Bark-Canoes from Mozambique: a Living Tradition

Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition

(English text without illustrations)

Béat Arnold

Le tour du monde en 80 pirogues Part Four

ARNOLD Béat, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). Neuchâtel, Editions Alphil (Le tour du monde en 80 pirogues, Part Four, PDF).

Translated by Jane Davis

Note: the English translation of the text is without figures (for the latter, see the original version in French). It can be downloaded free from: https://www.alphil.com/index.php/alphil-diffusion/le-tour-du-monde-en-80-pirogues/canoes-en- ecorce-du-mozambique-une-tradition-vivante.html Free access to the book in PDF form: https://www.alphil.com/index.php/alphil-diffusion/le-tour-du- monde-en-80-pirogues/canoes-en-ecorce-du-mozambique-une-tradition-vivante.html See also the insert at the back of the volume (p. 126)

Recommended method for quoting the original version:

ARNOLD Béat, 2019. Canoës en écorce du Mozambique : une tradition vivante. Neuchâtel, Editions Alphil (Le tour du monde en 80 pirogues, fascicule 4).

ISBN 978-2-88930-292-5

Unless otherwise stated, all photographs were taken by the author.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 1 Contents

Foreword 5

Introduction 7

Initial observations, initial descriptions 7

Towards a typology of bark-canoes of Mozambique and the neighbouring areas 13 Complement: the untoro and ngarawa canoes 19

Box-shaped canoes with shrouds 21 The canoes of Lake Chicamba 21

Box-shaped canoes with ears 31 The lithelele from Lake Nhamilambo 31

Box-shaped canoes with spikes 35 The ntherere from Bilibiza 35 The canoe with spikes from Gairezi (Zimbabwe) 44

Box-shaped canoes with independent raised ends 45 The tsevele from the Museu das Pescas (Maputo) 45

Canoes with apical lashings 47 The kapepe from the Malagarasi river basin (Tanzania) 47

Canoes with pressed tips and vertical seams 55 The nikhula from the Lúrio River 55 Construction of a nikhula 57 The samba from Angola 64

The canoes with washstrakes of muterere type from the Chocas region 67 The nintherere with washstrakes from Mossuril 75 Construction of a muterere 77 From cord to needle: the needle – a new tool 87 A double system for achieving watertightness? 90 The single sheet muterere from the Kunstkamera (Saint Petersburg) 91

Organistion of the work 95

In conclusion 99

Appendix 1: Annotated inventory of bark-canoes, together with their location 107

Appendix 2: Bark-canoes and museums 113

Appendix 3: Bark species used 114

Bibliography 119

Index 122 Tribes and indigenous names of the craft 122 Tree species 123 Geographical names 124

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 2 List of illustrations

Fig. 1. Canoe with apical lashings – a kapepe (Kimila River, near Nyaka Kangaga, Tanzania; July 2013; 37 , the numbers in bold correspond to the occurrences discussed in Appendix 1 and on Figure 4).

Fig. 2. Two box-shaped canoes with wired ends, on Lake Chicamba (Mozambique, April 2016; 23 ).

Fig. 3. Distribution map for bark-canoes (S UDER 1930, pl. 13).

Fig. 4. Southern and eastern Africa, with the locations of the canoes observed. Their vernacular name is in italics. The numbers correspond to the occurrences described in Appendix 1 (with the relevant bibliographical references). Finally, spatial distribution of these craft as proposed by H. S UDER (1930, pl.13).

Fig. 5. Canoe with laterally pressed tips, photographed in the early 20th century ( 7a ; Cunene River, near Quissuco, Angola; A LMEIDA 1912, fig. p. 15).

Fig. 6. Types of canoes resulting from the analysis of early publications and a few recent occurrences: ❚) box- shaped canoe; ) lenticular canoe with apical lashings; ♦) lenticular canoe with pressed tips; ◇) complex canoe or with washstrakes; ) not specified.

Fig. 7. Box-shaped canoe observed in around 1910 in a region located between the Limpopo and the Zambezi (B, "South of Mozambique – 1910"; B ARRETT 1910, fig. p. 817).

Fig. 8. Canoe called ichikondo , attributable to the box-shaped type, on the Upper Kafue (D OKE 1931, fig. 51; 16 ).

Fig. 9. Lenticular canoe used by Vachokue fishermen, observed near Cangamba, on the Cuando (H AMBLY 1934, image extracted from a film made during this expedition, in 1929-1930; 15 ).

Fig. 10. Canoe with washstrakes 4.27 m long, observed in 1926 on the Island of Mozambique (H ORNELL 1935; 12 ).

Fig. 11. Box-shaped canoe with shrouds (Lake Chicamba, April 2016; 23 ).

Fig. 12. Preparation of the vertical slit (Kimila, July 2013; 37 ).

Fig. 13. Heating the entire split cylinder, with the leafy branches, to obtain water vapour (Chicamba, April 2016; 23 ).

Fig. 14. Box-shaped canoe with shrouds (Chicamba; April 2016; 23 ).

Fig. 15. Box-shaped (1-5) and lenticular canoes (6-8) used in Mozambique and Tanzania: with shrouds (1), with ears (2), with a closing stem (3), with spikes (4), with independent raised ends (5), with longitudinally folded ends (6), with apical lashings (7) or distal seam (8).

Fig. 16. Box-shaped canoe with ears, called lithelele , and ends stabilised with a terminal pole (Inhambane area or Panda region, August 2011; 20 ).

Fig. 17. Small box-shaped canoe with spikes, collected on the Levuvhu, a tributary of the Limpopo (H OFFMAN 1952, pl. 1; 18 ). Length 1.96 m; width 0.91-1.07 m.

Fig. 18. Box-shaped canoe with spikes, called ntherere , with a vertical raised end (Bilibiza, April 2016; 33 ).

Fig. 19. Three very elongated box-shaped canoes, with spikes, on the Lugenda River ( 34a). They are equipped with seven, eight and nine stretchers respectively, the ends of which are pointed and pierce the bark. These are often supported by one or two stays. The raised parts are oblique. The top of the sides is stabilised by a gunwale pole. See also the long, narrow canoes equipped with numerous stretchers, from the Lucite River ( 21 ), or an example present on Lake Nhamilambo (fig. 70; 20/3 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 3 Fig. 20. This canoe was made from the bark of an Erythrophleum suaveolens . We can group this with the canoes with spikes as a result of its local angular lashings ( 22 ). It was used to cross the Mussapa River by an expedition from Kew Gardens.

Fig. 21. Batonga fisherman on Lake Kariba ( 17 ), in a box-shaped canoe with shrouds and an angular lashing (Zimbabwe).

Fig. 22. Bark-canoe with longitudinally folded ends on the River Lugenda (E LLERT 2013, fig. p. 293; 34b ).

Fig. 23. Kapepe , canoes with apical lashings (Kimila River, July 2013; 37 ).

Fig. 24. Nikhula , canoes with distal seams (Lúrio River, April 2016; 32 ).

Fig. 25. Muterere , a canoe with washstrakes on the beach at Chocas (July 2013; 30/4 ).

Fig. 26. Angola: canoe with laterally pressed tips.

Fig. 27. Untoro from Namevil, Quinga Bay; a model which is no longer in use (M OURA 1988, pl. 20; 29 ).

Fig. 28. Ngarawa canoe with distal seam from the Pungwe River (S HROPSHIRE 1935, fig. 1; 24 ). Length 3 m; width 0.9 m.

Fig. 29. "Canoa de casca"; two box-shaped canoes with shrouds on Lake Chicamba ( 23 ). Look out! A crocodile is attacking the fish caught in the net. This time the fishermen arrive too late to save their catch (April 2016).

Fig. 30. The dam on Lake Chicamba and the eastern part of the rocky bar.

Fig. 31. Hamlet overlooking the lake, below the track.

Fig. 32. Box-shaped canoe with shrouds (Lake Chicamba).

Fig. 33. Canoe attached to a crossbar supported by two stakes, for line fishing.

Fig. 34. Box-shaped canoe with shrouds (Lake Chicamba).

Fig. 35. Two box-shaped canoes with shrouds, on Lake Chicamba. The bark has been taken from trees on the mountain located at the far right.

Fig. 36. Brachystegia bussei selected for the manufacture of a canoe.

Fig. 37. Upper slit: passing up the adze.

Fig. 38. The banks of Lake Chicamba coasts and Brachystegia forest.

Fig. 39. Lower slit and start of the vertical slit.

Fig. 40. Making the upper slit.

Fig. 41. Wooden wedge inserted using a pebbel.

Fig. 42. The bark is gradually peeled off.

Fig. 43. After the wedges, large levers are used.

Fig. 44. The upper part of the bark is released.

Fig. 45. A rope ensures the safe lowering of the bark.

Fig. 46. Bark 20 mm thick.

Fig. 47. Marking the position of the stretchers.

Fig. 48. First series of stretchers, inserted under strong pressure.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 4

Fig. 49. Pointed stretchers from the first series.

Fig. 50. End of the bark sheet, shaped with an axe.

Fig. 51. Long fire over which the canoe is placed.

Fig. 52. Particular attention is given to the ends.

Fig. 53. The canoe is turned over while the fire is fed.

Fig. 54. Insertion of the second series of stretchers.

Fig. 55. Additional heating for one end.

Fig. 56. One end is raised, closing the canoe.

Fig. 57. Shrouds maintain the curve of the bark.

Fig. 58. Transverse lashing and attachment for the shrouds.

Fig. 59. Triangulation of the upper structural support and insertion of the stays.

Fig. 60. Plan of the box-shaped canoe with shrouds manufactured in April 2016 in the forest overlooking Lake Chicamba ( 23/1 ). Each end has only one point of curvature. In use, the fisherman regards the right hand part as the prow. Length 3.95 m; average width first phase 0.59 m, second phase 0.75 m; central depth 0.31-0.32 m; bark thickness 20 mm. Scale 1/25.Tree species: Brachystegia bussei . In grey: exterior face of the bark. For reasons of legibility, the crossed stems have not been replicated on the longitudinal section.

Fig. 61. Attachment of three shrouds to the external face of the hull.

Fig. 62. Plan of box-shaped canoe with shrouds measured on the banks of Lake Chicamba in April 2016 ( 23/2 ), with two points of curvature on each end (the prow is here on the left). Length 3.55 m; width 0.81-0.82 m; central depth 0.28-0.29 m, thickness of the bark 14 mm. Scale 1/25. Tree species: musasa , a Brachystegia boehmii . In grey: exterior face of the bark. The secondary distortions of the ends have been graphically corrected.

Fig. 63. Box-shaped canoes with ears on Lake Nhamilambo, near Panda, called lithelele (20/4 in the foreground; September 2018).

Fig. 64. Cactamo returning from fishing on Lake Nhamilambo, with his small bark-canoe with ears ( 20/1 ).

Fig. 65. Fishing with a cast net from a reed raft called lambeco , like those observed on Lake Sule.

Fig. 66. Zone located south of Panda between Manjacaze and Homoine with Lake Nhamilambo (1) and Lake Sule (2).

Fig. 67. Canoe used by Cactamo. Length 2.22 m; width 0.90 m; depth 0.20 m ( 20/1 ).

Fig. 68. When the canoe with ears is not in use, it is generally submerged.

Fig. 69. Lithelele with one bench nailed in place. Length 2.04 m; width 0.87 m; depth 0.28 m ( 20/2 ).

Fig. 70. Right, lithelele with multiple stretchers and stays. Length 2.85 m; width 0.69 m; depth 0.25m ( 20/3 ).

Fig. 71. Box-shaped canoe with ears, called lithelele , used on Lake Nhamilambo in September 2018 (20/4 ). The prow is on the right. The bench is removable. Length 2.58 m; width 0.78 m; depth 0.15 m; thickness of the bark 8 mm. Weight: 40 kg. Species used: Brachystegia spiciformis . Scale: 1/25.

Fig. 72. Lower face of the canoe 20/4 , with outer bark beginning to scale through use. The horizontal closing pole is here clearly visible.

Fig. 73. Salmoura in the Museu das Pescas (Maputo).

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Fig. 74. Box-shaped canoe with spikes, called ntherere (Montepuez River, near Bilibiza; April 2016; 33 ).

Fig. 75. Crossing the Montepuez River near Bilibiza, with a bark ferry of ntherere type.

Fig. 76. Ferries of ntherere type on the Montepuez River, below Bilibiza. Right – an example that is no longer usable has become a children's toy.

Fig. 77. Ntherere constructed in April 2016 at Bilibiza ( 33 ). Length: 2.67 m, with a piece of bark (in grey) 3.25 m long. Width of the canoe 1.00 m; central depth 0.31 m; thickness of the bark without the cracked outer layer 8-9 mm. Topstems from the lower layer; first series of stretchers with ends cut into a point, and in grey the second unpointed series. Tree specises: Julbernardia globiflora (see note 14). Scale 1:25.

Fig. 78. Ntherere intended for fishing. The crossed triangulation poles of the upper structural support are clearly visible.

Fig. 79. Evaluation of the diameter of the trunk (Ø ~0.57 m).

Fig. 80. Window test, beginning the lower circular slit.

Fig. 81. Making the upper circular slit.

Fig. 82. The bark is prised away from the wood using large levers.

Fig. 83. The bark is lowered directly to the ground. Top left: knot cut around during removal.

Fig. 84. Outer bark removed by hammering.

Fig. 85. After an hour and three quarters’ effort, the roll of bark can be removed from the forest.

Fig. 86. The bark cylinder is opened easily.

Fig. 87. The holes are pierced with a chisel.

Fig. 88. Asymmetrical shaping of the points of the stretchers.

Fig. 89. Inserting the stretchers.

Fig. 90. Softening the reduced thickness of the ends with fire.

Fig. 91. The end of the bark is folded.

Fig. 92. The bark is folded with difficulty.

Fig. 93. Bark raised vertically then folded again.

Fig. 94. Attachment with two long bamboo spikes.

Fig. 95. Consolidating the ends.

Fig. 96. Slit to reduce the tension in the raised part.

Fig. 97. Bark flaps at the angles of the canoe, with stages 1a-1b and 2, then attachment of the whole with bamboo spikes ( 3 ).

Fig. 98. Insertion of additional stretchers.

Fig. 99. Punter’s platform.

Fig. 100. Photography using a telescopic pole.

Fig. 101. Preparing small ropes.

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Fig. 102. Two Y shaped stays to maintain the longitudinal and transverse curve of the envelope.

Fig. 103. The box-shaped canoe from Gairezi (Mutare Museum; 25 ), with intensive use of pointed spikes, for example piercing the chine (arrow), probably as a result of a major repair.

Fig. 104. Tsevele in the reserves of the Museu das Pescas ( 19b ).

Fig. 105. Released part of the raised end of the tsevele , folded against the sides.

Fig. 106. Interior view of an angle of the tsevele , with the bark slit and a reinforced edge.

Fig. 107. Kapepe on the Kimila River – a canoe with apical lashings (July 2013; 37/2 ).

Fig. 108. Kapepe on the Kimila River, with its spout-shaped end.

Fig. 109. Two kapepe with apical lashings. The one in the background is strict, while the one in the foreground has a major lashing on the left followed by a running stitch seam. The first stretcher of this latter craft has fallen out at a later date and not yet been put back in place. In the bottom, we note the presence of a wooden block acting as a bench and a scoop made from half a calabash.

Fig. 110. Kapepe on the Ugalla River ( 38 ).

Fig. 111. Kapepe on the Kimila River, with significantly raised ends from which the excess bark has not been removed.

Fig. 112. Evaluating the diameter of a trunk ( Ø 0.32 m).

Fig. 113. Removing the ring of bark at the base.

Fig. 114. A fisherman climbs up to the working area.

Fig. 115. The bark is prised away from the wood using three levers.

Fig. 116. Bevelled ends of the levers.

Fig. 117. The upper part of the bark is released.

Fig. 118. The cracked outer part of the bark is removed.

Fig. 119. Preparing the bark strips.

Fig. 120. The roll of bark is submerged.

Fig. 121. Pressing the sides together to insert the first stitch.

Fig. 122. Tying off the first lashing.

Fig. 123. Gunwale poles attached by an external seam.

Fig. 124. Each loop is tightened carefully.

Fig. 125. Fisherman's bend with three loops.

Fig. 126. Raising the stem and adjusting the stretcher.

Fig. 127. Major lashing stitch, on the prow, and inserted stretcher. The latter is too short and will be repaced in order to sufficiently raise the end part.

Fig. 128. Adjusting a rib to the correct length.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 7 Fig. 129. Plan of a canoe with apical lashings, called kapepe , on the Kimila River in July 2013 (A RNOLD 2014, fig. p. 19; 37/1 ). The prow is on the left. In grey: removed part of the sheet of phloem (this is not always the case for canoes with very significantly raised ends). Length of the canoe 4.09 m; width 0.73 m; depth 0.22 m. Scale 1/25. Part of the bottom near the prow has been deformed at a later date, leading to an enlargement of the sides. A number of ribs seem not to be in their initial position. A wooden block which serves as a bench is placed on a recycled sheet of bark from an older canoe. The sheet is thus placed on two ribs which stabilise the block.

Fig. 130. Inserting a rib, cut from a half-branch, under pressure. This always comes to rest on a stitch.

Fig. 131. Central tie associated with a stretcher, lashed to the gunwale poles.

Fig. 132. Canoe with apical lashings, called kapepe , manufactured in July 2013 on the Kimila River (after A RNOLD 2014, fig. p. 37; 37/2 ). The prow is on the right. In grey: removed part of the phloem sheet. Dimensions of the finished kapepe : length 4.24 m; width 0.70 m; depth 0.25 m; initial thickness of the bark 12 mm, 9-10 mm after removal of the outer layer. Scale ~ 1/25. Species used: Brachystegia boehmii . Weight of the canoe when completed; in other words with bark that is still damp: 38 kg (of which 30 kg represents the bark). As it dries, the bark will harden and the canoe will become a little lighter. The flotation line corresponds to that of the canoe with a man sitting on the wooden block that serves as a bench.

Fig. 133. Nikhula canoes with a distal seam, on the Lúrio River (April 2016; 32 ).

Fig. 134. A fisherman moving upstream against the current of the River Lúrio, close to some rapids, in a nikhula .

Fig. 135. A nikhula canoe in storage during the dry season ( 32/2 ). Length 2.48 m; width 0.95 m; depth 0.34 m.

Fig. 136. External part of the bark, not removed here ( 32/ 3 ). Length 2.55 m; width 0.68 m, total height 0.54 m.

Fig. 137. Nikhula used to produce a plan in 2013 ( 32/1 ). Length 2.82 m; width 0.92 m, depth 0.19 m.

Fig. 138. Upper structural support, bent at one end (canoe 32/1 ).

Fig. 139. Nikhula with lashed gunwale poles ( 32/4 ). Length 3.27 m; width 0.90 m.

Fig. 140. Plant lashings on the upper structural support ( 32/4 ).

Fig. 141. Sheaf of spindly leaflets of a palm leaf, the elements of which are used for the lashings.

Fig. 142. Lúrio River, near Namapa (July 2013; 32/1 ): adjusted plan (based on the stretchers) of a nikhula with a slit repaired using a watertight bundle maintained in place by a cross stitch seam. Scale 1/25. Length 2.82 m; width 0.92 m; depth 0.19 m.

Fig. 143. Hill on which the enheca trees grow.

Fig. 144. Creating the slits with a machete.

Fig. 145. Cutting the vertical slit.

Fig. 146. Offering marking the end of the bark removal.

Fig. 147. Gunwale poles: preparing the bamboo laths.

Fig. 148. Gunwale pole laths maintained in place by stitching.

Fig. 149. Heated tips pressed between two poles.

Fig. 150. Intharui liana with inrapa roots.

Fig. 151. Water flowing from a cut liana.

Fig. 152. Beaten inrapa root used as caulking.

Fig. 153. Sealing material inserted between the tips.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 8 Fig. 154. Watertightness maintained by a second seam.

Fig. 155. The sides are gradually separated.

Fig. 156. Start of the final separation of the sides.

Fig. 157. The sides are separated under pressure.

Fig. 158. Shaping the ends into an S shape.

Fig. 159. The axis of the tips is slightly adjusted.

Fig. 160. Vertical view, using a telescopic pole, of a recently completed nikhula canoe ( 32/5 ).

Fig. 161. Repairing the various cracks.

Fig. 162. Repair maintained in place with harness stitch.

Fig. 163. Lúrio River, near Namapa (April 2018; 32/5 ): plan of the nikhula that we were able to watch being built (scale 1/25). Length 3.29 m; width 0.92 m; depth 0.28 m; thickness of the bark 8-10 mm. Weight 43.5 kg. Species used: Brachystegia glaucescens .

Fig. 164. Weighing the finished nikhula . At the right, on the end of the pole, my guide Valente Emilio Juliano.

Fig. 165. Altimetric map of Angola and position of the bark-canoes (see fig. 4).

Fig. 166. Canoe with laterally pressed tips, 4 m long, from Kankela on the River Kului (Colui), a tributary of the Cunene (D ELACHAUX 1936, pl. 64/1; 40 ).

Fig. 167. Canoe from Kankela, on the River Kului (September 1933; 40 ).

Fig. 168. Canoe on the River Luando, near Marina (September 2011; 41 ).

Fig. 169. The construction of muterere canoes is based on the systematic use of temporary lashings (April 2018; 30/8 ).

Fig. 170 Large muterere acquired in 1905, for the Ethnologisches Museum in Berlin, by VON LUSCHAN (1907, p. 17-18). This canoe has a floor consisting of two bark sheets, strongly overlapping ( a: end of the first sheet; b: start of the second) and sewn together (in b). The length of each sheet in the bottom is 2.61 m. We note that two defective areas of the bottom and two slits have been repaired. The axial section is slit four times at the top of each edge. Length 5.0 m; width 1.05 m; central depth 0.33m.

Fig. 171. Detail of the attachment of the washstrakes on the muterere in Berlin ( VON LUSCHAN 1907, fig.1; 12/1 ).

Fig. 172. Large muterere acquired in 1910 by the Museum am Rothenbaum, Kulturen und Künste der Welt (Hamburgisches Museum für Völkerkunde; 12/2 ). Length 5.09 m; estimated width 0.95 m; estimated central depth 0.30 m

Fig. 173. Seam between the two axial sheets and the watertight bundle with cross stitch, partially covered by the mast step, and seam for a stringer at the ribs ( 12/2 ).

Fig. 174. Exterior side of the hull. Attachment of the gunwale poles with a two-strand cord ( a) and a plaited cord ( b). Initial attachment of the bark sheets using a harness stitch ( c), with a final loop ( d), and attachment of the watertight bundles with half cross stitch ( e). There are thus two different cords: c-d and e (12/2 ).

Fig. 175. Interior face of the hull with a watertight bundle sewn using half cross stitch, edged at the bottom by an initial harness stitch seam. The holes are plugged with fragments of a thin fabric ( 12/2 ).

Fig. 176. Canoe with washstrakes, called muterere (12/3 ), photographed in 1926 near the Island of Mozambique (H EILBORN 1929, p. 4; H ORNELL 1935, pl. M).

Fig. 177. Muterere from the Governor’s Palace Museum (Island of Mozambique; 30/1 ).

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Fig. 178. Muterere from the Museu National de Etnologia (Nampula; 30/2 ).

Fig. 179. Nintherere from Mossuril (Museu das Pescas, Maputo; 31/1 ).

Fig. 180. Muterere (30/3 ) and cangaia in Chocas (July 2013).

Fig. 181. Added end (July 2013; 30/3 ).

Fig. 182. Muterere at Chocas (July 2013; 30/4 ).

Fig. 183. The only three muterere present in 2018 on the beach at Chocas (from left to right: 30/5 , 30/6 , 30/7 ), before the construction of the example that we were able to observe (April 2018).

Fig. 184. Sail of a muterere (12/1 ). Height and width: 3.65 and 2.30 m ( VON LUSCHAN 1907, fig. 19).

Fig. 185. Plan of a muterere on the beach at Chocas (July 2013; 30/4 ); the prow is to the left (scale 1/25). Length 3.31 m; width 0.90 m; central depth 0.33 m; thickness of the reduced bark 8 mm.

Fig. 186. Rope attaching the upper stringer with a series of overhand knots (July 2013; 30/4 In the background, coconut fibre bundle maintained in place by half cross stitch in nylon thread.

Fig. 187. Overhand knot with two loops.

Fig. 188. Bundle held in place by a nylon thread, with the passages through the hull being caulked with cotton plugs (30/6 ).

Fig. 189. Bundle held in place over a slit by a cross stitch seam and holes plugged with cotton ( muterere from the Governor’s Palace Museum; 30/1 ).

Fig. 190. Nintherere from Mossuril with an elevated footrest and a partition in front of the mast ( 31/1 ).

Fig. 191. Two mantherere from Mossuril in the reserves of the Museu das Pescas, at Maputo ( 31/2 right and 31/3 ).

Fig. 192. Linear lashing for the washstrakes of a nintherere , and simple caulking using cotton (and thus without watertight bundles) with intermittent support loops (here, two loops) then strengthened by the network of frame sticks (31/1 ).

Fig. 193. Prow plank held between the tips, and two vertical seams ( 31/1 ).

Fig. 194. Support for the feet on the left, and for the mast on the right ( 31/1 ).

Fig. 195. Top: nylon loops intended to support cotton caulking. Bottom: a slit repaired using a batten seam attached with half cross stitch ( 31/2 ).

Fig. 196. Issufo Adamugi fishing with a line from his small muterere off the beach at Chocas (April 2018; 30/5 ).

Fig. 197. Muterere submerged for a night when it has not been used for several days (April 2018; 30/6 ).

Fig. 198. Ladder put in place to cut the vertical slit.

Fig. 199. Here, the bark is easily released.

Fig. 200. Measuring the weight of the bark, after the outer layer has been removed. The weight has thus been reduced by almost half.

Fig. 201. Removal of a strip which will constitute a washstrake.

Fig. 202. Bark softened by a brief exposure to fire.

Fig. 203. Vertical poles, one of which is inserted deep into the sand.

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Fig. 204. Assembling the heated tips.

Fig. 205. Pre-assembled tips and opening the sides.

Fig. 206. Sewing the tips using harness stitch.

Fig. 207. Positioning the first washstrake.

Fig. 208. Temporary lashing of the washstrakes (interior) and overlapping lips of the slits.

Fig. 209. Temporary lashing of the washstrakes (exterior) with palm tree leaflets.

Fig. 210. Inserting the first series of gunwale poles, using paired stems.

Fig. 211. Temporary lashing of the first series of gunwale poles. The leaflets are successively cut.

Fig. 212. Final sewing of the gunwale poles, with overhand knots.

Fig. 213. Overnight immersion of the partially completed canoe, here in the morning at low tide, before work starts again.

Fig. 214. Extracting the coconut fibre.

Fig. 215. Inserting the caulking (coconut fibre).

Fig. 216. Starting to stitch a watertight bundle.

Fig. 217. Synchronised progress of the two processes.

Fig. 218. Lower part of a banana tree and dried leaves.

Fig. 219. Sections of dried banana tree leaves.

Fig. 220. Bundle consisting of dried leaves.

Fig. 221. Sewing of the superimposed sheets.

Fig. 222. Half cross stitch seam.

Fig. 223. Sealing one of the four slits.

Fig. 224. Shrub called inacali (Tetracera sp.), used to construct the frame sticks.

Fig. 225. Insertion of the first series of frame sticks.

Fig. 226. Separation of the sides, adjusted using a zigzag rope, with the first series of frame sticks.

Fig. 227. Insertion of the second series of frame sticks.

Fig. 228. Consolidated profile of the hull with the second series of frame sticks.

Fig. 229. Temporary lashing of the second series of gunwale poles.

Fig. 230. Final stitching of the second series of gunwale poles and beams.

Fig. 231. Sewing the stringers against the ribs to stabilise them.

Fig. 232. Caulking the punched holes using a plug of cotton.

Fig. 233. Holes filled from the inside with cotton plugs.

Fig. 234. First sea trials, by Seleman Amissi with the new muterere , 2.82 m long (30/8 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 11

Fig. 235. Large needle used for stitching a muterere , made from a leaflet (right) and attached to the cord (left).

Fig. 236. Repairing a crack in a nikhula using a small bamboo needle with a split base.

Fig. 237. Harness stitch type sewing used to manufacture a nikhula (in black, needle cut from a sliver of bamboo).

Fig. 238. See Stage 2 of the above drawing.

Fig. 239. Muterere : attaching the needle (a leaflet) to the cord (in dark grey), by three successive twists.

Fig. 240. End of a split leaflet (4).

Fig. 241. Left, split leaflet (1). Right, folded, twisted part of the short cord (5), which is then wrapped around the main part of the cord (6).

Fig. 242. Final twisting together of the two branches (6).

Fig. 243. Bottom, folded part of the twisted cord (few fibres) with the upper part of the split leaflet (5). Top, main part of the twisted cord (3).

Fig. 244. Cross section through the system for achieving watertightness. The lashing will compress the bundle, which in turn compresses the "caulking" material through the end part of the interior bark sheet. In a, location of the initial harness stitch seam in the canoes from 1905 and 1910.

Fig. 245. Coconut fibre bundle, maintained in place by nylon threads ( 30/4 ).

Fig. 246. Small single sheet canoe from the Kunstkamera Museum (June 2016; 30/9 ). Length: 2.77 m.

Fig. 247. Stringers sewn to the network of frame sticks, with an additional central element.

Fig. 248. Plaited cord attaching the second gunwale pole with a series of two loop overhand knots. In the background, first gunwale pole maintained in place by a two-strand cord with overhand knots made with one and two loops in succession. These attaching systems can be observed on one side, where the bamboo lath protecting the ropes has disappeared.

Fig. 249. Removed outer bark with an adze, and part of the "caulking" visible on the lower part of the slit.

Fig. 250. Between the two stringers in the bottom is the start of the stem-mast step, with a small mortice present between the two lashing points.

Fig. 251. Axial, symmetrical location of the central stem-mast step, with its associated mortices and holes made in the beams above it. These elements emphasise the asymmetry of the opening of the hull at the ends.

Fig. 252. Plan of the small bark-canoe in the Kunstkamera, with its asymmetrical opening ( 30/9 ). Length 2.77 m; width 0.72 m; central depth 0.30 m; thickness of the bark where reduced 6-7 mm. Distance between the two longitudinal axes: 7.5 cm. Scale 1:25.

Fig. 253. An interest in constructing bark-canoes develops even from an early age: a scene sketched in a fishing/farming hamlet, opposite Ocura (April 2018; 32 ).

Fig. 254. The team from the Kimila River, with the bark removed to make a kapepe (37/2 ). Third from the left, our guide Kassim Govola Mbingo.

Fig. 255. Monteiro Paiva, Carvalho Augusto and Basilio Valenti, the three main artisans involved in the construction of a nikhula , in April 2018 ( 32 ).

Fig. 256. Numerous hands are employed in attaching the gunwale poles, consisting of a number of bamboo laths, for a nikhula (32/5 ).

Fig. 257. Daimond Nttandoro Tsembero, Constantino Ferreira Torres Mandevo and his young brother Ronaldo on the banks of Lake Chicamba, in April 2018 (23 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 12 Fig. 258. Moving the ntherere from its construction site to the banks of the Montepuez River ( 33 ).

