modernisation supported by EU)
(3) Estimation of Number of Households
The number of household shown in “Fig. 6-2 Jarama Sector” was counted and there are around 1,400 households. “Fig. 6-3 Number of Household vs.
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Distance from Centre” below shows relationship between number of the household and distance from the Jarama Cell centre.
UNHCR Supported Village
Lake Sake
Health Centre
New Jarama Sector Office
Warma School Trading Centre
School Jarama Sector Office
Jarama Sector Office Lake Karaba
500 m
Fig. 6-2 Jarama Sector (Source: Satellite Image of Google Earth)
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1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600 No. of Household 400
200
- - 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 Distance from Center
Fig. 6-3 Number of Household vs. Distance from Centre
In consideration of “Public facilities within 1,500 m radius” in the conditions favourable for the proposed system described above, 400 households to be covered by this project are estimated in Jarama Cell by using the relationship between number of the household and distance from the centre.
Fig. 6-4 Lake Karaba Fig.6-5 Health Centre
6.2.2 PV Power Generation System
Photovoltaic power generation systems convert energy from the sun directly into electricity. They are composed of photovoltaic cells, usually a thin wafer or strip of semiconductor material, which generates a small current when sunlight strikes them. Multiple cells can be assembled into modules that can be wired in an array of any size. Small photovoltaic arrays are found in wristwatches and calculators; the largest arrays have capacities in excess of 5 MW.
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PV power generation systems are cost-effective in small off-grid applications, providing power, for example, to rural homes in developing countries, off-grid cottages and motor homes in industrialised countries, and remote telecommunications, monitoring and control systems worldwide. Water pumping is also a notable off grid application of photovoltaic systems that are used for domestic water supplies, agriculture and, in developing countries, provision of water to villages. These power systems are relatively simple, modular, and highly reliable due to the lack of moving parts.
Photovoltaic power generation system can be combined with pumped storage hydropower in applications having higher energy demands or in climates characterised by extended periods of little sunshine (e.g. rainy season) to form hybrid system.
6.2.3 Consumer’s Load Assumption
Load assumption in this case study is as follows:
- Assumed Household Load Electrification is planned for 400 households in Jarama Cell in this case study. MININFRA has a plan to install 200 W photovoltaic power generation system for 300 households as SHS. Based on this plan, assumed load of a household could be 116 W taking into account photovoltaic power generation efficiency and climate condition. Load = 116W × 400 households = 46.4 kW Intended time duration of electric power for households by SHS in the night time is generally 3 hours or 4 hours and 4 hours is taken in this case study.
- Assumed Public Facilities and Small Industries Loads as a day time load in classes for public facilities and small industries are assumed taking into account load simultaneous factor as follows: ・ Sector Administrative Offices : 1.5 kW × 0.6 = 0.9 kW ・ Schools and Dormitories : 1.5 kW × 0.6 = 0.9 kW ・ Clinic : 2.0 kW × 0.6 = 1.2 kW ・ Health Centre : 1.5 kW × 0.6 = 0.9 kW ・ Training Centre : 2.0 kW × 0.6 = 1.2 kW ・ Water Pumping Station : 3.0 kW × 0.8 = 2.4 kW
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・ Ice Plant : 3.0 kW × 0.8 = 2.4 kW ・ Shops : 3.6 kW × 0.6 = 2.2 kW ・ Small Industries : 4.8 kW × 0.6 = 2.9 kW Total 15.0 kW
- Assumed Night Time Load Assumed night time load such as water pump, cold storage chamber is 11.5 kW.
- Assumed Hourly Load Pattern An hourly load pattern is assumed based on the loads of households, public facilities and small industries and night time load, and is shown in “Fig. 6-6 Hourly Load Pattern”.
Hourly Load Pattern
70 60
) 50 40 30 Load (kW Load 20 10 0
7 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 1 19 21 23 Hour
Day Time Load Night Time Load Household Load
Fig. 6-6 Hourly Load Pattern
6.2.4 Assumption of Solar Radiation
NASA’s Satellite-derived Meteorological Data for any location on earth is provided for use with the RETScreen Software via the NASA Surface Meteorology and Solar Energy (SSE) Data Set. This data set, developed by NASA in collaboration with RETScreen International, is a useful alternative
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when ground-based data or detailed resource maps are not available for the project location. A direct link to the NASA Website is provided from within the RETScreen Software; the user may simply copy the relevant data from the Website and paste it into the relevant worksheets of the RETScreen Software.29 Since meteorological data have not yet been available for the project location, we refer to RETScreen Software for this case study.
6.2.5 Outline of Rural Electrification by PV+PS
The hydropower station including pump facilities will be constructed in front of the Lake Karaba for the Lake Karaba using as the lower reservoir and the upper reservoir will be constructed on the hill side. Photovoltaic facilities will be installed on the hill side and 15 kV distribution lines will be constructed to connect the photovoltaic facilities, pump facilities and hydropower facilities with the consumers.
400 households in the household electrification area as shown in “Fig. 6-7 Outline of Project Area” and the public facilities and the small industries will be electrified.
29 Source: RETScreen International (www.retscreen.net)
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Jarama Sector Office : 15kV Distribution Line
School : Household Electrification Area
Trading Center
New Jarama Sector Office
Hydro Power Station Health Center
PV Yard
Warma School Lake Karaba
Fig. 6-7 Outline of Project Area (Source: Satellite Image of Google Earth)
- Day Time Power Generation When sunlight is available during the day, PV generates and dispatches electric power to the motor-pump for pumping water up to the upper reservoir from the Lake Karaba as well as consumers, as shown in “Fig. 6-8 Day Time Power Generation Outline”.
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Fig. 6-8 Day Time Power Generation Outline
- Night Time Power Generation When sunlight is not available in the night or due to climate conditions, the turbine-generator generates electric power by using water in the reservoir and dispatches electric power to the consumers, as shown in “Fig. 6-9 Night Time Power Generation Outline”.
Fig. 6-9 Night Time Power Generation Outline
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6.2.6 Plant Facilities
Based on the consumer’s load and solar radiation assumptions, the following main plant facilities are briefly designed for this case study.
(1) Photovoltaic Power Facilities
・ Photovoltaic Output : 130 kW ・ Type of PV Module : Mono or Poly-crystal ・ Power Conditioner (Inverter) : 130 kW
(2) Hydroelectric Power Facilities
・ Unit : 1 ・ Facility Output : 70 kW ・ Generator Output : 87.5 kVA ・ Turbine Type : Horizontal shaft cross-flow ・ Head : 50 m ・ Generator Type : Three-phase synchronous, AVR
(3) Pumping Facilities
・ Unit : 8 ・ Total Pumping Capacity : 60 kW ・ Pump Head : 55 m
(4) Main Transformer
・ Unit : 1 ・ Power : 130 kVA ・ Phase : 3 ・ Voltage : 0.4/15 kV
(5) Civil Work
・ Powerhouse ・ Upper Reservoir ・ Penstock Foundation ・ Intake ・ PV Foundation
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(6) Penstock
2 lines of steel penstock would be applied, one for the hydro facility and another for pumping facility.
(7) Distribution Network Configuration
The radial network of 15 kV distribution lines would be applied for this case study and the 15 kV distribution line routes are shown in “Fig. 6-7 Outline of Project Area”. Assumed total length of 15 kV distribution lines and 0.4 kV distribution lines are 8 km and 4 km, respectively.
(8) Project Overview
Project overview of this case study could be illustrated as shown in “Fig. 6-10 Overview of Project Site” below, as example.
Photovoltaic
Fig. 6-10 Overview of Project Site (Photo Source: NEDO)
6.2.7 Project Schedule
The project schedule for this case study is shown below and it takes about 2.5 years.
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2009 2010 2011
Decision of Project
Detailed Design
Construction and Installation
Commissioning
6.2.8 Cost Estimates
The following costs of Rural Electrification by PV+PS are assumed in this case study.
(1) Construction Cost
Civil Work : ¥ 93,600,000 PV Facilities : ¥ 117,600,000 Hydro Facilities : ¥ 46,000,000 Pump Facilities : ¥ 36,000,000 Distribution Line : ¥ 16,000,000 Total : ¥ 309,200,000 US$ 2,688,696 Exchange Rate: ¥115/US$ 1.0
(2) Labour Cost for Operation and Maintenance
Labour Cost = US$ 200 × 5 = US$ 1,000 Annual Labour Cost = US$ 1,000 × 12 = US$ 12,000
(3) Annual Maintenance Cost
Annual maintenance costs are generally assumed as follows: ・ PV Facilities : 0.1% of equipment cost ・ Hydro Facilities : 0.1% of equipment cost ・ Distribution Facilities : 0.2% of facilities
Hence, Annual maintenance cost is US$ 2,014.
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(4) Annual Miscellaneous Cost
Annual Miscellaneous Cost = US$ 1,500
(5) Periodic Maintenance Costs
Periodic maintenance costs are generally assumed as follows: ・ PV Facilities : 5.0% of equipment cost in every 5 years ・ Hydro Facilities : 3.0% of equipment cost in every 10 years
Hence, Annual maintenance costs are; ・ PV Facilities : US$ 66,783 in every 5 years, and ・ Hydro Facilities : US$ 12,000 in every 10 years.
6.2.9 Unit Capacity and Unit Energy Costs
(1) Unit Capacity Cost
The unit capacity cost of Rural Electrification by PV+PS Project in this case study is US$ 20,682 per kW.
Unit Capacity Cost = Construction Cost / Plant Capacity = US$ 2,688,696 / 130 kW = US$ 20,682 per kW Initial Cost : US$ 2,688,696 PV Capacity : 130 kW
(2) Unit Energy Cost
Based on the assumed daily load pattern, annual energy to be generated is 178,708 kWh.
By using this annual energy and the cost estimates, the equalised unit energy cost is US$ 2.13 per kWh when the discount rate applies to 12% for this study and the unit energy cost is US$ 0.89 per kWh as shown in “Table 6-1 Unit Energy Cost including Initial Cost (PV+PS)”.
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Table 6-1 Unit Energy Cost including Initial Cost (PV+PS) Discount Rate Annual Initial Cost Labor Cost Annual O/M Misc. Cost Periodic Cost Total Discounted Discounted Year 12% Energy (kWh) ($) ($) Cost ($) ($) ($) ($) Energy (kWh) Cost ($) 0 0 2,688,696 2,688,696 1 0 2,688,696 1 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.892857143 159,561 13,852 2 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.797193878 142,465 12,368 3 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.711780248 127,201 11,042 4 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.635518078 113,572 9,859 5 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 12,000 27,514 0.567426856 101,404 15,612 6 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.506631121 90,539 7,860 7 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.452349215 80,839 7,018 8 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.403883228 72,177 6,266 9 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.360610025 64,444 5,594 10 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 78,783 94,297 0.321973237 57,539 30,361 11 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.287476104 51,374 4,460 12 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.256675093 45,870 3,982 13 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.229174190 40,955 3,555 14 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.204619813 36,567 3,174 15 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 12,000 27,514 0.182696261 32,649 5,027 16 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.163121662 29,151 2,531 17 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.145644341 26,028 2,260 18 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.130039590 23,239 2,017 19 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.116106777 20,749 1,801 20 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 78,783 94,297 0.103666765 18,526 9,775 Total 3,574,169 3,180,539 1,334,853 2,847,110 Unit Energy Equalized Unit 0.89 US$/kWh 2.13 US$/kWh Cost Energy Cost
If GoR and/or international institutions decide that this rural electrification project is to assist developments of family industries and/or small industries in this area for reducing poverty in accordance with DDP as a national flag project, the initial cost of the project could not be considered for the unit energy cost study. In this case, the equalised unit energy cost and the unit energy cost become US$ 0.12 per kWh and US$ 0.14 per kWh respectively as shown in “Table 6-2 Unit Energy Cost excluding Initial Cost (PV+PS)”.
Table 6-2 Unit Energy Cost excluding Initial Cost (PV+PS) Discount Rate Annual Initial Cost Labor Cost Annual O/M Misc. Cost Periodic Cost Total Discounted Discounted Year 12% Energy (kWh) ($) ($) Cost ($) ($) ($) ($) Energy (kWh) Cost ($) 0 00 0 1 0 0 1 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.892857143 159,561 13,852 2 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.797193878 142,465 12,368 3 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.711780248 127,201 11,042 4 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.635518078 113,572 9,859 5 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 12,000 27,514 0.567426856 101,404 15,612 6 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.506631121 90,539 7,860 7 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.452349215 80,839 7,018 8 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.403883228 72,177 6,266 9 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.360610025 64,444 5,594 10 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 78,783 94,297 0.321973237 57,539 30,361 11 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.287476104 51,374 4,460 12 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.256675093 45,870 3,982 13 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.229174190 40,955 3,555 14 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.204619813 36,567 3,174 15 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 12,000 27,514 0.182696261 32,649 5,027 16 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.163121662 29,151 2,531 17 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.145644341 26,028 2,260 18 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.130039590 23,239 2,017 19 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 15,514 0.116106777 20,749 1,801 20 178,708 12,000 2,014 1,500 78,783 94,297 0.103666765 18,526 9,775 Total 3,574,169 491,843 1,334,853 158,415 Unit Energy Equalized Unit 0.14 US$/kWh 0.12 US$/kWh Cost Energy Cost
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6.2.10 Electrification of Households by Solar Home System (SHS)
As described in “Chapter 6.2.3 Consumer’s Load Assumption”, the Ministry of Infrastructure has a plan to install 200 W (0.2 kW) photovoltaic power generation system (SHS) for households as rural electrifications.
Based on this plan, SHS in the same scale as PV with PV+PS is studied as follows: Load = 116W × 400 households = 46.4 kW
Intended time duration of electric power for households in the night time in SHS is 4 hours.
The following costs of households by SHS are assumed in this case study.
(1) Initial Cost
The following unit costs of SHS for one household are introduced for cost estimate, which were informed by the Ministry of Infrastructure during a discussion.
Photovoltaic Module : US$ 300 Electrical Apparatus : US$ 360 Battery : US$350 Transportation : US$1,000 Total : US$2,010 Exchange Rate: ¥115/US$ 1.0
Total Initial Cost = US$ 2,010 × 400 households = US$ 804,000
(2) Annual Maintenance Cost
Annual maintenance cost is assumed as follows: Annual Maintenance Cost = US$ 1.2 × 400 households = US$ 480
(3) Annual Miscellaneous Cost
Annual Miscellaneous Cost = US$ 1,000
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(4) Periodic Maintenance Costs
Periodic maintenance costs are generally assumed as follows: - Battery Cost : US$ 700 per 1 household including transportation cost - Replacement of Batteries: US$ 280,000 including transportation cost in every 5 years
(5) Unit Capacity and Unit Energy Costs
- Unit Capacity Cost The unit capacity cost of Solar Home System in this case study is US$ 10,050 per kW. Unit Capacity Cost = Facilities Cost / Plant Capacity = US$ 2,010 / 0.2 kW = US$ 10,050 per kW Initial Coast : US$ 2,010 PV Capacity : 0.2 kW
- Unit Energy Cost Annual energy to be generated is 67,744 kWh. Annual energy = 46.4 kW × 4 hours × 365 = 67,744 kWh By using this annual energy and the cost estimates, the equalised unit energy cost is calculated at US$ 2.26 per kWh when the discount rate of 12% is applied for this study and the unit energy cost at US$ 1.44 per kWh as shown in “Table 6-3 Unit Energy Cost including Initial Cost (SHS)”. If the initial cost is not considered, the equalised unit energy cost and the unit energy cost become US$ 0.67 per kWh and US$ 0.85 per kWh respectively as shown in “Table 6-4 Unit Energy Cost excluding Initial Cost (SHS)”.
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Table 6-3 Unit Energy Cost including Initial Cost (SHS)
Discount Rate Annual Initial Cost Labor Cost Annual O/M Misc. Cost Periodic Cost Total Discounted Discounted Year 12% Energy (kWh) ($) ($) Cost ($) ($) ($) ($) Energy (kWh) Cost ($) 0 0 804,000 804,000 1 0 804,000 1 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.892857143 60,486 1,321 2 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.797193878 54,005 1,180 3 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.711780248 48,219 1,053 4 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.635518078 43,053 941 5 67,744 0 480 1000 280000 281,480 0.567426856 38,440 159,719 6 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.506631121 34,321 750 7 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.452349215 30,644 669 8 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.403883228 27,361 598 9 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.360610025 24,429 534 10 67,744 0 480 1000 280000 281,480 0.321973237 21,812 90,629 11 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.287476104 19,475 425 12 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.256675093 17,388 380 13 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.22917419 15,525 339 14 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.204619813 13,862 303 15 67,744 0 480 1000 280000 281,480 0.182696261 12,377 51,425 16 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.163121662 11,051 241 17 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.145644341 9,867 216 18 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.13003959 8,809 192 19 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.116106777 7,866 172 20 67,744 0 480 1,000 280,000 281,480 0.103666765 7,023 29,180 Total 1,354,880 1,953,600 506,010 1,144,268 Unit Energy Equalized 1.44 US$/kWh 2.26 US$/kWh Cost Energy Cost
Table 6-4 Unit Energy Cost excluding Initial Cost (SHS)
Discount Rate Annual Initial Cost Labor Cost Annual O/M Misc. Cost Periodic Cost Total Discounted Discounted Year 12% Energy (kWh) ($) ($) Cost ($) ($) ($) ($) Energy (kWh) Cost ($) 0 00 0 1 0 0 1 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.892857143 60,486 1,321 2 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.797193878 54,005 1,180 3 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.711780248 48,219 1,053 4 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.635518078 43,053 941 5 67,744 0 480 1000 280000 281,480 0.567426856 38,440 159,719 6 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.506631121 34,321 750 7 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.452349215 30,644 669 8 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.403883228 27,361 598 9 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.360610025 24,429 534 10 67,744 0 480 1000 280000 281,480 0.321973237 21,812 90,629 11 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.287476104 19,475 425 12 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.256675093 17,388 380 13 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.22917419 15,525 339 14 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.204619813 13,862 303 15 67,744 0 480 1000 280000 281,480 0.182696261 12,377 51,425 16 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.163121662 11,051 241 17 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.145644341 9,867 216 18 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.13003959 8,809 192 19 67,744 0 480 1000 1,480 0.116106777 7,866 172 20 67,744 0 480 1,000 280,000 281,480 0.103666765 7,023 29,180 Total 1,354,880 1,149,600 506,010 340,268 Unit Energy Equalized Unit 0.85 US$/kWh 0.67 US$/kWh Cost Energy Cost
6.2.11 Comparison of Unit Energy Cost
The equalised unit energy costs versus the annual generated energy of PV+PS and the Solar Home System (SHS) are simply compared with conditions that the scale (130 kW) of PV+PS facility and other costs are fixed and the scale of SHS facilities and other costs are variable depending on the annual generated energy.
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The result is shown in “Fig. 6-11 Comparison of Equalised Unit Energy Cost” below. And more than 170 MWh of the annual generated energy, the equalised unit cost of PV+PS is less than ones of SHS; its singular point is US$ 2.24 per kWh.
Comparison of Equalized Unit Energy Cost
7.00 )
6.00 PV+PS (130kW) 5.00
4.00
3.00 SHS
2.00
1.00 Equalized Unit Energy Cost ($/kWh
0.00 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 Annual Generated Energy (MWh)
Fig. 6-11 Comparison of Equalised Unit Energy Cost
6.2.12 Feasible Electric Tariff
According to ELECTROGAZ, present power tariffs are Rwf 105 per kWh (US¢ 19) for industries and Rwf 112 per kWh (US¢ 20) for other consumers.
In case the initial cost of the project is neglected as GoR and/or international institutions consider this rural electrification project is a national project for alleviation of poverty, the equalised unit energy cost become US$ 0.12 per kWh as shown in “Table 6-2 Unit Energy Cost excluding Initial Cost (PV+PS)”.
Taking into account the present electric tariffs, the minimum feasible electric tariff would be US$ 0.12 per kWh.
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CHAPTER 7 PROPOSED REINFORCEMENT OF TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LINES PROJECT
7.1 Requirement of Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines
Electrification of all areas in the country should ideally be achieved by reinforcements of national transmission and distribution lines so as to supply reliable and affordable electricity to the people.
The reinforcements of transmission and distribution lines are required to transmit 401.8 MW of generated power to consumers in 2025 according to the load forecast and the power supply plan described below and the transmission loss has to be reduced. These reinforcements of transmission and distribution lines are also to catch up this load forecast even if a transmission line will be constructed from the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station to Birembo Substation, Kigali through Kabarondo Substation, which will become the first national backbone transmission line in Rwanda.
In consideration of these requirements and the power trade and cooperation described below, the reinforcements of new transmission and distribution lines are suggested as the medium/long-term projects after the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project. These transmission lines will become portions of the national backbone transmission system.
7.2 Present Situation and Load Forecast
(1) Power Supply Plan
The energy supply in Rwanda is summarised based on Energy Policy for Rwanda October 2004 as follows: • Nyabarongo Power station : 27.5 MW • Rukarara III Power station : 9.2 MW • AKanyaru : 3.87 MW • Mukungwa 2: 2.2 MW • Rusumo Falls : 60 MW of which Rwanda has 20 MW • Rusizi III-RDC : 80 MW of which Rwanda has 27 MW • About 700 MW from methane Gas of Kivu Lake
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The development and rehabilitation programs are as follows:
a) Extension of the Power Station of Gatsata by the installation of 4.77 MW thermal plant
b) Installation of an additional capacity of 7.8 MW at Jabana
c) Rehabilitation of the turbine-generator set No.4 of Rusizi 1 to import up to 6 MW from SNEL
d) Rehabilitation of Mukungwa, Gihira and Gisenyi Hydropower Plants
e) Development of the following Power Plants taking into account the least cost option: ¾ 30 MW thermal power plant running on Methane Gas at Kibuye ¾ 30 MW thermal power plant running on Methane Gas at Gisenyi ¾ Nyabarongo hydroelectric power plant of 27.5 MW ¾ Rukarara hydroelectric power plant of 9.2 MW ¾ Emergency thermal power plant of 15 MW for the Kigali City
(2) Transmission Loss
According to ELECTROGAZ, the transmission losses are 22% of the technical loss and 8% of the commercial loss. This 22% of the technical loss is caused by insufficient transmission capacity of the transmission lines against required transmitting energy.
(3) Backbone Transmission Line
The Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station Construction Project was identified as a key project and as the best hydropower generation option for the socio- economic development of the sub-region formed by the Akagera basin.
This project comprises 2 major components: the construction of the hydropower station; and the construction of the high voltage lines which will transmit the electric power generated by the station to grids in Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania including rural electrifications. The power transmission lines concerned are: the Rusumo-Gitega (Burundi) line (200 km); the Rusumo- Birembo (Rwanda) line (150 km); and the Rusumo-Biharamulo (Tanzania) line (100 km). This plan is to transmit about 20 MW by each of the power transmission line above by year 2013 and the power is imported by Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania.
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This transmission line to be constructed from the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station to Birembo Substation through Kabarondo Substation will become the first national backbone transmission line in Rwanda.
(4) Power Trade and Cooperation
Cooperation between neighbouring countries in the region and international bodies is vital for development and economic growth for Rwanda. Rwanda is a member of various bodies in the region, including AU, NBI and soon a member of EAC.
AFREC has been initiated by AU to spear head energy cooperation among member states. The new EAC treaty envisions an improved and expanded trading environment by promotion of investment codes, proper regulation of the private sector and development of an East Africa Power Master Plan.
There is a challenge to maximize the potential gains from the regional and international energy trade and cooperation. Rwanda needs to attain a stronger and closer interaction between the energy planning processes with other countries in the region, notwithstanding limitations of resources to undertake Rwanda’s obligations in the regional and international bodies.
In this connection, the East African International Grid is planned as shown in “Fig 7-1 East African International Grid Plan30”.
(5) Load Forecast
According to "Volume 1, Rassemblement des données économiques et Prévision de la Demande (Economic Data and Demand Forecast) of Programme AEPE: Etude d’actualisation du Plan Directeur d’électricité (AEPE Program: Survey of Actualisation of Leading Plan of Electricity), October 2007", the demand forecasts of electricity in 2015 and 2025 are 122.2 MW and 401.8 MW as shown in “Table 7-1 Load Forecast at Each Substation” below.
30 Source: Grid Development Plan 2007-2022 (Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Limited)
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Table 7-1 Load Forecast at Each Substation Load Factor 0.59 0.56 0.54 0.51 0.49 Year 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 Substation MW MW MW MW MW Rusizi 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Rusizi 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mururu 1 2.8 3.7 6.0 10.3 15.7 Mururu 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Kibogora 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Gihira 1.4 1.8 4.0 8.6 14.3 Gisenyi 0.5 0.6 1.3 2.9 4.8 Poid Lourds 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Karongi 0.4 0.6 1.8 5.0 8.8 Kilinda 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 Rulindo 0.8 1.2 3.8 9.5 16.6 Ntaruka 0.3 0.8 1.9 4.7 8.1 Mukungwa 1.2 2.2 5.9 14.2 24.3 Musha 0.7 2.1 4.8 10.9 18.4 Rwinkwavu 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.1 1.9 Kabarondo 0.4 2.1 4.5 9.7 16.0 Kigoma 1.6 9.0 22.9 40.9 62.7 Jabana 6.4 9.3 18.0 35.4 57.5 Gikondo 13.5 19.9 39.3 77.7 126.7 Gasogi 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.8 Camp Belge 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mashyuza 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mont Kigali 1.7 3.5 7.1 14.8 24.4 Total 31.9 57.2 122.2 246.6 401.8
(Source: Volume 1, Rassemblement des données économiques et Prévision de la Demande)
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Fig. 7-1 East African International Grid Plan (Source: Grid Development Plan 2007-2022 (Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Limited))
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7.3 Study on Transmission Line Reinforcement Plan
As suggested in “Chapter 7.1 Requirement of Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines”, the reinforcements with new transmission and distribution lines are suggested as the medium/long-term projects after the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project. However, it would need several decades and enormous amount of investments as experienced in Japan and the western countries.
In consideration of several decades and enormous amount of investments needed for this kind of projects, we suggest implementing the reinforcements of transmission backbone system dividing into several phases as shown in “Fig. 7-2 Reinforcement Plan of Transmission Lines”.
Reinforcement Plan of Transmission Lines
Rusumo High Voltagr Line (Phase - 1)
Planed High Voltage Line (Phase - 2)
Planed High Voltage Line (Phase - 3)
Substation
Kigali
Rusumo Falls PS
Vers Bubanza
Fig. 7-2 Reinforcement Plan of Transmission Lines
- Rusumo High Voltage (Phase-1) This is the transmission line project related to Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station and it will be completed in 2013.
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- Planned High Voltage (Phase-2) This transmission line will be constructed from Birembo Substation, Kigali City to Mururu Substation via Kigoma and Karongi Substations as new reinforcement project after the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project.
- Planned High Voltage (Phase-3) These transmission lines will be expanded to north, south and west areas in consideration of international electricity trades.
It is required that the reinforcement plans; Phase-2 and Phase-3 described above are prioritised by carrying out a feasibility study.
7.3.1 Reinforcement of Distribution Lines
According to the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station Project Plan, the rural electricity distribution network along the transmission line corridors and connection of consumers by 2013 will be established. The distribution line rehabilitation in Kigali City is also included.
In consideration of this project, reinforcement and rehabilitation of distribution lines in the Kigali metropolitan area, the Eastern Province and the rural electricity distribution network along the transmission lines described above are suggested when the transmission line reinforcement projects are carried out.
7.3.2 Proposed Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines Project
We recommend GoR to request assistance from the Government of Japan for implementation of this Reinforcement of the Transmission and Distribution Lines Project in order to reinforce the existing national power grid after completion of the transmission and distribution line project related to the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project.
The Project will allow for the reduction of the electricity supply deficit and increased access by the population to electricity. It will contribute to the improvement of the quality of electricity supply and strengthen trade in electrical energy in the sub-region.
The proposed Project will consist of two stages; feasibility study and construction stage.
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Feasibility Study Stage
(1) Objective of Feasibility Study
The objectives of the study are to examine: (i) prioritisation and selection of the transmission line in the transmission line reinforcement plan, (ii) the technical, financial, economic, social and environmental feasibility of selected transmission line; and (ii) the feasibility of a rural electrification program in the Kigali metropolitan area and along the corridors of the power transmission lines as described in “Chapter 7.3.1 Reinforcement of Distribution Lines”.