Fig. 259. Four men transporting a canoe with shrouds, made the previous day, to Lake Chicamba. The canoe is very heavy (23/1 ).

Fig. 260. The author crossing the Montepuez River in a box-shaped bark-canoe with spikes, made the previous day and propelled by Antumane (April 2016; 33 ).

Fig. 261. Complex canoe of muterere type: temporary attachment of the bark sheets and gunwale poles using lashings made from leaflets. At the two gunwale poles, these temporary lashings are being replaced by a final seam made using a rope. In the background, we observe the presence of a temporary stretcher which will be replaced by a beam (April 2018; 30/8 ).

Fig. 262. Distribution of canoe types: ❚) box-shaped canoe; ) canoe with apical lashings; ♦) canoe with pressed tips; ◇) complex canoe or with washstrakes; ) not specified.

Fig. 263. Diagram of the length/width ration of the canoes for which we have measurements ( 20/ : lithelele , p. 32-33; 30/ : muterere , p. 70; 32/ : nikhula , p. 55-57; 37/ : kapepe , p. 47, 52-53; 12/ : muterere with two axial sheets, cf. p. 67-68).

Fig. 264. An intelligent and familiar expression, in a hamlet located in the central part of the Lúrio River, opposite Ocura, where nikhula bark-canoes are still in daily use (April 2016). A tribute to the people who have always offered us a warm welcome.

Fig. 265 Baker discovers Lake Albert: a drawing produced by the imagination of an artist (S MITH 1889, fig. p. 150).

Fig. 266. Kimila: leaves of a Brachystegia boehmii .

Fig. 267. Kimila: bark of a Brachystegia boehmii .

Fig. 268. Lúrio: leaves of a Brachystegia glaucescens .

Fig. 269. Lúrio: bark of a Brachystegia glaucescens .

Fig. 270. Chocas: leaves of a Brachystegia spiciformis .

Fig. 271. Chocas: bark of a Brachystegia spiciformis .

Fig. 272. Transverse section of the bark species observed (the exterior of the bark is to the right). 1) Brachystegia boehmii .(around Kimila), with longitudinal section; 2) Brachystegia glaucescens (Lúrio River); 3) Brachystegia spiciformis (around Chocas), with longitudinal section; 4) Brachystegia bussei (around Chicamba), outer bark removed; 5) Julbernardia globiflora (around Bilibiza), outer part removed by beating.

Fig. 273. Chicamba: leaves of a Julbernardia paniculata.

Fig. 274. Chicamba: leaves of the Brachystegia bussei collected.

Fig. 275. Chicamba: bark of a Brachystegia bussei .

Fig. 276. Bilibiza: leaves of a Julbernardia globiflora .

Fig. 277. Bilibiza: bark removed from a Julbernardia globiflora .

Fig. 278. Canoe made from the bark of an Erythrophleum africanum (43 ). Its form is typical for Angola, with its pressed, sewn tips. In the background, a plastic canoe used by a group of fishermen – a copy of the mokoro logboats from the Okavango Delta (G OYDER et al. 2018, fig. 7).

Fig. 279. Canoe from the Museu de História Natural in Maputo, comparable to a slender nikhula (C).

Fig. 280. Technical terms used (hybrid sketch adapted to the canoes of Mozambique).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 13 05 Foreword Our approach to the bark-canoes of the wooded African savannah of the southern hemisphere originated in an opportunity to witness the construction of an example of kapepe type deep in the Tanzanian primary woodland (fig. 1) 1. This experience also presented the chance to discover the complexity of the manufacturing process, together with the many techniques employed even for canoes of archaic appearance. The early data are very minimal, and are generally limited to one or two lines published in the accounts of a few explorers. In addition, these canoes are essentially located in the hinterland far from coastal areas, with the exception of the region around the Island of Mozambique. They thus cover extremely extended continental territories. Furthermore, the density of these canoes is very low. And finally, they have a very short lifetime, essentially centred around the rainy season, which makes it even more difficult for Westerners to observe them. Only the scientific summary of Hans Suder in 1930 drew attention to this rather enigmatic group. Analysis of the early documents is often restricted, even in the best cases, to a dot added to a map, ultimately presenting a rather misleading image of widespread distribution which in fact depends directly on the presence or absence of sufficiently large rivers in this part of the continent, but also the presence of particular elements of the flora – in other words, trees from which the bark can be removed in a single piece. Sometimes, a photograph provides a little insight into the structure of these bark-canoes, but the scarcity of these merely reinforces the fog in which we strive to acquire knowledge of the subject. And finally, it is only by means of a quest lasting several years, from 2013 to 2018, and covering the whole of Mozambique and the neighbouring regions, that we have been able to discover the diversity of these craft – simple or complex canoes, of lenticular or rectangular form – and in particular by observing them under construction 2. This approach has only been possible because the traditions relating to the construction and use of these canoes are, exceptionally, still living. But for how much longer? We would first like to thank the fishermen for the warm welcome that they gave us, and for the pleasure and pride they have demonstrated in sharing their expertise. In particular Issufo Adamugi, Seleman Amissi, Carvalho Augusto, Antumane Bento, Cactamo, Constantino and Ronaldo Ferreira Torres Mandevo, Cassimo Miguel, Monteiro Paiva, Daimond Nttandoro Tsembero and Basilio Valenti.

Our gratitude also to the guides who aided us for one or more days, such as Bachir Afonso and António Alverca, but also to those who introduced us to the heart of a region over a period of several weeks, such as Valente Emilio Juliano for northern Mozambique and Kassim Govola Mbingo for the Kigoma region. It has become our duty to collect this knowledge and disseminate it to future generations, in writing and images, before it disappears as a result of deforestation, the introduction of industrial materials, the development of regulations relating to the forests (which are generally the property of the State) and the creation of nature reserves or national parks – in other words, as a result of the current development of these societies and their material culture. The presence of a number of examples of bark-canoes in museums has also been extremely useful to us, and we would like to thank the conservators who have opened their reserves and archives to us:

Lucília da Conceição Chuquela (Museu da História Natural, Maputo); Jeremy Coote (Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford); Paola Ivanov (Ethnologisches Museum, Berlin); Pedro Guilherme Kulyumba, António Luís Ntimbanga and Maria Pascoela Tavares (Museu Nacional de Etnologia, Nampula); Daniel Lopes and Larsen Augusto Vales (Museu das Pecas, Maputo); Audax Mabulla and Fidelis Masao (National Museum of Tanganyika, Dar es Salaam); Paul Tichmann and Matthÿs van der Merwe (Iziko Museums of South Africa, Cape Town); Pavel I. Pogorelskiy (Kunstkamera, Saint Petersburg); Mareike Späth (Museum am Rothenbaum, Hamburg).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 14 And finally, the assistance of Martin Cheek and Iain Darbyshire, botanists and specialists in the flora of Mozambique at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and Cyrille Chatelain at the Conservatory and Botanical Garden of the City of Geneva, has been particularly valuable.

For the production of this volume, we would like to thank in particular Patrice Pomey and Eric Rieth, but also Danièle Tissot, Laetitia Torrecillas and Sophie Tymula for their criticism of the manuscript, and Maeva Arnold for her illustrations.

Béat Arnold

1) R IETH 2014. 2) In this context, it is necessary to develop a vocabulary suitable for this type of canoe; see fig. 280, at the end of the volume.

06 Fig. 2. Two box-shaped canoes with wired ends, on Lake Chicamba (Mozambique, April 2016; 23 ).

07 Introduction The assemblage constituted by the bark-canoes currently in use in Mozambique is an entity remarkable for its diversity. Relatively simple canoes rub shoulders with elaborate constructions produced by the assembly of several bark sheets. The normally lanceolate or lenticular shaped craft are here supplemented by rectangular examples (fig. 2); a form rarely observed in this type of canoe. All of these canoes can be attributed to one of the five main zones covering the planet; to wit, the woody African savannahs of the southern hemisphere (fig. 3). While studies of such canoes are particularly common for the area covering the northern United States and Canada, they are much less frequent for canoes constructed by the indigenous inhabitants of Australia and South America, and restricted to a few isolated observations for those of east and south west Africa. These relate almost exclusively to complex canoes with washstrakes of muterere type, used along the Indian Ocean coasts near Chocas and the Island of Mozambique ( VON LUSCHAN 1907, H ORNELL 1935, M OURA 1972 and 1988). Bark-canoes are often still used quite frequently in Mozambique; something which is quite unusual on a global scale. Through a number of expeditions in the field, this exceptional situation has enabled us to expand our knowledge of these canoes, the construction methods used in their manufacture and the structural problems posed by the tree species used. We have thus been able to closely observe the artisans involved, to discover their techniques and to identify the strategic points of constructing a particular canoe (A RNOLD 2017 b).

Initial observations, initial descriptions The first data relating to the use of bark-canoes in eastern and southern Africa results from the astonishment of the explorers forced to use such canoes to cross rivers. The majority of these observations result from interventions focused on the search for the source of the White Nile. In order to disentangle the disparate and sometimes contradictory data, particular attention was paid to the then still poorly known region extending from the Great Lakes to the Indian Ocean. The area separating this region and Mozambique from the Atlantic Ocean then became the subject of colonial acquisition by Portugal, Belgium, Germany, the UK and the Afrikaners. The necessity

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 15 of accurately delimiting borders and carrying out railway construction projects indirectly led to the intensification of exploration and scientific missions in this area, until the end of the First World War. This phase ended in the dismantling of the German colonies (and the departure of the German research teams). The Portuguese consolidated their presence in Angola and Mozambique (P ÉLISSIER 1993). The majority of German East Africa fell under British control through a mandate from the League of Nations, and was named Tanganyika. After independence and unification with Zanzibar, this area took on the name Tanzania. German South West Africa became Namibia and fell under the control of the Union of South Africa. As for Angola, its high plateau received only minimal attention from explorers in the first half of the 19th century, because it is separated from the coast by major escarpments. 1918 was thus a transitional period in terms of research actors and motivations. The aim was no longer to explore unknown territories and stabilise frontiers, but instead to reinforce agricultural and mineral exploitation following the gradual abandonment of the slave trade, from the second half of the 19th century onwards. The existence of bark-canoes gradually became known, although observations of such canoes were uncommon and thus regularly included in descriptions as a local natural curiosity. This context was reinforced by the fact that, in remote areas, these canoes were one of the rare means of crossing the upper reaches of rivers while protected against crocodile attack: the narrow, frail and extremely unstable craft left Western passengers with mixed feelings.

Fig. 3. Distribution map for bark-canoes (S UDER 1930, pl. 13).

08 The data later published stem from scientific summary works, often in the form of general information providing very little concrete data and not useful from a cartographic viewpoint (C AMPBELL 1922, p. 125), with rare exceptions such as the study of the Lamba on the Kafue River by C. D OKE (1931, p. 119, 188, fig. 51; 16 : for the bold numbers and letters, see fig. 4 and Appendix 1). Much more useful for our purpose are short publications presenting a discovery in a particular location ( 12 : VON LUSCHAN 1907; 12 : H ORNELL 1935; 18 : H OFFMAN 1952, p. 23, pl. 1; 24 : S HROPSHIRE 1935; 36 : K ORABIEWICZ 1947), or studies focusing on indigenous naval construction ( 29 , 30 : M OURA 1972 and 1988; 37 , 38 : A RNOLD 2014). Finally, it is only from 1930 onwards that the local names of these canoes are sometimes mentioned (and a little earlier for Angola; D INIZ 1918, p. 387), thus indirectly emphasising the presence of a long local tradition involving such craft.

09 For Angola, the first data are from the early to middle 19th century (for example 1, 2), when occasional explorers were present in this region: a situation that was little changed in the early 20th century ( 7, 8, 9, 10 , 15 ). With the development of the internet and of images uploaded by individuals – such as holiday journals – or by commercial agencies, with catalogues or advertisements, it is possible to access relatively diverse, but dispersed and labile, iconographical documentation ( 17 , 19 , 20, 21 , 22 , 25 , 27 , 28 , 34a, 41 , 42 ; see, for example fig. 19). The critical apparatus is thus generally rather minimal, making cross- referencing of data essential, when this is possible – or failing this, research in the field. This problem of data checking sometimes also relates to older sources (see p. 11, Great Lakes region), for example when there is only a single mention, almost an aside, referring to the presence of canoes resulting from the assembly of large longitudinal sheets of bark or wood in the region of Burundi-

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 16 Rwanda (M EYER 1916, p. 73; 14 ), or the sewing together of several small sheets of bark on Lake Edward (H UXLEY 1931, p. 370; 39 ). Fortunately, the very thin structure of the hull of these canoes, consisting of a single sheet not entirely covered with added elements, as is the case in the North American canoes, enables us to distinguish it quite readily from logboats, which are often longer and with a marked freeboard, thick walls, ends rounded or solidly pointed, and with the occupants standing at or towards one end. This latter configuration is particularly problematic for a very light canoe, where the occupant inevitably seeks to approach the centre of the canoe in order to maintain a good flotation line (see fig. 265), while adapting to its relative structural rigidity, in comparison with a logboat.

Fig. 5. Canoe with laterally pressed tips, photographed in the early 20th century ( 7a ; Cunene River, near Quissuco, Angola; DE ALMEIDA 1912, fig. p. 15).

10 These different occurrences have thus been replicated on a distribution map (fig. 4). Associated with this latter, an appendix (Appendix 1, p. 107-113) presents the bibliographic references used for each point, while a brief description of its content provides a more overall view without necessarily consulting each of the sources mentioned. These summary data enable an initial overall approach to these bark- canoes, highlighting three main types (fig. 6). Firstly we have the box-shaped canoes , where the bottom of the craft is strongly raised at each end (fig. 7). These are generally constructed in a single day, and are above all used to cross rivers during the rainy season. Their form, with a very wide flat bottom, facilitates embarkation by inexperienced passengers. These canoes are concentrated in the upper parts of river systems ( 11 , A, B, 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 25 , 27 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ). Downstream we note in particular the use of logboats.

Fig. 7. Box-shaped canoe observed in around 1910 in a region located between the Limpopo and the Zambezi (B, "South of Mozambique – 1910"; B ARRETT 1910, fig. p. 817).

Fig. 8. Canoe called ichikondo , attributable to the box-shaped type, on the Upper Kafue (D OKE 1931, fig. 51; 16 ).

Fig. 9. Lenticular canoe used by Vachokue fishermen, observed near Cangamba, on the Cuando (H AMBLY 1934, image extracted from a film made during this expedition, in 1929-1930; 15 ). https://vimeo.com/100496194

11 As we have mentioned above, box-shaped canoes are a specific type not found on the other continents. The most we find is, here and there, the presence of an isolated example, like the yachip formerly used by the Ainu (N ISHIMURA 1931, fig. 47; see also A RNOLD 2014, fig. p. 59). However, in this case, the raised part is separated from the sides by a slit made in each chine, and is made watertight. We can describe this type as a "canoe with independent raised ends". The second group includes the lenticular canoes with “tips” (in other words the very ends of the craft), that are assembled and more or less firmly attached together. These are long, narrow canoes ( 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10 , 15 , 24 , 26 , 28 , 32 , 40 , 41 , 43 ). They are often used for river fishing, but also sometimes as ferries or for domestic type transports (fig. 5 and 9). The last group is the canoes with washstrakes, in other words with an element raising the base of the hull which require the use several sheets, the development of longitudinal seams and the use of a good system for achieving watertightness. These are used for sea fishing (around Chocas/the Island of

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 17 Mozambique; fig. 10), and have a lenticular form. They are propelled using a small triangular sail and, if necessary, with a paddle or a pole in estuaries ( 12 , 29 , 30 , 31 ). A second group is located in the area between the Great Lakes ( 3, 14 , 39 ). This poses serious interpretive problems relating to the relevance of observations. The case of the Malagarasi canoe ( 3), consisting of two long sheets of bark sewn together should not, in principle, pose too many problems (B URTON 1860, p. 278-279). However, it implies a lengthy period of work, requiring the implementation of a significant longitudinal watertight seam; a seam which, alone, causes very specific problems, both in terms of the technique employed and the raw materials used (see p. 82-90). These canoes are thus unlike the other bark-canoes used in interior waters. These latter are characterised by the rapidity of their manufacture – in other words one day or more often only half a day. Not far from there, between lakes Victoria and Tanganyika ( 14 ), H. M EYER (1916, p. 73) makes a single line mention of the presence of three longitudinal sheets of bark sewn together into a canoe. However, C ZEKANOWSKI (1924, p. 368) clearly mentions the use in this region of craft constructed using three wooden planks 1 cm thick and sewn together. This is a well-developed technology in this area, as indicated by the large Baganda (Waganda) or sesse plank craft used on lakes Victoria and Albert (R OSCOE 1911, p. 383-391; H ARRIS 1946). Nevertheless, as these two occurrences relating to complex bark-canoes mutually support each other, it is not possible a priori to reject their potential presence in the region of the Great Lakes; it is, however, desirable to obtain complementary data. The analysis of the Gairezi canoe ( 25 ; p. 44) enables us to examine other problems, such as the presence of major repairs. The third reference, a mere half a line (H UXLEY 1931, p. 370), mentions canoes made from "fragments of bark" on Lake Edward ( 39): an enormous process of assembly using a material with a short duration of use. Would it not rather be better to envisage here the use of small pieces of wooden sheathing, as shown in the craft from Lake Edward illustrated by F. S TUHLMANN (1894, fig. 72)? We do not yet have sufficient concrete information to answer this question.

Fig. 10. Canoe with washstrakes 4.27 m long, observed in 1926 on the Island of Mozambique (H ORNELL 1935; 12 ).

12 Fig. 11. Box-shaped canoe with shrouds (Lake Chicamba, April 2016; 23 ).

13 Towards a typology of bark-canoes of Mozambique and the neighbouring areas The scarcity of data published on bark-canoes, but also the very small number of examples preserved in museums, are largely compensated for by the fact that these canoes are still in current use. In this context, observing construction methods is a strategic asset, because it permits us not only to identify the tree being used (fig. 12), but also to identify the key stages in the manufacture of the canoes, which facilitates in particular the detailed establishment of a typology – or rather to refine it. As stated above, we have taken the option of first presenting a global vision of the corpus, based on the ethnographic and museographical data, and therefore of only expanding the analysis in a second stage by means of the examples observed in the field. The box-shaped canoes are thus characterised by having a bottom that is significantly elevated at the ends. This process has a number of variants, often dependant on the thickness of the bark used and its elasticity. It is fundamentally based on the principle of folding , and it is not necessary to apply waterproofing processes. However, it is essential to temporarily soften the material by heating it over a fire, in order to be able to fold or deform it (fig. 13). The superimposition of a number of layers at the angles, the rigidity and thickness of particular bark types, also lead to the fact that the thickness must often be reduced at the ends of the sheet, by removing part of the outer layer of the bark (see fig. 50).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 18 When an isolated problem arose with one fold, we were also able to observe the removal of an additional thickness from the material. Regardless of the type of canoe, the bark is systematically removed in the same manner. A small window is created at the base of the trunk in order to verify that the sap is abundantly present, enabling a relatively easy release of the bark without causing it to crack. A slit is then made around the base of the trunk. Another is made at a height equivalent to the length of the planned canoe. And finally, a third, vertical slit connects these two (fig. 12). If a main branch is present, the vertical slit passes through the centre of this problematic location, and the branch is avoided. Box-shaped canoes are generally shorter, with a significant amount of the length of the bark sheet being used to create the raised part of the ends (see fig. 77). However, the trees chosen are usually of large diameter in order to obtain a wider piece of bark (see p. 103). The bark used is generally thick enough to receive pointed stretchers with shouldered ends, enabling them to be "anchored" in the bark (fig. 11). The separation of the edges of the sheet is generally achieved under pressure, by introducing these transverse elements. In some cases, where the bark is particularly rigid, considerable effort must be used to insert a series of short stretchers (see fig. 48). A fire is then created alongside the entire length of the sheet.

Fig. 12. Preparation of the vertical slit (Kimila, July 2013; 37 ).

Fig. 13. Heating the entire split cylinder, with the leafy branches, to obtain water vapour (Chicamba, April 2016; 23 ).

14 This partly open area is then upturned over the fire (fig. 13), enabling the entire bark sheet to be heated uniformly so that the planned separation of the sides can be achieved. The first series of short (and now partially carbonised) stretchers is then removed and replaced by a new set consisting of long pieces. The ends of such pieces of bark are therefore refined, and the raised parts are often only marked by the limited folds. This type of bark gives us a first sub-assemblage of canoes, where the raised parts are oblique and maintained in place by shrouds attached to the first and last stretcher anchored in the bark (fig. 11 and 15/1). We describe these as box-shaped canoes with shrouds . We were able to observe these being constructed on Lake Chicamba (fig. 2, 11, 14). One example, collected from the Ngerengere River, is of the same type ( 36 )3.

3) The canoe collected by Korabiewicz (1947) on the Ngerengere River, for the King George V Museum (now the National Museum of Tanganyika, at Dar es Salaam), could not be located in the collections. We would like to thank Audax Mabulla and Fidelis Masao for their information.

Fig. 14. Box-shaped canoe with shrouds (Chicamba; April 2016; 23 ).

15 The second sub-assemblage is characterised by the fact that the raised part is pushed towards the interior of the split cylinder of bark at two points. The end part of the sides thus protrudes beyond the folded, raised area, extending the sides, into which a horizontal terminal pole is then inserted, maintaining the bottom of the craft in the raised position (fig. 15/2). We describe these canoes as box-shaped canoes with ears (fig. 16). This type of craft is above all present on small lakes located between the Limpopo River and Inhambane ( 19a, 20 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 19 Third option: the lateral, V-shaped folds protrude deeply into the space delimited by the cylinder. Here, the raised part of the bottom constitutes the terminal section of the end. A kind of stem is inserted through the two Vs and the sides, and stabilises the end (fig. 15/3). We describe these as box-shaped canoes with a closing stem . A single example of this type has been identified on an early photograph. This is an ichikondo , on the Kafue River (fig. 8). The last, more common type, is characterised by its ears, which are flattened against the raised part. These are attached to the latter by pointed wooden spikes (fig. 17). The raised part may be oblique, for example on the canoes observed on the Lugenda River ( 34a ; fig. 19), or vertical, as on the ntherere observed at Bilibiza (fig. 18; p. 35-43). We describe these as box-shaped canoes with spikes (fig. 15/4). The example collected in 1935 from the Levuvhu River (fig. 17) is of this type 4. The major problem with these canoes is in the angular area between the raised part and the side, which has been folded then turned down, where it is necessary to superimpose three layers of bark. The most critical situation is clearly that consisting of a vertical raised area. The Museu das Pescas, at Maputo ( 19b), possesses a canoe characterised by its raised part being entirely slit on either side, requiring it to be made watertight (fig. 15/5). We have designated this canoe as a box-shaped canoe with independent raised ends (p. 45).

4) After HOFFMANN 1952 (p. 23), the canoe from the Levuvhu (Levubu) River was collected by the National Museum (inventory number O.2864), a museum now named the Iziko Museums of South Africa. Paul Tichmann and Matth ӱs van der Merwe were not able to find any trace of this canoe nor its inventory number in their collections. Our warmest thanks for their efforts.

Fig. 16. Box-shaped canoe with ears, called lithelele , and ends stabilised with a terminal pole (Inhambane area or Panda region, August 2011; 20 ). https://roncorylus.wordpress.com/2011/08/04/birding-in-mozambique/

Fig. 17. Small box-shaped canoe with spikes, collected on the Levuvhu, a tributary of the Limpopo (H OFFMAN 1952, pl. 1; 18 ). Length 1.96 m; width 0.91-1.07 m.

Fig. 18. Box-shaped canoe with spikes, called ntherere , with a vertical raised end (Bilibiza, April 2016; 33 ).

16 Fig. 19. Three very elongated box-shaped canoes, with spikes, on the Lugenda River ( 34a). They are equipped with seven, eight and nine stretchers respectively, the ends of which are pointed and pierce the bark. These are often supported by one or two stays. The raised parts are oblique. The top of the sides is stabilised by a gunwale pole. See also the long, narrow canoes equipped with numerous stretchers, from the Lucite River ( 21 ), or an example present on Lake Nhamilambo (fig. 70; 20/3 ). This document in no longer available on the site http://www.anotherworldadventures.com/adventures/mozambique-river-expedition/ .

Fig. 20. This canoe was made from the bark of an Erythrophleum suaveolens . We can group this with the canoes with spikes as a result of its local angular lashings ( 22 ). It was used to cross the Mussapa River by an expedition from Kew Gardens. https://www.kew.org/blogs/kew-science/from-the-forests-and-woodland-of-mozambique

Fig. 21. Batonga fisherman on Lake Kariba ( 17 ), in a box-shaped canoe with shrouds and an angular lashing (Zimbabwe). https://www.flickr.com/photos/baronvonthierry/6903457080/

17 Three radically different forms constitute the lenticular canoes . The use of a joint denomination results from the lack of accuracy of early descriptions (we are fortunate when we can differentiate these from box-shaped canoes), and the same is true for the surviving photographs (fig. 9). In this context, the canoe photographed near Quissuco, on the Cunene River, constitutes an exception (fig. 5). To obtain a lenticular shape, the tips of all of these canoes are brought together. These are maintained in place, either by a series of apical lashings, as on some close observed on the Amazon River (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 28- 29), or the tips are pressed firmly against each other and maintained in place by a vertical seam, a type

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 20 observed frequently in Australia (A RNOLD 2015, p. 34-39, 42-51) and systematically in North America (A DNEY and C HAPELLE 1964). In the African corpus, these vertical seams are executed in harness stitch (see p. 59). We therefore designate these as canoes with apical lashings (fig. 15/7) and canoes with distal seams (fig. 15/8). On these two types of canoe, we often observe the presence of an upper structural support, with gunwale poles, stretchers and ties, sometimes associated with a number of ribs of very small section. Finally, we observe the presence of canoes with ends created using folds, terminating in a raised point. This is consolidated by a number of horizontal pegs (fig. 22). These are the canoes with longitudinally folded ends , and laterally flattened into a pointe (fig. 15/6). Structurally they are similar to some canoes observed in Australia (A RNOLD 2015, p. 21-27: canoes with tied ends) and in an area located, at the border between Brazil and French Guiana (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 30). In the case of Mozambique, these canoes are considerably better structured. Nor do they require the use of procedures to ensure watertightness.

Fig. 22. Bark-canoe with longitudinally folded ends on the River Lugenda (E LLERT 2013, fig. p. 293; 34b ).

18 The canoes with apical lashings are characterised by their tips, which have a space between them at the base. The location of the first lashing stitch, closest to the first stretcher, and the length of this stretcher, raise the entire and in a more or less marked manner above the flotation line, giving it the form of the spout of a teapot (fig. 23). No waterproofing process is required. The kapepe we were able to observe on the Kimila River (Malagarasi river basin) corresponds to this type (fig. 1 and 23; p. 47-53). As it dries, the envelope hardens, and the additional elements which are lost at a later date are not replaced or reinserted, with the exception of the stretchers and the central tie. The tips of canoes with distal seams are pressed against each other and thus maintained together by a seam of harness stitch type (fig. 24). Waterproofing material is secondarily inserted under pressure (caulking) at this location. Sometimes it is sandwiched between two vertical seams (luting). The nikhula from the Lúrio River are of this type (fig. 24; p. 55-63). These canoes are often shorter, but this is compensated for by considerable width, increasing the stability of the craft and the payload which can be carried, enabling them to be used not only for fishing but also for transporting people from one bank to another. This is also the type of canoe which is used in Angola (fig. 26). The canoes with waskstrakes are produced using a number of sheets of bark. We have already emphasised the interpretive problems posed by the assemblage located in the region of the Great Lakes (p. 11). However, considerably more data are available for the assemblage, centred around the Island of Mozambique, and where rare examples are still in use (fig. 25). These are the muterere (30 ), the nintherere (31 ) and one example of untoro (29 ). We have only a single photograph to illustrate the latter (fig. 27). These consist of an axial sheet (or two) laterally fitted with a washstrake, also consisting of a piece of bark, which enables the width of the craft to be increased by giving it a transverse profile suitable for the use of a small triangular sail. These canoes are used for sea fishing. The tips of the central elements are pressed against each other and maintained in place by a vertical seam. The entire assembly is secondarily stabilised by an upper structural support, the stretchers of which are replaced by small boards or beams, one maintaining the mast and the other acting as a bench. The transverse curve of the bottom is ensured by a dense network of fine ribs, which we have designated as frame sticks.

Fig. 23. Kapepe , canoes with apical lashings (Kimila River, July 2013; 37 ).

Fig. 24. Nikhula , canoes with distal seams (Lúrio River, April 2016; 32 ).

Fig. 25. Muterere , a canoe with washstrakes on the beach at Chocas (July 2013; 30/4 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 21

19 The implementation of such canoes thus also requires the use, at the base of the washstrakes, of longitudinal lashings, associated with waterproofing at this point. Finally, the area where the tips come into contact is caulked from the inside with packed coconut fibre. The structural complexity of these craft attracted the attention of F. VON LUSCHAN (1907, p. 20), who compared them to the mtepe ; the large sewn vessels used on the coasts of East Africa.

Complement: the untoro and ngarawa canoes The highly developed untoro canoes seen by A. M OURA at Namevil (1988, p. 367-368, pl. 20), in the Bay of Quinga – in other words a little to the south of the Island of Mozambique – have not been manufactured "for a long time", according to people questioned in 2013 ( 29 ). These were a little larger than the muterere , and could carry three or four fishermen. They were also propelled by means of a triangular sail, but the beams are not present on the photographed untoro (fig. 27). On the basis of this latter document, it is not possible to analyse the method by which the various sheets of bark have been assembled, or the waterproofing system used. Nor do we have an extensive sample of the framework. This consisted of frame sticks, as on the muterere , but arranged even more closely. According to António Emes (THE MARINER ’S MUSEUM 2001, p. 395), it is 6 m long and 0.9 m deep (see p. 111). In a brief paper accompanied by a sketch (fig. 28), D. S HROPSHIRE (1935) mentions the existence of a bark-canoe on the Pungwe River, close to the frontier between Zimbabwe and Mozambique, where it was used as a ferry ( 24 ). It was called ngarawa , a name which is strangely similar to ngalawa , a canoe with an outrigger consisting of a pointed plank. These latter craft are still widely used today on the Tanzanian and Zanzibar coasts, but not that of Mozambique. The published sketch illustrates a canoe with distal seams, with the tips flattened laterally. The separation of the sides is ensured by a series of stretchers topped by two stems arranged diagonally. This arrangement is not well adapted to the geometry of this canoe, but is present on numerous box-shaped specimens used not far from here, for example on Lake Chicamba ( 23 ); canoes whose general form has been stabilised using two stems arranged on diagonals (fig. 14). It is therefore probable that this structure in the illustrated ngarawa in fact comes from a transfer of techniques from the box-shaped canoes.

Fig. 26. Angola: canoe with laterally pressed tips.

Fig. 27. Untoro from Namevil, Quinga Bay; a model which is no longer in use (M OURA 1988, pl. 20; 29 ).

Fig. 28. Ngarawa canoe with distal seam from the Pungwe River (S HROPSHIRE 1935, fig. 1; 24 ). Length 3 m; width 0.9 m.

20 Fig. 29. "Canoa de casca": two box-shaped canoes with shrouds on Lake Chicamba ( 23 ). Look out! A crocodile is attacking the fish caught in the net. This time the fishermen arrive too late to save their catch (April 2016).