(2) Study Description
The feasibility study will be implemented dividing into the following four steps.
a) The first step (prefeasibility) will consist in examining briefly the feasibility of the envisaged power transmission lines; special attention will be paid to the examination of the possibilities of electrifying localities situated along the line corridors in cooperation with the transmission line related to the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project. Several options of line layout and voltage level will be considered before the selection of layouts and voltage level to be studied in detail. The envisaged power transmission lines will be prioritised and selected;
b) The second step (feasibility) will be devoted to technical, economic, financial, social and environmental feasibility studies of selected power transmission line and rural electrification. The results of the prefeasibility studies will be improved and the technical choices will be optimised, and special attention will be paid to the consideration of opportunities for the productive use of electricity and development of income-generating activities in rural areas;
c) The third step will be the review and summary of the Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIA);
d) The fourth step will concern the final design studies and the preparation of bidding documents for the construction of power transmission lines and for rural electrification.
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Construction Stage
The high voltage transmission line as a part of the transmission backbone system and distribution line to be selected in the feasibility study will be constructed after the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project.
7.3.3 Project Schedule
The following implementation schedule is recommended.
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Application for Project
Feasibility Study Detailed Design and Bid Documents Bidding
Construction and Installation
Commissioning ◆
7.3.4 Project Investment Plan
The cost estimates of this project could briefly be as follows:
Table 7-2 Cost Estimates of Project (US$ Million) Item Total Cost Part A: Feasibility Study 1.0 Part B: Infrastructure a. Transmission Lines 35.0 b. Substations 19.0 c. Distribution Lines 5.0 d. Consultancy Services 3.8 Total 63.8
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These costs are only illustrated for explanation. Detailed costs should be estimated during the feasibility study.
7.3.5 Financial Plan
The following financial plan for this project is recommended for project realisation.
(1) GoR requests AfDB for a loan to help finance the project.
(2) GoR requests the Government of Japan that he supports the construction of transmission lines and substations to promote stable electric supply through the importation of electricity from neighbouring countries. The cost of the feasibility study is also included in this request.
In this context, JBIC could provide parallel co-financing for a Japanese yen loan for the project. GoR will fund local project costs.
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CHAPTER 8 CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND PROJECT ORGANISATION
8.1 Current Situations
As discussed in previous sections, and also proven in many preceding rural electrification projects elsewhere, a min-grid rural electrification project is very difficult to be administered as a project that is funded only by user charges to be collected. There will necessarily be a large portion, or even all, of initial investment cost funded as a grant. Especially for this, it is very important that the project is providing not only alternative energy to rural communities, but also opportunities for institutional and economic development only which would justify the provision of grants in such project. To realize this, members of local communities should be actively involved in the project, not only as users of electricity and recipients of foreign aid, but also as those who are willing to cooperate and participate in operation and maintenance of project facilities, to learn the rules of more market-oriented economy, and to embrace the shared picture of future local community.
In this section, present state of parties relevant to rural electrification in Eastern Province is described. Description here is based on the limited observation made during the site visits and may not be precise pictures of people concerned. Parties identified are;
- Local Communities (as users of electricity and base for forming local management body) - Local Administrations (District Office and Sector Office as overseer and promoter) - ELECTROGAZ
Local Communities
The Study Team did not make direct contact with local communities in this study mission. Therefore, it is difficult to determine the local communities’ capacities for organised management activities such as power station maintenance and electricity charge collection duties. However, judging from orderly behaviours of people, which are reflected in cleanliness of townscapes for example, communities and selected members of organisation will possibly be able to handle these tasks with and only with adequate outside support that
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raises general understanding of electricity use and payment for it, and trains selected members in technical knowledge and in handy skills.
Local Administrations
A district office is the centre of local administration. Many officers seem to be well educated, and have been sent from the capital, regardless of their home towns. Most of high rank officers we met are still young, early thirties on average, and may lack sufficient experiences in infrastructure development projects. But today, they draw up their DDP in an attempt to obtain support from central government and international aid agencies and will soon be involved in many and different kinds of infrastructure projects, where they will gain experiences. Considering the future replication of electrification projects, and their possible geographical dispersion, a district office is the only candidate for, and will have to be, the body that oversees and institutionally supports rural electrification projects.
A Sector office seems to consist of only a few persons and it is not practical to expect specific contribution from Sector office to the project. However, it would be natural that a Sector office plays some important roles in occasions such as coordination of activities, expression of project evaluation from user-side, and resolution of conflict of personal interests.
ELECTROGAZ
As discussed in “Chapter 3.2 Organisation, Law and Regulations”, a utility company, ELECTROGAZ, will be separated and privatised. Privatisation will possibly improve the efficiency of the future electric company, but at the same time, it will make the company difficult to wholly undertake costly rural electrification projects and their operations. However, their experiences and capacities as a utility operator, particularly in customer relations including charge collection, are valuable and not to be found anywhere else. Therefore, future electric company must be involved in some way in the operation of the project.
8.2 Organisations for Electrification Projects and Their Capacity Development
Based on the observation and discussion above, planning of organisations for the rural electrification project is discussed here. The points to be considered are as follows.
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- involvement of members of local communities in operation and management - necessity of introductive guidance to users and education to more actively involved members in the community - necessity of properly trained technicians for power plant operation and maintenance - participation of power utility company for the provision of its managerial knowledge
(1) Organisation and Functions
Rural Electrification Cooperative
Electrification cooperative (tentatively named, can be “a committee” as well) is set up with members from the community to be electrified. The cooperative stands as an electricity user representative, undertakes daily non-technical maintenance of facilities, convenes community meetings for orientation and basic education in electricity use, and possibly assumes responsibility of collecting periodical electricity charges from users. The members of cooperative should be continuously in contact with aid agency, power station operators, Sector and district offices, etc., for the advices provided, communicating user-side issues, and so on.
Power Station Operators
To operate power station requires personnel specifically trained in electrical and mechanical engineering fields. These specialists will be resident in the community, stationed at the power plant on shifts. Candidates for the task may be found in graduates from TCT. This possibility will be discussed later.
Electric Company
This is what will be a private electric utility company after ELECTROGAZ is separated and privatised. Operation knowledge and management capacity in the field of electric utility is concentrated in this company which will be a best source of necessary knowledge and capacity to be relied upon. Problem anticipated is under what commercial conditions the company can undertake any duties required by project, when the company is put in market oriented environment. Tasks to be contracted to the electric company will have to be very limited, if possible at all. It is safer to assume here that the electric company’s function in the project is only a provision of advices and periodical technical and managerial supports to the electrification cooperative and power
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plant operators.
District and Sector Offices
As discussed above, the involvement of Sector office is inherently limited for its capacity in the number of staff and knowledge in electrification. However, in occasions such as coordination of activities, expression of project evaluation from user-side, and resolution of conflict of personal interests, it will be able to take irreplaceable position in the community. It is convenient that a member of Sector office is included in the electrification cooperative.
District office is located far away from the community and it is difficult to assume the direct involvement of the district office in daily affairs of electrification. It should rather take position from rural development policy making and execution. The project is expected to have various impacts on the community, not only the provision of alternative energy, therefore, the evaluation of the project, its cooperation with Sector office and electrification cooperative for the improvement of the project, the efforts of replicating the project somewhere else in the district, and above all, rural economic development by effectively using electricity, will be the main tasks of the district office. Needless to say, the district office should be the main counterpart, together with the national ministry of infrastructure, of the aid agency that provides funds and technical, managerial supports to the project and the community.
(2) Orientation and Education
At the beginning of the project implementation, the community members have to be consulted and informed of the project. Their requirements should be heard and their knowledge about electricity usage have to be assessed. Using this occasion in the earliest stage, members of rural electrification cooperative should be selected from those who are with better endowment in managerial capacity. Members of cooperative are given training for what tasks to be expected of the cooperative, how to lead other community members in receiving utility service, what obligations electricity users will be under, etc. Further orientation and guidance to the community members about electricity use should be planned with the cooperative members. From the experiences in rural electrification in other countries, it is crucial for the success of the project that the users and cooperative members understand the importance of payment for the electricity use and its periodical collection.
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In this process, representatives from Sector and district offices should participate either as a member of the cooperative or as an observer.
Power plant operators should be given formal technical education before they are placed in position. This requires time and institutional support. Therefore, cooperated efforts with educational institutions, such as TCT is desirable, which is discussed in the following section.
8.3 Cooperation and Coordination with JICA Tumba College of Technology
(1) Background
TCT was established by Ministry of Education in 2007. Rwanda has been suffering from the shortage of experienced and practical engineers necessary for the realisation of knowledge intensive society/economy. The objective of this institute is, therefore, to provide TVET to produce human capital that would be a foundation to science/technology capacity of the society. Considering the policy priority of the country, the institute will soon start 3 courses of A1 category in information technology, communication technology and alternative energy.
As this is unprecedented efforts on the side of GoR, JICA has just started 5-year program of supporting in the management, curriculum building and reinforcement of teaching staff of the school. It is planned that affiliate school be opened in the capital city, Kigali.
The Study Team had a long discussion with JICA Team in charge of TCT support program, and understood that TCT is in need of occasions where its students, particularly those in alternative energy course, can experience the practical field of their future job, and also of job opportunity after graduation.
(2) Cooperation and Mutual Benefit
Rural electrification project requires national staff with formal education in electric, mechanical and civil engineering in planning, designing, implementing and operating electricity generation and service as a counterpart to the international cooperation agency and as executing organisation members. At the same time, this planning, designing and implementing process of the project can provide irreplaceable occasions for those who are studying in the field. Particularly, if the rural electrification project is supported and started by JICA
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while JICA’s TCT support program are still ongoing, coordinating activities and interexchange of students/staff can be done much easier and smoother, more effectively and efficiently, than otherwise. This is the obvious and immediate benefit of cooperation between 2 JICA projects.
After the commissioning of the power plant, there will be a need of several resident operators. This will provide job opportunities for those who have been trained and graduated from TCT.
Rural electrification of the same kind will have to be replicated somewhere else. Or, rural electrification with PV or mini hydro will surely be implemented as well. And the experience of studying in the actual implementation process of this project will become valuable assets for the graduates of the course.
8.4 Summary
Foregoing discussion on the organisation and functions of related parties can be schematically explained in the figure below.
managerial support
Region Elec. Company
technical support District Office financial JICA Power Plant support institutional support maintenance education & tech transfer
Electrification Cooperative Operators TCT human resource payment orientation, monitoring & evaluation
Users
Fig. 8-1 Organisation after the Completion of Power Plant and Transmission/Distribution System
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Table 8-1 Related Parties, their Function and Capacity Development Needs in Rural Electrification Project Parties Members Function CD needs Local Community Local community members - Users of electricity, How to use electricity efficiently and effectively, How to manage payments - Entrepreneurs of community (rural) businesses How to set up and run small scale businesses Electrification Selected members from local - Representative of users, How to disseminate knowledge about electricity usage Cooperative community - Convening community meetings How to deal with users and their problems - Daily maintenance of power plant & facilities, How to communicate with relevant parties - Electricity charge collection How to manage collection, accounting, revenue Power Plant Operators Specialists, formally educated - Power plant and facilities operation, 24hr shifts Responsibility of running utility services electricians (possibly from TCT graduates)
8 -7 Local Administration Sector Office officers - Institutional support to the community How to communicate with relevant parties District Office officers - Planning and promoting economic development How to find electrification needs in rural areas, using electricity, How to promote rural businesses, - Arranging coordination between relevant parties, - Planning and implementing replications of rural electrification in the District Electric Company Staff members from - Providing technical and managerial assistance (after ELECTROGAZ) Marketing and Engineering Dept’s, or regional office JICA JICA officers and - To provide funds for pilot project, None project/program staff - To provide capacity development, - monitoring of operation and systemic flaws TCT and its Students and graduates - Trainees at planning, designing, construction phases Coordination with rural electrification projects/ students/graduates of the project implementation, programs, - Providing human resources to project implementation Adequately train students and power plant operations
CHAPTER 9 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION
9.1 Environment Policy and Strategies31
Main environmental issues in Rwanda are deforestation, soil erosion, over grazing, misuse of wetlands and poor waste management associated with negative impacts on human health. The situation worsened after the 1994 genocide, which left the country in shambles. Returnees from out side of the country were in need of settlements, leading to clearing of forests and wetlands in search for agricultural land and shelter. Such high human needs resulted to environmental degradation.
GoR has led to the reform of environmental policies, legal and institutional framework aimed at safeguarding environment, an indication of Government concern to awaken the minds of the public to the dangers of environmental degradation. This will promote and enhance the well being of the present and future generations.
Rwanda still faces the problem of poverty and this pollutes the environment, creating the environmental stress in a different way. Those who are poor and hungry will often destroy their immediate environment in order to survive. They will cut down forests, their livestock will overgraze grasslands, they will crowd in congested cities and they will over use marginal land. The country’s economy depends on agriculture as a result creating a need to safeguard land resources. When the land is degraded the economy is adversely affected.
Realizing the magnitude of the problem, GoR has got on reforming strong environmental policy, legal and institutional instruments to safeguard the present and future generation to ensure sustainable development basing on Vision 2020.
31 Source: Rwanda Development Gateway (http://www.rwandagateway.org)
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9.2 Environmental Activities in Rwanda
(1) Afforestation
Rwanda’s most pressing environmental problem is deforestation, due to increased demand for household fuel wood as a source of energy by both rural population and low income earners in town.
Other commercial products like charcoal, timber, poles, medicine, food stuffs have greatly led to deforestation. Forests were also cleared for agricultural land and shelter for returnees, after the 1994 genocide in the country. This has had negative impacts on the environment such as; soil erosion, climatic changes and loss of biodiversity.
Environmentalists responded to tree planting as a necessary call to restore the lost forest cover in Rwanda. Selected seedlings are planted in all provinces of the country by environmentalists in collaboration with all stakeholders and local community. Forests like Gishwati in the North, Akagera in the East are the most affected by deforestation.
(2) Garbage Collection
Rapid development and increasing urbanisation with population growth has resulted in increased solid waste generation. Domestic activities and places near hospitals, market and industries generate a lot of wastes, which is a menace to the environment
Especially in Kigali City have no capacity to deal with the problem. To ensure the protection of environment and of human healthy, GoR banned totally the importation and use of polythene bags.
Collecting, sorting and transporting garbage to dumpsites by environmentalists has availed the population with household cooking materials, fertilizers and employment opportunities especially women in Kigali City. The strategy has given Rwanda and in particular Kigali City a clean face. Despite the 1994 genocide, Rwanda has embarked on developmental activities which need to be accompanied with comprehensive environmental policies if sustainable development is to be achieved.
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(3) Wetland Management
A total area of 165,000 ha is covered by wetlands and of these; 92,000 ha are used for agriculture in Rwanda. This is mainly because 90% of the country’s population is still engaged in agricultural activities. People practice cultivation of various crops such as rice, yams, vegetables, sugar canes among others.
Wetlands degradation in Rwanda is closely linked to development in urban centres countrywide. Many construction activities being carried out require inputs from wetlands such bricks and sand, a factor that has led to over exploitation of the resource.
High demand for brick making coupled with sand-mining due to current development construction in the country has led to misuse of wetlands in the country. Such commercial gains are practiced by people to make ends meet regardless of environmental degradation
Most garages within Kigali City are operating near wetlands and this has a negative impact delivered from hazardous oils and other unwanted metals that find their way in the wetlands. The activity is mainly around Nyabarongo wetland.
The situation of poor garbage disposal is a threat to wetlands though with introduction of skips in Kigali City, sanitation seems to have improved. Various women associations now dealing with garbage collection have established a dumpsite which processes garbage into fertilizers and household cooking materials. To them garbage is now a profit making activity.
Lack of coordination between the Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning Authorities has led to degradation of various wetlands in and around the city. To this effect, concerned authorities have established clear linkage to enable smooth running of policies regarding wetland conservation in the country.
Conservation of wetlands in Rwanda is vital to protect and promote wetlands normal functions. To this effect, 4 major complex wetlands in Rwanda have been considered to be critical ecosystems thus an integration program management of such wetlands is a priority.
These include; • Kamiranzovu wetland in Cyangugu province, • Rwerumugesera wetland in Kibungo province,
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• Rugeziruhondo wetland shared by Ruhengeri and Byumba provinces, and • Akagera wetland shared by Kibungo and Umutara provinces.
In response to this request of Rwanda, the Integrated Management of Critical Ecosystem Project was implemented from 2005 with the assistance of the World Bank and GEF.
9.3 Environmental Laws and Framework
The environmental policy emphasizes the improved management of environment, both at central and local levels, in accordance with the current policy of decentralisation and good governance of the country.
The policy sets out institution and legal reforms with a view to providing the country with a harmonious framework of coordination of Sector and cross cutting policies.
The national policy contains strategic options with regard to population, land and management and utilisation of natural resources and other socio-economic sectors, as well as actions for the implementation of the policy.
Rwanda has embarked on reforming laws concerning environment and issued Organic Law No 04/2005 of 08/04/2005 Determining the Modalities of Protection, Conservation and Promotion of Environment in Rwanda. This Organic Law sets out the general legal framework for environmental protection and management in Rwanda. It also constitutes environment as a one of the priority concerns of GoR.
Under the fundamental principle on national environmental protection policy develops national strategies, plans and programs, aiming at ensuring the conservation and use of sustainable environmental resources. The Organic Law gives right to every natural or legal person in Rwanda to live in a healthy and balanced environment. They also have the obligation to contribute individually or collectively to safeguard country’s natural, historical and socio-cultural heritage.
The framework of the law on the protection and management of natural resources centres on avoiding and reducing the disastrous consequences on environment. It measures result from an environmental evaluation of policies,
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programs and projects, aimed at preventing the consequences of such activities. The principle of sustainability of environment and equity among generation emphasizes human beings at the core of sustainable development. They therefore, have a right to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. They must so as to equitably meet the needs of the present and future generation.
To execute environmental policy, the Rwanda Environmental Management Authority (REMA) was established in 2006 by the Law No. 16/2006 of 03/04/2006 Determining the Organisation, Functioning and Responsibilities of Rwanda Environment Management Authority. The main responsibilities of REMA are as follows; a. to implement Government environmental policy as well as the decisions taken by the Board of Directors; b. to advise the Government on policies, strategies and legislation related to the management of the environment as well as implement related international conventions, at any time it is necessary; c. to take stock and conduct comprehensive supervision of environmental management; d. to examine and approve environmental impact assessment reports at any level of socio-economic activities undertaken by any person; e. to undertake research, investigations, studies and other relevant activities in the field of environment and disseminate the findings; f. to ensure adequate monitoring and evaluate development programmes; g. to participate in the preparation of action plans and strategies; h. to render advice and technical support to entities engaged in natural resources management and environmental conservation; i. to prepare publish and disseminate manuals relating to principles and laws regarding environmental management or reduce environmental degradation.
REMA is composed of the following three organizations; a. The Board of Directors b. The Directorate; c. The National Consultative Committee
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The Board of Directors appointed by the order of the Prime Minister are responsible for managing, auditing, and advising REMA. At least 30% of the members of the Board shall be women. The Director of REMA is entrusted with executive power and coordinates and directs the daily activities of REMA. The Director is also appointed by the order of the Prime Minister. The National Consultative Committee is composed of the members of the Board, Ministers of related Ministries, NGO, provincial Mayors and any person who may be invited at the time it is considered necessary. The National Consultative meeting is convened and chaired by the Prime Minister, which is held once in two years and at any time it is considered necessary.
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CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
10.1 Conclusions
Since the end of the civil war in 1994, GoR has made serious efforts to recover economic and social infrastructures in the country. As a result, Rwanda is now viewed as the most secure place in the region. Internationally, it is hailed as the bedrock of good governance. GDP growth rate has been strong, averaging 6 % over the last 5 years up to 2005.
At present, however, 64% of the population are still under poverty line and over 80% of the poor people live in rural area. Electrification ratio in the rural area is said less than 1% while it is 6% in the country. Rural electrification is planned by means of expansion of transmission lines, mini-grids with micro hydropower and isolated PV power system. Expansion of transmission lines is facing financial problem and has not progressed. Development of mini-grids with micro hydropower is ongoing only in the western area of the country because of amplitude hydropower potential in the area. According to MININFRA, 20 hydropower stations are under construction and some of them will be power sources of such mini-grids. SHS has recently been introduced for electrification at the limited and important points on a priority basis such as Sector offices, trading centres (public markets), health centres, schools aiming at improvement of public services in the rural areas.
On the other hand, as a government policy, Imidugudu which is a rural grouped settlement program is in progress since many people returned from outside of the country in the late 1990s. It is said that Eastern Province is one of the area where Imidugudu is advanced and 90% of resettlement has been completed in the province. Regarding this Imidugudu, we think that there would be some possibility in future that land scale for each household will become smaller as the population will have increased more in the limited resettled area. Assuming a population growth rate of 2.7%, population becomes double after 25 years. It may result in reduction of earning of each family unless land productivities are enriched and/or employments outside agriculture are created.
Conclusions of our preliminary study are summarised as below;
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(1) Promotion of Rural Electrification with View of Regional Development
Some regions have to wait for electrification by the transmission expansion for a long period. The people of such regions might remain under low living standard without electricity and regional disparities will be enlarged. To avoid such case, the rural electrification by off-grid is necessary. Jarama Cell in our study area: the south of Eastern Province is one of such regions. According to DDP and interview with Deputy Mayer of the district, there is no electrification plan in Jarama Cell.
The villages of Irarire and Jarama of Jarama Cell which are selected as most favourable site for our proposed mini-grid system are one of typical settlement (Imidugudu) villages and main livelihood is agriculture with a traditional style. Once electrification is completed, the villagers can enjoy lighting in the night time, moreover get opportunity to make family business and improve productivity of their agriculture. Small industries such as food processing are also possible. Through this electrification, economy of the areas and surrounding area will become active and employment will be increased as aimed in Vision 2020.
We conclude that rural electrification should be planned with the view of regional development.
(2) Necessity of Reinforcement of the National Transmission Line System with View of National Power Development
Expansion of national transmission lines would be an ordinary way to electrify the country in order to equally supply reliable and affordable electricity to the nation. However, it takes a long time to complete it and needs enormous amount of investments. Therefore, from now on expansion of the national transmission lines should be planned and constructed step by step based on a blueprint to be drawn by GoR.
Capacity of the existing transmission lines seems to be insufficient judging from the technical loss of 22% and present power supply condition. Fortunately, the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project is promising now and new transmission line from Rusumo to Kigali is also planned. This transmission line will be a backbone of the national grid in the east. After completion of this backbone transmission line, the existing main lines should be reinforced with construction of other new lines to be expanded toward the north, west and south as shown in
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“Fig. 7-2 Reinforcement Plan of Transmission Lines”.
Rural electrification in the country will be boosted along these backbone transmission lines. Moreover, the new lines will contribute to power trade with the neighbouring countries.
We conclude that reinforcement of the existing national grid is necessary after connection of new transmission line from Rusumo and its blueprint should be drawn as soon as possible.
10.2 Recommendations
We would like to propose the following two electrification projects as a short-term project and a middle/long-term project. The first one is a pilot project for rural electrification in the south of Eastern Province. The second one is a transmission line project for reinforcement of transmission and distribution lines in the country. We recommend to request Japanese Government to support implementation of the both projects.
10.2.1 Short-term Project: Rural Electrification by PV+PS
As discussed in Chapter 6, this proposed power generation system is applicable even in the area where less hydropower potential exists. Experience and knowledge to be obtained in this pilot project must be spread in the country. This is the objective of this pilot project. From this viewpoint, as discussed in Chapter 8, coordination and cooperation with related organisations such as local community, electrification cooperative, local administration (Sector and District offices), ELECTROGAZ, TCT are essential as well as capacity development for sustainable operation and maintenance.
The main scope of works for this project are the following; i) to survey socio-economic conditions in the Jarama Cell, ii) to investigate topographic and geological conditions for power facilities, iii) to prepare basic and detailed design, iv) to study on economic and financial viability, v) to procure materials and construct power station, and vi) to conduct capacity development for operation and maintenance.
The project period and the cost are estimated to be approximately 2.5 years and
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US$ 2.7 million.
10.2.2 Medium/long-term Project: Feasibility Study of Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines
As discussed in “Chapter 7 Proposed Reinforcement of Transmission and Distribution Lines”, this Feasibility Study would be an initial phase of construction of backbone transmission lines in future to reinforce the present national grid and electrify rural areas widely after the completion of the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project. The plan of the reinforcement of transmission and distribution lines to be drawn in the feasibility study will be beneficial to power development of the country in future.
The scopes of the Feasibility Study are;
(i) to examine prioritisation and selection of the transmission line among the candidate lines shown in “Fig. 7-2 Reinforcement Plan of Transmission Lines”,
(ii) to examine the technical, financial, economic, social and environmental feasibility of selected transmission line.
(iii) to examine the feasibility of a rural electrification program in the Kigali metropolitan area and along the corridors of the power transmission lines, and
(iv) to prepare detailed design and preparation of bidding documents.
The period and the cost of this Feasibility Study are estimated to be approximately 2 years and US$ 1 million.
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Appendix 1 Schedule for Field Investigation
Schedule for Field Investigation (October 5, 2007 to October 24, 27) No. Date Schedule Stay 1 10/05 Fri Departure, Kansai International Air Port [23:55] by QR0821 Fly Overnight 2 10/06 Sat Transit at Doha[9:25] Arrival at Nairobi [14:35] by QR0532 Nairobi 3 10/07 Sun Preparation for field survey Nairobi 4 10/08 Mon Meeting(16:00) JICA Nairobi Office Mr. Tsuji Nairobi Meeting(17:00) JICA Nairobi Office Mr. Tokuhashi, Mr. Nakazawa 5 10/09 Tue Nairobi [8:00] to Kigali [10:35] by KQ474 Kigali 6 10/10 Wed Courtesy call (09:00) MININFRA Mr. Vincent GATWABUYEGE Kigali Meeting (10:00) JICA Rwanda Office Mr. Narita Meeting (11:00) MININFRA, Department of Renewable Energy Mr. Gabriel Meeting (14:00) MINITERRE, Buro de Changement Climatique Mr. Uramutse 7 10/11 Tue Meeting (09:00) MININFRA, arrangement for site trip Kigali Meeting (11:00) MININFRA Meteorological Service Mr. John Ntaganda 8 10/12 Fri Meeting (11:00) AfDB Rwanda Office Kigali Meeting (14:00) MININFRA 9 10/13 Sat Meeting (14:00) with JICA TCT Mr. Okano, Mr Nishiyama Kigali Reserved for additional data collection, etc 10 10/14 Sun Kigali 11 10/15 Mon leaving Kigali 08:00 Kigali Meeting (10:00)Eastern Provincial Office / Mr. Valens NTEZIREMBO Rwamangana Administrative Office Meeting (13:30) Kayonza District Mayor Site Visit Kayonza Mr. Damas R. MUHORORO 12 10/16 Tue leaving Kigali 07:00 Kigali Meeting (10:00) Ngoma District Mayor Mr. François NIYOTWAGIRA Site Visit Ngoma Meeting (14:00) Kirehe District Mayor Mr. Patrick NKUNZUMWAMI Site Visit, Kirehe 13 10/17 Wed Additional Site Visit, off highway area Kigali 14 10/18 Thu Conference for Power Sector at MININFRA (09:00) Kigali Discussion with MININFRA Consultants (15:00) Mr Naceur Hammami, Mr. Gerald Hendriksen/GTZ 15 10/19 Fri Meeting (10:00) JICA Rwanda Mr. Narita Kigali Meeting (14:00) MININFRA Mr. Vincent, Mr. Naceur 16 10/20 Sat Meeting (14:00) with ELECTROGAZ Kigali 17 10/21 Sun Kigali [14:15] to Nairobi [16:40] by KQ473 Nairobi 18 10/22 Mon Meeting(14:00) Embassy of Japan Ms Otsuka Nairobi 19 10/23 Tue Nairobi [17:00] to Doha [22:00] by QR533 Fly Overnight 20 10/24 Wed Doha [23:45] to KANSAI [15:55] by QR820
Appendix 2 Interviewed Persons List
Interviewed Persons List Interview No. Name Belonging date Senior Regional Adviser, Regional Support Office for 1 Mr. Kazuto Tsuji 2007.10.08 Eastern and Southern Africa, JICA
2 Mr. Kazuhiko Tokuhashi Deputy Resident Representative, JICA Kenya Office 2007.10.08
3 Mr. Toshiyuki Nakazawa Deputy Resident Representative, JICA Kenya Office 2007.10.08
2007.10.10 4 Mr. Eita Narita Deputy Resident Representative, JICA Rwanda Office 2007.10.19 2007.10.10 5 Mr. GATWABUYEGE Vincent Secretary General, Ministry of Infrastructure 2007.10.19 Associate Expert, Human Development Department, 6 Mr. Takasei Okano 2007.10.13 Technical and Higher Education Team, JICA Deputy Manager, International Division, System Science 7 Mr. Ryuichi Nishiyama 2007.10.13 Consultants Inc.