21 Box-shaped canoes with shrouds The canoes of Lake Chicamba Lake Chicamba is a reservoir constructed in 1968. It is located roughly in the centre of Mozambique, near Zimbabwe. The indigenous craft are logboats and bark-canoes (23 ), essentially used for fishing with a line or sometimes with a small net. To the right and left of the dam, a significant rocky bar marks the landscape (fig. 30). The part located to the north and west is difficult to access. However, the eastern part is accessed by a good beaten

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 22 earth track, constructed halfway up the hill. It is bordered on each side by small hamlets, and then by fields (fig. 31). Finally, the lake below constitutes an important source of protein for these populations. We therefore counted ten canoes in the space of 4.5 km of coast (fig. 2, 29, 32-35) 5. On the other side, a still natural forest covers the sometimes rather steep slopes of the rocky bar. This is the source of the bark (fig. 38) which enables a fleet of canoes to be maintained. According to the fishermen encountered, bark from two tree species is used: musasa (Brachystegia boehmii ) and mutondo (Brachystegia bussei or Julbernardia paniculata )6. We were able to watch the construction of a canoe made from a sheet of Brachystegia bussei bark (fig. 36) 7. The selected tree was estimated to be about 80 years old. The diameter (0.37 m) is evaluated by the fishermen putting their arms around the trunk (see, for example, fig. 79). The canoes are simply called “canoa de casca”, and, if pressed, “canoa em Chicamba”. They have a lifetime estimated at 3-4 years due to their particularly thick bark.

5) The images of Lake Chicamba were taken in April 2016. 6) See p. 116 and 118 and fig. 273-275. 7) This work was carried out in April 2016 by Ronaldo Ferreira Torres Mandevo, Daimond Nttandoro Tsembero and Constantino Ferreira Torres Mandevo (see fig. 257). The latter, who was the eldest of the two brothers, was also the most experienced, and led by example during the process of constructing the canoe; in other words, carrying out the most complex work himself.

Fig. 30. The dam on Lake Chicamba and the eastern part of the rocky bar.

Fig. 31. Hamlet overlooking the lake, below the track.

Fig. 32. Box-shaped canoe with shrouds (Lake Chicamba).

22 To remove the bark, a circular groove is cut at the base of the trunk. The marks left in the bark of the lower groove by the first machete cuts are observed carefully in order to verify that sufficient humidity is present between the bark and the wood itself. Here, the bark can only be removed in this way between December and April. No test window is made (for example, fig. 80), but the first cuts in the circular slit at the base of the trunk make it possible to obtain a good idea of the humidity level in the cambium. Another groove is then cut at a height corresponding to the length of the canoe. This position is reached by using a makeshift ladder, consisting of a narrow trunk with two main branches forming a Y shape, the angle of which is wedged against the selected trunk (fig. 37). The two branches also act as a platform to reach the opposite side and to complete cutting the upper slit around the trunk (fig. 40). The two circular slits are then linked by a third, vertical one, cut in the concave curve of the trunk (fig. 39). Large wooden wedges, fashioned for the occasion, are driven with a pebble between the bark and the wood itself (fig. 41). And finally, levers are brought into play (fig. 42-44). This work seems to be particularly arduous. We discovered why on observing the exceptional thickness of the bark – 20 mm – and the considerable efforts required to separate the edges of the split cylinder of bark (see fig. 48). To transfer the bark to the ground, the distal part is gradually allowed to slide down the trunk. A rope is first attached around the top of the bark, preventing it from swinging suddenly away from the trunk and becoming cracked as it falls heavily to the ground (fig. 45).

Fig. 33. Canoe attached to a crossbar supported by two stakes, for line fishing.

Fig. 34. Box-shaped canoe with shrouds (Lake Chicamba).

Fig. 35. Two box-shaped canoes with shrouds, on Lake Chicamba. The bark has been taken from trees on the mountain located at the far right.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 23 23 Fig. 36. Brachystegia bussei selected for the manufacture of a canoe.

Fig. 37. Upper slit: passing up the adze.

Fig. 38. The banks of Lake Chicamba coasts and Brachystegia forest.

Fig. 39. Lower slit and start of the vertical slit.

Fig. 40. Making the upper slit.

24 In fact, as we later observed, the thickness of the bark makes it particularly heavy and it is almost impossible to control an unexpected fall. However, such a measure can only result from long experience, indicating that this thickness is normal here (as we observed on numerous canoes used on this lake) rather than an exceptional case. After an hour and a half’s work, the bark is finally on the ground (fig. 46). Once there, an adze is used to strike marks at regular intervals opposite each other across the split edges of the cylinder (fig. 47). The bark is then pierced at these points using the pointed heel of the triangular blade that protrudes from the handle. The sides of the cylinder are then separated a little, requiring considerable effort, (fig. 48), to insert short stretchers, the ends of which are cut into a point in order to pierce the bark (fig. 49). The bark located beyond the first and last stretcher is reduced with an axe, with around 50% of the initial thickness being removed (fig. 50). An additional hour and a half has thus elapsed, making three hours in total since the start of the work.

Fig. 41. Wooden wedge inserted using a pebbel.

Fig. 42. The bark is gradually peeled off.

Fig. 43. After the wedges, large levers are used.

25 Fig. 44. The upper part of the bark is released.

Fig. 45. A rope ensures the safe lowering of the bark.

Fig. 46. Bark 20 mm thick.

Fig. 47. Marking the position of the stretchers.

Fig. 48. First series of stretchers, inserted under strong pressure.

Fig. 49. Pointed stretchers from the first series.

26 An elongated hearth the same length as the removed piece of bark is then created beside it (fig. 51). This is lit, then covered with leafy branches. The canoe is then upturned and arranged over the fire. Intense smoke issues from the ends of the bark sheet, which act as chimneys. The steam released from the leaves heats the bark considerably but prevents it from burning (fig. 52). From time to time the hull is turned back upright in order to add more fuel – and particularly leafy branches – to the fire (fig. 53). After an hour of heating, the bark has become sufficiently flexible under pressure from a foot, and it is removed from the fire. The first series of stretchers, which is now partially carbonised (fig. 55), is thus replaced by a second much longer series, corresponding to the final width of the canoe (fig. 54; see also the cross section of the three superimposed phases of the expansion process in fig. 60). The first end is raised using a lever slipped beneath and in the centre of the terminal area (fig. 56) 8. Two or three shrouds, taking the form of a twisted bark cord, are arranged on either side of the

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 24 lever (fig. 57). These pierce the bark sheet where a hole has been made in the bark, and on the other side are attached to the first stretcher (fig. 58). To maintain the rope on the other side of the bark sheet, the shroud is attached to a small retaining stem (see fig. 61). Next, the other end is heated further, then raised in turn. The fishermen then laterally tighten the ends using a bark strip and lash the gunwale poles in place. They attach a number of ties to the latter, then lash two poles arranged diagonally across the stretchers in order to triangulate the upper structural support (fig. 59).

8) For all recently highlighted box-shaped canoes in Mozambique, it would be judicious to replace the term of "canoes with folded ends" from Amazonia with that of " canoes with one concave end " (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 18 and 24).

Fig. 50. End of the bark sheet, shaped with an axe.

Fig. 51. Long fire over which the canoe is placed.

Fig. 52. Particular attention is given to the ends.

27 Fig. 53. The canoe is turned over while the fire is fed.

Fig. 54. Insertion of the second series of stretchers.

Fig. 55. Additional heating for one end.

Fig. 56. One end is raised, closing the canoe.

Fig. 57. Shrouds maintain the curve of the bark.

Fig. 58. Transverse lashing and attachment for the shrouds.

28 Finally, pairs of Y-shaped stays are arranged beneath the stretchers in order to control the internal depth of the envelope. On some canoes, a single stay is used per stretcher. These are then arranged in an alternating manner (fig. 62). This final stage took a further hour and a half. Consequently, after five and a half hours of effort – in other words, to remove and shape the bark – the canoe is finished. In the afternoon, the fishermen, accompanied by a few friends, carry it to the road, on which we transport it the next day to the edge of the lake with our 4x4. The canoe is very difficult for four people to move; six are preferable (see fig. 259). The weight is around 100 kg, resulting directly from the considerable thickness of the bark, the density of which is 1.1-1.2 kg/dm 3 when wet. This canoe is 3.95 m long and considered by the fishermen to be a large example (fig. 60). The shrouds expanded and the ends of the canoe subsided significantly as the bark cooled.

Fig. 59. Triangulation of the upper structural support and insertion of the stays.

29 Overall, the relative stability of the shrouds is very variable, frequently leading to twisting in the raised ends of the canoe and giving it an unfinished external appearance (fig. 34). The thickness of the bark does not here permit the bark to be folded forward more. A number of variants can be observed, enabling a better understanding of how these ends are folded. If there is a single, central pressure point

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 25 which is not sufficiently pronounced, two channels form close to the sides, significantly reducing the carrying capacity of the canoe. This is, for example, the final situation of the canoe we were able to observe being constructed (fig. 60). By raising the central part still further, these channels gradually reduce then disappear. This method for closing the ends of the canoe, associated with very thick bark, is similar to that employed on the large bark-canoes in Amazonia, used on the Upper Xingú; these are made from the bark of the jatobá (Hymenaea courbaril ) and have no shrouds ( DE LIMA 1950). A second variant is present on some Lake Chicamba canoes: two levers are applied, each in the centre of one half of one end. The central part then curves slightly downwards, giving the entire end a W- shaped profile (fig. 62). This means that there are no lateral gutters – or that they are at least very much reduced. On the example of this type that we measured on the shores of the lake, the “second” stretcher had not been inserted, thus creating a space used for storing fishing equipment. Finally, a removable bench, in the form of an elliptical sheet of bark, is placed on the two crossed stems.

Fig. 61. Attachment of three shrouds to the external face of the hull.

30 Fig. 63. Box-shaped canoes with ears on Lake Nhamilambo, near Panda, called lithelele (20/4 in the foreground; September 2018).

31 Box-shaped canoes with ears The lithelele of Lake Nhamilambo The area set back from the coastal zone between Xai-Xai and Inhambane 9 consists of a large plain punctuated by modest areas of parallel relief, between which are found strings of lakes and ponds, some of which can be very large during the rainy season (fig. 66). The smaller lakes are characterised by very distinct banks and the use of small bark-canoes with ears – the lithelele (fig. 63 and 64; 20 ). Meanwhile, the larger ponds are surrounded by a broad swathe of reeds (fig. 66/2), which are the source of the raw material used in the manufacture of small rafts known as lambeco . The reeds are sometimes also present in the partially dried meanders (fig. 65) 10 . On Lake Nhamilambo, chiaka – tilapia – are caught by line fishing or with small nylon nets. Once these latter can no longer be used, they are wrapped around the outside of the bottom of the canoe to prevent the sharp edges of the bark from catching on the fishing nets. The bark of tamba (Brachystegia spiciformis ) and sometimes canhu (in other words Anacardium occidentale , the cashew tree) is used. The language spoken in this region is the machope dialect, which is limited to a small area around Inharrime and Zavala.

9) More precisely, between Manjacaze and Homaine – in other words, centred on an area located to the south of Panda. 10) The photographs in this chapter were taken in September 2018.

Fig. 64. Cactamo returning from fishing on Lake Nhamilambo, with his small bark-canoe with ears ( 20/1 ).

Fig. 65. Fishing with a cast net from a reed raft called lambeco , like those observed on Lake Sule.

Fig. 66. Zone located south of Panda between Manjacaze and Homoine with Lake Nhamilambo (1) and Lake Sule (2).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 26

32 The canoe used by Cactamo is highly deformed as a result of its lack of gunwale poles (fig. 67). It is 2.22 m long with a width of 0.90 m and a depth of 0.20 m ( 20/1 ). The old fisherman no longer constructs his own canoes, but buys the bark and has his canoes made by other fishermen, for a total cost of the equivalent of 8 USD. The duration of the operation, not included travel, is approximately one day. As for the duration of use, this is 1-2 years. After returning from a fishing trip, the canoes are generally submerged in order to prevent the bark from drying out too much and cracking (fig. 68). The box-shaped canoes with ears are thus called lithelele . These are characterised by their ends, closed by a broad raised area associated with a simple fold on each side, thus releasing an extension in the form of a triangle, which we have designated an "ear". The two ears of one end are linked by a horizontal stem wedging the bottom of the canoe in the raised position. This arrangement is completed on the inside by a stretcher and is much easier to implement than to have to fold the ears back against the raised section and deal with a triple thickness of bark at the angles. Thus only actions 1a and 1b from fig. 97 are required. The outer bark is not removed at the ends. And finally, such a structure clearly requires no waterproofing processes. In the central part, we generally note the presence of two pairs of stretchers delimiting between them a space used by the fisherman to place his feet (fig. 71). The other compartments are used to store nets (fig. 69).

Fig. 67. Canoe used by Cactamo. Length 2.22 m; width 0.90 m; depth 0.20 m ( 20/1 ).

Fig. 68. When the canoe with ears is not in use, it is generally submerged.

Fig. 69. Lithelele with one bench nailed in place. Length 2.04 m; width 0.87 m; depth 0.28 m ( 20/2 ).

Fig. 70. Right, lithelele with multiple stretchers and stays. Length 2.85 m; width 0.69 m; depth 0.25m ( 20/3 ).

33 The rear pair of stretchers (there are three of these on 20/4 ) is used by the fisherman to install a bench, either temporarily or definitively (using a few nails), which is supported by the edges of the bark and the gunwale poles (fig. 69). One unusual example is characterised by the presence of multiple stretchers supported by vertical Y-shaped stays (fig. 70). For our measurements, we have chosen a canoe more in phase with the basic type (fig. 63, 71-72; 20/4 ). A diagonal metal wire has been inserted temporarily to stabilise the form of the craft and thus to reduce the effects of transverse torsion. In the Museu das Pescas in Maputo, we note the presence of a type of scale model of a canoe with ears, 1.06 m long with an average width of 0.43 m and a depth of 0.12 m. Daniel Lopes has indicated to us that this is a salmoura – in other words, a container intended to preserve fish by means of salting (fig. 73). A few examples are still suspended from the ceiling of three habitations in Memba, located between Mossuril and the River Lúrio. A similar example is exhibited in the Museu da História Natural in Maputo (illustrated in C LARK 1960, p. 79, fig. 1-2). These elements indicate that the distribution of canoes with ears is likely to extend over a much larger area than that centred on Panda.

Fig. 71. Box-shaped canoe with ears, called lithelele , used on Lake Nhamilambo in Sptember 2018 (20/4 ). The prow is on the right. The bench is removable. Length 2.58 m; width 0.78 m; depth 0.15 m; thickness of the bark 8 mm. Weight: 40 kg. Species used: Brachystegia spiciformis . Scale: 1/25.

Fig. 72. Lower face of the canoe 20/4 , with outer bark beginning to scale through use. The horizontal closing pole is here clearly visible.

Fig. 73. Salmoura in the Museu das Pescas (Maputo).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 27

34 Fig. 74. Box-shaped canoe with spikes, called ntherere (Montepuez River, near Bilibiza; April 2016; 33 ).

35 Box-shaped canoes with spikes The ntherere of Bilibiza Bilibiza is a small village located north of Pemba. The Montepuez River runs nearby, along its southern edge. During the rainy season and when the river’s flow is strong, the rectangular bark craft known as ntherere (33 ) are used as ferries to take the local inhabitants from one bank to the other, and particularly to reach fields or isolated habitations (fig. 74-76) 11 . The upper structural support consists of a series of stretchers inserted in the sides of the canoe, the whole arrangement consolidated by lashing two long bamboo poles diagonally beneath the stretchers to triangulate the structure. These are duplicated by two long bamboo laths lashed just above. Much shorter bamboo laths are lashed to the rear part of the canoe in order to create a kind of rack against which the punter pushes. At the front, a smaller number of similar elements serve to support baggage such as sacks, while keeping them out of the water often present in the bottom of the canoe. The frontal part of the ends is significantly raised in order to avoid taking on too much water, particularly when the river current is strong. Around 2.5-3 m long and 1 m wide, these canoes are particularly stable when passengers embark or disembark. They are used during the period December-June. They are therefore constructed in December – in other words at the start of their period of use. This latter is around three years.

11) The photographs and measurements in this chapter were finalised in the field in April 2016.

Fig. 75. Crossing the Montepuez River near Bilibiza, with a bark ferry of ntherere type.

Fig. 76. Ferries of ntherere type on the Montepuez River, below Bilibiza. Right – an example that is no longer usable has become a children's toy.

36 Fig. 77. Ntherere constructed in April 2016 at Bilibiza ( 33 ). Length: 2.67 m, with a piece of bark (in grey) 3.25 m long. Width of the canoe 1.00 m; central depth 0.31 m; thickness of the bark without the cracked outer layer 8-9 mm. Topstems from the lower layer; first series of stretchers with ends cut into a point, and in grey the second unpointed series. Tree specises: Julbernardia globiflora (see note 14). Scale 1:25.

37 If necessary, the bark can be removed in April, but after this it becomes more difficult as there is no longer sufficient moisture between the bark and the wood. However, where possible, the constructors avoid removing the bark late in the season, as this means the canoe can be very little used until the start of the next rainy season. It is therefore necessary to store it, unused, for almost a year. The fishing canoes used in the neighbouring lakes are similar but a little smaller and without the bamboo laths constituting the front and rear platforms (fig. 78). And the raised part of the ends is often reduced or even absent, as there is no current in the water. The distinctive feature of these canoes is their strict box shape, made from a single sheet of unincised bark, with ends raised at right angles to the bottom. This requires the use of processes based on the concept of folding, and where the major difficulty thus clearly resides in the relative rigidity and thickness of the bark sheet. The canoe observed in around 1910 between the Limpopo and the Zambezi was also of this type (fig. 7; B).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 28 The canoes are therefore essentially constructed in December. Such a canoe was exceptionally made in April, on our behalf (fig. 77) 12 . From the track, a 30-minute walk into the forest of Utako was necessary before a tree with a suitable diameter was reached 13 . The size of the trunk was checked by the fisherman placing his arms around it (fig. 79). A small “window” was then cut into the base of the bark, to evaluate the humidity of the surface between the bark and the wood (fig. 80). The selected tree species was a npakala 14 . The forests are the property of the state and it was not necessary to request authorisations or to pay taxes in the context of traditional village activities. No votive action was carried out. The only financial investment required was the transport of the rolled bark by vehicle from the side of the track through the forest to the village. The slit was then extended around the entire circumference of the tree. A makeshift ladder (a young trunk with two branches in the form of a V) was found, abandoned, in the area. The fork of this was leaned against the trunk. The upper circular slit could then be cut (fig. 81), followed by the vertical one linking the other two. The latter was positioned to pass exactly on either side of the major knot, which thus presented only a small number of problems when removing the bark.

12) Valente Emilio Juliano, our guide, together with Bachir Afonso, had organised in advance the construction of a bark-canoe of ntherere during our visit to Bilibiza, in April 2016. The majority of the work was carried out by Antumane Bento, and the remainder of the process was carried out with his close supervision. 13) The diameter of the base of the trunk was 0.57 m. It thus had a circumference of 1.80 m, which is particularly large in comparison with the other canoes observed, particularly as a strip 15 cm wide was removed from each side of the split cylinder as a result of the irregularities due to the presence of a major knot. This was probably also done because, once placed on the ground, the bark sheet appeared much too wide to Antumane. 14) The analysed leaves come from a branch of a relatively young tree, collected on our behalf by the indigenous inhabitants (Julbernardia globiflora ; see fig. 276). The crown of the tree involved was very high and inaccessible with the means available without posing an unnecessary risk to the indigenous inhabitants.

Fig. 78. Ntherere intended for fishing. The crossed triangulation poles of the upper structural support are clearly visible.

38 The bark was removed in an hour using a number of large bevelled wooden levers (fig. 82). However, it was necessary to address the area located around the knot separately. The bark was then carefully tilted towards the ground, rather than slid along the trunk (fig. 83). Finally, the cracked outer layer of the bark was removed by hammering, which involves 45 minutes’ additional work (fig. 84). The bark was globally much more flexible than that in the example constructed at Chicamba (see p. 22-25). The bark sheet removed was 3.25 m long, 8-9 mm thick – to which can be added 2-3 mm for the outer, cracked layer (which, as stated above, was removed by hammering it). The original circumference of the bark sheet was 1.80 m at the base and 1.52 m at the top. It was then rolled up without any effort, along the longitudinal axis. The thickness and cohesion of the bark in fact made it impossible to roll the sheet transversely, as for the kapepe for which the bark was refined on the removal site (see fig. 120). Antumane then carried it on his head through the forest to the edge of the track, where it could be lifted onto a vehicle (fig. 85).

Fig. 79. Evaluation of the diameter of the trunk (Ø ~0.57 m).

Fig. 80. Window test, beginning the lower circular slit.

Fig. 81. Making the upper circular slit.

39 Fig. 82. The bark is prised away from the wood using large levers.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 29 Fig. 83. The bark is lowered directly to the ground. Top left: knot cut around during removal.

Fig. 84. Outer bark removed by hammering.

Fig. 85. After an hour and three quarters’ effort, the roll of bark can be removed from the forest.

40 As soon as they arrived at the village, the inhabitants began the construction process (fig. 86), inserting an initial series of pointed stretchers under pressure and without prior heating of the bark (fig. 77). At each end of the bark sheet, a space equivalent to the length separating the stretchers was set aside. This made it possible to shape the ends by folding so that they protruded significantly beyond the height of the sides, preventing too much water from being taken on as a result of the river current, but also in order to create a kind of lever arm for use during the folding process. The length of the canoe was therefore reduced by around a fifth in comparison to the length of the bark sheet originally removed. The first stage consisted of marking, by a few blows from an adze, the upper part of the bark where the ends of the stretchers were to be located. The preliminary hole was finalised at these points using a chisel (fig. 87). Finally, the ends of the stretchers were shaped into an asymmetrical point, with a projection oriented upwards (fig. 88). This pushed against the internal face of the top of the bark. The separation between these transversal elements was based on the length of the forearm of the fisherman in charge of directing the work. However, the bark sheet was a little too short and the distance separating the two final stretchers (fig. 77/5 and 77/6) had to be slightly reduced. These were inserted by separating the sides, which required moderate effort given the reduced thickness of the bark and its elasticity (fig. 89). A rope linked the points of the final stretchers, thus marking the starting area for significant reduction of the bark using an adze or machete. The thickness was thus reduced by half, to around 4 mm (fig. 90). In order to avoid the bark separating at the distal stretchers during the folding process, the ends of these were linked by a rope – in this case a piece of metal wire. One of the reduced ends was then placed over a small fire (fig. 90). The flexibility of the bark was tested regularly, with a hand protected by a clump of grasses. The partially completed canoe was then removed from the fire and the end folded to a right angle (fig. 91). This was undoubtedly the most complex operation. In theory the shape of the side is maintained right up to the end of the bark sheet, and the part of the sheet located beyond the final stretcher is then raised (fig. 91). Finally, the ends of the sides were turned down against the front of the folded end (fig. 92-93). The entire process was similar to gift wrapping a book or a container of fruit. In actuality, the work could not be carried out this simply, given the thickness of the bark. These movements must be carried out simultaneously in order to shape an angle while managing three layers of bark (see fig. 97). It was clear that the raised temperature of the bark did not facilitate the work. Once the fold was considered to be satisfactory, it was maintained in place using two long spikes cut from shards of bamboo (fig. 94). The folded part of the ends was then sandwiched between two bamboo laths (fig. 95), held together by metal wire. These pass through the bark by means of holes pierced using a metal spike attached to a very long handle. Finally, the bark folded back on itself at the top of the sides was trimmed in order to reduce tension (fig. 96). The irregular edge of the sides was then evened out using the very sharp blade of a large cutlass or machete.

Fig. 86. The bark cylinder is opened easily.

Fig. 87. The holes are pierced with a chisel.

41 Fig. 88. Asymmetrical shaping of the points of the stretchers.

Fig. 89. Inserting the stretchers.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 30 Fig. 90. Softening the reduced thickness of the ends with fire.

Fig. 91. The end of the bark is folded.

Fig. 92. The bark is folded with difficulty.

Fig. 93. Bark raised vertically then folded again.

42 Beneath the stretchers were inserted two crossed stems which constituted the basal triangulation of the structural support. The second end was then heated and folded to a right angle. Additional stretchers, which did not pierce the bark, were positioned and attached to the cross-shaped structure. The presence of these additional stretchers reduced the amount by which the top of the bark rolled in on itself as it dried (fig. 98). Sometimes there are no additional stretchers, or they also end in points. Two bamboo laths were then superimposed over and lashed to the cross-shaped structure (fig. 98). And finally, a number of bamboo laths were lashed parallel to the longitudinal axis. These were supplemented by a number of relatively short pieces forming a platform for the punter at the rear (fig. 99-100) and at the front, where they provide a support for the passengers’ bundles. These lashings consisted of digitate palm leaves consisting of fine blades with a central spine. It is this last element which was removed (fig. 101). The remainder of the edges was removed using a knife point. Before being used, these narrow, very solid pieces, prepared a long time in advance, were placed for a few hours in a bucket of water in order to regain their initial flexibility. The remaining operation involved inserting two stays made from a small Y-shaped section of trunk, which were felled in large quantities (fig. 102). The hollow between the two sides of the fork was wedged below one of the central stretchers in the first series. At the other end, a disc of bark was inserted to avoid puncturing the envelope.

Fig. 94. Attachment with two long bamboo spikes.

Fig. 95. Consolidating the ends.

Fig. 96. Slit to reduce the tension in the raised part.

Fig. 97. Bark flaps at the angles of the canoe, with stages 1a-1b and 2, then attachment of the whole with bamboo spikes ( 3 ).

43 In the current case, the term “stay” is preferable to that of “prop” or “pillar”, as the aim was not to support a floor, but to maintain the correct curve in the envelope. In two hours, the construction of the canoe was finished. The entire operation had thus taken a little less than four hours (removal of the bark and shaping, not including travel time). The stretchers were made from wood so that, if necessary, distal points can be carved. The cross- shaped pieces in the lower layer consisted of unsplit bamboo stems, as do the gunwale poles. As for those constituting the upper layer, in a cross shape and forming the platform, however, the stems were split at least once. Finally, the sharp edges of these pieces were scraped to round them off.

Fig. 98. Insertion of additional stretchers.

Fig. 99. Punter’s platform.

Fig. 100. Photography using a telescopic pole.

Fig. 101. Preparing small ropes.

Fig. 102. Two Y shaped stays to maintain the longitudinal and transverse curve of the envelope.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 31 44 The canoe with spikes from Gairezi (Zimbabwe) The box-shaped canoe with spikes exhibited in the Mutare Museum was collected from the Gairezi River, in the district of Nyanga ( 25 ). The published photograph (fig. 103) reveals two gunwale poles lashed to the ends of two stretchers. No other transverse element of this type is present, and nor are any ribs. A distinctive feature of this canoe is that the sides have been added separately and attached to the bottom, not by means of a seam, but using a dense row of pointed spikes. These protrude significantly beyond the internal surface of the canoe, but also from the exterior at the chine of the raised area. The entire craft thus presents an extremely crude appearance, and it is difficult on the basis of this single example to specify whether this represents the initial structure of the canoe or a major repair – which could even have been carried out during the construction process. We are inclined towards a major repair, as it is very probable that the spikes emerging from the chine would be torn out each time the canoe came ashore. These linking parts thus seem to indicate the absence of a long tradition in longitudinal assembly of such a canoe, which would have involved the implementation of a seam. In this context, the use of this set of spikes instead illustrates a makeshift solution – an extension of the principle used to maintain in place the ears folded and attached by spikes.

Fig. 103. The box-shaped canoe from Gairezi (Mutare Museum; 25 ), with intensive use of pointed spikes, for example piercing the chine (arrow), probably as a result of a major repair.

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45 Box-shaped canoes with independent raised ends The tsevele from the Museu das Pescas (Maputo) The Museu das Pescas, in Maputo, possesses a rather crude, relatively wide and deep canoe (fig. 104). It is 2.40 m long, 1.20 m wide and 0.40 m deep ( 19b ). On its inventory record (no. 32), the provenance indicated corresponds to the Province of Gaza – in other words to the area covering the lower basin of the Limpopo. It is called tsevele . This box-shaped canoe is distinguished from the other examples by the presence, at each side of the raised areas, of a vertical slit extending from the edge to the bottom, leading to a break in the natural watertightness obtained by folding. To create the raised area, the parts initially forming an extension of the sides create a double layer on the inside of the end part of the sides at one end of the canoe (fig. 104 and 106), and on the outside at the other (fig. 105). These two layers of bark are maintained in place by one or two loops consisting of metal wire. They can therefore be pressed against each other only moderately, and significant caulking should have been inserted at this point, which is not the case. In this context, the canoe may be a preform. The gunwale poles are also maintained in place by metal wires and, at the top of the raised areas, these are edged by curved stems that double the gunwale poles over part of their length (fig. 106). No stretchers are present. This break in the natural watertightness present in the box-shaped canoes obtained by folding is reminiscent of the "canoes with raised ends" from South America, which belong to the vast group of woodskins from Guyana (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 38-39). Thus, despite the unfinished appearance of this canoe, it cannot be considered the result of an unsuccessful trial, as a result of the existence of a specific vernacular name.

Fig. 104. Tsevele in the reserves of the Museu das Pescas ( 19b ).

Fig. 105. Released part of the raised end of the tsevele , folded against the sides.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 32

Fig. 106. Interior view of an angle of the tsevele , with the bark slit and a reinforced edge.

46 Fig. 107. Kapepe on the Kimila River – a canoe with apical lashings (July 2013; 37/2 ).

47 Canoes with apical lashings The kapepe from the Malagarasi river basin (Tanzania) After a long journey through the forests of the Malagarasi river basin, which empties into Lake Tanganyika, we arrived at a small fishing camp established on the banks of the Kimila River. An area of shallows separates this river from the Malagarasi and its rapids, thus creating a calm section suitable for fishing. The fishermen use small bark-canoes known as kapepe (37 ), which means “very very light” (fig. 1, 107-108). These are ideally suited for use in this calm environment. They essentially vary between 3.5 and 4.2 m in length, with a width of around 0.80 m 15. Sparse ribs consisting of split stems are scattered on the banks around the camp and in the neighbouring flooded area. Once it has dried completely, the bark retains the form given to it by the fishermen, and they see no need to reinsert the ribs when they come loose. As in all bark-canoes, these transverse pieces are not attached directly to the hull, but are maintained in place by pressure and wedged between the hull and the gunwale poles. Only the stretchers and tie are systematically replaced and consolidated. The form of the craft is maintained by an upper structural support (gunwale poles/stretchers/ties) and, as mentioned above, by very few ribs of small section. The ends are the distinctive feature of these long, narrow canoes. The tips of one end are linked together at the top, and not at the distal part of the end. This involves a series of lashings, or one major lashing supplemented by a seam moving towards the terminal area (fig. 109). The length between this major lashing of the closest stretcher, the dimensions of the latter and the space that separates it from the base of the bottom, automatically lead to the terminal part of the end being raised above the flotation line. This part thus resembles the spout of a teapot (fig. 108). This is an original process which has been observed elsewhere only in Amazonia, between the Purús and Madeira rivers (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 28-29). Here, of course, this is merely a convergence of form. Once the canoe is beached on the bank, the fisherman can raise one end to empty out the water taken on through the other, through its spout-shaped terminal part.