8 Mr. Charles GASANA Executive Secretary, Eastern Province 2007.10.15
9 Mr. Filik Mulindauyabo Infrastructure Adviser, Eastern Province 2007.10.15
10 Mr. John Baptiste NDANYULWE Deputy Mayer, Rwamagana District 2007.10.15
11 Mr. Emmanuel SEBAREME Director of Infrastructure, Kayonza District 2007.10.15
12 Mr. Eric HABIYAKARE Engineer in charge of Roads and Buildings, Kayonza District 2007.10.15
AG. Director of Planning & Economic Development of 13 Mr. Charles NTAGERUKA 2007.10.15 Infrastructure, Kayonza District Deputy Mayor in charge of Finance and Economic 14 Mr. Julius KANSIIME KAGARAMA 2007.10.16 Development, Ngoma District
15 Mr. Alphonse SEBUDANDI Director of Infrastructure, Kirehe District 2007.10.16
Senior Adviser, National Energy Development Agency, 16 Mr. Gerard Hendriksen 2007.10.18 GTZ, Ministry of Infrastructure Adviser on rural energy of the Minister of State in charge of 2007.10.18 17 Mr. Naceur HAMMAMI Energy and Communications, Ministry of Infrastructure 2007.10.19
18 Ms Yumi Otsuka Head of Great Lakes Division, Embassy of Japan in Kenya 2007.10.22
Appendix 3 Collected Data List
Collected Data List
Date of Date of Acquired No. Name of data Publisher Acquired from Note issue acquisition by
Ministry of National Finance and 1 Rwanda Vision 2020 2007.07 Website 2007.08 Soft development Economic strategy Planning
Ministry of Economic Development and Poverty National Finance and 2 Reduction Strategy 2008-2012, Draft 2007.08 JICA 2007.10.10 Copy development Economic (310807) strategy Planning
Energy Sector Costing to meet Rwanda’s UNDP-UNEP Economic Development and Poverty (Daniel Theuri, Energy Sector 3 Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) and the 2007.04.16 MININFRA 2007.10.13 Soft Energy strategy East Africa Community Regional Access Specialist) to Modern Energy Services Strategy
Energy Policy for Rwanda Ministry of Energy Sector 4 2004.10 MININFRA 2007.10.13 Soft Final Report Infrastructure policy
Preparation of Gas Legislation and Inception report on 5 Pierce Atwood 2007.03.01 MININFRA 2007.10.13 Soft Regulations - Inception Report - gas regulations
Inception report on Preparation of Electricity Legislation and 6 Pierce Atwood 2007.03.01 MININFRA 2007.10.13 Soft electricity Regulations - Inception Report - regulations
Present situation of Sekata Aimble/ 7 Renewable Energy in Rwanda MININFRA 2007.10.13 Soft renewable energy MININFRA development
Programme AEPE: Etude d’actualisation d Plan Directeur d’électricité Phase 1 report of 8 Rapport Phase 1 FICHTNER 2007.10 ELECTROGAZ 2007.10.20 Copy Electricity Master Volume 1 : Rassemblement des données Plan économiques et Prévision de la Demande
Bureau du District Plan de Developpement du District de District de Kayonza District 9 2007.06 2007.10.15 Soft development plan Kayonza 2008-2012 Kayonza en Office in Kayonza 2012
District Plan de Developpement Quiquennal du District de Kirehe District 10 2007.06 2007.10.16 Soft development plan (2008-2012) Kirehe Office in Kirehe
District Plan de Developpement du District de du District de Nagoma District 11 2007.06 2007.10.16 Soft development plan Ngoma (2008-2012) Nagoma Office in Nagoma
District Plan de Developpement du District de du District de Rwamagana 12 2007.07 2007.10.15 Soft development plan Rwamagana (2008-2012) Rwamagana District Office in Rwamagana
Proposal for the Award of an ADF Grant Description of T/L of UA 2.57 Million to Finance the Study Infrastructure 13 2006.09 AfDB Website Website project of Rusumo on Power Transmission Line related to Department Falls Hydropower the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Station Date of Date of Acquired No. Name of data Publisher Acquired from Note issue acquisition by
Ministry of Initial National Communication under Lands, MINITERE, National 14 the United Nations Framework Environment, 2005.06 Bureau of 2007.10.10 Copy environment Convention on Climate Change Forestry, Water Criminate Change and Mines Department of Governance, Poverty Reduction Strategy Support 15 Economic and 2007.06 AfDB Website Soft Program Phase II Financial Reforms Statistics Selected Statistics on African Countries Division, 2006 16 Development AfDB Website Soft Statistic data Volume XXV Statistiques Choisies sur Research les pays africains Department
ルワンダ共和国 東部県・再生可能エネルギーを用いた地方電化 マスタープラン予備調査
和文要約
1. 背景と目的
ルワンダ共和国（以下ルワンダと称す）は 20 年間の長期開発戦略を示した Vision2020 を 2000 年に発表し、2020 年までに中間所得の国へ転換する目標を掲 げた。その目標値として、2020 年に一人当たりの年間所得を今日の US$290 か ら US$900 へ増加させ、貧困人口を 64%から 30%まで減少させ、そして、49 歳 からの 55 歳へ平均寿命を延ばすこととした。電化に関しては、電力供給が成長 の原動力であるとルワンダ政府は認識し、現在の人口当たりの電化率を 6%から 2010 年に 25%そして 2010 年に 35%にすることを目標に掲げた。
2007 年に策定されたルワンダの経済開発貧困削減戦略 (EDPRS)によると、現在 の人口の 64%はいまだに貧困ライン以下にあり、貧困者の 90%以上が農村部に 居住している。また、農村部の電化率は 1%以下といわれている。現在、60%以 上の世帯が所有する耕作地は 0.7ha 以下であり 25%以上の世帯の耕作地は 0.2ha 以下である。土地が不足しているために、世帯当たりの所有耕作地が小さくな っている。EDPRS によると、この土地不足が貧困の主要原因としている。政府 は、集団再定住化事業 (Imidugudu) を推進し、2020 年までに人口の 70%以上を 集団再定住化事業により地方に居住させ、残りの 30%を都市に居住させる政策 をとっている。この集団再定住化事業 (Imidugudu) は、他国からの帰還者の生 活基盤となる土地や住居および十分なインフラを効率的に整備する目的で 1990 年代後半から始まった。
ルワンダは、戦後復興、平和の定着、経済発展、貧困削減に向け、ドナーの協 力の下で鋭意これらに取り組んでいる。これらの目標達成には電力の安定供給 による①生活の向上、②経済基盤の整備、③教育・医療の向上、④農村開発が 不可欠である。
以上の背景を踏まえて、本調査では、わが国の援助重点地域であり、ルワンダ の中でも貧困層の割合が高く、電力事情の悪い東部県南部（旧 Kibungo 県）地 域において、農村部の電化による生活基盤の安定と向上、産業インフラの基盤 整備が誘引するコミュニイティーの発展・振興を目的とした、地方電化計画予 備調査を実施し、地方電化計画を策定し提言する。土地生産性の向上や非農業 部門での雇用を創造しないと、将来、農村部の人口増加により居住世帯が保有 する耕作地が小さくなり世帯の収入が減少する可能性がある。この状況を考慮 して地方電化計画を立案する必要がると考える。
なお、調査対象地域は、旧 Kibungo 県地域に該当する東部県南部の Rwamagana 郡、Kayonza 郡、 Ngoma 郡 および Kirehe 郡の 4 郡とした。
- 1 - 2. 社会経済状況
2.1 ルワンダの概要
ルワンダは、「千の丘の土地」と呼ばれ、東アフリカ地域に位置する国土面積 26,338 平方キロメートルの内陸国である。国の西部はコンゴ民主共和国に接し、 北部はウガンダ、東部はタンザニア、そして南部はブルンジに接している。し たがって、この内陸の小国は、これらを結ぶ地域貿易の中心に位置している。
ルワンダは温帯気候に属し、2 月から 4 月および 11 月から 1 月と雨季が 2 回あ る。平均気温は摂氏 16 度から 26 度であり北部の Virunga 山脈では霜および雪 も見られる。温暖な気候のほか、草で覆われた高原、穏やかに起伏する風光明 媚な丘を伴った国として知られている。マウンテン・ゴリラ等の豊富な野性生 物が生息しており、Akagera 国立自然公園、ルスモ滝などの観光スポットがあ る。
ルワンダは 1962 年 7 月 1 日にベルギーから独立した。1990 年に Bahutsi 族主導 のルワンダ愛国戦線 (RPF) と当時の Bahutu 族政権の間で内戦が勃発し、1994 年 4～6 月に発生した Bahutu 族過激派による大虐殺の後、RPF は全土を制圧し、 同年 7 月に政権を樹立した。RPF は、Bahutsi 族主導の政権を維持しつつも、出 身部族を示す ID カードを廃止し、Bahutu 族出身の閣僚の任命などを行い、国 民和解、民主化のための努力を行っている。2003 年 8 月 25 日には内戦後初と なる大統領選挙が実施され、Kagame 大統領が選出された。経済・社会インフラ の著しい発展のみならず、観光産業でも重要な地位を築いた。その結果、現在 では地域で最も治安が良い国と見られ、また、汚職はごくわずかであり犯罪率 も低く国際的にもグッドガバナンス模範国としての評価が高い。
人口の約 90%は零細農業従事者である。2006 年の統計によると農業の DGP に 占める割合は 40%であり、工業 22%、サービス産業は 39%である。主な輸出産 物は茶やコーヒーであり他の農産物は除虫菊と花がある。限られた工業製品は 国内消費用であり、主な生産品はセメント、飲料水、石鹸、靴、プラスチック 製品、服、タバコ等である。主な鉱物資源は、錫、レアメタル、Kivu 湖の天然 ガスが知られている。
2.2 開発計画
ルワンダの 2 つの重要な開発計画「Vision 2020」および「経済開発貧困削減戦 略 (EDPRS)」の概要を以下に述べる。
- 2 - Vision 2020
Vision 2020 は、ルワンダの将来を明瞭に定義するため、ルワンダ国民の合意に 基づいて策定された。Vision 2020 の重要な狙いは、一人当たりの年間平均所得 を今日の US$290 から US$900 へ増加させ、ルワンダを中間所得の国にすること である。この狙いを達成するため、少なくとも 7%の経済成長率が必要であり、 このために民間の投資を促進し、また、貯蓄率を高め、自給自足農業社会から 知識集約型社会へ転換する必要がある。さらに、これらにより対外援助の依存 度を削減していく努力が求められる。一方、Vision 2020 は、近代的でしかり団 結した国、誇りの持てる国、安定した政権を持つ国、人種差別のない国を目指 している。これを達成するため、Vision 2020 では、①グッドガバナンス、②人 的資源開発と知識ベースの経済の発展、③インフラ開発（電力インフラを含む）、 ④競争社会を前提とした民間セクターが牽引する経済、⑤生産物の価値の向上 および市場指向型農業を挙げている。
経済開発貧困削減戦略 (EDPRS)