15) The photographs and measurements in this chapter were taken in July 2013.

Fig. 108. Kapepe on the Kimila River, with its spout-shaped end.

48 Depending on the width of the stretcher, the end can be raised in a more or less marked manner, and any excessively raised part is sometimes not removed, giving the craft a very specific silhouette (fig. 111). This construction process, based on a series of apical lashings, give these canoes a general form that we have described as lenticular (which also includes those with pressed tips and a vertical seam). While the canoes of the Kimila River are characterised by the care taken in their manufacture (fig. 108), those observed on the Ugalla River ( 38 ), also falling within the Malagarasi river basin, are

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 33 distinguished by their often very rough finishing (fig. 110). But typologically they belong to the same grouping. Manufacturing such a canoe takes four days (for a price evaluated at 10 USD). The first day is spent removing the bark in the forest. The next two days are used to soften the bark by submerging it in the river, and the last day for the shaping of the canoe. The diameter of the trunk selected is evaluated by encircling it with one arm (fig. 112). By comparing this photograph with the one taken during the construction of a ntherere (fig. 79), it is instantly clear that these two canoes present very different characteristics: long and narrow for the kapepe , squat and very broad for the ntherere . The removal process begins by opening a window at the base of the trunk to check that sufficient moisture is present between the wood and the bark, enabling the relatively easy removal of the latter. This window is then extended to encircle the base of the trunk (fig. 113) 16. A second ring is cut at a height corresponding to the length of the canoe. A fisherman reaches this point by leaning a young forked tree, cut for the purpose, against the trunk (fig. 114). After use, the bark of this makeshift ladder is removed in strips to make the ropes required. The two slits in the trunk are then connected by a third, vertical one. This is the point at which wedges, followed by bevelled levers, are inserted (fig. 116), to release the bark without damaging it (fig. 115). The tree species used are Brachystegia spiciformis (mtundu ) and B. boehmii (mtwana )17. Once the base has been released, the process progresses in the direction of the crown, using levers which are sometimes a little longer than the initial ones (fig. 117). A loud “bang” suddenly resounds through the forest and the remainder of the bark releases at the same time, taking the form of a split cylinder. This is widened and spread at the base of the trunk, then gradually removed from it.

16) For more information on the method used to remove the bark and to construct the kapepe , see A RNOLD 2014 (p. 20-38) and the numerous illustrations accompanying it. 17) On the inventory record for the kapepe collected between 1968 and 1972 from the Nyamwézi ( 37/3 ) and preserved in the Pitt Rivers Museum (University of Oxford), the use of bark from a “magudo” is mentioned. Length of the canoe 5.46 m (!) ; width 0.58 m; weight 22 kg; inventory no. 1971.34.130 ( http://objects.prm.ox.ac.uk/pages/PRMUID115821.html).

Fig. 110. Kapepe on the Ugalla River ( 38 ).

Fig. 111. Kapepe on the Kimila River, with significantly raised ends from which the excess bark has not been removed.

49 Fig. 112. Evaluating the diameter of a trunk ( Ø 0.32 m).

Fig. 113. Removing the ring of bark at the base.

Fig. 114. A fisherman climbs up to the working area.

Fig. 115. The bark is prised away from the wood using three levers.

Fig. 116. Bevelled ends of the levers.

Fig. 117. The upper part of the bark is released.

50 This phase undoubtedly constitutes the primary part of the work, in terms of both time and effort. The outer layer is also removed, secondarily (fig. 118), at the location where the bark is found. The bark is then rolled up along its transverse axis. Three men are required to carry out this operation in half a day (two hours and fifty minutes of effort). The bark is then transported to the camp, where it is submerged in the river for 2-3 days to soften it (fig. 120). This means that it is not necessary to heat it over a fire. The construction process begins with pressing the tops of the sides of one end against each other (fig. 121) and creating a major lashing (consisting of five loops; fig. 122), using a bark strip (fig. 119). In

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 34 order to reduce as far as possible the space at the basal joint of the tips, the thickness of the bark at this point is slightly reduced with an axe. The gunwale poles are then sewn to the top of the sides (fig. 123) with an overhand stitch or fisherman's bend consisting of three loops (fig. 124-125). The thickness of the edge of the bark sheet is slightly reduced in advance by making a chamfer in order to facilitate the passage of the awl and then the strip of bark. On the examples where the ropes used are nylon, only double loops are used. An initial stretcher of ad hoc length is then inserted in order to sufficiently raise the base of the end for it to come above the flotation line (fig. 126). The excess part of the bark, located above the major lashing point, is partly removed and the apical seam is finalised. The same procedure is then followed for the other end (fig. 127). Sometimes this excess part is not removed, and the point of the ends rises significantly above the water level (fig. 111). Some of the fishermen choose to give their canoes a distinctive appearance by leaving the excess bark untrimmed at this point. Finally, the ribs are inserted (fig. 128 and 130), together with a central tie associated with a stretcher in order to stabilise the separation of the sides (fig. 131). These rods are made from stems split lengthways. The flat surface is then pressed against the hull. The ends are systematically wedged against a knot consolidating the attachment of the gunwale poles (fig. 130). After two hours and forty minutes of effort, the kapepe is complete (fig. 132). A wooden block is placed in the bottom of the canoe as a seat, and the fisherman takes with him a paddle. This has a handle trimmed into a point, so that when the fisherman returns from his trip he can insert it into the bank and attach the canoe with a rope (A RNOLD 2014, fig. p. 17/4).

Fig. 118. The cracked outer part of the bark is removed.

Fig. 119. Preparing the bark strips.

Fig. 120. The roll of bark is submerged.

51 Fig. 121. Pressing the sides together to insert the first stitch.

Fig. 122. Tying off the first lashing.

Fig. 123. Gunwale poles attached by an external seam.

Fig. 124. Each loop is tightened carefully.

Fig. 125. Fisherman's bend with three loops.

Fig. 126. Raising the stem and adjusting the stretcher.

52 Fig. 127. Major lashing stitch, on the prow, and inserted stretcher. The latter is too short and will be repaced in order to sufficiently raise the end part.

Fig. 128. Adjusting a rib to the correct length.

Fig. 129. Plan of a canoe with apical lashings, called kapepe , on the Kimila River in July 2013 (A RNOLD 2014, fig. p. 19; 37/1 ). The prow is on the left. In grey: removed part of the sheet of phloem (this is not always the case for canoes with very significantly raised ends). Length of the canoe 4.09 m; width 0.73 m; depth 0.22 m. Scale 1/25. Part of the bottom near the prow has been deformed at a later date, leading to an enlargement of the sides. A number of ribs seem not to be in their initial position. A wooden block which serves as a bench is placed on a recycled sheet of bark from an older canoe. The sheet is thus placed on two ribs which stabilise the block.

53 Fig. 130. Inserting a rib, cut from a half-branch, under pressure. This always comes to rest on a stitch.

Fig. 131. Central tie associated with a stretcher, lashed to the gunwale poles.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 35 Fig. 132. Canoe with apical lashings, called kapepe , manufactured in July 2013 on the Kimila River (after A RNOLD 2014, fig. p. 37; 37/2 ). The prow is on the right. In grey: removed part of the phloem sheet. Dimensions of the finished kapepe : length 4.24 m; width 0.70 m; depth 0.25 m; initial thickness of the bark 12 mm, 9-10 mm after removal of the outer layer. Scale ~ 1/25. Species used: Brachystegia boehmii . Weight of the canoe when completed; in other words with bark that is still damp: 38 kg (of which 30 kg represents the bark). As it dries, the bark will harden and the canoe will become a little lighter. The flotation line corresponds to that of the canoe with a man sitting on the wooden block that serves as a bench.

54 Fig. 133. Nikhula canoes with a distal seam, on the Lúrio River (April 2016; 32 ).

55 Canoes with pressed tips and vertical seams The nikhula from the Lúrio River The Lúrio River is characterised by the presence of numerous rocky bars which increasingly divide the river as the volume of water diminishes – in other words, during the dry season – while simultaneously increasing the difficulty of crossing the rapids (fig. 134). This context has unquestionably favoured the development of bark-canoes and the continuation of their use today (fig. 133) 18. The canoes are known as nikhula (32 ) and can be distinguished by their tips, which are flattened laterally and assembled by a harness stitch seam (fig. 135). They are not raised, and this part of the canoe must be caulked. This method for closing the ends is widespread in Africa, from the south of the Congo Basin to the zones north of the Kalahari Desert – in other words from the coasts of Mozambique to those of Angola and thus to the Atlantic. The nikhula on the Lúrio River are still characterised by their gunwale poles, consisting of an unusual assemblage of laths made from split, refined stems of bamboo, giving the top of the ends an S shape (fig. 138). These gunwale poles are maintained in place by helicoidal stitching carried out using industrial cord (fig. 137). Plant-based lashings are still sometimes used (fig. 140), and are made from the central spines of the digitate leaf of a palm tree (fig. 141). A few stretchers are present, but this is not always the case (fig. 133). It is therefore probable that these elements were lost during the use of the canoe (fig. 136 and 139) and have not been replaced. Indeed, the form of the canoe is sufficiently stabilised by drying of the bark once the canoe has been finalised. The craft are not long (lengths measured: 2.5-3.5 m), but very wide (around 0.9 m), with a reduced central depth (0.2-0.4 m). On the Pungwe or Púngué River, the upper structural support is reinforced by two poles arranged diagonally, and the canoe is called a ngarawa (24 ; see p. 19). In the area upstream of its basin, on a tributary named Muarèdzi ( 26 ), the canoes present a structure comparable to that of the nikhula and are known as messassa , corresponding to the vernacular name of the tree from which the bark is removed (Brachystegia spiciformis ). Similar canoes are also used to cross the Molócuè River near Gilé ( 28 ). The example in the Museu de História Natural de Maputo is similar, with tips inclined towards the exterior (see fig. 279; C).

18) The photographs of the Lúrio River were taken in July 2013, April 2016 and April 2018. The construction of a nikhula in 2018 (fig. 144-163) was carried out essentially by Monteiro Paiva, Carvalho Augusto and Basilio Valenti (see fig. 255).

Fig. 134. A fisherman moving upstream against the current of the River Lúrio, close to some rapids, in a nikhula .

Fig. 135. A nikhula canoe in storage during the dry season ( 32/2 ). Length 2.48 m; width 0.95 m; depth 0.34 m.

56 Fig. 136. External part of the bark, not removed here ( 32/ 3 ). Length 2.55 m; width 0.68 m, total height 0.54 m.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 36

Fig. 137. Nikhula used to produce a plan in 2013 ( 32/1 ). Length 2.82 m; width 0.92 m, depth 0.19 m.

Fig. 138. Upper structural support, bent at one end (canoe 32/1 ).

Fig. 139. Nikhula with lashed gunwale poles ( 32/4 ). Length 3.27 m; width 0.90 m.

Fig. 140. Plant lashings on the upper structural support ( 32/4 ).

Fig. 141. Sheaf of spindly leaflets of a palm leaf, the elements of which are used for the lashings.

57 Construction of a nikhula In April 2018, we were able to observe the construction of a nikhula by the inhabitants of a fishing and farmers hamlet located opposite Ocura, a few hundred metres upstream of the bridge carrying the national road across the Lúrio River, near Namapa. An initial attempt had already taken place at this location in July 2013, but it proved impossible to release the bark from the trunk. At that time the cambium – a layer of cells making up on one side the internal bark and on the other the wood itself – was too dry as it was not sufficiently impregnated with sap, which is the case during the dry season. We took this parameter into consideration during our later explorations, which we timed for just after the monsoon (the period during which displacements in a 4x4 vehicle are very problematic) but above all well before the beginning of the dry period, and ideally in April. The trees used are known as enheca (Brachystegia glaucescens ). Other than the structure of their leaves, these trees are characterised by very unusual bark which is completely covered in large natural round discs, a little like the marks left by very wide concave-bladed adzes (see fig. 269). This flaking of the outer bark reduces it to a thin layer (1-2 mm thick). The total thickness is around 8-10 mm. These trees grow on the slopes of rocky domes that punctuate the extensive coastal plain. On the one that we climbed in 2013, located close to the hamlet, almost all of the sufficiently large enheca had already been exploited. In 2018, however, we had moved sufficiently far downstream, first in a car and then on foot, setting off early in the morning and only returning to the hamlet at dusk. The aim was to reach a small village located at the foot of a set of rocky hills (fig. 143), as very close family links exist between the inhabitants of this village and the fishermen who were to construct the canoe. The removal of the bark itself took only one hour and ten minutes. Once a random tree had been selected, having a diameter of 0.42 m, a ring was cut in the base of the trunk with a machete (fig. 144), then a second ring at a height equivalent to the length of the canoe. A small forked tree was placed against this trunk in order to reach the upper ring. The vertical slit connecting the two rings was made by placing the machete vertically then striking it with a log (fig. 145).

58 The slit was extended in the same manner to the base of the truck. This means it is then no longer necessary to equalise the edges of the bark sheet – unlike when this vertical slit is made with an axe or adze – and consequently that its maximum width can be used. However, releasing the bark using bevelled poles was rather problematic as the bark adhered to the wood at three different points, with a risk of ruining the entire operation. This ultimately resulted in a number of extensive splits which it was necessary to repair later (see p. 62). Once the bark had been released, a fisherman struck the trunk a glancing blow with a machete in order to lift a piece of wood. He then inserted into this space a small leafy branch intended to honour the forest spirits, to avoid any untoward accident affecting either those involved in constructing the canoe or

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 37 the fishermen using the finished craft (fig. 146) 19 . This was the only time that we were able to observe such practice, indicating a deep connection of this population with their territory, and the persistence of their ancestral traditions. The actual construction of the craft began the following day, before the bark began to dry, in order to keep it flexible. All of the activity took place in the open space in the centre of the hamlet. The first operation consisted of splitting long bamboo stems, which were then reduced in thickness in order to obtain long laths (fig. 147).

19) On this subject, we should consider the remarks of André Thevet, made in the 16th century near Rio de Janeiro (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 14), or the removal of birch bark among the Penobscot in North America (B UTLER and H ADLOCK 1957, p. 7).

Fig. 143. Hill on which the enheca trees grow.

Fig. 144. Creating the slits with a machete.

Fig. 145. Cutting the vertical slit.

Fig. 146. Offering marking the end of the bark removal.

59 These would be used to consolidate the edges of the bark sheet. Three pieces of bamboo on the outside and two on the inside of each side also acted as a pair of gunwale poles (fig. 148). These were maintained in place by a long helicoidal seam carried out using a nylon cord (and not a piece of thick fishing line). The first end of the bark sheet, with its edges consolidated, was then heated for a few minutes over a fire. The tips were then pressed against each other between two poles attached together at the base, and inserted in the ground (fig. 149). These poles were then brought closer to each other and lashed together at the top. A vertical line of holes was then made in the end of the tips, using an awl. This was rotated a few times by hand to produce a more or less cylindrical hole. Next, the tips were assembled using a vertical seam of harness stitch type. This stitch involved passing a cord through the lowest punched hole, then drawing it through so that each end of the cord was the same length. The two arms of the cord were then passed through the following hole in opposite directions and roughly simultaneously, and the process continued in this way (fig. 154). The excess cord is retained and used to moor the canoe (fig. 136). Waterproofing of this location was achieved by inserting a fibrous, viscous mass (fig. 153), obtained by beating an unusual root (fig. 152). This had already been used to brush the inside of the ends before the outside was placed over the fire. This soft root with a broad cross-section is known as inrapa . It comes from a liana called intharui (Cissus integrifolia )20, from which abundant, high-quality water pours when the stem is cut (fig. 151). The liana grows in a thicket located about 20 minutes’ walk from the hamlet, not far from the river (fig. 150).

20) We would like to thank Iain Darbyshire, from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his invaluable information.

Fig. 147. Gunwale poles: preparing the bamboo laths.

Fig. 148. Gunwale pole laths maintained in place by stitching.

Fig. 149. Heated tips pressed between two poles.

60 Fig. 150. Intharui liana with inrapa roots.

Fig. 151. Water flowing from a cut liana.

Fig. 152. Beaten inrapa root used as caulking.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 38 Fig. 153. Sealing material inserted between the tips.

Fig. 154. Watertightness maintained by a second seam.

Fig. 155. The sides are gradually separated.

61 A second vertical seam, similar to the first one, was made around 10 cm closer to the end of the canoe, in order to sandwich the waterproofing material (fig. 154). A process similar to that of luting. Finally, the same operations are carried out on the other end. Strips of dried fibres from the outer part of banana tree trunks are also used, according to our informants (A RNOLD 2014, p. 40). The final shape was now given to the canoe. A provisional stretcher was inserted close to each end (fig. 155). The ends were slightly raised, and the sides significantly separated (fig. 156 and 157). A larger stretcher was then inserted. Finally, a fisherman pushed hard with his knee on the end of one side, using his full weight, in order to deform the assemblage of laths and to give the end of the gunwale pole an S-shape (fig. 158). This operation would have been impossible if the gunwale pole had consisted of a cylindrical stem of bamboo. The same operation was carried out on the other side, and the work repeated on the other end in order to achieve a very wide and shallow canoe, but very stable, with more or less rectilinear sides. These were consolidated by the addition of a central stretcher together with cord acting as a tie, and then the tips were aligned on the longitudinal axis (fig. 159). After three and a half hours of effort, the nikhula was complete (fig. 160). All that remained to be done on the following day was to consolidate and waterproof the slits accidentally caused during the removal of the bark (fig. 161).

Fig. 156. Start of the final separation of the sides.

Fig. 157. The sides are separated under pressure.

Fig. 158. Shaping the ends into an S shape.

Fig. 159. The axis of the tips is slightly adjusted.

62 A mass of inrapa was placed at these points, then covered by recycled materials consisting of strips cut from an old bicycle tyre for the small slits and one from a moped for the wider ones, creating a kind of batten seam. Finally, the bark sheets were maintained in place by a seam around the added piece, similar to that used to assemble the tips – in other words, harness stitch (fig. 162; see p. 87-88).

Fig. 160. Vertical view, using a telescopic pole, of a recently completed nikhula canoe ( 32/5 ).

Fig. 161. Repairing the various cracks.

Fig. 162. Repair maintained in place with harness stitch.

63 The removed bark weighed 46.2 kg, from which only 3.6 kg was removed during the adjustment of the terminal section of the ends, when the canoe was finished. The finished canoe weighed 43.5 kg (fig. 164). It was 3.29 m long with an average width of 0.92 m and a depth of 0.28 m (fig. 163). Finally, the lifetime of such a canoe is around 2-3 years.

Fig. 164. Weighing the finished nikhula . At the right, on the end of the pole, my guide Valente Emilio Juliano.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 39 64 The samba from Angola The distribution map of bark-canoes, observed or mentioned in a range of publications (fig. 4), highlights a concentration of occurrences related to the Angolan highlands (fig. 165). This area is located between 800 m and 1800 m in altitude, and covers 2/3 of the country. It slopes gently downwards towards the east, and more particularly towards the north east, with the basin of the Kasai (a tributary of the River Congo) and to the south east, with the basins of the Okavango and Zambezi via the Cuando. It descends more rapidly, by means of terraces and escarpments, towards the coastal plain, a topographical structure that rendered this highland area largely unattractive to the Portuguese colonists. In this context, it is not surprising to note that our knowledge of bark-canoes in the terminal areas of these river basins dates only from the first half of the 19th century, through the accounts of a few explorers such as J.-B. D OUVILLE (1832; 1a and 1b ) or D. L IVINGSTONE (1858; 2). This is rare information in a country ravaged by the slave trade. It was not until several decades after the abolition of this vile activity that supplementary publications mentioned the use of bark-canoes in this area. Thus, in the Okavango Basin, on the Cubango and Cuito ( 9+10 ; B AUM 1903), additional data make it clear that, once the tree has been felled (a Julbernardia paniculata , formerly Berlinia baumii ), the bark was detached by lighting a fire beneath the trunk. As for the lashings/seams, these are made watertight with wax (B AUM 1903, p. 36-37). Such canoes are also used at Cangamba, on the Cuando River (fig. 9; 15 ). These do not have any transverse reinforcements (H AMBLY 1934, p. 146, pl. 85/2). Photographs from the early 20th century also illustrate the use of this type of canoe on the Cunene River (fig. 5; 7; DE ALMEIDA 1912). All of the bark-canoes are characterised by their tips being pressed together and maintained in place by a vertical seam (fig. 5, 9, 26, 166 and 168). The photograph of the bark-canoe from Kankela (fig. 167), taken in 1933 ( 40 ), makes it possible to state that the two parallel seams at each end have been executed using harness stitch. We also note the absence of gunwale poles (the presence of a modest stretcher on the photograph perhaps corresponds to an element added secondarily). J. D INIZ (1918, p. 387; 8) states that the vernacular name for these bark-canoes is samba . This author also mentions the local name for a number of logboats, or for the highly developed rafts with prows raised into a point – the bimbá from the Bay of Lobito (ibid., p. 343). However, it remains true that the fact that these canoes are used far from the coasts, in areas difficult to access and therefore restricted to local use, and that their numbers are also small in relation to logboats, has led to there being very little discussion of them in the summary works dedicated to traditional naval construction. The publication by H. S UDER (1930, p. 108-115) is the exception that confirms the rule. Subsequently, they were particularly mentioned in the context of studies relating to river fishing, or in local newspapers, for example following the destruction of a bridge by flooding, in order to transport the inhabitants from one bank to the other ( 42 ).

Fig. 165. Altimetric map of Angola and position of the bark-canoes (see fig. 4).

Fig. 166. Canoe with laterally pressed tips, 4 m long, from Kankela on the River Kului (Colui), a tributary of the Cunene (D ELACHAUX 1936, pl. 64/1; 40 ).

65 Such information emphasises their widespread presence over a vast region. They constitute a craft used in isolated, unplanned situations, often during emergencies (see, for example, M ONARD 1930, p. 36). In the case of the canoe photographed on the Luando River (fig. 168), we note the presence of numerous stretchers with their ends trimmed into a point, inserted at the top of the sides of the hull, and

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 40 of the ends significantly raised through simple geometry; which is not the case of the canoe photographed in Cuito source lake (fig. 278; 43 ). According to the observations of A. H AUENSTEIN (1979, p. 487-488), the craft used by the Tchokwe on the Cunene were made from the bark of a usamba (Brachystegia hockii , syn. B. spiciformis ). A small window is first cut in the bark to test its flexibility. Two vertical slits are then made, with the distance between them corresponding to the planned width of the canoe. To do this, two ladders are used, placed on either side of the trunk. The widest base is pressed against the tree and the narrowest inserted into the ground. A horizontal groove at each end of the slits allows the bark to be released. Once the bark is on the ground, the ends of the sheet are heated to soften them. The sheet is then inserted between two pairs of stakes, the distance between which corresponds to the planned length of the canoe. A row of holes, temporarily plugged by spikes, is made in the end of the tips. These spikes are then gradually removed as the sewing is carried out using a strip of the interior bark of a usamba (see, for example, fig. 119). In parallel, "red roots" are inserted between the tips to ensure this location is watertight. Are these the same roots as those used for the nikhula ? Clearly, the question remains open (cf. p. 59-60). Finally, two gunwale poles reinforce the tops of the sides. Three or four people then separate the sides under pressure, raise the ends and insert three stretchers, one close to each end and one in the middle of the canoe. The lifetime of one of these canoes is around two to three years.

Fig. 167. Canoe from Kankela, on the River Kului (September 1933; 40 ).

Fig. 168. Canoe on the River Luando, near Marina (September 2011; 41 ). https://xmbl.wordpress.com/2015/11/26/marina-in-the-luando-river-bie-angola/ .

66 Fig. 169. The construction of muterere canoes is based on the systematic use of temporary lashings (April 2018; 30/8 ).

67 The canoes with washstrakes of muterere type from the Chocas region The area of the Island of Mozambique, including Chocas beach and Conducia Bay, is characterised by the presence of an exceptional canoe called muterere (12 , 30 ), constructed by the assembly of a number of bark sheets: a large one, sometimes two assembled one behind the other (fig. 170) for the bottom and base of the sides and a further piece forming each side (a washstrake). The construction of these highly developed canoes requires the implementation of a longitudinal sewing technique in order to assemble these sheets, together with the use of caulking to make the joints waterproof, the insertion of a light, highly developed framework to stabilise the shape, and, of course, the presence of a particularly strong rigid upper structural support. This remarkable canoe attracted the attention of F. VON LUSCHAN (1907), who was able in 1905 to acquire an example for the Ethnologisches Museum in Berlin ( 12/1 )21. The article describing the canoe, accompanied by details including a plan (fig. 170), remained relatively little known until the publication of the work by H. S UDER (1930). In 1935, J. H ORNELL published a brief article based on two photographs of such a canoe, which he took in 1926 (fig. 176). This paper is considerably better known, but did not stimulate any particular interest in the bark-canoes of East Africa. The example is 4.27 m long and 1.22 m wide ( 12/3 ).

21) This example is unfortunately no longer in existence. We would like to thank Paola Ivanov for her information.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 41 defective areas of the bottom and two slits have been repaired. The axial section is slit four times at the top of each edge. Length 5.0 m; width 1.05 m; central depth 0.33m.

68 While the Berlin canoe (1905; 12/1 ) no longer exists, another canoe dating from the early 20th century has been preserved since 1910 in the Museum am Rothenbaum in Hamburg (fig. 172; 12/2 )22. Its preserved length is 5.09 m, to which must be added a few centimetres to compensate for the broken end of the bark. The suggested width is 0.95 m, based on the width of the beam supporting the mast. This beam has come away from one of the sides, thus contributing to the widening of the canoe, which now measures 1.07 m. The depth of 0.25 m must have originally been around 0.30 m. The bottom consists of two sheets of bark superimposed over each other in the central area of the canoe. The second overlaps the first sheet by 0.34 m (0.22 m for the Berlin example). The end part located under the hull is not attached by any rope or sewing, which implies that the prow consists of the first sheet – this is also confirmed by the location of the mast step and the beam associated with it. The first sheet is therefore 2.53 m long, and the second runs from 2.23 m to 5.09 m (measured starting from the beginning of the prow), which corresponds to a length of 2.86 m. The edge is located exactly half way across the transverse watertight bundle. Finally, the mast step, which also serves to calibrate the separation of the stringers on the bottom, is located just behind this watertight bundle which attaches the two bark sheets (fig. 173). The axis of the mast is therefore located at a position equating to 226/283 (100/125). The edge of the axial structure is slit three times on one side and five times on the other. Other than the four main beams, attached to the gunwale poles and enabling the separation of the sides to be controlled, a further small beam is located at each end in order to support the seam of the tips. Failure in the attachments of these small parts has undoubtedly led to the destruction of the seams holding the tips together. As for the transverse curve of the bottom, it is maintained in place by the insertion under pressure of 49 unsplit ribs, the diameter of which is essentially between 10 and 15 mm. The ribs are stabilised by the lashing of the stringers (sometimes consisting of several stems) with double looped overhand knots (fig. 173).

22) We would like to thank Mareike Späth for her availability during our visit to the reserves of this institution.

Fig. 171. Detail of the attachment of the washstrakes on the muterere in Berlin ( VON LUSCHAN 1907, fig.1; 12/1 ).

Fig. 173. Seam between the two axial sheets and the watertight bundle with cross stitch, partially covered by the mast step, and seam for a stringer at the ribs ( 12/2 ).

69 An initial series of gunwale poles has been attached with a two-strand cord and a seam using double looped overhand knots. The second is maintained in place in the same manner at intervals three times greater, and with plaited cords (fig. 174). Analysis of the attachments of the longitudinal watertight bundles, located where the washstrakes of the two axial sheets are assembled, has revealed the presence of two two-strand cords of slightly different diameters. The thinner one is used for an initial assembly of the washstrakes at the axial base by a linear, horizontal seam in harness stitch (fig. 174 and 175). Such a cord can also be observed on the perspective drawing of the Berlin canoe (fig. 171). This seam can be compared to the provisional lashings observed in 2018 during the construction of a muterere (fig. 169). The second cord maintains a watertight bundle across the edge where the two bark sheets are juxtaposed, on the inside, with a half cross stitch seam. The lower base of the watertight bundle rests

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 42 against the harness stitched seam. The holes through the bark for this seam were reused and probably enlarged when sewing on the watertight bundles. In a number of places, it was possible to observe the presence of small fragments of a very fine fabric used to caulk these holes (fig. 175). The bark is 6 mm thick, varying between 5 and 7 mm. A great deal of the peripheral layer of the bark has been removed. A few slits have been repaired using bundles of fibre, on the inside of the hull, and attached with a cross stitch seam, or rarely with half cross stitch. On the prow, a fragment of wood runs along the two slits on the outside, acting as a kind of batten seam and therefore integrated into the seam.

70 Other, more recent muterere type canoes are preserved in various local museums: - Governor’s Palace Museum, on the Island of Mozambique; length 3.42 m; width 0.92 m; depth 0.38 m (30/1 ; fig. 177; A RNOLD 2014, p. 53-54); - Museu Nacional de Etnologia, Nampula; canoe collected in 1993 with sisal seams; length 3.47 m; width 0.97 m; depth 0.30 m ( 30/2 ; fig. 178); on its inventory sheet, it is called a nicula ; - Museu das Pescas, Maputo; example exhibited: length 2.70 m; width 0.89 m; depth 0.32 m ( 31/1 ; fig. 179). Two additional examples are present in the reserves (fig. 191). These canoes, characterized by the absence of watertight bundes, are called nintherere .

A. M OURA (1988, p. 365-366) mentions, for these canoes, a length of 3 m, a width of 0.60-0.80 m and a depth of 0.30-0.40 m. He also describes the use of a lateen sail (fig. 184) and sometimes of outriggers. We were unable to observe any concrete traces of the use of outriggers. However, the three examples preserved in the local museums each have a sail or a complete system for carrying a mast. Finally, M OURA mentions the application on the hull of wax and resin made from various plants in order to make it watertight, but none of our informants were able to confirm such a practice.

We were able to observe two examples on the beach at Chocas in 2013: - the first is 3.30 m long, 0.93 m wide and 0.30 m deep; one of its ends has been added and attached by a lashing associated with a watertight bundle ( 30/3 ; fig. 180 and 181; A RNOLD 2014, p.49); - the second is 3.31 m long, 0.90 m wide and 0.33 m deep; a plan has been produced of this craft ( 30/4 ; fig. 182 and 185; A RNOLD 2014, p. 50-52).

As for the three examples observed in 2018 (fig. 183), they had the following dimensions: - length 3.36 m; width 0.84 m; depth 0.26 m ( 30/5 ); - length 3.24 m; width 0.83 m; depth 0.27 m ( 30/6); - length 3.06 m; width 0.79 m; depth 0.28 m ( 30/7 ).

The example constructed in our presence (fig. 169) had the following dimensions: - length 2.82 m; width 0.83 m; depth 0.30 m ( 30/8 ).

The single sheet muterere , in the Kunstkamera (p. 91-93), has the following dimensions: - length 2.77 m (with very oblique ends), width 0.72 m, depth 0.30 m ( 30/9 ).

One observation is clear. The lengths of canoes have significantly reduced during the 20th century: from 5.1 m in 1905-1910 to 4.3 m in 1926, the length descended to 3.4-3.5 m during the

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 43 period 1970-1990, and then to 3.0-3.4 m around 2013-2018, and even 2.8 m for the canoe constructed in 2018. The number of canoes has also reduced significantly. They were extremely common in 1905 on the Island of Mozambique, and were occupied by two or three fishermen. In 1972, A. M OURA (1988, p. 365) stated that none could be found on this site, but represented more than half of the boats from Chocas. These were occupied by one person and still propelled by a sail (ibid. 1972, fig. 40). It is also possible to deduce from his comment that there are no longer any on the Island of Mozambique. In 2013- 2018, these canoes could be counted on the fingers of one hand. In 2018, therefore, only three men still used them for local fishing, and they were exclusively propelled using a paddle (fig. 183). Without the rare existence of a plan (fig. 170), the 1905 canoe would have posed a serious interpretation problem as to the method used to remove the bark. In fact, the bottom consists of an assembly of two pieces, the length of each is less than 3 m.

Fig. 176. Canoe with washstrakes, called muterere (12/3 ), photographed in 1926 near the Island of Mozambique (H EILBORN 1929, p. 4; H ORNELL 1935, pl. M).

71 Fig. 177. Muterere from the Governor’s Palace Museum (Island of Mozambique; 30/1 ).

Fig. 178. Muterere from the Museu National de Etnologia (Nampula; 30/2 ).

Fig. 179. Nintherere from Mossuril (Museu das Pescas, Maputo; 31/1 ).

Fig. 180. Muterere (30/3 ) and cangaia in Chocas (July 2013).

Fig. 181. Added end (July 2013; 30/3 ).

Fig. 182. Muterere at Chocas (July 2013; 30/4 ).

72 However, the presence of two bark sheets, assembled in an overlapping fashion, to constitute the axial element, leads us to believe that the trees formerly exploited had dimensions equivalent to those which are currently used, but above all that, to remove the bark, a makeshift ladder could be used – in other words a small tree with a forked trunk, leaned against the bark to be removed (see fig. 198). It was therefore not necessary to fell the tree or envisage the construction of scaffolding around it, as can be observed in Amazonia. Similar questions can be raised for the untoro , on the subject of which we unfortunately have very little information (fig. 27; 29 ). The ropes for the longitudinal seams are generally made of plant fibre (fig. 189); sisal or coir (coconut fibre). It is sometimes possible today to observe the use of nylon cords to maintain the watertight bundles, as on the two examples that we observed on the beaches of Chocas in 2013 (fig. 186). Plant and synthetic cords are also used on the examples from 2018. The punched holes through which the ropes pass are systematically made waterproof by the insertion of plugs of cotton (see fig. 232 and 233). On the 1910 example, we note the use of fabric (fig. 175).

Fig. 183. The only three muterere present in 2018 on the beach at Chocas (from left to right: 30/5 , 30/6 , 30/7 ), before the construction of the example that we were able to observe (April 2018).

Fig. 184. Sail of a muterere (12/1 ). Height and width: 3.65 and 2.30 m ( VON LUSCHAN 1907, fig. 7).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 44 73 The tips on each of these canoes are pressed against each other and maintained in place by a harness stitch seam. The bark sheets added to make the sides are attached by a half cross stitch (fig. 185), which also encompasses the watertight bundles, characterised by a complex internal structure, in any case for the current examples (see p. 82). On the vertical slits made at the top of the axial sheet in order to give the canoe a lenticular shape, it is often possible to observe the use of cross stitch (fig. 189), in place of half cross stitch (fig. 185). The gunwale poles consist of a number of stems. An initial stem or pair of stems serves to edge the bark on the inside. A second pair is then added, also on the inside of each side, in order to consolidate the whole hull and stabilise the top of the ribs. These longitudinal elements are maintained in place by a series of overhand knots (fig. 187) and the cords used are, here, never made of nylon, ensuring that the material used adheres naturally to itself at each loop. The same applies to the sewing, also carried out using overhand knots, which stabilises the stringers on the frame sticks (fig. 186). There are, for example, 35 and 38 of these respectively on the two canoes observed in 2013, and 49 for the 1910 example. Finally a covering lath is summarily attached to the outside, in order to protect the cords used to sew the gunwale poles. It should also be noted that the outer, cracked layer of the bark is systematically removed using an adze (fig. 174). The separation of the sides is assured by small planks or beams (and not by stems). These are suspended and lashed to the gunwale poles, with two attachment points at each end (fig. 185).

Fig. 185. Plan of a muterere on the beach at Chocas (July 2013; 30/4 ); the prow is to the left (scale 1/25). Length 3.31 m; width 0.90 m; central depth 0.33 m; thickness of the reduced bark 8 mm.

74 One of the beams is or was pierced in the centre by a hole through which a mast bearing a small triangular sail was inserted (fig. 184). Below this, in a vertical line with the hole, a spreader separating the two stringers in the bottom of the canoe supports the base of the mast – in other words, acting as the mast step. This hole gradually disappears over time as sails are no longer used. Ultimately, even the spreader tends not to be systematically present, and no longer to stabilise the separation of the stringers in the bottom of the canoe, and thus to create a space intended for the planks placed between them over the ribs in order to act as a periodic footrest and to protect the thin bark of the hull. We can also note that, when a muterere is not used for a number of days, it is sometimes submerged in the sea for a night in order to maintain some flexibility in the bark and the ropes (fig. 197). Finally, the lifetime of a muterere is around 2-3 years.

Fig. 186. Rope attaching the upper stringer with a series of overhand knots (July 2013; 30/4 ). In the background, coconut fibre bundle maintained in place by half cross stitch in nylon thread.

Fig. 187. Overhand knot with two loops.

Fig. 188. Bundle held in place by a nylon thread, with the passages through the hull being caulked with cotton plugs (30/6 ).

Fig. 189. Bundle held in place over a slit by a cross stitch seam and holes plugged with cotton ( muterere from the Governor’s Palace Museum; 30/1 ).

75 The nintherere with washstrakes from Mossuril The Museu das Pescas in Maputo has three examples of complex bark-canoes, called nintherere (mantherere in the plural), originating in Mossuril, and thus not far from Chocas 23. The exhibited example measures 2.70 m long, 0.89 m wide and 0.32 m deep ( 31/1 ; fig. 179 and 190). The two others, in

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 45 the reserves (fig. 191), are not sufficiently accessible to carry out exact measurements, but are similar in all points to the example on display, one having been the subject of a short documentary film when it was constructed ( 31/2 ). They were collected in 2013, and compared to the muterere are characterised by the absence of watertight bundles at the point where the washstrakes are attached, and thus the related waterproofing processes. The washstrakes are attached to the axial element by means of a linear seam, probably of harness stitch type, carried out with a sisal cord. Around every 15 cm towards the ends, and every 30 cm or more in the central area, a stitch perpendicular to the line of the seam surrounds the edge of the axial sheet (fig. 192 and 195). This reduction of stitches in the central area probably results from the support provided by the network of frame sticks, This arrangement enables the insertion of simple caulking based on cotton, while simultaneously avoiding any significant separation of the edges of the axial sheet.

23) Our photographs were taken in September 2018. We would like to thank Daniel Lopes, ethnologist at the Museu das Pescas, for his invaluable information. He was among those to participate in producing a short film for the museum about the construction of one of the nintherere canoes at Mossuril in 2013. This canoe is now preserved in the musem's reserves ( 31/2 ). He was also able to inform us that the three canoes come from the same place and were apparently produced by the same artisan – the last one capable of making them in the region.

Fig. 190. Nintherere from Mossuril with an elevated footrest and a partition in front of the mast ( 31/1 ).

Fig. 191. Two mantherere from Mossuril in the reserves of the Museu das Pescas, at Maputo ( 31/2 right and 31/3 ).

76 Cotton is also used to waterproof the places where the ropes pass through the bark (fig. 192). The cotton involved is not the result of large scale cultivation, but comes from a local species 24. The outer layer of the bark has not been removed, except from the ends of example 31/2 . The total thickness of the bark is 8-10 mm. The tips are pressed against each other by means of two stems inserted in the ground following local heating over a small fire. A prow plank and a stern post are sandwiched between the tips in two canoes (fig. 193; 31/1 and 31/2 ). These have a section of 4.5-6 cm, with a trapezoidal form (the smaller sides measuring 6 and 10 mm). The origin of these pieces, which are present only on two canoes, provides a subject for discussion, as such an arrangement can almost exclusively be observed on the canoes from North America, where this piece is generally curved (ADNEY and C HAPELLE 1964). This leaves us to think that it is probably the result of an acculturation, perhaps resulting from advice or an observation made by a Westerner − for instance an American tourist. A piece that, in light of the other examples observed in Mozambique, and above all of the rigidity and thickness of the bark used, is absolutely not necessary, unlike in the case of the thin bark of the paper birch used for the Amerindian canoes. Two gunwale poles support each side on the inside, secondarily supplemented by a third piece on the outside, intended to protect the ropes from the wear caused by using a paddle. The separation of the gunwale poles is ensured by beams, one pierced with a hole (on two canoes) acting as a second point of support for a small mast bearing an oblique yard, to which is attached a triangular sail consisting of a sheet of plastic (fig. 179 and 194). A second beam serves as a bench. In one of the two canoes, a little forward of this, a footrest is lashed to two stringers in the bottom. The separation of these stringers is also ensured by a small piece of wood with a central mortice, acting as a mast step (fig. 194). This pair of stringers is supplemented by one or two others extending along the tops of the sides, stabilising the network of frame sticks inserted under pressure, with the help of stitching anchored by overhand knots.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 46 At the ends, a small bar links the gunwale poles and acts as an attachment point for the triangular end of the sail.

24) There are more than fifty wild species of cotton ( Gossypium sp.), four of which are the origins of the cultivated varieties. According to Daniel Lopes (pers. comm.), the cotton used for the caulking does not come from cultivated varieties, but from wild species.

Fig. 193. Prow plank held between the tips, and two vertical seams ( 31/1 ).

Fig. 194. Support for the feet on the left, and for the mast on the right ( 31/1 ).

Fig. 195. Top: nylon loops intended to support cotton caulking. Bottom: a slit repaired using a batten seam attached with half cross stitch ( 31/2 ).

77 Construction of a muterere The construction in April 2018 of a muterere with its multiple bark sheets proved to be particularly interesting in terms of how the construction site was organised (30/8 ). Could we expect a set of peripheral support stakes like those used for the North American canoes, or struts similar to those used in Tierra del Fuego (A RNOLD 2017, p. 54) ? The question remained unresolved. For the former, the bark used is particularly thin and has only very limited inherent rigidity. On the other hand, the bark used for the Yahgan and Alacaluf canoes is thick, rigid and inelastic, and therefore cracks easily during the removal process. Regarding the Australian two-shell bark-canoes and three-piece sewn bark-canoes, we have no information, as these disappeared in parallel with the cultural deterioration of the Aborigines in the period after the 1940s (A RNOLD 2015, p. 52-62). In Mozambique, there is no equivalent. All construction of complex canoes, in other words, those with washstrakes, is based, as we will see, on the systematic use of temporary lashings (fig. 169). A concept similar to that of the muterere from the early 20th century (initial harness stitch seam; p. 69), but with the use of a different technique. As for the temporary lashings, they make it possible to most easily adjust the main elements of the hull and its shape. It is therefore also possible to submerge the partially completed canoe in the sea, at the end of the day, in order to avoid the bark drying out too much and hardening during the construction process. The construction of simple canoes in Mozambique immediately follows the removal of the bark, on the same day (canoes at Chicamba, p. 22-29; canoes at Bilibiza, p. 37-43), or the next day given the time that must sometimes be spent on moving from one place to another (canoes from the Lúrio River, p. 57-61). For the kapepe from Tanzania, the bark is submerged in the river on the day it is removed (fig. 120), for a period of 2-3 days (A RNOLD 2014, p. 26). It is then removed in the morning and the new canoe is completed in the afternoon. As for the muterere , which are notably more complex, it generally takes three days to construct one, submerging the partially completed canoe – which is therefore not attached to the ground – in the water every evening. I was informed that if the monsoons have passed and the dry season, during which it is almost impossible to release the bark from the tree, has not yet arrived, five days of immersion are required before beginning to shape the canoe. This stage was not necessary for the canoe whose construction we followed, as there were still heavy showers on a daily basis.

Fig. 196. Issufo Adamugi fishing with a line from his small muterere off the beach at Chocas (April 2018; 30/5 ).

Fig. 197. Muterere submerged for a night when it has not been used for several days (April 2018; 30/6 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 47 78 Without the removal of the bark, the construction itself generally lasts for three days; four in our case. But the work carried out on the first two days could have been done in one, as is more normally the case. This first stage corresponded to two and a half and two hours of work respectively. On the following day we observed three and a half hours of activity, and on the final day four and three quarters. The construction process was carried out by three fishermen 25, who were in fact the only ones still using this type of canoe daily on Chocas beach (provided the sea is not too strong). They call these canoes ninterere but for reasons of clarity we will systematically employ the previously published term of muterere 26. After organising the shedule for manufacturing a muterere and defining the financial terms of the project, one of the fishermen set off to a neighbouring village, at some distance from the coast, essentially populated by farmers, in order to arrange the selection and removal of a piece of bark. There is therefore a complete disconnect between the removal of the bark and the construction of the canoes, but also in the ancestral traditions, unlike what we observed on the Lúrio River (fig. 146). A father and his son were paid to carry out the removal of the bark, and the intervention in the field took exactly one hour, not including the time required for moving between locations. A circular slit was cut at the base of the trunk, with another at a height corresponding to the length of the planned canoe, linked by a vertical slit (fig. 198). The tools used were a machete and an adze, the father clearly preferring this latter tool. The bark was easily released from the trunk by a single man using a single lever (fig. 199). The tree used was a Brachystegia spiciformis (Ø 0.37 m) with relatively thick bark of around 17-18 mm. A M OURA (1988, p. 365-367) indicates that the bark of the Anacardium occidentale and Cordyla africana were also used (see p. 111/30).

25) The construction of the muterere was carried out, in April 2018, by Seleman Amissi and Cassimo Miguel, assisted by Issufo Adamugi. The bark was removed by Abacar Nacala and his son (see also p. 97). 26) We will retain the term of nintherere for the canoes with washstrakes without watertight bundles manufactured in Mossuril.

Fig. 198. Ladder put in place to cut the vertical slit.

Fig. 199. Here, the bark is easily released.

Fig. 200. Measuring the weight of the bark, after the outer layer has been removed. The weight has thus been reduced by almost half.

79 Once the bark was on the ground, its outer cracked layer (see fig. 271) was removed. The weight of the removed bark was thereby reduced from 78 kg to 47 kg, or a reduction of 40% of the initial weight (fig. 200). As for the thickness, this had reduced to around 8-9 mm. The cylinder of bark was then transported to Chocas, where the fishermen submerged it in the water until the following day. The actual construction then began in the morning, with the bark cylinder being removed from the sea then transported into the shade of some trees located at the top of the beach. The bark was unrolled, but naturally retained of its split cylinder shape. A strip of bark 20 cm wide was removed, as the total width was too great (fig. 201). This strip would later be used for one of the washstrakes. The apical part, which came from the base of the main branches, around 1.5 m long, was also removed and, once longitudinally split, was used to construct the other washstrake. The piece constituting the axial element was therefore reduced to 2.84 m (final length of the canoe 2.82 m) and the weight of the bark constituting the axial element was reduced to 24.5 kg; in other words, half the weight of the bark brought to Chocas. This reduced length led to the construction of a canoe 0.2-0.5 m shorter than the three examples present on the beach (p. 70), with a final lengh of 2,82 m. A hole was made in the working area and a vertical pole inserted firmly into it, surrounded by sand. A second pole was attached to the first one at ground level. A small fire was then lit with plant

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 48 material, and one end of the bark placed over it for three minutes (fig. 202). This part of the bark was then inserted and folded between the two stakes, which were lashed together at the top (fig. 204-205). The tips were sewn together, and in an immediately final manner , using a piece of coconut fibre cord, with the central part being placed at the base of the tips using harness stitch, with the two arms of the cord being used simultaneously in opposite directions (fig. 206). To avoid the cord breaking, the prepared 8 m length was passed around a tree, placed under traction. The fibres tightened, the cord became finer and it became significantly stronger. We observed no more breakages during the remainder of the sewing operations. The same process was carried out on the other end of the axial element. This was already presenting a stable shape (fig. 205).

Fig. 201. Removal of a strip which will constitute a washstrake.

Fig. 202. Bark softened by a brief exposure to fire.

Fig. 203. Vertical poles, one of which is inserted deep into the sand.

80 Two slits were cut at the top of each side (three on the examples 3.0-3.4 m long). The tops of the lips were slightly superimposed to give the entire craft a lenticular shape by raising the ends slightly. They were then lashed together in the superimposed position (fig. 208), using fine, long and stiff leaflets taken from the composite leaf of a palm tree. The washstrakes were then arranged in an overlapping manner at the top of the sides of the axial element (fig. 207). The entire assemblage was maintained in place by a series of isolated lashings, made from fine leaflets (fig. 169, 208-209). Next came the gunwale poles, each consisting of two stems, the widest part being inserted in one end of the canoe and the other trimmed slightly before the other end (fig. 210). These were also temporarily fixed in place using leaflets (fig. 211). Conclusion: no peripheral working structure was employed, but the final sewing of the tips constituted an initial rigidification element, and the temporary attachment of the gunwale poles a second one. The resulting dozens of temporary lashings gave some flexibility to the manipulations required to obtain the desired overall shape of the canoe, and a good level of symmetry. It was only at this point that the final sewing into place of the gunwale poles was carried out, using coconut fibre cord and overhand knots (fig. 212 and 261). The shape of the canoe was now stabilised. At the end of the day, the canoe was submerged in the sea, weighed down by a few blocks, until work could begin again the following day (fig. 213). This first stage, generally carried out in one day (and not in two, as in the current case), took a total of four and a half hours, as we have already mentioned.

Fig. 204. Assembling the heated tips.

Fig. 205. Pre-assembled tips and opening the sides.

Fig. 206. Sewing the tips using harness stitch.

Fig. 207. Positioning the first washstrake.

81 Fig. 208. Temporary lashing of the washstrakes (interior) and overlapping lips of the slits.

Fig. 209. Temporary lashing of the washstrakes (exterior) with palm tree leaflets.

Fig. 210. Inserting the first series of gunwale poles, using paired stems.

Fig. 211. Temporary lashing of the first series of gunwale poles. The leaflets are successively cut.

Fig. 212. Final sewing of the gunwale poles, with overhand knots.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 49 Fig. 213. Overnight immersion of the partially completed canoe, here in the morning at low tide, before work starts again.

82 The following stage began with caulking consisting of roughly twisted coconut fibre (fig. 214), inserted from the inside between the temporarily lashed bark sheets and around these areas (fig. 215). The material was slightly compressed using a wooden chisel, with a small pebble for a hammer. The temporary lashings prevented too great a space from opening up between the bark sheets. The edge of the insertion area was then covered by the bases of dried banana leaves (fig. 216). These were collected on the same day, when they were still attached to the “trunk” beneath the green leaves (fig. 218). If they had been removed on the previous day, they would have been left to soak through the night in the partially completed canoe. Only the axial part of the leaf is retained, with its very alveolar structure (fig. 219). The dry, thin edges were removed. Four to six pieces were overlapped, constituting a watertight bundle (fig. 220) and compacted using a solid seam of half cross stitch, thus definitively attaching the bark sheets together (fig. 221-222). The temporary lashings were removed as the final seam progressed, and the caulking material was compressed in a complementary manner at these points. However, the “caulking” was carried out over short sections (fig. 217), then the temporary lashings were cut before the assemblage could be covered for a few decimetres by the watertight bundle and the whole firmly sewn together by a half cross stitch. Finally, the four slits made in the tops of the sides of the bottom bark sheet were also caulked and covered by a watertight bundle maintained in place by a cross stitch seam (fig. 223). This operation, intended to firmly and definitively maintain the sheets in place while making the assemblage watertight, took an entire day (three hours and twenty minutes’ work). The canoe was then submerged once again.

Fig. 214. Extracting the coconut fibre.

Fig. 215. Inserting the caulking (coconut fibre).

Fig. 216. Starting to stitch a watertight bundle.

Fig. 217. Synchronised progress of the two processes.

83 Fig. 218. Lower part of a banana tree and dried leaves.

Fig. 219. Sections of dried banana tree leaves.

Fig. 220. Bundle consisting of dried leaves.

Fig. 221. Sewing of the superimposed sheets.

Fig. 222. Half cross stitch seam.

Fig. 223. Sealing one of the four slits.

84 The final day began with the insertion under pressure of an initial series of frame sticks (fig. 225), made from fine stems of inacali (fig. 224), also called namirege (Tetracera sp.) 27. A cord was then stretched in a zigzag between the gunwale poles in order to achieve the desired separation of the sides (fig. 226). Finally, a second series of ribs was inserted between the first ones (fig. 227). The lateral pressure of this series on the top of the sides was compensated for by the zigzag cord (fig. 228). A second series of gunwale poles, here also each consisting of a pair of bamboos, was lashed in the same way as the first one – in other words, temporarily (fig. 229), then sewn definitively into place, simultaneously maintaining three beams made from recycled boards which stabilise the width of the

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 50 canoe (fig. 230). The holes through which the ropes pass were made using a metal rod heated in the fire. Finally, the zigzag cord could be removed. This second series of pairs of gunwale poles was also used to sandwich the heads of the ribs, pressing them against the first series. Two stringers were then arranged in the bottom, and one against each side, in order to stabilise the rib location by means of a seam consisting of a series of overhand knots (fig. 231). A bamboo lath maintained against the external apical part of the hull by a few lashings in nylon thread protected the coconut fibre cords from wear caused by the paddles. Finally the holes used for the lashings were filled, if they had not already been, with cotton plugs soaked in a bucket of water (fig. 232-233). This operation took place at irregular intervals throughout the day, when a fisherman had time available during his other activities. Finally, the area where the tips come into contact is caulked from the inside with packed coconut fibre. The finished canoe weighed 42.7 kg. It was 2.82 m long, 0.83 m wide and 0.30 m deep (fig. 234). The key observation was undoubtedly the absence of a working site intended to support the canoe and its constituent elements. This arrangement was replaced by the systematic temporary lashing together of the various elements before they were definitively assembled using long seams. Such a construction sequence is clearly almost impossible to highlight for an archaeological artefact (even if it could be disassembled), and even more so for a canoe preserved in a museum. This temporary attachment of the washstrakes by lashings was carried out in 1905-1910 with an initial seam consisting of a succession of harness stitches (fig. 171, 174 and 175), and thus what was in fact the definitive attachment of these pieces. As for the longitudinal bundle, here as on the recent canoes this was a secondary intervention. The primary structural element in this construction was ultimately the initial, definitive attaching together of the tips, giving the central bark sheet its final shape and volume and creating a stable base for the remainder of the construction process. The absence of any guide posts inserted in the ground also made it possible to transport the partially completed canoe to the water and submerge it until the following day, thus maintaining bark elasticity during the construction period.

27) We would like to thank Martin Cheek, from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his invaluable information.

Fig. 224. Shrub called inacali (Tetracera sp.), used to construct the frame sticks.

Fig. 225. Insertion of the first series of frame sticks.

85 Fig. 226. Separation of the sides, adjusted using a zigzag rope, with the first series of frame sticks.

Fig. 227. Insertion of the second series of frame sticks.

Fig. 228. Consolidated profile of the hull with the second series of frame sticks.

Fig. 229. Temporary lashing of the second series of gunwale poles.

Fig. 230. Final stitching of the second series of gunwale poles and beams.

Fig. 231. Sewing the stringers against the ribs to stabilise them.

86 Fig. 232. Caulking the punched holes using a plug of cotton.

Fig. 233. Holes filled from the inside with cotton plugs.

Fig. 234. First sea trials, by Seleman Amissi with the new muterere , 2.82 m long (30/8 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 51 87 From cord to needle: the needle – a new tool The ropes used for the lashings and seams used during the construction of the kapepe in Tanzania, canoes from Australia (including the two-shell bark-canoes from the Gulf of Carpentaria), and those from West Malaysia and North and South America, consist of pieces cut into a point, with good longitudinal rigidity and which can be used directly: bark strips, roots, lianas (for example of rattan type), but also rigid leaflets from the composite leaves of some palm trees, as we were able to observe with the temporary lashings used on the muterere . The use of cords, however, implies a set of fundamentally different processes. It is necessary to anticipate the use of these, and thus to manufacture them in advance or acquire them from a third party. It is worth recalling here that, to create a single muterere , around 40-50 m of cord are required. The cords consist of at least two strands, each an agglomeration of multiple fibres. The second parameter to resolve is the absence of strong longitudinal rigidity. It is therefore necessary to attach the cords to a needle so that they will pass through the surface of a fabric or through a hole punched in a sheet of bark. These few lines assume the regular use of needles, for example to assemble the different parts of a garment. In Mozambique, two very different techniques have been used for the nikhula and muterere , based on the type of needle used (respectively fig. 236 and 235). These are not made of either metal, horn or bone, and do not have an eye. They are made as needed, in just a few seconds, and discarded as quickly. In the case of the nikhula , the needles are made from the bamboo debris that litters the ground after the gunwale poles have been shaped (fig. 147). A flake is selected, then trimmed. One end is then cut into a point, while the other is split. The end of the nylon cord, heated and pointed by pulling it before it cools down, is placed in this slit. Harness stitch (p. 59) is used for the sewing, with the cord being inserted through the base hole and then pulled through to its centre. The two arms of the cord then alternate and are simultaneously inserted through the following holes (fig. 154).

Fig. 235. Large needle used for stitching a muterere , made from a leaflet (right) and attached to the cord (left).

Fig. 236. Repairing a crack in a nikhula using a small bamboo needle with a split base.

88 The stem is first pushed until the split terminal part, which is wider as a result of the presence of the end of the cord, is wedged in the hole (fig. 236). The needle is then drawn out from the other side, bringing the cord with it (fig. 237/1). However, this is only drawn out a short distance. The end of the second arm of the cord is then inserted between the strands of the first, which are separated at intervals (2). This is then pulled out backwards, drawing the other part with it (3). The second arm is then withdrawn from the first one (4), which is finally drawn completely through the material by the needle (6). In parallel, the second arm is also pulled (5) in order to tighten the loop. In this way, only half of the passages must be carried out using a needle with a split distal section. For the muterere , the process is completely different because the coconut fibre cord does not have the same properties as a nylon one. The point of a palm tree leaflet, similar to those used for the temporary lashings made on this canoe, is twisted with the cord and acts as a needle (fig. 235). Once the cord has been used, the end is cut and the needle discarded. The leaflet is first split into two branches over its last 25-30 cm using the tip of a knife (fig. 239/1). The end of the cord is then folded over about 5 cm (2). The main part of the cord is twisted with one of the arms over a length of 10-15 cm (3). The end of the arm is cut, around 10 cm further on, and the end of it inserted at the base of the twisted area, between the two strands of cord, which are separated at intervals (4). The folded end, about 5 cm long, is then twisted with the second arm (5). This section is then rolled around the main part of the cord (6). When only the split leaflet remains, this section is twisted up

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 52 to the end of the treated area of the main part, and the remaining fragment of the leaflet is inserted at the same point, between the two separated strands (7). Finally, the unsplit end of the leaflet is cut into a fine point, around 25-30 cm away, making up the point of the needle (8). This attachment method takes only a few seconds in the agile fingers of a fisherman.

Fig. 237. Harness stitch type sewing used to manufacture a nikhula (in black, needle cut from a sliver of bamboo).

Fig. 238. See Stage 2 of the above drawing.

89 Fig. 239. Muterere : attaching the needle (a leaflet) to the cord (in dark grey), by three successive twists.

Fig. 240. End of a split leaflet (4).

Fig. 241. Left, split leaflet (1). Right, folded, twisted part of the short cord (5), which is then wrapped around the main part of the cord (6).

Fig. 242. Final twisting together of the two branches (6).

Fig. 243. Bottom, folded part of the twisted cord (few fibres) with the upper part of the split leaflet (5). Top, main part of the twisted cord (3).

90 A double system for achieving watertightness? Observing the implementation of the system for achieving watertightness gave rise to a number of remarks. In the absence of such an opportunity, the system used is difficult to analyse 28. This is even more true if the two phases are carried out using the same type of material, which of necessity (as we will see below) would then consist of coconut fibre. In this case, the bundles have a very fibrous appearance. They are found, for example, on canoes 30/4 and 30/5 (fig. 245). The original aspect of the sealing process used here is the double system employed (fig. 217 and 244). This is a distinctive feature that we have never previously had the opportunity to observe. The first stage of the process involves a kind of caulking, in which the material – coconut fibre – is inserted between the two sheets using a wooden chisel, with a small pebble acting as the hammer (fig. 215). But the material is only moderately compressed, unlike normal caulking. The watertight bundle is, however, similar to those used in sewn boats on other continents. On these latter, sewing is intended to assemble two wooden side planks while maintaining watertightness over the area of contact between them, where no material is present. In the case of medium thickness bark sheets, the material which we will continue to call “caulking” does not function by means of the pressure it exercises between the two side pieces, but only when the watertight bundle is compressed by sewing (fig. 244). This bundle thus exerts maximum pressure on the end part of the bark sheet incorporated into the bundle. This sophisticated arrangement therefore only functions as a result of the presence of a watertight bundle. It is particularly effective with relatively supple side planks – in other words, those made of bark. In the case of the muterere from 1905 and 1910, the use of "caulking" between the initial harness stitch seam and the edge of the axial assembly is clearly facilitated and thus approaches true caulking. While the watertight bundles on the muterere seem to derive from the plank boats used on the Indian Ocean ( VON LUSCHAN 1907, p. 20), the addition of “caulking” indicates the presence of a local invention or adaptation, required by the specific character of the hull of these canoes. The “caulking” of the muterere is thus an integral part of the watertight bundle system, and can only function if the latter is present, due to the pressure it exerts on the bark sheets (fig. 244). This fundamental compression also explains why it is important to have fine fibres to reinforce the watertightness at this location, with its restricted volume, unlike the fibres of the bundle which can

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 53 sometimes be of greater thickness (dry banana leaves; fig. 219), but easily compressible. The bundle sometimes also consists of coconut fibre (fig. 186 and 245). This is thus, then, not a double system for achieving watertightness, but a system – a complex system, certainly – depending directly on the compressed sewing of a bundle of material to the junction of the two side planks. It can therefore be described as a complex bundle with two differentiated layers.

28) In this context, the transverse section of the figure on p. 53/1 of A RNOLD 2014 is wrong.

Fig. 245. Coconut fibre bundle, maintained in place by nylon threads ( 30/4 ).

91 The single sheet muterere from the Kunstkamera (Saint Petersburg) The Kunstkamera houses a small bark-canoe 2.77 m long ( 30/9 )29 . It has numerous similarities to the muterere from Chocas (fig. 246). However, we have no data regarding its origin or date of acquisition 30. Given its reduced dimensions and the large diameter of the trunk from which the bark was extracted, it was not necessary to raise the sides by adding an extra bark sheet or washstrake. For the same reason, each edge is topped only by two gunwale poles attached in two stages and consisting of a bamboo stem. These are supplemented on the outside by a bamboo lath protecting the ropes. On the port side, this lath has disappeared (fig. 248), and all that remains are the broken ropes (with two strands) that held it in place. All the other elements are similar to those of the muterere observed in the region of Chocas: a network of frame sticks (fig. 247), beams and a set of gunwale poles attached by overhand knots. This is a technique also used to consolidate the network of frame sticks by attaching it to the stringers. The first gunwale pole is maintained in place using a two-strand cord, alternately describing one then two loops (fig. 248). The second, reinforcing the first and blocking the tops of the ribs, is then attached using double loops with a thicker plaited cord.