ルワンダの経済開発貧困削減戦略 (EDPRS) は、次の 5 ヵ年（2008 年から 2012 年）計画の目的、優先事項および主要な政策を定め、政府、開発パートナー、 民間部門および市民社会にロードマップを提供し、ルワンダがどこへ行くのか、 そこに到達するには何を行う必要があるか、どのような方法が必要か、必要な 費用は幾らか、そしてどのように資金が提供されるかを示している。経済開発 貧困削減戦略 (EDPRS) は、Vision 2020、ルワンダ政府 7 年プログラム、ミレア ム開発目標の国家長期開発目標を達成するための中期計画を示している。戦略 的優先事項は 3 つの柱で具体化されている。すなわち、①雇用の創出と輸出の 持続的発展、②Vision 2020 と③ガバナンスである。とりわけ雇用創出と輸出振 興は最優先の課題である。特に人口の 2/3 は 25 歳未満の若者であるため、彼ら の雇用促進が重点実施事項である。Vision 2020 は、貧困削減を促進するために 地方開発プログラムを総括した計画であり、現在、最貧困地域 30 箇所を選定し 重点的に貧困削減のためのプログラムを実施している。ガバナンスは、政治的 腐敗が許容されないルワンダを構築しようとするものである。また、財産権を 確立し、効率的な行政、透明性、説明責任等の概念を 5 年間で確立しようとし ている。
2.3 対外援助状況
インフラ関連の多国間援助および二国間援助の場合、インフラ省 (MININFRA) を始め財務経済企画省 (MINECOFIN)、土地環境森林水鉱物省 (MINITERE) お よび商工投資促進観光協同組合省 (MINICOM) がカウンターパートとなる。
- 3 - 現在、世界銀行(WB)、国連工業開発機関 (UNIDO)、国連開発計画( UNDP)、ア フリカ開発銀行 (AfDB)、欧州連合 (EU)、ベルギー技術協力機関 (BTC)、地球 環境基金 (GEF)、オランダ政府、ドイツ復興金融公庫 (KfW)、ドイツ連邦政府 技術協力機関 (GTZ)等の国際機関および政府機関がインフラ関連の多国間援助 および二国間援助を行っている。
3. エネルギーセクターの概要
3.1 エネルギーセクターの概要
ルワンダは、人口の増加と経済成長に伴い、過去 10 年に亘りエネルギー需要が 急増している。現在、バイオマス起源のエネルギー利用（薪、炭、農産残渣物） が約 95%を占めており、薪や炭は農村の収入源ともなっている。国民の収入に 大幅な変化がない限り、当面の間この状況が続くものと考えられる。この他の 国産エネルギーとして、水力、泥炭、メタンガス、太陽光、風力、地熱等があ るが、未だ十分に開発されていない。水力ポテンシャルは 300 MW、地 熱 は 170 MWから 320 MW、キブ湖のメタンガスは 550 億m3と推定されている。現在、 電力のピーク需要のうち 15 MWは輸入される化石燃料に依存している。一方、 メタンガス、泥炭、風力による発電が検討されている。しかし、これらの再生 可能エネルギーの利用は限定的であるが、高効率コンロ、木炭生産技術の向上、 太陽熱、バイオガス、小規模太陽光発電の利用促進が図られている。
3.2 組織と制度
(1) インフラ省
電力セクターを管轄するインフラ省 (MININFRA) は、下図に示す組織とな っている。
- 4 -
Fig.1 Organisational Chart of MININFRA
インフラ省は、インフラ大臣、エネルギー・情報技術大臣のもと、運輸、 エネルギー、情報技術、都市と住宅、気象の 5 つのセクターを管轄してい る。
電力（及びガス）事業者である ELECTROGAZ の事業域外の電力供給に関 連する行政組織として、National Agency of Development of the Energy、 Farming Electrification Agency の設立準備が進んでいる。
(2) ELECTROGAZと民営化1,2
ELECTROGAZ は、電力と水道事業を行う国営企業として植民地時代に設 立された。独立の際にブルンジ、ルワンダ両国の別組織に分割され、1976 年にルワンダの電力事業、水道事業の独占権が与えられた。1999 年には独 占権が排除され、以後電力、水道セクターは市場に開放されている。ルワ ンダ政府は、経済・社会改革、経済開発の一環として、国営事業の民営化 を進めており (Privatisation and Public Investment Law，April 11, 1996)、 ELECTROGAZ も分割民営化されることが、2000 年 5 月に閣議決定されて いる。
1 Source: Rwanda Economy Website (http://www.gov.rw/economy/index.htm) 2 ELECTROGAZ Company Profile (http://www.electrogaz.co.rw)
- 5 - 3.3 エネルギー需要
エネルギー需要の大半は住宅における消費であり、薪への依存度が高い状況で ある。薪の使用は、室内の空気の汚染と健康への影響、火災の危険性などの問 題があり、また収集に時間を費やすなどの問題がある。農村では、多くの場合、 明かりには灯油を使用している。太陽光やバイオガス、LPG の使用等は、促進 策にもかかわらず普及していない。
製造業やサービス業は、主要な電力、石油製品の消費者である。しかし、そこ でのエネルギー利用は、古い機器の使用や稼働率の低さから必ずしも効率的に 行われておらず、効率向上の余地が充分残されている。
ルワンダの経済は基本的に農業により成り立っており、全雇用の 80%以上を生 み出している。また、食糧生産、製造業への原料供給源としての役割は大きい。 農業において必要とされる動力の 90%は人力によるものであり、残り 10%が石 油、電力他により供給されている。農産物の乾燥や加工には、伝統的に薪が使 用されている。
農業の生産性向上と農産物の付加価値向上に向けた効率的なエネルギー利用と 製品の普及のためには、民間事業者と適切な市場の存在が重要である。
3.4 エネルギー供給
Energy Policy for Rwanda October 2004 によると、国内の未利用エネルギー資源 は、1,400 MWに上る。その内の国内の水力候補地点は、Nyabarongo (27.5 MW), Rukarara (9.0 MW), Mukungwa II (3.0 MW) 等である。国境に建設される水力の場 合、その国境に接する国々で均等にエネルギーを配分する。このような例とし て、Rusumo Falls (60 MW), Ruzizi 500 MW（うち 72 MWは既開発）等がある。 また、小水力は 30 MW、メタンガス発電では最大 700 MW、地熱発電では 340 MW のポテンシャルが賦存する。これに加え、1 億 5 千 2 百万トンと推定される泥 炭、5.5 kWh/m2/dayの太陽光、年 230 万トン分の薪などがある。
一方、現在の国内の電力設備の設備容量は、以下の表に示すように、電力を輸 入している Ruzizi I と II を含め 57MW である。
- 6 - Table 1 ルワンダの電力設備一覧表 Plant Date of Installed Designed/ Production/ installation (year) Capacity(MW) Contracted(GWh) Import 2003(GWh) HYDROPOWER Mukungwa 1982 12.45 48 71.1 Ntaruka 1959 (Rehab. 1997) 11.25 22 35.2 Gihira 1985 1.84 10 6.6 Gisenyi 1969 (Rehab.1980) 1.2 5.5 4.8 26.74 THERMAL Gatsata Diesel(original) 1970 2 5.6 - Jabana 2004 7.8 34.2 - Gatsata 2 2004 4.77 21.7 - 14.57 IMPORTS Ruzizi I (DRC) 1958 3.5 0 2.5 Rusizi II (DRC,Rw, Bur) 1989 (2001.03.03) 12 66.6 116.1 15.5 TOTAL GENERATION CAPACITY 56.81 213.6 236.3
1993 年からの発電電力量を下図に示す。この図によると、内戦終結後は急速に 発電量が増加している。2004 年から 2006 年は、渇水により水力発電量（薄紫 色）が不足し、全体の発電量に影響している。電力の輸入量（薄い青色）は、 水力の供給量不足を毎年補っており、年々増加する気配を示している。しかし、 ここ 2 年は、圧倒的にディーゼルに依存している。ルワンダ国内の水力による 発電量が 2004 年か 250 ら減っていること、
また、輸入電源も水 200 力であることから、 ここ 2 年間は渇水に 150 よりディーゼルに 100 依存せざるをえな GWh かったと考えられ 50 る。電力の輸入価格 0 は、ディーゼル発電
機の発電原価 3 より -50 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
安い価格 (26 Local Production by Hydro Local Production by Diesel cent/kWh) で購入で Export Import きるからである。 Fig. 2 Power Generation (Source; ELECTROGAZ)
3 民間経営のディーゼル発電所からの購入価格は、33.5 cent/kWh (MININFRA)。
- 7 - 3.5 電力の国際流通と協力
ルワンダの経済発展においては、電力開発における隣国との協力関係が極めて 重要である。周辺国との連携組織としては、African Union (AU), the Nile River Basin Initiative (NBI), Africa Energy Commission (AFREC) が挙げられる。電力の 国際流通から得られる利益を最大化するためにも、より早い段階から隣国との 緊密で強力な連携を進めることが必要である。
3.6 電力料金
電力需要が急速に伸びるなか渇水が継続し、水力の出力が低下したため、 ELECTROGAZ はディーゼル発電（民間発電事業者からの購入含む）でなんと か需要に対応している。これにより上昇した発電コストをまかなうため、 ELECTROGAZ は相次いで電力料金の値上げを行っている。 ¾ Rwf 42.00 1997－2004 ¾ Rwf 81.26 2005 ¾ Rwf 112.00 (20 ¢/kWh) December 2005 より （以上、18%の VAT 含まず）
3.7 電力セクターの課題
(1) 電化率の向上
MINECOFIN が公表している EDPRS, 2008-2012 (Draft 310807) August 2007 によると、Vision 2020 として掲げる電化率の目標は以下のとおりであり、 現時点で既に進捗状況が厳しいことが明らかとなっている。
Vision 2020 Target Progress to Vision 2000 2006 2010 Target 2020 Target 2020 Target 2.0% 4.3% 25% 35% Red
目標達成に近づくためには、電源の開発と送配電線の延長が国土全域にお いて緊急に必要である。
(2) 電力セクターの課題
電力セクターのかかえる課題としては、以下の事項が指摘される。 －電力事業の赤字体質 －需要に対する国内発電キャパシティの不足 －送電その他のロスの大きさ －一般世帯の支払能力の低さと相対的に高い産業向け料金
- 8 - 4. 再生可能エネルギー
4.1 再生可能エネルギーの賦存量
ルワンダの国土では、平均日射量が 4 ~ 5.5 kWh/m2/dayあり、太陽光発電、太陽 熱利用、水道ポンプ、穀物の乾燥、太陽光調理システム等に必要なエネルギー が十分に得られる。特に太陽光発電は、学校、研究機関、ICT、医療施設、家庭、 商業施設等の電力供給源として有効に活用しうるものである。
国内にはマイクロ水力のポテンシャルが多数あるものと考えられ、地方部の独 立した電源として期待される。1994 年以前に開発された 21 か所のうち、9 か所 は地方の電力供給に貢献していたが、内戦中に破壊され、現在稼働しているの は 4 か所のみである。
風速のデータが不足しているためポテンシャルの評価は難しいが、風力発電所 はこれまで 2 か所に設置された実績がある。
家庭においては伝統的にバイオマス燃料を利用してきているほか、工場等でも 熱源として使用されている。しかし、現在の消費量は国土の供給可能量を上回 っていることが明らかとなっており、森林破壊などへの影響が懸念される。ま た、効率の悪い利用方法が問題でもあるため、政府を中心に対策が進められつ つあるが、効果は限定的である。
国内の地熱資源は 3 か所に集中している。いずれも熱水の温度は 150℃で、地 熱発電のポテンシャルは発電電力換算で合計 170～340 MW とされている。
4.2 再生可能エネルギー利用上の課題
ルワンダにおける再生可能エネルギー利用上の課題として、主要なものを挙げ ると以下のようなものがある。 ¾ 研究機関や専門家、研究開発予算の不足 ¾ 信頼できるデータの不足 ¾ 国際援助機関におけるエネルギーセクターへの支援プライオリティの低さ ¾ 現状のバイオマス燃料利用における効率の低さ ¾ 高額な輸入機器 ¾ エネルギー節約意識や情報の不足
- 9 - 4.3 再生可能エネルギー利用にかかるアクションプラン／プログラム
地方電化
Millennium Development Goals の達成に向けて、地方部の電化を進め、自給自足 的農業から別の収入を生む活動を地方で展開する必要がある。
そのための行動計画として、次のような事項が挙げられる。 ¾ 風力、地熱、マイクロ水力等の再生可能エネルギーの評価 ¾ 地方電化マスタープランの策定 ¾ ソフトローン等の供与による電化プロジェクトの実施
家屋でのエネルギー消費
薪を主としたバイオマスの収支バランスがマイナスであることを鑑み、木炭の 効率的な生産、利用を推進する。 ¾ 23,000 haにおよぶパピルスの繁茂を利用した木炭の製造 ¾ 公共施設における木炭を代替するエネルギーへの転換 ¾ 改良木炭コンロの普及 ¾ 高効率炭化窯の普及 ¾ 森林の管理
5. 東部県の地方電化の必要性と電化方法の検討
5.1 東部県の概要4
2006 年、東部県は、旧キブンゴ県の Kigali Ngali, Umutara, Kibungo の大部分を 引継ぎ、Bugesera, Gatsibo, Kayonza, Kirehe, Ngoma, Nyagatare, Rwamagana の 7 郡 (district) から構成され誕生した。
東部県の主要産業は農業であり、また、牧畜を営んでいる農家もある。ミルク の生産などの乳業発祥の地でもある。県下に広がる湿地帯ではトウモロコシ、 野菜、豆類、コショウ、パイナップル、そして、米を生産している。県で力を 入れているのは、コーヒー豆、パッションフルーツ、イチゴ、バニラの生産で ある。この地の農業の大きな問題は干ばつである。
4 Source: Rwanda Development Gateway (http://www.rwandagateway.org)
- 10 - 5.2 4郡の開発計画
東部県南部の 4 郡 (Kayonza, Kirehe, Ngoma, Rwamagana) は旧キブンゴ県に属し ていた。この旧キブンゴ県は、我が国の重点支援地域で、国内でも貧困率がや や高く、電化率が低い地域である。経済発展のため、また、生活水準の向上の ため、電化を強く望んでいる地域である。
各郡の電化計画は、保健所、学校、公設市場、地方の役所等の重要地点の太陽 光発電によるピンポイントの電化を目指している。4 郡のうち 3 郡には、国道 沿いに 70 kV もしくは 30 kV の送電線が通っているが、この送電線からの電気 の供給は、主要な町に限定されている。送電線の下に学校、公設市場があって も、変圧器が購入できないため電化ができていないとのことである。ルワンダ の東南部の端であり、送電線の通っていない Kirehe 郡の DDP では、 ERECTROGAZ による送電線延伸の計画を入れているが、郡の担当者によると 財政的な裏付けは、まだ無いとのことであった。
5.3 電化候補地点の現地踏査