29) Our measurements were carried out in June 2016. 30) The existence of a “canoe from Tierra del Fuego in a museum in Saint Petersburg” is mentioned by V AIRO 2002 (p. 46). It is located in the collections of the Kunstkamera, with a label missing an inventory number and a secondary annotation in pencil referring to the term “Tierra del Fuego”. This canoe possesses none of the very characteristic elements of this type of craft (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 68-86). However, it can very easily be compared to the muterere from Chocas, although it only consists of a single bark sheet.

Fig. 246. Small single sheet canoe from the Kunstkamera Museum (June 2016; 30/9 ). Length: 2.77 m.

Fig. 247. Stringers sewn to the network of frame sticks, with an additional central element.

92 The top of the bark sheet is also slit at the point where the ends begin to angle upwards, in order to give the craft a lenticular shape. And thus two slits per side. The lips are assembled on the inside using cross stitch surrounding a mass of plant fibres. An additional slit is present on one of the ends (fig. 252, left). The tips are pressed against each other and maintained in place with harness stitch. Everything leads us to believe that this is a small canoe intended for fishing, probably using a line, and propelled by a paddle. The outer layer of the bark, constituting the external face of the canoe, has been completely removed with an adze (fig. 249). The thickness is now 6-7 mm. Watertightness is ensured by “caulking” (fig. 249) and a bundle consisting of coarse fibres (fig. 250). Finally, the base of the ends is very oblique; a characteristic emphasised by the restricted space covered by the frame sticks (fig. 252).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 54 The lenticular shape of the canoe presents significant asymmetry (fig. 251). We can also note the fact that the presence of a central stem does not emphasise this asymmetry, but is located at a point of symmetry in relation to the transverse section of the hull in the centre, and thus not on the line connecting the two ends (fig. 251). It is only lashed to the framework at its ends and half way along it (fig. 252). At each end of this central stem, the diameter of which is 2 cm, can be observed the presence of a small square blind mortice, located above the hole cut in the beam that tops it. The presence of these four points (mortices and holes; fig. 251) indicates that the canoe has not become deformed following construction – for example during storage – but that the asymmetrical lanceolate shape is original.

Fig. 249. Removed outer bark with an adze, and part of the "caulking" visible on the lower part of the slit.

Fig. 250. Between the two stringers in the bottom is the start of the stem-mast step, with a small mortice present between the two lashing points.

93 As for the arrangement of the small mortices (fig. 250), these are too close to the ends of the canoe and too small to have carried a mast for a sail. We can perhaps instead picture two vertical stems (fig. 251), located on the general central axis, between which a piece of canvas or an awning would have been stretched to protect the fisherman from the sun. This arrangement would be unusual for use by an indigenous inhabitant, but perfectly appropriate for the leisure-time use of a Western colonist who enjoyed fishing. In brief, this central stem presents a form similar to that of the stringers, but adds little to the longitudinal rigidity of the craft as a result of its reduced number of lashing points. Its installation results directly from the necessity to provide an attachment point for the two vertical stems. This longitudinal element could thus be compared to a kind of mast step, even though it represents a very small sample. We will therefore describe this element as a stem mast step. As for how it was installed, this could very well have taken place secondarily, after the construction of the canoe.

94 Fig. 253. An interest in constructing bark-canoes develops even from an early age: a scene sketched in a fishing/farming hamlet, opposite Ocura (April 2018; 32 ).

95 Organisation of the work Our friend Eric Rieth suggested that we briefly describe the organisation of the work involved in the construction of the canoes we were able to observe. This can be summarised as follows: there are as many different methods as there are canoes (fig. 254).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 55 Firstly, it is necessary to state that it was we who instigated the construction of these canoes, and not the requirement for a new craft. This intervention was accompanied by a financial contribution that was welcomed in these communities of fishermen and farmers. Secondly, it was agreed in advance that after our departure the fishermen could retain the canoe constructed. This was also a guarantee of construction quality, as it was the constructors themselves who were later to use the canoe. This also enabled us to avoid the constructions being trivialised with synthetic ropes, as we could request the fishermen to use traditional ropes in the form of coconut fibre cord, or strips or cords made from bark. However, no direct or binding orders were given. In fact the work was directed by the most experienced of the participants, who also carried out the most intensive work, particularly during the most delicate phases. It was also generally this person who made the slits necessary for removing the bark, except when this person was older, in which case this task was left to a younger, more supple participant who could more freely reach the location where the upper circular slit was created. On arrival at the location where the required tree species grew, the participants scattered to seek out the most suitable trees for bark removal, with the leader of the group ultimately choosing which tree to select. The most traditional context was undoubtedly the one we observed on the banks of the Lúrio River, where the nikhula were constructed. It was necessary to convince Monteiro (fig. 255), the patriarch of the hamlet, to carry out the construction of a canoe, but this did not pose a problem as we had known him since 2013.

Fig. 254. The team from the Kimila River, with the bark removed to make a kapepe (37/2 ). Third from the left, our guide Kassim Govola Mbingo.

Fig. 255. Monteiro Paiva, Carvalho Augusto and Basilio Valenti, the three main artisans involved in the construction of a nikhula , in April 2018 ( 32 ).

96 He was assisted in removing the bark by two men from his clan. There were no adolescents, as our vehicle was too small to be transformed into a bus that could transport the entire village. The bark of the trees around the hamlet had already all been exploited. We had to travel a relatively long way, towards a small hamlet located at the foot of a set of rocky hills where the required trees grew. The inhabitants of this hamlet had family ties to the fishermen responsible for removing the bark, and two men from the hamlet joined the original team. One of the youngest men was responsible for carrying out the slits in the bark. Once the bark had been removed, an offering was made to the spirits of the forest in the form of a small branch inserted beneath a flake of wood raised by a machete blow to the trunk debarked (fig. 146). The construction began the following day in the open space in the centre of the fishermen’s hamlet. A number of adults had come to assist the team who had removed the bark. The adolescents were a little further away, observing the work progress. They helped out when more hands were required (fig. 149 and 256). Monteiro remained in the centre of the process, but often stepped back to allow younger men to carry out the work and thus knowledge of the process to be passed on. The children played in the shade. A small boy wandered about carrying a machete almost as big as him and imitating his parents, but under the constant supervision of a bigger brother (fig. 253). This was not a place for the girls, who were preparing the meal with their mothers, plaiting the hair or applying make-up. It was clear that our presence constituted an event in the hamlet and working in the fields could wait for another day. On Lake Chicamba , the initial contacts were made with Ronaldo (fig. 257). The next day, we set off into the field – in other words to the mountain bordering the lake – where it was his elder brother Constantino who directed the operations, selected the tree intended for the project and cut the slits. The third, older participant, Daimond, was very discreet but anticipated every operation, for example by seeking out the necessary materials which were then to hand when required, as if by chance.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 56 Fig. 256. Numerous hands are employed in attaching the gunwale poles, consisting of a number of bamboo laths, for a nikhula (32/5 ).

Fig. 257. Daimond Nttandoro Tsembero, Constantino Ferreira Torres Mandevo and his young brother Ronaldo on the banks of Lake Chicamba, in April 2018 ( 23 ).

97 In other words, he possessed all of the knowledge necessary to construct a canoe, but did not have the temperament of a leader. As for the construction of the canoe, it was built on the site of the bark removal and only three participants were present (fig. 259). For the construction of the ntherere at Biblibiza, the context was completely different. The guide had organised the construction of a canoe with one of the primary landowners of the village. The latter provided us with Antumane, one of his most experienced employees in this field. He was accompanied by three of his colleagues and a number of adolescents designated as volunteers to help with the operation and expand their own knowledge (fig. 83-85). Once the bark released by Antumane had been lowered to the ground, it was transported to the village and the construction process began immediately, involving the basic team surrounded by a number of spectators (fig. 258). On the banks at Chocas we encountered another situation for the construction of a muterere . In fact, only three fishermen still use this type of craft. Manufacturing an example while we observed turned out to be relatively problematic, because it could not be carried out by a single person. The intervention of the guide was strategically important as it was first necessary to create a kind of association for the duration of the construction. Once the principle was agreed and the financial sum defined, a working plan could be finalised. The fishermen did not remove the bark themselves, but purchased it from a neighbouring village. This situation could perhaps result from the abundance of canoes produced in the first half of the 20th century, leading to a specialisation in this activity – which would have been reinforced by the current almost total disappearance of these canoes, with an annual demand reduced to two to three pieces, and a lack of control of the forests by the fishermen. In any case, one can observe an almost complete disconnect between the removal of the raw material and construction process. For the construction of the canoe, the work was essentially carried out by Seleman and Cassimo (p. 78-note 25). They proceeded with the work in harmony and in a complementary manner. The third participant, Issufo, involved himself in the manufacturing process as and when he could (for example, he can be seen in the background of fig. 261). This is probably a consequence of how the association was created, as the first person we contacted – the first to have returned from fishing in the morning – was Issufo, and because the discussions had begun with him, he could not be removed from the group, even though he was clearly less skilled. Probably if we had initially addressed the two other fishermen, they would have carried out the entire construction process themselves. There were very few spectators. From time to time one or curious people stopped, discussed the construction, then left again. No young person observed or took part in the construction process. The era of the bark-canoe is past in Chocas, and it has given way to small monoxylous craft of cangaia type, which last longer, require less maintenance, and float much better if the logboat is overturned. The two boats are suitable for similar individual local fishing, and everything indicates that we are witnessing the beginning of the final disappearance of the complex African canoes.

Fig. 258. Moving the ntherere from its construction site to the banks of the Montepuez River ( 33 ).

Fig. 259. Four men transporting a canoe with shrouds, made the previous day, to Lake Chicamba. The canoe is very heavy (23/1 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 57 98 Fig. 260. The author crossing the Montepuez River in a box-shaped bark-canoe with spikes, made the previous day and propelled by Antumane (April 2016; 33 ).

99 In conclusion As is the case for the bark-canoes preserved in the reserves of museums in Australia, or the descriptions of examples observed in South America, those of East Africa constitute a group important to our understanding of vernacular naval architecture. Our knowledge of the extent of this latter group results essentially from the observations that we have made in the field (fig. 260), as it has previously received scant attention from researchers The bark-canoes from Mozambique and the neighbouring areas constitute an assemblage of highly diversified forms, partly as a result of the different thicknesses of the bark used, the stature of the trees (short and squat, narrow and tall) and the environments in which they are used (rivers, lakes and the sea). The overall approach to these canoes, used in a highly dispersed manner in the interior waters, remains rather problematic, particularly as their duration of use is very short (of the order of two years). This latter also produces a non-negligible impact on the species of which the bark can be removed in the form of large sheets, and thus on the forests where these species are becoming increasingly rare. In parallel, these short durations of use imply the short-term renewal of the canoes, and thus the regular application of specialist knowledge to manufacture them. This results in an extensive transmission of knowledge to several people who can then apply it as necessary, almost anywhere and at any time (M ONARD 1930, p. 36). In summary, Westerners are aware of the existence of this type of craft but encounter them only rarely. And when they decide to seek out an example, for example for a museum, the task becomes almost impossible without local assistance from carefully selected inhabitants (K ORABIEWICZ 1947, p. 69; HOFFMAN 1952, p. 23; M OURA 1988, p. 367, although the latter was unable to gain access to bark-canoes on the Lúrio River). Contemporary localisation of such canoes (for example using Google Earth) is facilitated by the simultaneous presence of small villages located close to a large river (above all in the rainy season) and the nearby existence of forests that are still relatively well preserved (and not too strictly protected in administrative terms); thus not in proximity to areas characterised by intensive agricultural development, an efficient road network (particularly one that replaces ferries with bridges) or marked demographic expansion – or alternatively an area transformed into a nature reserve. The presence of one of these factors, all of which result from the dynamics of current modern societal development, makes the discovery of such craft even more random. Three groups of canoes can be highlighted: First, those consisting of a single sheet, where the form of the hull is based on folding methods not requiring the use of waterproofing processes. Their general form is more or less rectangular (box-shaped canoe). The second group is characterised by canoes where the tips are pressed against each other and attached together by a seam or lashings (lenticular canoes). This location must be waterproofed, except if it is raised and held above the flotation line. A variant consists of only attaching the apical area of the tips and raising the base of these significantly above the flotation line (canoes with apical lashings). The third group consists of canoes constructed by assembling a number of bark sheets . This requires the use of some kind of arrangement to support the sheets during assembly, or something equivalent (for example the use of temporary lashings), the device of a longitudinal seam and the utilisation of waterproofing processes at this location. The box-shaped canoes from Mozambique, where the ends consist of the bottom of the canoe, raised significantly, present a similar logic to that observed on the canoes from Amazonia – in other words, based on the principle of folding and the absence of any caulking procedure (A RNOLD 2017 a,

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 58 p. 89-90; A RNOLD in prep.). The distinctive feature of this series of African canoes is emphasised by their box-shaped form, partly induced by the intrinsic rigidity of the bark used. This makes it possible, for example, to separate the sides of the canoe using stretchers often cut into a point and inserted in the bark. With thick bark species, exceeding 15 mm, the ends of the canoes can be raised only moderately, even once the bark has been softened over a fire and refined by removing the outer layer of the bark at the ends. These elements are then maintained in position with shrouds made from twisted bark strips ( 23 ). With smaller thicknesses, the raised areas are created by intensive folding, and the whole fixed in place by bamboo spikes. The raised area can often form a right angle ( 18 , 33 ). The parts forming an extension of the sides – the ears – are often folded against the raised area and maintained in place by spikes ( 18 , 33 , 34a ), or by an isolated lashing ( 17 , 22 ). In a few cases, the ears are not folded and are linked together by a terminal pole which maintains the raised area in position ( 20 ). Alternatively, the folds enabling the end to be raised are extended into the canoe and are then consolidated by a closing stem that also pierces the sides ( 16 ).

100 The absence of a framework is often compensated for by the insertion of small Y-shaped stays supported by the bottom of the envelope and held in place by the stretchers, in order to maintain the shape of the hull. This box shape is inefficient at sea, but perfectly adapted to rivers with little current or to stagnant waters, and in particular for transporting people from one bank to the other. Crossing watercourses at fords is often not a practicable solution as a result of frequent crocodile attacks. As for the box shape, in particular for the short but wide examples, it is well adapted to transporting, embarking and disembarking passengers. Its widespread distribution in East Africa and almost total absence on the world scale indicates an indigenous invention without exogenous contributions. However, it is possible to envisage inspiration from small containers or trays used on a daily basis and formed by folding a large leaf or small piece of bark. Finally, C. D OKE (1931, p. 188) describes how a Lamba chief in the region of Mushili always refused to cross a watercourse in a bark-canoe ( 16 ). After his death, his body was first allowed to decompose before being transported to the inhumation site in a bark-canoe ( ichikondo ), constructed for the purpose, where he would rest alongside other former chiefs. Crossing a river in a bark-canoe while alive would therefore equate to an evil omen, of taking his last voyage – his voyage into the afterlife. One of the two types of canoe used on the Lugenda River is characterised by its elegant ends. They consist of longitudinally folded ends , laterally flattened and ending in a point. They are located significantly above the flotation line and therefore require no waterproofing process ( 34b ). The raised ends are consolidated by a number of spikes inserted horizontally, sometimes supplemented by a substantial lashing. This technique is similar to that frequently used in south east Australia to produce the canoes with sheaf-shaped or pointed ends, which have a considerably more crude appearance (A RNOLD 2015, p. 21-27). We could also mention the case of an example observed on the banks of the Rouapir, at the border between Brazil and French Guiana, which are characterised by pressed, lashed ends (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 30). The kapepe observed in the basin of the Malagarasi River ( 37 ), which flows into Lake Tanganyika, correspond to an intermediate, original form compared to the canoes with pressed tips, maintained in place by a vertical distal seam. The kapepe are long, narrow canoes with apical lashings , made from a sheet of Brachystegia boehmii or B. spiciformis bark, the thickness of which varies between 10 and 12 mm, and from which the external layer has been completely removed Heating is not used to soften the bark, which is instead submerged in a river for 2-3 days. The tips are maintained at the top by a series of lashings, or by one initial lashing followed by a seam running in the direction of the terminal

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 59 part of the end. This latter has the form of the spout of a teapot, and is therefore not waterproof, but is raised above the flotation line by inserting an initial stretcher of an appropriate length. Avoiding this combination leads to close contact between the tips, and they are then firmly fixed in place with a vertical seam, generally of harness stitch type, and the insertion of waterproofing material at this point. In other words, the manufacture of canoes with tips pressed laterally together and with a vertical seam . The presence of an upper structural support is necessary (gunwale poles-stretchers-ties), sometimes with a limited number of ribs to support the curve of the hull and avoid introducing significant areas of tension which tends to tear the bark. The use is mentioned of Julbernardia paniculata (9+10 ) in Angola, and thus in proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, and at the other extreme – in other words in Mozambique – the use of Brachystegia spiciformis (26 ) and Brachystegia glaucescens (32 ). In the absence of gunwale poles, the apical edge of the bark is often slightly rolled in on itself. The distance separating these two areas marked by the use of canoes with distal seams provides little support for the presence of a direct influence from the canoes with washstrakes of muterere type on the nikhula . We should perhaps instead envisage, as for the kapepe , one or more endogenous evolutions resulting in this type of canoe. In this context, we note that the short, wide forms of the nikhula are particularly suitable for use as a ferry, while the long, narrow forms are better suited to fishing in areas bordered by reeds or equivalent vegetation. On one occasion, we were also able to observe the close relationship between the fishermen, who themselves go to collect the bark used to construct their canoes, and the forest spirits (fig. 146); a major indication of the profound anchoring of this population in its territory.

101 We can also note the use of nine different bark species to create the hull (Appendix 3); in particular Brachystegia boehmii (23 , 37 ), B. bussei (23 ), B. glaucescens (32 ), B. spiciformis (16 , 20 , 26 , 30 , 37 ), Erythrophleum africanum (43 ), E. suaveolens (22 ), Julbernardia globiflora (33 ), J. paniculata (9+10 ) and Sclerocarya birrea (18 ). Often, only the designation Brachystegia is used in publications ( 13, 36 ). Two other tree species are also mentioned for the construction of complex canoes with washstrakes of muterere type by A. MOURA (1988): Cordyla africana (wild mango; 30 ) and Anacardium occidentale (cashew tree, an imported species; 20 , 30 ), to which can be added Brachystegia spiciformis . We were able to observe that a significant amount of this outermost part of this latter bark, quite thick, was removed (up to 50%; 30/8 ), and the same applies to the kapepe (37 ). With the muterere (12 , 30 ), we are faced by a totally different problem. These canoes are used for sea fishing and are (or were) propelled using a sail. The diameter of the trees exploited produces bark sheets of apparently insufficient width. It was therefore necessary to extend the base sheet by means of an additional piece of bark in order for the hull to provide the correct homogeneity in relation to the intrinsic rigidity of its three component elements. Such an assembly requires the implementation of a temporary support system for the added sheets until they are definitively attached. As for the length of these pieces, it also seems to be limited. The construction method for North American canoes is characterised by the installation of a peripheral set of stakes defining the outline of the future canoe and supporting the particularly thin bark. In Tierra del Fuego, the three-piece sewn bark-canoes are made by setting up a set of slanting stakes temporarily maintaining the lateral sheets, which are particularly thick and rigid. The situation is completely different in East Africa, in the region of Chocas, where the entire construction is based on the use of temporary lashings (fig. 261), to maintain both the side sheets in place relative to the axial base and the longitudinal rigidification elements – in other words, the gunwale poles ( 30 ).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 60 made using a rope. In the background, we observe the presence of a temporary stretcher which will be replaced by a beam (April 2018; 30/8 ).

102 This system frees the preform from being attached to the ground and enables it to be transported every evening into the sea in order to rehydrate the bark and thereby maintain its flexibility. At least three days' work are required to complete the canoe, without counting that necessary for obtaining the bark. On the examples observed and dated to the early 20th century ( 12 ), the temporary lashings of the washstrakes are replaced by an initial and final longitudinal harness stitch seam; in other words, a different technique based on a similar concept. The whole would be consolidated during the attachment of the watertight bundles. Assembling the bark sheets therefore required the development of substantial longitudinal seams. These simultaneously attached the watertight bundles and served to protect the bark at the point where it was pierced by the ropes. These watertight bundles consisted of two elements. An initial fill of the space separating the bark sheets maintained in place by temporary lashings (or an initial definitive seam in harness stitch on the larger examples from the early 20th century; 12 ) is carried out using relatively fine coconut fibre, and this area is then covered on the inside by a bundle sewn firmly and definitively to the hull. This bundle consists of the superimposition of a number of ribs from dry banana leaves, which are thick but characterised by a highly alveolar structure. These latter are sometimes replaced by coconut fibre or grass stems. This complex waterproofing system is thus maintained in place by a definitive seam, carried out with a rope here consisting of a two-strand cord. The use of such an element, which does not provide sufficient inherent longitudinal rigidity, is exceptional in the manufacture of canoes, and requires the employment of a needle. Here, this takes the form of a leaflet of a palm tree leaf, the base of which is split. Each element is rolled around one of the parts of the folded cord, with the shortest finally being rolled around the longest part. Once the cord has been used, the remainder, together with the needle, is cut off and discarded. The production of the needle and the attachment to the cord take just a few seconds. We should also note that the nintherere (31 ) are characterised by the absence of watertight bundles. The tips of the nikhula and its gunwale poles are sewn in place using a needle made from a fragment of bamboo cut into a point and with a split end, into which the cord is inserted. This element is also only used for a very brief period of time. For the kapepe , however, the ropes consist of bark strips cut into a point, presenting good longitudinal rigidity and thus not requiring the use of a needle. In the case of the muterere , the upper structural support must be reinforced by the insertion of a beam that both supports the mast and absorbs the forces created by the use of a sail. We note also the development of a network of frame sticks, consisting of innumerable stems of very small section, stabilised by the presence of a series of stringers to which they are sewn. This arrangement therefore makes it possible to redistribute the tensions across the whole of the hull. These canoes are also distinguished from the other examples, of box-shaped or lenticular form (produced in one day or less), by the considerably greater time investment required to produce them. It takes at least three days for a team of two to three artisans/fishermen to construct one, to which must be added several days for preliminary immersion of the removed bark to soften it, particularly when the sap is not abundant. As for the duration of use, this is the same as for the other canoes – in other words, in the order of two to three years. These parameters distinguish them radically from the North American canoes made from the thin bark of Betula papyrifera . It takes two weeks to make such a canoe (R ITZENTHALER 1950, p. 65: 13 days; GUY 1970, p. 11: 10 days), half of which is spent on seeking out and preparing the materials. Their duration of use can extend to several decades, and thus can present an interesting relationship between the time spent on construction and the length of time during which the canoe can be used.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 61 The complexity of the solutions employed in a very small area, such as the addition of washstrakes, together with the development of techniques associated with longitudinal seams and processes for waterproofing them, have led F. VON LUSCHAN (1907) and J. H ORNELL (1935) to evoke, for the muterere , the presence of an exogenous influence from the Island of Mozambique; a major maritime hub of the west coast of the Indian Ocean, where Arabic and European ocean-going vessels converge, but with the presence too of large logboats, increased in depth by the addition of washstrakes, and often fitted with outriggers – canoes from an exogenous influence originating in Indonesia, with Madagascar acting as the fulcrum (H ORNELL 1933, p. 444-445; 1934, p. 320-321). However, numerous endogenous solutions are employed to finalise some elements, such as the waterproofing processes. A similar reflection can be developed in the region of Lake Victoria with complementary data.

103 An analysis of the distribution map for these canoes, as a function of their type (fig. 262), thus highlights a concentration of canoes with washstrakes around the Island of Mozambique. Canoes with laterally pressed tips are present in the north and south west. Another group of such canoes is present on the opposite coast of the continent, in the central part of Angola. While the former concentration could suggest the presence of a development based on the muterere , this is not possible with the second, which instead supports a more general endogenous development of this type of canoe. As for the manufacture of canoes with apical lashings, it is for the moment restricted to the basin of the Malagarasi River, which flows into Lake Tanganyika. It is not possible to compare them to the canoes used in Amazonia, between the rivers Purús and Madeira (A RNOLD 2017 a, p. 28-29, fig. 42). In this context, and given the specific and elementary techniques implemented in their manufacture, only a phenomenon of convergence of form can be considered. The box-shaped canoes therefore correspond to an original East African construction. They are distributed in a continental area located between the concentrations previously mentioned. No remarkable group can be highlighted for the canoes with shrouds, spikes or a closing stem. These generally short and squat canoes are distinguished by the use of pointed stretchers inserted in the upper part of the bark sheet, which is characterised by its thickness and cohesion. As we have previously mentioned, they are well suited for use as ferries to connect two banks of a river. The smaller examples are used for local fishing. Finally, we can note the presence of another group of box-shaped canoes, of the type with ears, located in the region of the Limpopo and the areas that touches it to the north. The areas located between these groups and filling the space between the virgin equatorial forest (Congo Basin) and the Kalahari Desert – in other words, the areas crossed by the rivers in the basin of the Upper Zambezi (fig. 262), are undoubtedly only the result of an absence of exploration, whether early or current, emphasising still further the relevance of the area described by H. S UDER (1930, pl. 13; see our fig. 4). It is necessary only to extend this latter a little towards the south, by incorporating the Limpopo Basin. In this context, we can note that lakes Tanganyika and Malawi constitute a western barrier to this expansion, the latter continuing further to the south and south west through the Zambezi Basin and the rivers leading into the Okavango Delta. And finally, given the expansion of the Bantu-speaking peoples originating in the Cameroon/Nigeria region, on the one hand along the Atlantic coast to Angola for the western Bantu, and on the other hand, for the eastern Bantu, through Tanzania and Mozambique as far as Transkei (L WANGA - LUNYIIGO and V ANSINA 1990), it appears to us that the distribution of these canoes, covering as it does an area extending from Angola to Mozambique, should rather be related to that of the tree species from which it is possible to easily remove the whole of the bark in the form of a large split cylinder. More than the diameter, it is the circumference that is the most important, because this corresponds to the width of the bark sheet, and thus to the width and depth of the canoe.

- Kapepe from the Kimila River (fig. 112 and 132; 37/2 ): 1.01 m (Ø 0.32 m); initial thickness of the bark 10-12 mm.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 62 - Canoe from Lake Chicamba (fig. 36 and 60; 23/1 ): 1.16 m (Ø 0.37 m); thickness of the bark 20 mm. - Muterere manufactured in April 2018 (fig. 199 and 234; 30/8 ): 1.17 m (Ø 0.37 m); initial thickness 17-18 mm. - Nikhula from the Lúrio River (fig. 144 and 163; 32/5 ): 1.32 m (Ø 0.42 m); thickness of the bark 8-10 mm. - Ntherere from Bilibiza (fig. 77 and 79; 33 ): 1.80 m (Ø 0.57 m); initial thickness of the bark 10-12 mm.

 for the thickness of the bark, see fig. 272

Fig. 262. Distribution of canoe types: ❚) box-shaped canoe; ) canoe with apical lashings; ♦) canoe with pressed tips; ◇) complex canoe or with washstrakes; ) not specified.

104 Finally, the length/width diagram of the few canoes for which we have the dimensions shows that the longer a one sheet canoe is, the narrower it is, regardless of the type of canoe (fig. 263/ grey band). The lengths vary between 2 m and 4.3 m. Some rare examples, above all of complex type, can achieve 6 m in length, but their axial element then consists of two sheets assembled one behind the other ( 12 ). Those sheets measure 2.53 m and 2.86 m for the 1910 example, and 2.61 m for the two elements constituting that of 1905, with an overlap of 0.22 m and 0.34 m respectively The widths vary between 0.6 m and 1.0 m, except for the complex canoes, topped on each side by a washstrake, which can occasionally measure 1.2 m. Finally, we note the presence of a number of very short, narrow canoes with pressed tips, such as that in the Kunstkamera ( 30/9 ; fig. 252). In this context, we can observe that F. VON LUSCHAN (1907, p. 16) indicates that these latter were occupied by three fishermen (12 ), while today ( 30 ), they are essentially used by a single man, like the numerous small fishing logboats. Overall, the length of the sheets of bark removed does not exceed 4.3 m, which makes it possible to reach the top of the removal area via a small Y-shaped section of tree positioned diagonally as a "ladder". Recourse to the installation of scaffolding, as is the case in some canoes in South America, is therefore not necessary, even for the early muterere , where the biggest bark sheet forming the bottom is only 2.86 m long. The removal is systematically carried out by making two circular slits linked by a further vertical one, corresponding to the length of the split cylinder removed, thus to the length of the simple canoes.

Structural diversity, the original nature of the types of canoes used in the space analysed, the presence of endogenous and sometimes exogenous influences, and finally the still current use of these bark-canoes, give inestimable cultural value to this group of vernacular canoes – canoes which are very likely to disappear completely in the near future.

105 Fig. 264. An intelligent and familiar expression, in a hamlet located in the central part of the Lúrio River, opposite Ocura, where nikhula bark-canoes are still in daily use (April 2016). A tribute to the people who have always offered us a warm welcome.

106

107

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 63 Appendix 1 Annotated inventory of bark-canoes, together with their location (fig. 4) The capital letters involved correspond to canoes where the location of discovery has not been specified, and therefore not transferred to figure 4. For the symbols, see Figure 6 or 262.

First mentions of bark-canoes

1) ♦♦♦ Riambegi and Hogiz J.-B. D OUVILLE (1832, vol. 3, p. 161) says that at " Cusotessa, sur les bords du Riambegi, que j’avais vu à sa sortie du lac Couffoua [the mythical location corresponding to the upper course of the Kwango; S TAMM 1970, p. 23 and 36] […], il n’y avait sur les bords que quelques frêles canots faits d’écorce d’arbre, dont les nègres cousent les deux bouts " ( 1a ). The right hand part of the tracing of the map produced by A.-H. Brucé, after the explorer's documents (D OUVILLE 1832, Atlas, "Grande carte de géographie"), should be rotated by around 40° (S TAMM 1970, p. 11). J.-B. D OUVILLE (1832, vol. 3, p. 150) also mentions the crossing of the Hogiz River (in other words the Luchio, according to S TAMM 1970, p. 31 and details in tab. 5; or Lushiko) in " un canot fait d’écorces d’arbres " ( 1b ). In this context, the Riambegi would correspond to the Cuilo (and not to the Chiumbe as stated by S TAMM 1970, p. 24).

2) ♦♦♦ Loange (Chikápa) On 24 March 1854, D. L IVINGSTONE (1858, p. 383-384) crossed the Chikápa River, a tributary of the basin upstream of the Loange River (a tributary of the Kasai which flows into the Congo or Zaire River), by means of a canoe manufactured from a single sheet of bark, with the ends sewn together. Spaced rods served as a framework (or as stretchers?). These canoes were used during the season of high waters. Finally, the term chikapa means bark or skin.