本調査団は、2007 年 10 月 15 日から 17 日の 3 日間に亘り、東部県の南部 4 郡 Kayonza, Kirehe, Ngoma, Rwamagana を回り、各郡庁でインタビューにより現状 と計画を聴取すると共に、調査団が提案する地方電化方法実施のための候補地 点を調査した。各郡庁は、Vision 2020 の実現のための郡の開発計画 (District Development Plan: DDP) を作成したばかりで、これらを入手することができた。
地方電化候補地点については、各郡庁の推薦するサイトを聴取し、その中から 3 候補地点を踏査した。以下は、踏査結果の概要である。
(1) Fumbwe Sector, Rwamagana District
新設された Fumbwe 郡事務所 (Sector Office) は、北に Muhazi 湖を望む標 高約 1,700m の丘陵地帯にある。この事務所から西に Imidugudu により集め られた部落、学校が続く。郡の総世帯数は 3,645 世帯とのことである。Muhazi 湖面の標高は 1,443m である。下池を Muhazi 湖とし、落差の取れる部落下 の丘陵の中腹で上池を作れば、我々の提案する PV+PS による発電が可能で ある。
(2) Irarire 村と Jarama 村, Jarama Sector, Ngoma District
この村は Imidugudu によりできた典型的な集落で、1,400 余りの世帯及び公
- 11 - 共施設が丘の頂上の非常に狭い範囲に集合して建設されている。この丘の 麓には、Lake Karaba があり、部落との間に約 100m の標高差がある。この 湖の水位は一年中安定しており、これを下池に使えば、部落に近い位置で PV+PS による発電が可能である。また、家屋が密に集合しているので mini-grid による配電が効率よくできる。
(3) Kamugarura 村, Kirehe District
部落は、Kirehe の町に比較的近く、Rusumo 滝へ行く国道の北側にある。部 落は低くなだらかな丘陵地帯にあり、広い範囲に広がっているようである が、地形図が無いので家屋の分布状況は不明である。小川が広い谷間に流 れている。この小川は、流れているかどうか判らないほど流量が小さい。 低くなだらかな丘は、落差の問題と長くなる水圧管路の問題を予想させる。
6. 揚水式発電を組合せた太陽光発電システムによる地方電化 (PV+PS)
6.1 地方電化
国家の電化は、送電線の拡充によってなされるのが理想であるが、多額な資金 が必要であるので、この送電線網が整備される長い期間の間、無電化のまま取 り残される地域が出てくるであろう。このような地域では、送電線から分離し た独立電源、たとえば各家屋に単独で設置する太陽光発電 (SHS)、もしくは、 再生可能エネルギーを電源とした独立系統による電化が必要である。再生可能 エネルギーを電源とした独立系統であれば、地域の電化により生活水準を向上 させるばかりではなく、Vision 2020 で目指しているように、昼間の余剰電力を 使って、家内工業や小規模工業を興し、農業以外の雇用に繋げることが可能と なる。ルワンダは日射量が 4 ~ 5.5kW/m2/dayあり、どこでも太陽光発電や太陽熱 の利用が可能である。一方、東部県南部の河川は丘陵地帯を流れる小規模なも のが多く、降雨量の少ない乾燥地帯ということもあり水量は少ない。なだらか な丘陵地帯を流れる河川の勾配はゆるく、水力発電のための落差は取りにくい。 しかし、東部に広がるAkagera川の氾濫原には大小の湖が広く分布している。
このような地形的、気象的な特徴を持つルワンダ東部にふさわしい発電方式と して、太陽光発電と水力発電を組合せた PV+PS 発電システムによる独立系統を 紹介する。この発電システムは、太陽光発電、揚水設備、小規模水力発電から なる。日中は太陽光発電により下池から水を揚水し上池に水を貯める。夜間は、 この水を使って、ピーク時間帯に、小水力発電所で発電をするというものであ る。また、昼間の需要に対しては太陽光から直接需要家に電力を供給すること
- 12 - ができる。下池には大小散在する湖を利用すればよい。一般に部落は小高い丘 の上にあるので、水力発電のための落差に利用できる。したがって、水力ポテ ンシャルの少ない東部県でも導入が可能である。太陽光によって生じるエネル ギーを水の位置エネルギーに置き換えるため、バッテリーが不要である。この ため、取替え後のバッテリーの処理にともなう環境問題がないという大きな特 徴を持つ。
東部県の特徴のひとつに、集村化政策 (Imidugudu) が進んでいるということが 挙げられる。この政策は 1990 年代後半に国外から大量に流入した帰還民の収容 のため実施され、公共設備、給水、道路などのインフラを効率良く供給するた め、現在も継続している。しかし今後人口が増え、ますます集村化が進めば、 各世帯の土地は小さくなり収入が減ってしまうことが考えられる。これを避け るため、施肥・灌漑等で土地の生産性を上げるか、他の収入源を見出さなけれ ばならない。この点、電化のために独立系統を構築すれば、昼間の余剰電力を 使って、以下に示す土地生産性の向上策、村落内での家内工業、小規模工業な どの企業化による雇用機会の創出が可能である。
(1) 土地生産性の向上策
• 脱穀などの電動機の利用 • 電動機による揚水によって換金作物；野菜、果物を丘の上で栽培 • 電動機による揚水によって部落内の飲料水を供給
(2) 雇用機会の創出
• 溶接、電動のこぎり等を使った工場 • コーヒー豆の洗浄工場 • ひまわり、ソルガム等の植物油の精製 • ハム、ソーセージ、チーズ等の畜産品の生産 • 蜂蜜の製品化
6.1.1 PV+PSによる地方電化概要
(1) 事業実施サイト
第 5 章記載の現地調査結果を比較し、最適な事業実施サイトとして、東部県 Ngoma 郡(Sector)Jarame 地域(District)を選定した。Jarama 地域 (District) は Karaba 湖北岸の約 100m の丘の上にある。Jarama 地域 (District) は 44 村、5 地区および 国連難民高等弁務官事務所が援助した難民定住地を含む。Jarama 地域事務所によ ると人口は約 1,400 人で 4,378 世帯がある。既設公共設備は、Ngoma 郡事務所、
- 13 - 医療センター、小学校、商取引所（市場）等がある。
(2) PV+PS システム概要
太陽光発電システムは、昼間、ポンプシステムで水を揚水し PV エネルギ ーを位置エネルギーとして蓄え、夜間、電力が必要な場合は、揚水式発電 システムを利用して何時でも発電することができる。このため、電力を蓄 電するバッテリーが不要なため環境に優しい太陽光発電システムである。 水力発電所は、揚水ポンプシステムを含み Karaba 湖を下部池として利用で きるように Karaba 湖湖畔に建設し、上部池は丘の上部に建設する。太陽光 発電設備は丘の上部に建設し 15kV 配電線により水力発電設備、ポンプ設 備および需要家を接続する。
設備概要は下記のとおり。 a) 一般需要家電力 ： 46.4kW(400 軒)、給田時間 4 時間 b) 公共施設/小規模需要家電力 ： 15.0kW c) 夜間需要電力 ： 11.5kW d) 太陽光発電出力 ： 130kW e) 水力発電出力 ： 70kW f) ポンプ設備 ： 60kW g) 主変圧器 ： 130kVA、0.4/15kV h) 土木設備 発電所 上部池 ペンストック 取水口設備 i) 配電線 ： 15kV
(3) プロジェクトスケジュール
2009 2010 2011
事業決定
詳細設計
建設/機器据付
竣工
(4) 事業費用見積り
- 14 - 土木工事 ： ¥ 93,600,000 PV 設備 ： ¥ 117,600,000 水力設備 ： ¥ 46,000,000 ポンプ設備 ： ¥ 36,000,000 配電線 ： ¥ 16,000,000 合計 ： ¥ 309,200,000 US$ 2,688,696 為替レート: ¥115/US$ 1.0
6.1.2 経済性検討
(1) PV+PS の kW 単価および kWh 単価
太陽光発電出力 130kW および建設費 US$2,688,696 より、PV+PS のｋW 単価 は US$20,682/kW になる。発電パターンを考慮すると年間可能発生電力量は 178,798kWh となり、PV+PS の均等化ｋWh 単価は US$2.13/kWh（12%割引）とな る。ただし、発電所を無償資金協力のような無償資金で建設する場合は、ルワン ダ側の初期投資が不要となるため、均等化 kWh 単価は US$0.12/kWh（12%割引） となる。
(2) SHS の kW 単価および kWh 単価
同様の手法により SHS の kW 単価および kWh 単価を計算すると、US$2,010/kW および US$2.26/kWh となる。また、無償資金で据付ける場合は、バッテリーの取 り換え費用を含め、US$0.67/kWh（12%割引）となる。
(3) kWh 単価比較
PV+PS の出力や費用を一定として、年間発生電力量により変動する SHS 設備 費用や保守費用を年間発生電力に比例して変動させ PV+PS と SHS の kWh 単価を 比較した。年間発生電力が 170,000kWh 以下だと SHS の kWh 単価が安く、 170,000kWh 以上だと PV+PS の kWh 単価が安くなった。その特異点は US$2.24/kWh である。
6.1.3 電力料金
ELECTROGAZ によると、2007 年の工業用電力料金は Rfw105/kWh (¢19/kWh) であり一般需要家の電力料金は Rfw112/kWh (¢20/kWh)である。ルワンダ政府や 国際協力機関がこの PV+PS による地方電化が家内工業や小規模工業開発に寄 与すると判断すれば kWh 単価を検討するとき建設単価を考慮する必要がない と考える。この場合の kWh 単価は US$0.12/kWh である。上述の 2007 年の電力
- 15 - 料金およびこの US$0.12/kWh の両者を配慮すると PV+PS 発電所による最小電 力料金は US$0.12/kWh と考える。
7. 送配電線増強計画
7.1 現状と需要想定
(1) 電源の計画
ルワンダのエネルギー供給は 2004 年 10 月のエネルギー政策によると下記 の電源開発が計画されている。
• Nyabarongo 水力発電プロジェクト ： 27.5MW • Rukarara III 水力発電所プロジェクト ： 9.2MW • AKanyaru 水力発電所プロジェクト ： 3.87MW • Mukungwa2 水力発電所プロジェクト ：2.2 MW • Rusumo 滝水力発電所プロジェクト ： ルワンダは 60MW 内 20MW • Rusizi III-RDC 水力発電所プロジェクト ： ルワンダは 80MW 内 27 MW • Kibuye メタンガス発電プロジェクト ：30MW • Gisenyi メタンガス発電プロジェクト ：30MW • Kivu 湖全体のメタンガス発電プロジェクトとして約 700 MW を計画中
(2) 送電ロス
ELECTROGAZ よると、送電ロスは 22%の技術的ロスおよび 8%の商業的ロ スであり、この 22%の技術的ロスは送電線の送電容量が送電電力量に対し て十分でないため発生する熱損失によってよって引き起こされる。技術ロ スを低減するためには、送電線電圧を一階級 (110kV から 220kV) 高めるか、 または、送電線の線種を太くする必要がある。
(3) Rusumo 水力発電関連送電線計画
Rusumo 滝水力発電所建設プロジェクト計画は、Akagera 川流域の社会経済 開発ための重要な水力発電開発プロジェクトとして認知されている。この プロジェクトは水力発電所建設プロジェクトとその電力をブルンジ、ルワ ンダおよびタンザニアの国家電力網へ送電するための送電線および地方電 化プロジェクトから構成されている。このプロジェクト完成の 2013 年に、 ルワンダには Rusumo 滝水力発電所から Kabarondo 変電所を介して Kigali 市 Birenbo 変電所までの送電線が建設される予定である。この送電線は、
- 16 - ルワンダ で初めての基幹送電線となるであろう。
(4) 国際電力取引と国際協力
近隣諸国および国際機関の経済開発や経済成長のための協力はルワンダに とって重要である。ルワンダはアフリカ連合、Nile 河流域イニシアチブ、 東アフリカ協力機構を含む地域協力機関のメンバーである。アフリカ連合 によるアフリカエネルギー委員会が地域国間のエネルギー協力を推進し、 新東アフリカ協力条約が民間部門の投資コードや適切な規制緩和促進や東 部アフリカ電力マスタープランの整備等により投資環境の改善拡大を推し 進めている。地域や国際的なエネルギー貿易の潜在的な利益を最大化する ものである。上述の Rusumo 滝水力発電所に関連する送電線は、この電力 マスタープランの一環として計画されているのである。
(5) 電力需要予測
ルワンダ国電力マスタープランの一環として実施された AEPE プログラム 報告書（2007 年 10 月）によると、2015 年および 2025 年の電力需要予測は、 それぞれ 122.2 MW および 401.8 MW である。
7.2 送配電線増強の必要性
国家規模の送電線および配電線の増強により、適正価格で安定した電力供給を 達成しなければならない。上述の需要想定および電力供給計画によると 401.8MW の発電電力を需要家へ送電するため送配電線の増強が 2025 年までに 必要とされ、また、送電ロスを削減しなければならない。また、ルワンダで最 初の国家基幹送電線として、2013 年に Rusumo 滝水力発電所から Kabarondo 変 電所を介して Kigali 市 Birenbo 変電所まで送電線が建設されても、想定される 必要な電力を需要家に送るためには、さらに新しい送電線の増強が必要である と考える。
7.3 送電線増強計画
Rusumo 滝水力発電プロジェクト計画によると、送電線路に沿った配電線工事や Kigali 都市部の配電線改修工事が 2013 年に完了する。上述の「7.1 現状と需要 想定」に対処するため、Rusumo 滝水力発電プロジェクト後の新しい送電線増強 計画として、ルワンダ西南部の Mururu 変電所から Kigoma および Karongi 変電 所を介して Kigali 市 Birembo 変電所にいたる基幹送電線建設が必要であり、ま た、国際電力取引を考慮すれば、ルワンダの北部、南部および西部地域に拡大
- 17 - される送電線網の拡充も必要であろう。送電線増強プロジェクト実施時に、 Kigali 首都圏の配電線網増強と改修および送電線に沿った地域の地方電化も必 要である。この増強計画を実現するため、下記のような事業化可能性調査を実 施し、計画的に着実に選定されたルートの送電線を建設し、国家の電力系統を 増強する必要があろう。
事業化可能性調査
(1) 事業化可能性調査の目的
事業化可能性調査の目的は、(i) 上述の送電線増強計画で示された送電線ル ートの優先順位付けおよびルート選定、(ii) 選定された送電線ルートの財 務・経済的な、社会的な、また、環境影響面での可能性、 そして、(iii) Kigali 首都圏および送電線ルートに沿った地方電化プログラムの可能性調査であ る。
(2) 事業化可能性調査の内容
a) 第一段階(Pre FS)は、送電線ルートを構想し、Rusumo 滝水力発電プロ ジェクトで建設される送電線による給電地域を特定し、送電線ルート、 配置、電圧階級等複数の選択を詳しく調査する。送電線電圧の選択は 送電線ルート選定前に考慮し、構想した送電線は順位付けを行い選定 する。
b) 第 2 段階 (FS) は、電化予定地域の電力による生産用途計画や収入を 得られる開発計画を注視し、選定された送電線ルートおよび地方電化 計画の技術的、経済的、財政、社会的、環境側面からの実施可能性検 討を行い、必要があれば、第一段階(Pre FS)での技術的検討結果を最適 化する。
c) 第 3 段階は、環境社会的アセスメントの検討を行う。
d) 第 4 段階は、送電線、地方電化プロジェクトの詳細設計および入札図 書作成を行う。
送配電線の建設
工事業者の入札/契約と送電線、変電所、配電線の建設を行う。
7.4 プロジェクトスケジュール
- 18 - 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
プロジェクト申請
企業化調査
詳細設計、入札図書作成