3) ◇ Malagarasi In 1858, R. B URTON (1860, p. 278-279) used bark-canoes on the Malagarasi River (Mlagarassi, Malagarazi), near Mpété (S PEKE 1864 b, p. 201 and 217). He described them as "baumrinden". These consisted of two sheets of myombo (miombo in S PEKE 1864 a, p. 568), 1.5-2.1 m long, sewn together using strips extracted from the same material. The whole must have been 3-4 m long. The stretchers were 0.45 m long. The prow and stern were raised. With a boatman and two passengers, the freeboard was reduced to 7.6-10.2 cm. A rigid sheet of bark acted as a seat. In 1874, V. C AMERON (1877, p. 165) notes the presence of two canoes consisting of a single sheet of bark, with the ends closed by a seam. Finally, R. B URTON (1860, p. 338) states that this type of canoe is not known on Lake Tanganyika. H. M EYER (1916, p. 72) mentions the use of a "tub" made of bark to cross the Mlagarassi. He also indicated the use of canoes made from three bark sheets sewn together (ibid., p. 73), but does not specify where these were used (on this subject, see S PRANZ ed. 1984, p. 189). We found bark-canoes in 2013 on two tributaries of this basin, the Kimila and Ugalla ( 37 , 38 : A RNOLD 2014, p. 16-39).

4)  Lake Kyoga In August 1874, Charles Chaillé-Long reached Lake Kyoga with two bark-canoes (V IVIAN 2012, p. 166).

5)  Ruaha J. T HOMSON (1881, vol. 1, p. 176) mentions the presence of a bark-canoe on the Ruaha River, near Mgunda/Mahenge.

6)  Rufiji H. S TANLEY (1872, p. 523) indicated that on the Rufiji River, the Warori constructed canoes made from the bark of large mbugu .

Comment: Lake Albert In 1864, S. B AKER (1866) discovered Lake Albert (Lake Mobutu Sese Seko, then M'vouta-N'zighé). He followed its north east bank in two logboats (ibid., p. 340) and makes no mention of the presence of bark-canoes.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 64 However, in his summary, W. S MITH (1889, p. 150), presents a drawing of a bark-canoe (fig. 265), perhaps made from two bark sheets, with pressed and sewn tips. We also note the presence of gunwale poles on the top of the sides. It is propelled by pairs of indigenous inhabitants, and S. Baker is sitting on the prow. This is a collection of elements incompatible with a bark-canoe: an artist's impression, perhaps influenced by the descriptions of R. B URTON (1860, p. 278-279).

Fig. 265 Baker discovers Lake Albert: a drawing produced by the imagination of an artist (S MITH 1889, fig. p. 150).

108 Canoes observed before 1918

7) ♦♦♦ Cunene (fig. 5) In his work, J. DE ALMEIDA (1912, fig. p. 15) illustrates the use of a bark-canoe on the Quissuco ( 7a ), a small tributary of the Cunene (ibid., plates around p. 104 and 242). It is occupied by one indigenous inhabitant and a Western passenger. The tips of the ends are pressed against each other and maintained in place by a vertical seam, probably in harness stitch. The presence of bark-canoes is also indicated in the central section of the Chitanda, another tributary of the Cunene ( 7b ; ibid., p. 376), in other words, in the region of Cassinga.

8) ♦♦♦ Samba Bark-canoes called samba are constructed by the Banhema and the Bambuela, from the Ganguelas tribe (D INIZ 1918, p. 387). They occupy the area bordered by the Cunene and the Cuito (together with the upper basin of the Cuando; ibid., plate around p. 375). The bark is removed by making two circular slits connected by a further vertical one. The bark is then removed using small wedges. The cylinder removed is then filled with dry leaves which are burned in order to soften the bark. The ends are compressed between two stakes inserted in the ground, and the tips are then sewn/lashed.

9+10) ♦♦♦ Cubango, Cuito On three occasions in the context of an expedition undertaken in 1899-1900, H. B AUM (1903) mentions the use of bark-canoes to cross the Cubango (Kubango), near the villages of Wolombo ( 9a ; ibid., p. 126), Massaca ( 9b ; ibid., p. 48) and Kabindere ( 9c ; ibid., p. 57). For the location of these places, we refer to the plate in this work. The same is true for the Cuito, a little upstream of Chinpulu ( 10 ; ibid., p. 111). It should be remembered that the Cubango and Cuito ultimately flow into the sands of the Okavango Delta. To manufacture these canoes, the indigenous inhabitants fell "Houtbosch" trees, locally known as mumue (Berlinia baumii , now Julbernardia paniculata ). They then light a fire beneath the tree in order to facilitate removal of the bark (ibid., p. 36-37). The ends, described as pointed, are closed with strips of the same bark and the slits are plugged using wax. Comment: fig. 67 in this work does not illustrate a bark-canoe, contrary to what is indicated in the legend, but instead a logboat.

11) ❚ Letaba H. J UNOD (1913, vol. 2, p. 110) mentions that he has crossed the Letaba, a tributary of the Olifants, which flows into the Limpopo, in a bark-canoe on which each end of the bottom was raised and folded. These could carry 2-3 people. Such canoes were also used to store water. He noted the presence of a number of taboos relating to some large species of tree, used to manufacture logboats (ibid., p. 19-20, 120). But nothing is stated as to the trees whose bark is removed to manufacture the canoes.

A) ❚ Zambezi-1910 R. C. F. M AUGHAM (1910, p. 319-320) mentions the occasional presence in the areas upstream of the Zambezi Basin, of bark-canoes called "almadéa" by the Portuguese. These were around 3 m long. The ends were obtained by marked folding of the bark upwards and towards the interior (with this latter detail the author probably refers to the operation of folding the ears). These elements were stabilised using wooden spikes. Additional waterproofing was obtained using damp clay. Rigidity was ensured by gunwale poles. Finally, the canoe was dried in the sun.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 65 B) ❚ South of Mozambique-1910 (fig. 7) During a voyage that took place between the Limpopo and the Zambezi, O. W. B ARRETT (1910, fig. p. 817) photographed two box-shaped canoes propelled by means of a pole. The stretchers, which ended in a point, perforated the top of the sheet of bark from a Brachystegia , in order to maintain the separation of the sides. The bark sheet was raised at a right angle to close the ends. The slits were caulked with pitch. This illustration caught the attention of H. S UDER (1930, pl. 13/5), in the context of his summary describing the traditional craft observed around the world.

C) See Appendix 2, p. 113 and fig. 279.

109 12) ◇ Island of Mozambique, Ilha de Moçambique (p. 67-70; fig. 10, 170-176; see also 30 ) During a call at the Island of Mozambique, from the bridge of the steamer taking him to Europe, F. VON LUSCHAN (1907) observed three bark-canoes fitted with small triangular sails. Each was occupied by three men. He very quickly succeeded in acquiring an example which he took back to the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin (now the Ethnologisches Museum; 12/1 ). He published a detailed description with photographs, overall and detailed plans. The canoe was 5 m long and 1.05 m wide, with a depth of 0.33 m. The bottom consisted of two sheets sewn together, with four slits on each side. Each side was also topped by a long bark sheet sewn in an overlapping manner, in half cross stitch as can be seen on his drawings. The tips are pressed against each other and maintained in place by a harness stitch seam. This canoe is no longer preserved (see p. 67-note 21). In 1926, J. H ORNELL (1935) observed a similar canoe at the same location, this time 4.27 m long and 1.22 m wide ( 12/3 ). He published a detailed description and two photographs (fig. 10 and 176). The example in the Museum am Rothenbaum in Hamburg (MAROLD 1940, p. 81; K ELM 1989, p. 11), collected in 1917 ( 12/2 ), almost certainly comes from the same location. This example is 5.1 m long and 0.95 m wide.

13)  Wami F. S TUHLMANN (1910, p. 34) noted that he observed, on a single occasion, a bark-canoe on the Wami River, north of Dar es Salaam. This was a large sheet of bark, probably from a Brachystegia , the ends of which were folded and lashed with bark strips. The slits were caulked with clay. With this information, it is not possible to state whether this was a box-shaped or perhaps lenticular canoe (see also A RNOLD 2014, p. 40-note 16).

14) ◇ Between Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika (p. 11) Dealing with an area that today covers Rwanda, Burundi and the extreme north west of Tanzania, H. M EYER (1916, p. 73) mentions that bark-canoes are used only during the rainy season to cross rivers, then abandoned on site where they crack during the dry season. New canoes are then constructed for the following rainy season. He also states that these canoes are constructed of three large, long bark sheets, lashed together with bark strips, with the central sheet constituting the bottom the canoe (see also M EYER 1984, p. 101).

Canoes observed after the First World War and the dismantling of the German colonies

15) ♦♦♦ Cangamba (fig. 9) D. H AMBLY (1934, p. 146, 161, pl. 85/2) mentions the use of bark-canoes around 4.6 m long on the Cuando (Kwando), near Cangamba, by the Vachokue, Luchazi and Babunda. He observes the use of such canoes close to Cangamba. The published photograph presents only the end of the canoe, which is difficult to analyse. However, a sequence of 15 seconds of film produced during this expedition ( https://vimeo.com/100496194 ) illustrates a canoe with tips pressed and sewn together (fig. 9). This location was undoubtedly caulked. On the published photograph, the fisherman is resting on the single stretcher, while no ribs are present.

16) ❚ Kafue (fig. 8) C. D OKE (1931, p.119, fig. 51) describes a bark-canoe constructed for an isolated task on the Upper Kafue (a little south west of Ndola). This canoe is produced in two and a half hours, from the choice of tree to being launched into the water. The canoe is called an ichikondo . A large umuputu is selected (corresponding to a

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 66 Brachystegia spiciformis ; according to A RNOLD 2014, p. 13-note 3 and p. 16). A circular slit is made in the bark at the base of the trunk. A pole is leaned against the trunk to reach a sufficient height where, at around 3.65 m from the first, a second circular slit is made. A third, vertical, slit links the first two and acts as a point of entrance for the poles used to release the bark. The ends of the bark sheet are placed over a fire in order to soften the bark, raise it and fold it, the whole being maintained in place at the end of the process by crossed wooden spikes. Stretchers are inserted to maintain the separation of the sides. With this last detail, we can note that this description does not exactly correspond to the canoe illustrated. This canoe presents two axial folds on the illustrated end (in the foreground of the photograph), with the whole being secured by a "closing stem". This stem pierces the walls of the canoe. There are no stretchers specifically designed to maintain the separation of the sides. We designate this as a box-shaped canoe with a closing stem. Similar canoes were also produced to carry the bodies of Lamba chiefs; see p. 100 (D OKE 1931, p. 188).

17) ❚ Kariba (fig. 21; see also "Zambezi-1910", A) Batonga fisherman on Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe: a box-shaped canoe with shrouds and angular lashings. https://www.flickr.com/photos/baronvonthierry/6903457080/ https://www.flickr.com/photos/baronvonthierry/7063481711/

110 18) ❚ Levuvhu (fig. 17) A. C. H OFFMAN (1952, p. 23, pl. 1) describes a small canoe collected in Vendaland, on the Levubu River (Levuvhu), a tributary of the Limpopo, before being transferred to the collections of the National Museum (see p. 15- note 4). This canoe was made from the bark of a marula (thus of a Sclerocarya birrea ), a tree species very familiar to the indigenous inhabitants for its numerous virtues, and in particular those of its bark. The bottom is raised at the extremities to make the ends, which are stabilised with wooden spikes maintaining the folded ears and, for each end, by a stretcher enabling the separation to be controlled. A third piece, located in the centre of the canoe, stabilises the separation of the sides. The canoe is 1.96 m long, 0.91-1.07 m wide and 0.27-0.38 m deep. The bark is 9.5-12.7 mm thick. To cross the river, the canoe is propelled using a pole, and the instability resulting from its lightness is compensated for by transporting a mass of sediment in the bottom of the canoe. The image of this canoe has also been included in other publications (I BARRA GRASSO 1955, fig. 10).

19) ❚ Xai-Xai (19b : fig. 104-106) On the Limpopo, around Xai-Xai: box-shaped canoes with shrouds ( 19a ). A canoe with independent raised ends (tsevele ), collected in the lower basin of the Limpopo, is preserved in the Museu das Pescas ( 19b ; see p. 45). http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/mozambique-canoe.html https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-man-poling-a-dugout-canoe-on-river-limpopo-near-xai-xai-mozambique- 53883435.html

20) ❚ Panda (p. 30-33; fig. 16, 63-72) Canoes with ears ( lithelele ) used on the small lakes in the region of Panda, near Inhambane. They are made from Brachystegia spiciformis and occasionally from Anacardium occidentale . https://roncorylus.wordpress.com/2011/08/04/birding-in-mozambique/

21) ❚ Lucite Box-shaped canoes used on the Lucite River, near Dombe. These were observed in 2009. They are long and narrow, and possess numerous stretchers sustained by stays, but they are not particularly large canoes. The raised ends are relatively vertical. They are similar to 34a . http://www.4x4community.co.za/forum/showthread.php/147152-Mozambique-Trip-Advice

22) ❚ Mussapa (fig. 20) During a programme intended to study sites important for the preservation of Mozambique's vegetation, an expedition from Kew Gardens used a bark-canoe made from Erythrophleum to cross the Mussapa River. This was most probably E. suaveolens (see p. 114).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 67 https://www.kew.org/blogs/kew-science/from-the-forests-and-woodland-of-mozambique

23) ❚ Chicamba (p. 20-29; fig. 2, 14, 29-62) Analysis of detail and construction method of a box-shaped canoe with shrouds (p. 21-26). These canoes are used on Lake Chicamba for fishing. They are around 3.6 m long and 0.8 m wide, and made from the bark of a musasa (Brachystegia boehmii ) or mtondo (Brachystegia bussei or Julbernardia paniculata ). The stretchers, cut into points, are inserted in the bark and linked by a pair of stems arranged diagonally. The bark has very significant intrinsic rigidity.

24) ♦♦♦ Pungwe (p. 19; fig. 28) D. S HROPSHIRE (1935) mentions the presence of a bark-canoe, called ngarawa , around 15 km downstream of the waterfalls on the Pungwe, in other words in Zimbabwe, close to the border with Mozambique. It is 3.05 m long and 0.91 m wide. The ends are sewn together, but the published sketch does not make it possible to determine its detailed structure. The general structure is stabilised by the lashing of two longitudinal poles placed on a diagonal on the stretchers. It is used for transporting people from one bank to the other.

25) ❚ Gairezi (p. 44; fig. 103) Box-shaped canoe with significant added elements, fixed by numerous spikes (probably repairs). It was collected on the Gairezi River, in the district of Nyanga; Mutare Museum. https://www.inspirock.com/zimbabwe/mutare/mutare-museum-a6275816883  (see fig. 103).

26) ♦♦♦ Muarèdzi and Vanduzi Canoes with distal seams have been observed recently on the Muarèdzi and Vanduzi, tributaries of the Pungwe, on the eastern and western flanks of the Gorongosa National Park. They are similar to those used on the Lúrio River, and thus have pressed sewn tips, but without stems arranged diagonally. They are known as messassa , in other words, the vernacular name of the tree used (a Brachystegia spiciformis ; A RNOLD 2014, p. 45).

111 27) ❚ Licungo Use of box-shaped canoes with shrouds near Malei, as a result of the destruction in 2015 of a bridge on road 226 across the Licungo River. http://www.dw.com/pt-002/zamb%C3%A9zia-popula%C3%A7%C3%A3o-enfrenta-crocodilos-e-outros-perigos-em- travessia-em-malei/a-42811563

28) ♦♦♦ Molócuè Canoes with distal seams used on the Molócuè, particularly near Gilé (image on Google Earth and from Inês Calixto). https://hiveminer.com/Tags/mo%C3%A7ambique%2C%C3%A1gua

29) ◇ Quinga (p. 19; fig. 27) A. M OURA (1988, p. 367-368, pl. 20) mentions the presence, in the Bay of Quinga (at Namevil), of a large canoe called untoro . It is similar to the examples from Chocas or the Island of Mozambique, but larger and more robust. The only data published is a single good photograph. According to THE MARINER ’S MUSEUM (2001, p. 395; António Emes), it is 6 m long with a depth and width of 0.9 m. In 2013, these canoes had not been manufactured "for a long time" (A RNOLD 2014, p. 46).

30) ◇ Chocas (p. 70-90; fig. 25, 169, 177-245, 261; see also 12 and 31 ) Among the canoes present at Chocas, the dominant model is a bark-canoe called muterere (M OURA 1972, 1988). In 2013, only three examples remained in use. It is around 3 m long and 0.60-0.80 m wide, with a depth corresponding to half of its width. The framework consists of fine rods lashed to horizontal stems or stringers. The hull consists of three large sheets of bark sewn together with coconut fibre or sisal cords, and sometimes with nylon thread. A. Moura states that the bark comes from an Anacardium occidentale , but also from a Cordyla africana and Brachystegia spiciformis . This latter species was used for the production of an example in 2018 ( 30/8 ). These canoes are propelled by a triangular sail and, currently, exclusively with a paddle. It appears that outriggers were

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 68 occasionally used (M OURA 1988, p. 367). The plan of a canoe was drawn up in 2013 (A RNOLD 2014, p. 47-52). In 2018, the examples observed in 2013 were no longer in use, having been replaced by three new ones, to which can be added the example we were able to observe being constructed (for the dimensions of these canoes, see p. 70). The photograph published in 1988 makes it possible to state that this is the same type of canoe as that described by J. H ORNELL (1935; 12/3 ) or that collected by F. VON LUSCHAN (1907) on the Island of Mozambique (12/1 ), thereby enabling us to know its vernacular name. And finally, as we have already mentioned, three of these canoes were still in use at Chocas in 2013, without outriggers. The same is true in 2018. A plank or a group of branches was placed on the framework to protect the bottom. The example preserved in the Kunstkamera, in Saint Petersburg ( 30/9 ), has no washstrakes (fig. 246-252).

31) ◇ Mossuril (p. 75-76; fig. 179, 190-195; see also 12 and 30 ) The Museu das Pescas in Maputo has three examples of complex canoes collected in Mossuril and called nintherere . These are characterised by the absence of watertight bundles at the location where the washstrakes are attached. The simple caulking is carried out with cotton.

32) ♦♦♦ Lúrio (p. 54-63; fig. 24, 133-164) Bark-canoes with distal seams used on the Lúrio River They are called nikhula . In 2013, a plan was drawn up of an example 2.82 m long (32/1 ; ARNOLD 2014, p. 40-45), and in 2018 the construction of an example 3.29 m long (32/5) was observed (32/5 ). They are made from Brachystegia glaucescens . The tips are pressed against each other and maintained in place by a vertical seam of harness stitch type. The gunwale poles consist of an assembly of bamboo laths, enabling an S-shape to be given to the top of the ends. These are maintained in place by a helicoidal seam or attached by a series of plant lashings made from leaflets of the palmate leaves of palm trees. Stretchers stabilise the width of the ends, but these have often disappeared at a later date, and have not been replaced or reinserted.

33) ❚ Bilibiza (p. 34-43; fig. 18, 74-102) Analysis of detail and construction method of a box-shaped canoe with spikes, called ntherere , observed on the Montepuez River. They are made from Julbernardia globiflora . These canoes are used both as ferries and for fishing. They are around 2.8 m long and about a metre wide, and therefore present very good transverse stability. The stretchers are cut into a point and inserted into the bark. A pair of stems is lashed diagonally – sometimes two pairs, which then sandwich the stretchers between them. The bottom is raised at a right angle to form the ends. The ears are extensions of the sides, which are folded against the raised area and maintained in place by spikes cut into points made from short bamboo laths.

34) ❚ Lugenda (34a : fig. 19; 34b : fig. 22) Two types of bark-canoe are present in the central area of the Lugenda River, as is indicated by the photographs very kindly provided to us by Colleen Begg (Mariri/Niassa Carnivore Project). These are, firstly very long canoes with spikes ( 34a ), with oblique raised areas. These are equipped with multiple stretchers (7 to 9) with pointed ends (fig. 19). And secondly, canoes with raised areas folded longitudinally and flattened laterally ( 34b ). These are also fitted with numerous pointed stretchers and gunwale poles (fig. 22).

112 35) ❚ Chilwa The first canoes from Lake Chilwa were bark canoes (C HIRWA et al. 1966, p. 58). They are reinforced by stretchers "pegged" into the bark (which probably means that the ends of the stretchers were cut into points and inserted through the bark). The extremities of the bottom are raised to constitute the ends, and the lateral extensions are folded against the raised part. The whole is maintained in place by wooden pegs or rather spikes. We can therefore state that this is a box-shaped canoe with spikes.

36) ❚ Ngerengere After considerable research, W. K ORABIEWICZ (1947) finally discovered a bark-canoe on the Ngerengere River, some 150 km west of Dar es Salaam. This canoe was collected for the King George V Memorial Museum (now the National Museum of Tanganyika; see p. 15-note 3). Made from a sheet of Brachystegia , it is 3.58 m long, with a width of 0.56 m and a depth of 0.23 m. It possesses gunwale poles lashed using bark strips or sisal cord. Two

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 69 pairs and one single stretcher are supported by stays. The raised ends are maintained in position by shrouds attached to the stretchers. There is no framework. This description is similar to that of the canoes observed on Lake Chicamba – in other words, the box-shaped canoes with shrouds.

37)  Kimila (p. 46-53; fig. 1, 23, 107-132) Construction of a bark-canoe called kapepe on the Kimila River, a tributary of the Malagarasi: A RNOLD 2014 (p. 16-38). In this work, the publication of the plan of two canoes is mentioned (fig. 129 and 132; 37/1 , 37/2 ). Bark used: Brachystegia boehmii (for the example manufactured, 4.24 m long; 37/2 ) and B. spiciformis . The ends are closed with an apical lashing. We note the presence of two gunwale poles, a number of ribs and three stretchers, the one in the centre also acting as a tie. A wooden block serves as a seat. Lengths 4.09 and 4.24 m; widths 0.73 and 0.70 m respectively, and depths of 0.22 and 0.25 m. Weight of the manufactured canoe: 38 kg. See also the inventory sheet for the example exhibited in the Pitt Rivers Museum, weighing 22 kg: p. 48- note 17 (37/3 ).

38)  Ugalla (fig. 110) Photographs of very crude bark-canoes of kapepe type (A RNOLD 2014, p. 39).

39) ◇ Lake Edward J. H UXLEY (1931, p. 370, photo around p. 373) mentions the presence of a canoe produced from fragments of bark or pieces of wood sewn together (on the relevance of this observation, see p. 11). The published photograph could, indeed, match the image of a bark-canoe. J. C ZEKANOWSKI (1924, p. 368) was informed of the existence of bark-canoes on this lake, near Makoma and Katana, and able to transport 1-2 people.

40) ♦♦♦ Kankela (fig. 166-167) A single bark-canoe, with pressed tips and 4 m long, was observed at Kankela, on the Kului (Colui), during the second Swiss scientific expedition taken in Angola (1932-1933), in a region inhabited by the Handa (D ELACHAUX 1936, p. 77, pl. 64/1 with legend on p. 102). A small stretcher (repair ?) is present, but no gunwale poles. This canoe is clearly not one of the two examples constructed during the first expedition, near the first camp, as this is 120 km away as the crow flies (M ONARD 1930, p. 36, plan p. 9).

41) ♦♦♦ Luando (fig. 168) Canoe photographed in September 2011 near Marina, on the Luando River, a tributary of the Cuanza, which flows into the Atlantic Ocean. The tips are laterally pressed together and significantly raised. The sides are separated by 9 or 10 pointed stretchers that pierce the bark of the sides. https://xmbl.wordpress.com/2015/11/26/marina-in-the-luando-river-bie-angola/ .

42)  Lumeje Bark-canoe used to cross the Lumeje River, east of Luena, following the destruction of a bridge by flooding. http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/sociedade/2002/4/19/,ea29f871-2454-48c4-8777-fe89dc1bc3ab.html

43) ♦♦♦ Cuito source lake (fig. 278) Canoes with laterally pressed tips made from an Erythrophleum africanum with a double vertical seam at each end (G OYDER et al. 2018, fig. 7). These have each been stabilised by a stretcher which has since disappeared. No gunwale poles.

113 Supplementary information D. C AMPBELL (1922, p. 125) witnessed the construction of a bark-canoe in two hours. This canoe was still in use two years later by the Bantu. The area analysed by this author ranges from Katanga and Angola to Lake Malawi (Nature 1922, vol. 110, p. 246; https://www.nature.com/articles/110246c0 ). No additional information is given as to the location where these observations were made. The bark is removed by making two circular incisions 3.35 m apart, connected by a third, vertical slit. Each end is placed over a fire to facilitate raising it. The ends are maintained in place by ropes made from bark. Internal and external gunwale poles consisting of a split bamboo stem. These canoes are often constructed by hunters to pursue the game chased on the other side of the river.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 70 R. A. J UBB (1969, p. 306) mentions bark-canoes on the Pungwe River, observed in 1956. Exclusively on the basis of the use by D. L IVINGSTONE (1858, p. 383-384), of a bark-canoe to across the Chikápa, he arbitrarily deduces that this construction technique probably originates in Angola and that it was imported to Mozambique by slaves. T. Q UIRKE (1952, p. 86-88) successively used the following works to discuss African bark-canoes: H AMBLY 1934, S HROPSHIRE 1935, B ARRETT 1910, H ORNELL 1935, VON LUSCHAN 1907.

Almande, almadie, almady In their "Dictionnaire français-latin", J. D UPUYS and J. N ICOT (1573, p.31) define the term almandes as "de petites barques faites d’écorce de bois de quatre brasses de long [7,3 m], dont usent les sauvages d’Afrique sur l’eau". N. A UBIN (1702, p. 16) uses the term almadie and also mentions the almadie of Cathuri , a type of craft used in Calicut, 26 m long and around 2 m wide. These data are stated again in the first volume of DIDEROT AND D’ALEMBERT 's "L’Encyclopédie" (1751, vol. 1, p. 289-290), in which the designation of the bark for the Malabar Coast is undoubtedly incorrect. The same applies in the work of L ESCALLIER 1797 (vol. 2, p. 130), and WEBSTER ’S DICTIONARY (1898, p. 42). In T HE MARINERS ’ MUSEUM (2001, p. 8), under almady , it is stated that these bark- canoes are present in Guinea, and possess a square stern. They are 7.3 m long and 2.1 m wide. These data show that the presence of bark-canoes was already well-known in the 16th century. See also, below, Quoja.

Quoja (Liberia) We should also mention the presence of small bark-canoes observed in the region of Quoja – in other words, in the hinterland behind Monrovia (B ARBOT 1732, p. 112). These were made from bissy , characterised by their red- brown bark. This bark is also used to make garments.

Appendix 2 Bark-canoes and museums The capital letters involved correspond to canoes where the location of discovery has not been specified, and therefore not transferred to figure 4.

12/1) Ethnologisches Museum (Museum für Völkerkunde), Berlin (see p. 67-note 21; fig. 170).

12/2) Museum am Rothenbaum, Kulturen und Künste der Welt (Hamburgisches Museum für Völkerkunde), Hamburg (see p. 68-69; fig. 172).

18) Iziko Museums of South Africa (National Museum), Cape Town (see p. 15-note 4; fig. 17).

19b) Museu das Pescas, Maputo; a canoe with independent raised ends (see p. 45; fig. 104-106).

25) Mutare Museum, Mutare (see p. 44; fig. 103).

30/1) Governor’s Palace Museu, Ilha de Moçambique (fig. 177).

30/2) Museu Nacional de Etnologia, Nampula (fig. 178). Inventory sheet: canoe no. 17/73abcd/93, collected in 1993, called nicula in macua (which in fact corresponds to the name of the lenticular canoes made from one piece of bark from the Lúrio River).

30/9) Kunstkamera Museum, Saint Petersburg (p. 91-93); the precise location of discovery is unknown.

31) Museu das Pescas, Maputo; three canoes of nintherere type from Mossuril (fig. 179, 190-195).

36) National Museum of Tanganyika (King George V Museum), Dar es Salaam (see p. 15-note 3).

37/3) Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford, Oxford (see p. 48-note 17).

C) Museu de História Natural, Maputo; small canoe of nikhula type, with oblique tips and a few ribs. The stretcher have disappeared (see p. 122, fig. 279).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 71 114 Appendix 3 Bark species used

The data regarding the bark used vary widely in nature. With the exception of the bark that has been removed in our presence, we are clearly dependent upon published data, and a critical approach is often problematical. Nor is this situation simplified by the published term often corresponding to that employed by the indigenous inhabitants, and the language or dialect that they use. In other words, a species with a binomial name may correspond to several vernacular names, and vice versa. The ultimate aim was obviously to be able to refer to a binomial name as far as possible. As for the bark removed in our presence, we generally have only the leaves with which to identify the species used. The bark sometimes also offers interesting information (S CHMIDT et al. 2007), provided that the outermost layer has not been removed, as on the muterere (12 , 30 ) or kapepe (37 ). The crown is often inaccessible, and it is necessary to ask those involved to cut a leafy branch of a young tree similar to that being exploited. This sometimes gives rise to contradictory data, as for the canoe observed at Chicamba ( 23 ). In addition, the many photographs that we have taken also enable us to regularly review our observations ( 30 ; A RNOLD 2014, p. 40-note 19). By chance, the tree species used for their bark almost all belong to Caesalpinioideae, one of the three sub- families of the Fabaceae (with the exception of Sclerocarya , Anacardium and Cordyla ), and the form of the compound leaves constitutes an essential element in identification. Finally, our reference work has been COATES PALGRAVE 1983, with its numerous illustrations (supplemented recently by BURROWS et al. 2018). These data have been supplemented with photographic plates from reference herbals, accessible in the GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY INFORMATION FACILITY (https://www.gbif.org/ ).

Brachystegia boehmii Tree 5-15 m tall, common in deciduous forest, often locally dominant on poorly drained soils. The bark is grey and rough, flaking into scales rather elongated. It has long paripinnate leaves with 13-28 pairs of narrow leaflets, with parallel edges, arranged close together, with rounded tips that are sometimes slightly notched. The base is asymmetrical. 37) Kimila . Kapepe canoe (fig. 266-267), created for us from a mtwana (Brachystegia boehmii ); bark 12 mm thick, 2 mm of which is the outermost part (fig. 272/1; ARNOLD 2014, fig. p. 17/1 and 21/3). Species also used: mtundu (Brachystegia spiciformis ). 23) Chicamba . Fishermen indicated to us that the bark of musasa is also used to manufacture box-shaped canoes with shrouds, and presented us with a characteristic leafy stem, belonging to a Brachystegia boehmii .

Brachystegia glaucescens 32) Lúrio . Mmpila ; according to Allan Schwarz this term corresponds rather to Pterocarpus angolensis (A RNOLD 2014, p. 40-note 19). However, the removal of a sheet of bark in 2018 for the construction of a nikhula used on the Lúrio River enabled a more detailed examination of the specifics of the tree used, which corresponds to a Brachystegia glaucescens (fig. 268-269). The thin (1-2 mm) peripheral bark presents an unusual surface covered with large cupules, resulting from natural flaking, a structure that can be recognised on the photographs taken in 2013 on the Lúrio River. On the secondary branches of the crown, of which we attempted to obtain a sample in 2013, the bark presented a much smoother surface than on the lower part of the trunk. This tree, like the one from which the bark was removed in 2018, grew on the slopes of small rocky hills. The bark of the nikhula observed in 2013 was marked by deep cupules for the example removed from the river (A RNOLD 2014, fig. p. 45/2), and less clear ones for the example stored beneath a roof overhang (ibid., fig. p. 43/3), or that abandoned in the middle of the delta (ibid., fig. p. 44/4-5). It was more difficult to analyse the craft for which we drew up the plan (ibid., fig. p. 42/3, 43/1-2, 44/1-2). On the tree from 2018, named enheca , the leaflets were arranged in 7-10 opposite pairs, as is very often the case (except for Erythrophleum ). The largest leaflets on the branch removed measured 4.5 x 1.4 cm. These were rather narrow, with an asymmetrical base, and ended in a long V-shaped point. As for the leaves themselves, there are paripinnate and arranged in an alternate manner. The bark had a total thickness of around 8-10 mm, of which 1-2 mm represented the external layer (fig. 268-269, 272/2).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 72

Brachystegia spiciformis Tree 8-15 m tall, widespread, often dominant, adapted to numerous soil types. With age, the bark becomes dark grey, rough, profoundly fissured both vertically and horizontally, and flakes easily (fig. 271). The leaves are alternate and generally composed of four pairs of leaflets, with the terminal ones being larger. They are oval, with an asymmetrical base, and dark green, measuring 2.5-8 cm by 1-4.5 cm.  Identification of this tree species was carried out by means of transcription of the vernacular name into a binomial name for 16 and 26 . 16) Kafue . Ichikondo canoe made with bark from an umuputu (D OKE 1931, p. 119, fig. 51; A RNOLD 2014, p. 13 – note 3 and p. 16). 26) Muarèdzi and Vanduzi. Messassa canoe made from the bark of a messassa (A RNOLD 2014, p. 45); a tree also called msasa , mundu , muputu , myombo etc.  On the Kimila River, the data are based on the transcription of the vernacular and the binomial names and the observation of a peeled tree – in other words, one whose bark has been removed – and of a leafy branch from a similar, relatively young tree, which was presented to us by the indigenous inhabitants.

115 Fig. 266. Kimila: leaves of a Brachystegia boehmii .

Fig. 267. Kimila: bark of a Brachystegia boehmii .

Fig. 268. Lúrio: leaves of a Brachystegia glaucescens .

Fig. 269. Lúrio: bark of a Brachystegia glaucescens .

Fig. 270. Chocas: leaves of a Brachystegia spiciformis .

Fig. 271. Chocas: bark of a Brachystegia spiciformis .

116 37) Kimila . The kapepe canoes are sometimes constructed from the bark of a mtundu (A RNOLD 2014, p. fig. 17/2). The canoe constructed for us at this location was made from a mtwana (Brachystegia boehmii ).  For the muterere from the Chocas region, with the exception of a piece of bark removed in our presence in 2018, we generally have binomial names in the publications. 30) Chocas . Muterere canoes made from the bark of Anacardium occidentale (tree with simple leaves), Cordyla africana (imparipinnate leaves and alternate leaflets) and Brachystegia spiciformis (M OURA 1972, p. 25-26, fig. 38-40; 1988, p. 365, 367, pl. 18). The tree species used for the construction of such a craft in 2018 was identified as Brachystegia spiciformis (fig. 270-271). The bark thickness of 17-18 mm was reduced to 8-9 mm by removing the peripheral part (fig. 272/3). Removing almost half of the thickness of the bark makes the identification of the tree species impossible if one is not able to follow the removal process in the field. Consequently, we will not take into account the botanical identification carried out a posteriori for the 1905 canoe ( Ceiba pentandra , in other words the kapok tree; VON LUSCHAN 1907, p. 20).  20) Nhamilambo . Lithelele canoes made from the bark of the tamba (Brachystegia spiciformis ). Identification based on the leaves and flowers removed, together with the structure of the bark, which becomes very scaly with use on the canoe analysed. We were informed that these canoes were also sometimes made from the bark of a canhu – in other words, a cashew tree ( Anacardium occidentale ).

Brachystegia bussei Tree around 15-20 m high growing on rocky hillsides. Bark dark grey and slightly fissured. Paripinnate leaves with 2-5 pairs of spaced, relatively narrow, lanceolate leaflets with asymmetrical bases (3-8 x 2-4 cm). 23) Chicamba . Canoe manufactured while we observed, from a mutondo (fig. 275). The bark of this tree is very rigid and around 20 mm thick (fig. 272/4). Species used: the leaves photographed using a telephoto lens in the crown of the tree (fig. 274), at a height inaccessible for removal, belong to a Brachystegia bussei (BURROWS et al. 2018, p. 242). As for the leaves of a branch collected by an indigenous inhabitant (fig. 273), apparently from an

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 73 identical tree, these in fact come from a young Julbernardia paniculata whose leaves are clearly unlike those photographed with the telephoto lens.

117 Fig. 273. Chicamba: leaves of a Julbernardia paniculata.

Fig. 274. Chicamba: leaves of the Brachystegia bussei collected.

Fig. 275. Chicamba: bark of a Brachystegia bussei .

Fig. 276. Bilibiza: leaves of a Julbernardia globiflora .

Fig. 277. Bilibiza: bark removed from a Julbernardia globiflora .

118 Julbernardia paniculata Tree around 15 m tall. Its light grey bark becomes dark grey with age, and rough. It is often removed several times, particularly for manufacturing clothing, as it regenerates well. The leaves paripinnate consist of 3-4 pairs of large, elliptical leaflets (generally 9 x 5 cm), with a tip that is sometimes pointed and an asymmetrical base (fig. 273; see Chicamba above Brachystegia bussei ). 9+10) Cubango and Cuito : two rivers that ultimately flow into the sands of the Okavango Delta. To manufacture these canoes, the indigenous inhabitants fell "houtbosch" trees, locally known as mumue ; in other words Berlinia baumii (B AUM 1903, p. 36). This currently corresponds to Julbernardia paniculata .

Julbernardia globiflora This tree is 15 m high and is called mtondo . The bark is grey and smooth, becoming rough with age. Paripinnate leaves consisting of 4-6 pairs of oblong leaflets (2.5-8 x 1-3 cm), with asymmetrical bases. 33) Bilibiza . Ntherere canoe on the Montepuez River, constructed from a npakala . Bark 11-12 mm thick, of which 2-3 mm represents the outer layer removed by beating (fig. 272/5 and 277). The leaves that we were able to observe were removed from a young specimen (fig. 276).

Erythrophleum suaveolens The trees of the Erythrophleum genus have leaflets that are alternate rather than opposite as in the other species discussed. As for the composite leaves, these are of the type twice compound or bi-pinnate. 22) Mussapa . A canoe constructed from Erythrophleum bark was used to cross the Mussapa River by an expedition from Kew Gardens. This was very probably E. suaveolens , a tree that can reach a height of 20 m (we would like to thank Martin Cheek, from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his supplementary information).

Erythrophleum africanum Medium sized tree 4-12 m high. The bark is grey to blackish and quite rough. Composite bi-pinnate leaves consisting of 3-4 pairs each with 10-17 leaflets arranged in an alternate manner. 43) Cuito source lake : canoe observed in a small lake corresponding to the source of the Cuito (fig. 278), a little south of Munha ńgo (G OYDER et al. 2018, fig. 3).

Sclerocarya birrea Tree 10-12 m tall, a species well known to the indigenous inhabitants for its numerous virtues, and particularly its bark. Bark grey, rough, peeling in an irregular fashion and giving the tree a patchy appearance. Compound impripinnate leaf with 7-13 pairs and one terminal leaflet, elliptical in form with a pointed end and a relatively rounded base.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 74 18) Levuvhu . This is a small canoe manufactured with the bark of a marula , (H OFFMAN 1952, p. 23). Binomial name based on the transcription of the vernacular name.

119-122 Bibliography

Access to early works has been considerably facilitated by digitisation and free access as they are no longer protected by copyright. The hosting sites that we have used have been added at the end of the work referenced. We have chosen to use the site https://archive.org , as it generally provides an OCRd version, which facilitates keyword research.

Following the filing for bankruptcy of Gasser Media, and thus of Editions G d ’Encre, the websites relating to this have been shut down. To obtain the English translations of A RNOLD 2014, 2015 and 2017 a, or to order these works, see the insert on p. 126.

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Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 79

STAMM Anne - 1970 Jean-Baptiste Douville: voyage au Congo (1827-1830). Cahiers d’études africaines , 10/37, pp. 5-39. http://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1970_num_10_37_2843

STANLEY Henry M. - 1872 How I found Livingstone; travels, adventures and discoveries in Central Africa; including four months' residence with Dr. Livingstone . London, Sampson Low, Marston, Low and Searle; 736 p. https://archive.org/details/howifoundliving01stangoog

STUHLMANN Franz - 1894 Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika. Ein Reisebericht mit Beiträgen von Emin Pascha, in seinem Auftrage geschildert . Berlin, Dietrich Reimer; 901 p. https://archive.org/details/miteminpaschains00stuh - 1910 Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika. Kulturgeschichtliche Betrachtungen . Hamburg, Friedrichsen (Abhandlungen des Hamburgischen Kolonialinstituts, Bd. 1); 163 p. https://archive.org/details/handwerkundindus00stuhuoft

SUDER Hans - 1930 Vom Einbaum und Floss zum Schiff. Die primitiven Wasserfahrzeuge. Berlin, Mittler (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Meereskunde, N.F., Heft 7); 143 p., 16 pl.

THE MARINERS ’ M USEUM , PARRY M. H., et al. - 2001 A dictionary of the world’s watercraft. From Aak to Zumbra. London, Chatham Publishing; 676 p.

THOMSON Joseph - 1881 To the Central African lakes and back: the narrative of the Royal Geographical Society's East Central African exploration, 1878-80 . London, Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington (2 vol.); 320 and 323 p. https://archive.org/details/tocentralafrica00thomgoog https://archive.org/details/tocentralafrica01thomgoog

VAIRO Carlos Pedro - 2002 The Yamana canoe. The marine tradition of the Aborigines of Tierra del Fuego . Ushuaia, Zagier and Urruty; 192 p.

VIVIAN Cassandra - 2012 Americans in Egypt, 1770-1915: explorers, consuls, travelers, soldiers, missionaries, writers and scientists . Jefferson, McFarland; 272 p.

Webster’s Dictionary - 1898 Webster’s international dictionary of the English language being the authentic edition of Webster’s unabridged dictionary comprising the issues of 1864, 1879, and 1884 . Springfield, Merriam (Australasian Edition, Noah Porter ed.); cvi+2077 p. https://archive.org/details/webstersinternat00port

Fig. 279. Canoe from the Museu de História Natural in Maputo, comparable to a slender nikhula (C).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 80 122-123

Index The pages and sequential numbers relating to Appendices 1 and 2 are indicated in italics , and those relating to the captions for the figures are in bold .

Tribes and indigenous names of the craft Penobscot 59 (the latter are in italics) Portuguese 7, 108/A salmoura 33, 33

samba 64, 100, 108/8 Afrikaner 7 sesse 11 Ainu 11 simple muterere 70, 91 Alacaluf 77 Tchokwe 65 almadéa 108/A almadie (almady) 113 tsevele 45, 45 , 110/19 Australian Aborigines 7, 77 untoro 18, 19, 19 , 72, 111/29 Babunda 109/15 Vachokue 10 , 109/15 Baganda 11 Waganda 11 Bambuela 108/8 Warori 108/6 Banhema 108/8 Westerners 5, 76, 99 Bantu 112 woodskin 45 Batonga 16 , 109/17 yachip 11 bimbá 64 Yahgan 77 cangaia 71 , 97 canoa de casca 20 , 21 box-shaped canoe 10, 10 , 11, 13, 16 , 19, Ganguelas 108/8 26, 37, 99, 102, 103, 103 , 108/B , 110/21 , 110/25 ichikondo 10 , 15, 100, 109/16 , 114 box-shaped canoe with a closing stem 14 , 15, 109/16 kapepe 4, 5, 18, 18 , 46 , 47, 47 , 48, 48 , box-shaped canoe with ears (and terminal pole) 14 , 15, 15 , 50, 52 , 53 , 77, 87, 95 , 100, 101, 102, 103, 104 , 30 , 31, 31 , 32, 32 , 33 , 103, 110/20 112/37 , 112/38 , 114, 116 box-shaped canoe with independent raised ends 11, 14 , 15, Lamba 8, 100, 109/16 45, 113/19 lambeco 31, 31 box-shaped canoe with shrouds 6, 12 , 14, 14 , 16 , 20 , lithelele 15 , 30 , 31, 32, 32 , 33 , 104 , 21, 21 , 22 , 28 , 29 , 97 , 103, 109/17 , 110/19 , 110/23 , 110/20 , 116 110/27 , 112/36 , 114 logboat 9, 10, 21, 64, 108/11 box-shaped canoe with spikes 11, 14 , 15, 15 ,16 , 34 , Luchazi 109/15 35, 44, 44 , 98 , 103, 111/33 , 111/34 , 112/35 machope (dialect) 31 canoe with apical lashings 4, 10 , 14 , 17, 18, 18 , macua (dialect) 113/30 46 , 47, 47 , 48, 52 , 53 , 99, 100, 103, 103 , 112/37 mantherere 75 (plural of nintherere ) canoe with distal seam front cover, 14 , 17, messassa 55, 110/26 , 114 18, 18 , 19, 19 , 54 , 100, 111/28 mokoro 118 canoe with folded end (South America) 26 mtepe 19 canoe with longitudinally folded ends 14 , 17, 17 , muterere 7, 18, 18 , 19, 66 , 67, 67 , 68 , 100, 111/34b 69, 70, 70 , 71 , 72, 72 , 73 , 74, 75, 77, 77 , 78, 86 , canoe with one concave end (South America) 26 87, 87 , 88, 89 , 90, 91, 97, 100, 101, 101 , canoe with pressed tips (and vertical seam) 9, 10 , 19 , 102, 103, 104 , 111/30 , 114, 116 48, 55, 64, 64 , 99, 100, 103, 103 , 104, 109/15 , ngalawa 19 110/26 , 111/32 , 112/41 ngarawa 19, 19 , 55, 110/24 canoe with raised ends (South America) 45 nicula 70, 113/30 canoe with washstrakes 7, 10 , 11, 11 , 18, 18 , nikhula front cover, 18, 18 , 54 , 55, 55 , 67, 70 , 75, 77, 100, 101, 101 , 103, 103 , 104, 56 , 57, 57 , 61, 62 , 63 , 70, 87, 87 , 88 , 96 , 100, 102, 111/30 , 111/31 103, 104 , 105 , 111/32 , 113/C , 114, 122 complex canoe 5, 7, 11, 77, 104 nintherere 18, 70, 71 , 75, 75 , 78, 102, lenticular canoe 10 , 11, 17, 48, 99, 111/31 102, 113/30

simple bark-canoe 5, 77, 91, 91 , 93 three-piece sewn bark-canoe (Australia) 77 ntherere 15, 15 , 34 , 35, 35 , 36 , 37, 37 , three-piece sewn bark-canoe (Tierra del Fuego) 101 48, 97, 97 , 103, 111/33 , 116 tied bark-canoe (Australia) 100 Nyamwézi 48 two-shell bark-canoe (Australia) 77, 87

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123-124

Tree species It is necessary to remember that an indigenous name may correspond to several species, and that one species (and thus one binomial name) may have several indigenous names. This aspect is clearly favoured by the many dialects used in a given geographical area.

Anacardium occidentale 78, 101, 110/20 , Fabaceae 114 111/30 , 114, 116 Gossypium sp. (cotton) 76 Atalaya natalensis 118 Houtbosch ( Julbernardia paniculata ) 108/9 , 108/10 , 118 banana tree 61, 82, 83 , 90, 102 Hymenaea courbaril 29 bamboo 35, 37, 40, 42, 42 , 43, inacali ( Tetracera sp.) 84, 84 55, 58, 59 , 61, 84, 87, 87 , 88 , 91, 99, 102, 111/32 , intharui ( Cissus integrifolia ) 59, 60 111/33 , 112 inrapa ( Cissus integrifolia ) 59, 60 , 62 baumrinden (Baumrinden) 107/3 jatobá ( Hymenaea courbaril ) 29 Berlinia baumii (see Julbernardia paniculata ) 64, 108/9 , Julbernardia globiflora 36 , 37, 101, 111, 116 , 108/10 , 118 117 , 118 Betula papyrifera 102 Julbernardia paniculata 21, 64, 100, 101, birch 59, 76, 102 108/9 , 108/10 , 117 , 118 bissy 113 kapok tree ( Ceiba pentandra ) 116 Brachystegia 101, 108/B , 109/13 , magudo 48 112/36 marula ( Sclerocarya birrea ) 110/18 , 118 Brachystegia boehmii 21, 29 , 48, 53 , 100, mbuga 108/6 101, 110/23 , 112/37 , 114, 115 , 116, 116 , 118 messassa ( Brachystegia spiciformis ) 55, 100, 110/26 , 114 Brachystegia bussei 21, 23 , 28 , 101, mmpila ( Pterocarpus angolensis ) 114 110/23 , 116, 116 , 117 msasa ( Brachystegia spiciformis ) 114 Brachystegia glaucescens 57, 63 , 100, 101, 111, mtondo ( Julbernardia globiflora ) 110/23 , 118 114, 115 , 116 mtundu ( Brachystegia spiciformis ) 48, 114, 116 Brachystegia hockii (see Brachystegia spiciformis ) mtwana ( Brachystegia boehmii ) 48, 114, 116 65 mumue ( Berlinia baumii ) 108/9 , 108/10 , 118 Brachystegia spiciformis 31, 33 , 48, 55, 65, 78, mundu ( Brachystegia spiciformis ) 114 78 , 100, 101, 109/16 , 110/20 , 110/26 , 111/30 , muputu ( Brachystegia spiciformis ) 114 112/37 , 114, 115 , 116, 116 musasa ( Brachystegia boehmii ) 21, 29 , 110/23 , 114 Caesalpinioideae 114 mutondo ( Brachystegia bussei or Julbernardia paniculata ) canhu ( Anacardium occidentale ) 31, 116 21, 28 , 116 cashew nut tree 31, 101, 116 myombo ( miombo, Brachystegia spiciformis ) 107/3 , 114 Ceiba pentandra (kapok tree) 116 namirege (see inacali) 84 Cissus integrifolia 59 npakala ( Julbernardia globiflora ) 37, 116 coconut 72, 74 , 79, 80, 82, 82 , Pterocarpus angolensis 114 84, 88, 90, 90 , 102, 111/30 Sclerocarya birrea 101, 110/18 , 114, 118 Cordyla africana 78, 101, 111/30 , 114, tamba ( Brachystegia spiciformis ) 31, 116 116 Tetracera sp. (inacali) 84, 84 cotton 72, 74, 75, 75 , 76, 76 , umuputu ( Brachystegia spiciformis ) 109/16 , 114 84, 86 , 111/31 usamba ( Brachystegia spiciformis ) 65 enheca ( Brachystegia glaucescens ) 57, 58 , 114 wild mango ( Cordyla africana ) 101 Erythrophleum africanum 101, 112/43 , 118, 118 Erythrophleum suaveolens 16 , 101, 110/22 , 114, 118

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 82 124-125

Geographical names

Africa 7, 8, 19, 55, 67, 99, 100, 101, German South West Africa 7 103, 113 Germany 7 Albert, Lake 11, 107 Gilé 55, 111/28 , 122 Amazon, Amazonia 17, 26, 29, 47, 72, 99, 103 Gorongosa 110/26 Angola 7, 9, 9, 18, 19 , 55, 64, 64 , 100, Great Britain 7 103, 112/40 , 112 , 113 , 118 Great Lakes 7, 9, 11, 18 Atlantic 7, 55, 100, 112/41 Guinea 113 Australia 7, 17, 77, 87, 99, 100 Guyana 45 Belgium 7 Hamburg Museum am Rothenbaum : 5, Berlin Ethnologisches Museum : 5, 68, 68 , 109/12 , 113 67, 67 , 68, 68 , 69, 109/12 , 113/12 Handa 112/40 Bilibiza 15, 15 , 34 , 35, 35 , 36 , 37, 77, Hogiz 107/1 97, 103, 111/33 , 116, 116 , 117 , 118 Homaine 31, 31 Brazil 17, 100 Ilha de Moçambique see Island of Mozambique Burundi 9, 109/14 Indian, Ocean 7, 90, 102 Calicut 113 Indonesia 102 Canada 7 Inhambane 15, 15 , 31, 110/20 Cangamba 10 , 64, 109/15 Inharrime 31 Cape Town Iziko Museums of South Island of Mozambique 5, 7, 11, 11 , 18, 19, 67, 70, 70 , Africa : 5, 15, 113/18 102, 103, 109/12 , 111/29 , 111/30 Carpentaria 87 Island of Mozambique Governor’s Palace Museum : Cassinga 108/7 70, 71 , 74 , 113 Cathuri 113 Kabindere 108/9 Chicamba, Lake 6, 12 , 13 , 14, 14 , 19, 20 , 21, Kafue 8, 15, 109/16 , 114 21 , 22 , 28 , 29, 29 , 38, 77, 96, 97 , 103, 110/23 , Kalahari 55, 103 112/36 , 114, 116, 116 , 117 , 118 Kankela 64, 64 , 65 , 112/40 Chikápa 107/2, 112 Kariba 16 , 109/17 Chilwa, Lake 112/35 Kasaï 64, 107/2 Chinpulu 108/9 Katana 112/39 Chitanda 108/7 Katanga 112 Chiumbe 112/1 Kew Royal Botanic Gardens : 5, 16 , Chocas 7, 11, 18 , 67, 70, 71 , 72, 72 , 59, 84, 110/22 , 118 73 , 75, 77 , 78, 79, 91, 97, 101, 111/29 , 111/30 , Kigoma 5 115 , 116, 116 Kimila 4, 13 , 18, 18 , 46 , 47, 47 , 48, Conducia 67 48 , 52 , 53 , 95 , 103, 107/3 , 112/37 , 114, 115 , 116, Congo 55, 64, 103, 107/2 116 Couffoua 107/1 Kubango see Cubango Cuanza 112/41 Kului (Colui) 64 , 65 , 112/40 Cuando 10 , 64, 108/8 , 109/15 Kwando see Cuando Cubango 64, 108/9 , 118 Kwango 107/1 Cuilo 107/1 Kyoga 107/4 Cuito 64, 108/8 , 108/10 , 112/43 , 118 Letaba 108/11 Cunene 9, 17, 64, 64 , 65, 108/7 , 108/8 Levuvhu (Levubu) 15, 15 , 110/18 , 118 Cusotessa 107/1 Liberia 113 Dar es Salaam 109/13 , 112/36 , 113/36 Licungo 110/27 Dar es Salaam National Museum of Limpopo 10 , 15, 15 , 45, 103, 108/11 , Tanganyika, King George V Museum : 5, 15, 108/B , 110/18 , 110/19 112/36 , 113 Loange 107/2 Dombe 110/21 Lobito 64 Edward, Lake 9, 11, 112/39 Luando 65, 65 , 112/41 Europe 109/12 Luchio 107/1 French Guiana 17, 100 Lucite 16 , 110/21 Gairezi 11, 44, 44 , 110/25 Luena 112/42 Gaza (Province of) 45 Lugenda 15, 16 , 17 , 100, 111/34 Geneva 5 Lumeje 112/42

83 Lúrio front cover, 18, 18 , 33, 54 , 55, Oxford Pitt Rivers Museum ; 5, 48, 55 , 57, 57 , 63 77, 78, 99, 95, 103, 105 , 110/26 , 112/37 , 113/37 111/32 , 113/30 , 114, 115 , 116 Panda 15 , 30 , 31, 31 , 33, 110/20 Lushiko 107/1 Pemba 35 Madeira 47, 103 Portugal 7 Mahenge 107 Pungwe (Púngué) 19, 19 , 55, 110/24 , 110/26 , 112 Makoma 112/39 Purús 47, 103 Malagarasi 11, 18, 47, 48, 100, 103, 107/3 , Quinga 19, 19 , 111/29 109/14 , 112/37 Quissuco 9, 17, 108/7 Malawi, Lake 103, 112 Quoja 113 Malei 110/27 Riambegi 107/1 Manjacaze 31, 31 Rio de Janeiro 59 Maputo Museu da História Natural : 5, Rouapir 100 33, 113/19 , 113/C , 122 Ruaha 107/5 Maputo Museu das Pescas : 5, 15, 33, Rufiji 108/6 33 , 45, 45 , 70, 71 ,75, 75 , 110/19 , 111/31 , 113/31 Rwanda 9, 109/14 Marina 65 , 112/41 Saint Petersburg Kunstkamera ; 5, 70, 91, 91 , Massaca 108/9 93 , 104, 111/30 , 113/30 Memba 33 South America 7, 45, 87, 99, 104 Mgunda 107/5 Sule 31 Mlagarassi see Malagarasi Tanganyika (country) 7 Mobutu Sese Saeko see Lake Albert Tanganyika, Lake 11, 47, 100, 103, 107/3 , 109/14 Molócuè 55, 111/28 , 122 Tanzania 4, 5, 7, 19, 47, 77, 87, 103, Monrovia 113 109/14 Montepuez 34 , 35, 35 , 94 , 97 , 111/33 , 118 Tierra del Fuego 77, 91, 101 Mossuril 33, 71 , 75, 75 , 78, 111/31 , Transkei 103 113/31 Ugalla 48, 48 , 107/3 , 112/38 Mozambique the entire work is dedicated to Mozambique Union of South Africa 7 Mozambique-1910 108/B United States 7 Mpété 108/3 Upper Kafue 10 , 109/16 Muarèdzi 55, 110/26 , 114 Upper Xingú 29 Munha ńgo 118 Upper Zambezi 103 Mushili 100 Utako 37 Mussapa 16 , 110/22 , 118 Vanduzi 110/26 , 114 Mutare Mutare Museum : 44, 44 , Vendaland 110/18 110/25 , 113/25 Victoria, Lake 11, 109/14 M’vouta-N’zighé seer Lake Albert Wami 109/13 Namapa 57, 57 , 63 West Malaysia 87 Namibia 7 White Nile 7 Nampula Museu Nacional de Etnologia : Wolombo 108/9 5, 70, 71 , 113/30 Xai-Xai 31, 110/19 Namevil 19, 19 , 111/29 Zaïre 107/2 Ndola 109/16 Zambezi 10 , 64, 103, 108/A , 108/B , Ngerengere 14, 15, 112/36 109/17 Nhamilambo 16 , 30 , 31, 31 , 33 , 116 Zanzibar 7, 19 North America 17, 59, 76, 77, 87, 101, 102 Zavala 31 Nyaka Kangaga 4 Zimbabwe 16 , 19, 21, 44, 109/17 , 110/24 Nyanga 44, 110/25 Ocura 57, 94, 105 Okavango 64, 103, 108/9 , 108/10 , 118, 118 Olifants 108/11

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 84 126 Errata, corrections, additions - Part 1 p. 40, note 19: replace Pterocarpus angolensis with Brachystegia glaucescens; see Part 4, p. 114. p. 42, line 13: replace "small plugs" with "cotton plugs"; ditto in the legend for fig. p. 44/3. fig. p. 53/1: section drawing to replace that in Part 4/fig. 244.

- Part 2 p. 6, fig. 1: add Siak on the Island of Sumatra (idem p. 72, para. 2); MOSKOWSKI 1908, p. 649 (Die Völkerschaften von Ost- und Zentral-Sumatra. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 40/4, pp. 634-655); for the location see SUDER 1930, pl. 13. p. 67, para. 2, line 5: replace "double running stitch" with "harness stitch".

- Part 3 p. 30, end of para. 2, line 5: replace "double running stitch" with "harness stitch". Replace "canoe with folded end" everywhere with "canoe with concave end"; see Part 4, p. 26-note 8.

Regarding the three first parts of the series "Around the world in 80 canoes"

Following Editions G D'Encre's cessation of activity and the closure of their internet site, Editions Alphil (Neuchâtel) have not only taken responsibility for the publication of Part 4, but also the sale of Parts 1, 2 and 3, together with the ability to download, free of charge, the PDF of the English translation, but also the PDF of these works.

Fascicule 1 : Les pirogues kapepe, l’espace nautique du bassin de la rivière Malagarasi (Tanzanie) et quelques observations sur les pirogues en écorce d’Afrique orientale. Part 1: Kapepe canoes, the nautical space of the Malagarasi River Basin (Tanzania) and some observations on the bark- canoes of East Africa. Free access to the PDF version of the book and to the PDF of the English text: https://www.alphil.com/index.php/alphil-diffusion/ le-tour-du-monde-en-80-pirogues/les-pirogues-kapepe-l-espace-nautique-du-bassin-de-la-riviere-malagarasi-tanzanie-et-quelques- observations-sur-les-pirogues-en-ecorce-d-afrique-orientale.html Fascicule 2 : Canoës en écorce d’Australie et d’Asie du Sud-Est. Part 2: Bark-canoes of Australia and south-east Asia. Free access to the PDF version of the book and to the PDF of the English text: https://www.alphil.com/index.php/alphil-diffusion/ le-tour-du-monde-en-80-pirogues/canoes-en-ecorce-d-australie-et-d-asie-du-sud-est.html Fascicule 3 : Les canoës en écorce d’Amérique du Sud : de l’Amazonie à la Terre de Feu. Part 3: Bark-canoes of South America: from Amazonia to Tierra del Fuego. Free access to the PDF version of the book and to the PDF of the English text: https://www.alphil.com/index.php/alphil-diffusion/ le-tour-du-monde-en-80-pirogues/les-canoes-en-ecorce-d-amerique-du-sud-de-l-amazonie-a-la-terre-de-feu.html

"Around the world in 80 canoes" Digitised elements in the works mentioned in the bibliographies of Parts 1 to 4

These consist of three working DVDs that we will be happy to lend to interested researchers (please contact [email protected]; don't forget to include your postal address).

The fundamental aim of these DVDs is to facilitate the pursuit of research in the fields we have studied recently. We are therefore following the principles we proposed in the IJNA 31/1 (ARNOLD 2002) relating to our research on logboats (ARNOLD 1995, 1996); a database which, evidently, dates from that period.

In our three DVDs, we have prioritised the works/articles mentioned in our studies relating to the bark-canoes to which access is sometimes very difficult. In several cases, such copies have been provided to us by colleagues or libraries that possess the document sought. Of course, the quality of the digital files (PDF or JPG) that we have produced depends on the quality of the document made available to us, which sometimes takes the form of poor photocopies – but which have the advantage of existing. To establish figure 4 (Part 4), we were sometimes forced to request specific digitisation of early topographic maps in order to obtain a document with sufficient definition to be able to read the place names added in minuscule text.

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 85

For some books, we sometimes digitised only the chapter dedicated to the bark craft. The works digitised and downloadable from https://archive.org/details/ have been prioritised as this site usually provides an OCRd version which is particularly useful for targeted research. Finally, we have had translated into French a number of works published in languages that we are unable to read, such as Russian, and are here happy to make them available to our colleagues.

127

Fig. 280. Technical terms used (hybrid sketch adapted to the canoes of Mozambique).

Béat Arnold, 2019. Bark-canoes from Mozambique: a living tradition (English text without illustrations). 86