入札、契約
建設、据付工事
竣工 ◆
7.5 プロジェクト投資計画
このプロジェクトの費用見積りは下記の通り。
項目 費用
Part A: 企業化調査 1.0 US$ Million Part B: 設備 a. 送電線工事 35.0 b. 変電所工事 19.0 c. 配電線工事 5.0 d. コンスルタンシーサービス 3.8 合計 63.8 ＊ 費用概略を記載してあるので、詳細費用は計画実施段階で検討される必要がある。
8. キャパシティディベロップメントの必要性とプロジェクト組織
8.1 現 状
オフグリッドの地方電化プロジェクトは、利用者からの徴収料金により費用を 回収することが困難であることがこれまでの経験により明らかになっている。 仮に、初期投資に要する費用の大半もしくは全部が無償資金形式で調達される と想定するなら、プロジェクトの計画は、電力供給そのものだけでなく、その 実施過程におけるさまざまな活動を通じて当該地域の開発を大きく推進するこ とに重点をおくことが最低限必要になろう。したがって、プロジェクト実施時 における地域住民が、将来の電力の利用者としてだけではなく、プロジェクト 推進の当事者として参加し、その中で市場の経済システムを学び、またコミュ
- 19 - ニティとして発展を遂げる将来像を共有できるような実施体制をとる必要があ る。このことを踏まえ、東部県における地方電化に関係すると考えられる各パ ーティについて、現状を踏まえ、プロジェクトとの関連、推進体制への参画方 法、キャパシティディベロップメントのニーズについて検討した。
8.2 電化プロジェクトの組織化とキャパシティディベロップメント
電化プロジェクトの組織について、関連するパーティの役割とキャパシティデ ィベロップメントの必要性を検討した。
(1) 組織と役割
a) 地方電化組合（または委員会）は、電化の対象となる地域コミュニテ ィのメンバーから構成され、ユーザーの代表として、施設の日常の非 技術的管理業務、ユーザー教育などのミーティングの召集、可能であ れば集金業務を担当する機関となる。
b) 発電所運転員には電気・機械等の専門的な教育を受けた技師が就任し 発電所の運転を行う。
c) 分割民営化後の ELECTROGAZ は、発電所の運転や電力販売業務につ いて国内で経験を持つ唯一の組織となるため、何らかの形で、例えば 集金業務や発電所運転に関する技術的アドバイスの提供に限られると しても、プロジェクトに参画を得ることが重要である。
d) 地方自治体（セクター、ディストリクトオフィス）は小規模なもので あるため、プロジェクト実施にかかる各種活動のコーディネート、ユ ーザーサイドの意見表明、利害対立の際の調停等、限定的な、しかし 重要な役割が期待される。郡庁 (District Office) は地方行政の中心であ るため、地方電化をどのように地域開発に生かすか、どのように水平 展開を行うか、等を検討する重要な役割を担うことが期待される。ま た、プロジェクト実施時のカウンターパートの中心として、援助機関 が提供するさまざま活動や支援を地域に伝達する役割を担うことにな ろう。
(2) 教育と支援
プロジェクト実施においては、初期段階から電化対象コミュニティのメン バーを集め、その要望を聞き取り、また電力の利用に関する知識の現状を 把握することが重要である。またその過程で電化組合のメンバーを選定し、 一般のコミュニティメンバーとは別途、ユーザーの代表としての役割にお
- 20 - いて必要な能力の習得のためのトレーニングが行われるべきである。また このプロセスには、セクター (Sector)、郡庁の職員も参加することが有益 である。
発電所の運転員は、電気・機械等に関する正式な教育が必要であるため、 これには外部の教育機関の協力が必要である。そこで、現在 JICA が支援を 行っている Tumba College of Technology (TCT)との連携が有効であると考え られる。
8.3 Tumba College of Technology (TCT) との協力に関する提案
TCT は、知識集約的経済社会の実現を目指すルワンダとして急速に技術者を育 成する必要があることに対応し、2007 年に開校されたばかりの日本の高専レベ ルの高等教育機関である。現在、JICA がそのカリキュラムの作成や教員の指導 等で支援を行っている。教育課程の中には代替エネルギーのコースがあるため、 当該プロジェクトに必要な技術の習得が期待できるほか、TCT サイドにおいて も、現場における研修機会や卒業生の就職先としてのメリットが考えられ、相 互の利益を高めるための協力体制の構築が有益であると考えられる。
8.4 まとめ
以上の考察から、プロジェクト実施時とそれ以降の各関係パーティの役割を次 図に模式的に示した。
managerial support
Region Elec. Company
technical support District Office financial JICA Power Plant support institutional support maintenance education & tech transfer
Electrification Cooperative Operators TCT human resource payment orientation, monitoring & evaluation
Users
Fig. 3 Organisation after the Completion of Power Plant and Transmission/Distribution System 9. 環境配慮
- 21 - 9.1 環境政策と戦略5
現在のルワンダの環境問題は、森林伐採、土壌浸食、過剰な放牧による裸地化、 不適切な湿地帯の土地利用、不十分なごみ処理システムであり、これらは国民 の健康への脅威であり、さらに国家の健全なる発展の妨げとなる。国土を荒廃 し 1994 年に終結した内戦の後、状況は益々悪くなっている。内戦後、海外から の帰還避難民の増加とともに、森林の伐採は進み、湿地は農耕地を確保するた め開拓されてきている。このような人間の活動により環境破壊は進んでいる。 ルワンダ政府は、環境保全に向け、環境政策の策定、法令の整備および体制作 りに努めてきている。また、国民の環境に対する啓蒙活動を実施している。
9.2 環境関係の法令と体制
ルワンダ政府は、環境保全のため 2005 年に環境に係る基本法「Organic Law No 04/2005 of 08/04/2005 Determining the Modalities of Protection, Conservation and Promotion of Environment in Rwanda」を制定した。また、環境保全の実施・監査 機関として REMA (Rwanda Environmental Management Authority) を「Law No. 16/2006 of 03/04/2006 Determining the Organisation, Functioning and Responsibilities of Rwanda Environment Management Authority」に基づき設立した。REMA は、首 相府直属の機関であり、全ての事業に対する環境影響評価は、この機関で審査 する。REMA は、以下の 3 組織より構成されている。
① 理事会（Board of Directors） ② 理事長（Directorate） ③ 国家諮問委員会（National Consultative Committee）
理事会と理事長は、首相の任命で決められており、理事会のメンバーの 30%以 上は女性でなければならないとされている。国家諮問委員会は、理事会のメン バー、関係省庁、NGO、県長から成るが、必要であれば関係者を招集して開催 される。2 年に 1 回もしくは必要に応じて開催される。委員会の議長は首相が 務める。
5 Source: Rwanda Development Gateway (http://www.rwandagateway.org)
- 22 - 10. 結論および提案
10.1 結 論
1994 年の内戦の終了以来、ルワンダは国の経済、社会基盤の復興に努めてきた。 この結果、治安は回復し、地域では最も安全な場所との認識を受けるようにな った。また、海外からはグッドガバナンスの見本として評価を受けるようにな った。経済状態は 2005 年までの 5 年間で GDP が 6%伸びるなど堅調な成長を示 している。
現在人口の 64%が貧困ライン以下の生活をしており、そのうちの 80%の人々は 地方に居住している。国の電化率は 6%であるが、地方では 1%以下と言われて いる。地方電化は、送電線の延伸、小水力を電源とする独立系統、もしくは、 太陽光を使った独立小規模発電により実施している。送電線の延伸は財務上の 問題で進んでおらず、小水力による独立系統は包蔵水力の豊富なルワンダ西部 の地域で開発が進んでいる。MININFRA によると、現在、20 余りの小水力が西 部地域で開発中とのことである。また、地方では個別家庭の電気供給に使われ る Solar Home System (SHS) の導入が行われるようになり、公共サービスの向上 を目指すために、Sector 事務所、公設市場、保健所、学校等の重要地点に絞っ て設置するようになってきた。
ルワンダは、海外からの大量の帰国民を収容するため、1990 年代後半から集団 再定住化政策 (Imidugudu) を進めてきている。東部県はこの集団再定住化政策 が進んでいる地域で、90%の移住が終了しているといわれている。しかし、こ の集団化が進めば、限られた土地が人口の増加と共に細分化され益々貧困度が 増す可能性がある。もし、人口が 2.7%の年率で増加すると、25 年後には 2 倍と なる。したがって、将来、土地の単位面積当たりの生産高を上げるか農業以外 の雇用を増やさないと、人々の収入は減ってしまうことになる。
これらの背景から我々は、以下のように結論する。
(1) 地方開発のための地方電化の促進
国の電化は送電線の延伸による電化が理想的であるが、それには長い期間 と莫大な資金が必要となる。この長い期間、送電線の延伸の恩恵を受けな い地域は、無電化の生活を強いられることになり、地域格差が益々増加す ることになる。このようなことを避けるため、独立系統による地方電化が 必要である。我々が提案する地方電化の候補地である東部県南部にある Jarama Cell もそのような典型的な無電化地域である。入手した郡の開発計
- 23 - 画 (DDP) および郡庁でのインタビューによると、Jarama Cell での電化は計 画されていない。
我々が優先候補として挙げている Irarire と Jarama の 2 つの村は、典型的な 集団再定住化村である。主産業は伝統的な方法による農業である。村が電 化されれば、人々は夜間の照明を歓迎するであろうし、また、家庭での内 職が可能となるし、電気を使った揚水による灌漑により土地の収益率を向 上させることも可能であろう。電動機を使った農産品の加工による農産品 の付加価値化もできる。したがって、電化によりその地域及び周辺地域の 経済活動は活発となり、Vision 2020 で目指しているように雇用の増大にも 繋がる。このように、地方電化計画は、地方開発の視点を持って策定する べきであると考える。
(2) 国家送電線網の増強対策の必要性
先に述べたように、国民に平等に安定した適正な料金の電力を供給するた めに、国家規模の電化は送電線の拡充によりなされるべきである。したが って、今後も国家計画に基づき着実に送電線の開発を進める必要がある。 一方、西部の小水力開発、キガリ市へのディーゼル発電機の導入などの電 源開発の現状を鑑みると、既存の送電線の送電能力は、不足してきている と考えられる。これが現在の送電線ロス 22%となって現れていると推測さ れる。現在、AfDB の主導により Rusumo Falls 水力開発プロジェクトが進 められており、水力地点から Kigali 市までの高圧送電線も計画されている。 これが実現すれば、この高圧送電線は、東部地域の国家基幹送電線となる。 この基幹送電線に繋ぎ、現在の送電線網を追加の新送電線により増強する ことにより、新たな基幹送電線網ができあがる。追加する送電線を北もし くは南に延長すれば、ウガンダ、ブルンジとの電力融通が可能となる。こ の新たな基幹送電線網により、より広い範囲の地方電化が促進されるであ ろう。
10.2 提 案
スタディの結果として、短期計画および中長期計画としての、以下の 2 つのプ ロジェクトを提案する。初めの提案は、東部県南部地域で実施する地方電化の パイロット・プロジェクトである。二つ目の提案は、中長期的な展望で実施す る国家送配電線網の増強プロジェクトのための事業化可能性調査である。
- 24 - 10.2.1 短期計画： PV+PSによる地方電化パイロット・プロジェクト
第 6 章で述べたように、揚水式発電を組合せた太陽光発電システム (PV+PS) に よる地方電化プロジェクトを東部県 Ngoma 郡 (Sector) の Jarame 地域 (District) でパイロット事業として実施することを提案する。
この PV+PS によるパイロット事業は、ソーラーホームシステム (SHS) による 電化と異なり一般家庭のみならず公共施設、家内工業、小規模工業等の需要家 へ生産のための電力が供給可能である。このため、その地域の家内工業や小規 模工業の企業化を支援できる。需要側面では、電力は家内工業や小規模工業の 生産性の向上に繋がり、収入や雇用が増大する。供給側では、家内工業や小規 模工業等の（家庭に比べ）大口需要家が期待できるので、電力供給サービスが 持続的に発展することが見込まれる。よって、PV+PS による地方電化パイロッ ト事業の便益は高い。
生産用途にも使用できる PV+PS 電源を用いて革新的な公共/民間電力供給の仕 組みをパイロット事業で実施し、その後、国家規模に普及を拡大したい。パイ ロット事業の実施地域の産業が持続的な発展を示し、地方電化の開発効果をア ピールすることで、ルワンダ政府が国家の地方電化戦略を描き実行できる援助 が可能であろう。
PV+PS はただ単に地方開発の道具である。国際支援機関による土地の 生産性の改善や雇用機会の向上を目指す地方開発事業との協調が重要である。 この協調により、より効果の高い地方電化事業および地方開発事業とすること が可能であると考える。JICA が PV+PS による地方電化を支援できるように、 ルワンダ政府の要請を推奨する。
なお、この地方電化パイロット・プロジェクトの工期は約 2.5 年であり、費用 は US$2.7 百万である。
10.2.2 中長期計画：送配電線増強プロジェクトの事業化可能性調査
第 7 章で述べたように、将来の国家規模での電化を促進するため、既設送電線 網の増強と延伸が必要である。Rusumo 滝水力発電プロジェクト計画によると、 送電線路に沿った配電線工事や Kigali 都市部の配電線改修工事が 2013 年に完了 する予定である。Rusumo 滝水力発電プロジェクト後の新しい送電線増強計画と して、ルワンダ西南部の Mururu 変電所から Kigoma および Karongi 変電所を介 して Kigali 市 Birembo 変電所にいたる基幹送電線の建設が将来必要である。ま
- 25 - た、基幹送電線は国際電力取引を考慮してルワンダの北部、南部および西部地 域に拡大したい。送電線増強プロジェクト実施時に Kigali 首都圏の配電線網増 強と改修、および、送電線に沿った地域の地方電化も可能である。
このプロジェクトの第一歩として、事業化可能性調査が必要である。この調査 の実施を日本政府へ依頼することを推薦する。事業化可能性調査から始まる送 電線や配電線増強プロジェクトの実施は電力供給不足の緩和や電力需要の高ま りに対処でき、また、電力供給の品質改善に貢献し、地域国間の電力取引を増 強することにもなる。
送電線増強事業は、ルワンダの 2 つの重要な開発計画「Vision 2020」お よ び「 経 済開発貧困削減戦略 (EDPRS)」の方針と一致するとともにルワンダ国の Energy Policy とも一致している。また、日本にとって ODA 案件としてこの開発計画を 援助する意義は大きい。
なお、この送配電線増強プロジェクトの事業化可能性調査の工期は約 2 年であ り、費用は US$ 1 百万である。
- 26 -