CHAPTER II

GEOGRAPHIC BASE OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS CHAPTER - II

GEOGRAPHIC BASE OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

1) ECOLOGY OF RELIGION :

Environment has been defined as 'the aggregate of all the external conditions and influences affecting the life and development of an organism* . Environment, in biology, is the entire range of external influences acting on an organism, both the physical and the biological forces of nature surrounding an individual. While causal relations are no longer thought to be as clear-cut as believed by some early environmental determinists, cultural phenomena often cannot be fully understood without consideration of environmental factors. Contemporary environmen­ talists recognize that physical surroundings are only part of total environment, that includes social and economic factors, cultural traditions and reciprocal influences between societies and their environment. Environmentalism in social science theories, concerns the role of environmental factors in the development of culture and society.

The concept of ecology was developed in the study of religion from the 1960s onward. The term ecology (derived from the Greek Oikos "house, habitat", and Logos " doctrine ") is adopted from the biological study of the interdependence between organisms and natural environment. It later became a methodolo- 2 gical tool in geography . -20-

The relationships between environment and religion have preoccupied some geographers and cultural historians since the eighteenth century. Of particular interest here is Friedrich Ratzel's 'anthropogeography', which at the end of the nineteenth century, sought environmental impact on culture and religion. Some times religio-geographical studies led to extreme environ- mentalism, as for instance, with Ellsworth Huntington's analysis of cultural dependence on climatic conditions. The historicism and cultural relativism prevalent in the period between the two World Wars stimulated the general opinion among anthropologists that environment had a constraining, and not a creative influence on culture (the 'possibilistic' theory). Environment could allow certain cultural developments, but it could not further them. This attitude slowly changed after World War II, particularly after the American anthropologist Julian H. Steward published a series of articles on what he called cultural ecology. He studied the cultural and economic conditions of the Great Basin Indians of North America, noted for their cultural poverty and exposure to an inhospitable environment, and he found clear correlation between their cultural matrix and environment. The environmental impact seemed primarily to concern the economic and technological aspects of culture, with the social organization affected only indirectly.

The modern geography of religions, guided by Manfred Buttner, David E. Sopher, and others, is primarily engaged in -21- investigating the influence of religion on environment in this case, social groups;as well ashman-made landscape (sacred groves, temple towns, and so on). For a long time the old task of observing environmental influence on religion was abandoned until cultural ecology opened up new horizons.

Ecology of religion is the investigation of the relation­ ship between religion and nature conducted through the disciplines of religious studies, history of religions, anthropology of 3 religions and geography of religions. Steward's model remains the best basis for the development of a method in the ecology of religion. It is the organization of religious elements and the structure of religion and it's contents that are susceptible to an ecological treatment. Ecology of religion presents a broad framework that justifies the operation and intrinsic value of religion, emphasizing not just economy but the total natural environment. The goal is to assess the impact of environment on religion both directly and indirectly. Direct influence is seen in the use of animals and plants as forms of spirits, talismans and ritual attributes. However, their selection is basically determined by religious value patterns and they, therefore, constitute only superficial proof of the direct influence of nature. In observing the environmental influence on religion one should also be aware of a religion's capacity to form the environment (for instance, by an injunction against the killing of animals, as in and later Indian culture), which -22- actually complicates the religio-ecological process. The relations between religion and environment are mutual, so that their investigation can be approached under two main headings :

How does the environment, including the people, the landscape and the country affect a religious form ? and how, reciprocally, does a religious form affect a people, landscape and country .

Viewed in this way, ecology of religion is a valuable aid in the study of geography of religions.

Since all religions in the course of their development have created a more or less manifest cults that is spatially and temporarily perceptible in the form of magical and symbolic events, objects and behaviour, religious phenomena appear in a real relationship with the earth's surface and so can be studied 5 geographically . The term animism properly refers to a theory set forth by the English scholar F.B. Tylor (1332-1917 A.D.), one of the founders of modern anthropology, in order to account for the origin and development of religions. His assumption was that the earliest form of religion was characterized by man's ideas concerning a plurality of spirits and ghosts. In this he differed from Spencer, who had postulated atheism at the beginning of human culture, although both followed the common pattern of their evolutionistic contemporaries in deriving a most archaic form of religion from man's rational reflections on the world of nature and on himself . The tie between religion and the physical surroundings is generally stronger among primitive -23- people who rely upon their priests and medicine men to provide a protection buffer between them and the unknown mysterious forces of nature . Religion is the medium whereby nature and natural processes are placated, cajoled, entreated or manipulated in order to secure the best results for man . The tribal religious system, in which the central feature is the belief in worship of nature spirit and thus, the system called as 'animism' is mainly concentrated in the hilly and forested areas of the state.

Poodgathering, apart from hunting or fishing, remained much easier over most of and had a far greater range than in Europe or elsewhere on the Eurasian continent. Where half a dozen cereals, peas and beans make up almost the entire variety of European staple foods, even a region of average fertility like has over forty kinds of indigenous staples, most of which are cultivated but can also be found wild. Since India is a tropical country with diversified relef, climate and natural vegetation, it offers varied sources of food to the tribal communities. All are suitable for storing. These include rice and wheat, millets, sorghum, barley; with a considerable variety of vegetable proteins, and seeds like sesamum that produce edible oil. Pepper and spices give good taste,as well asJvitamins. A balanced diet is possible without killing any living creatures, especially as milk, butter, curds and cheese, fruit and vegetables can be had without taking animal life. This simple fact v/as. -24- leter, to revolutionize Indian theology and religion with doctrine of non-killing (ahimsa). Peasants and tribal people, especially in out-of-the-way places in jungle, normally know over a hundred other natural products beyond the staples, which may be gathered without cultivation : fruits, nuts, roots, tubers, honey, mushrooms, leafy vegetables etc. With the older mode there would always remain older beliefs and ways of life.

In India the formation of such a society and its culture was - because of the ease and survival of food-gathering - based to a 9 considerable extent on religion and superstition .

The Dhangars (Shepherds) supplement their livelihood by selling an occasional sheep and by sale of the wool-clip. A few used to weave rough blankets from the wool. All these activities now relate them to the general society within which they move.

Hence they have become a Hindu caste just below the peasant farmers. It is possible to restore their original seasonal move­ ments by studying the places most convenient for grazing and for rainy-season settlement. The remarkable fact then appears that the best of these older Dhangar tracts, roughly in the Karha basin (which was never under dense forest), goes back into prehistory and is a firm base for the fine Deccan microlithic culture. In other words, the Dhangar's way of life has its roots in prehistory. Two of their gods (3iroba and Khandoba) can be traced back to before the fourth century A.D., though the 10 principal worshippers of these gods are now other Hindu castes -25-

2) VENERATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL ELEMENTS :

Since the ancient period the religious attributes have been closely related to geographic elements and, therefore, are venerated. In the Tamil literature of the Sangam epoch and later one gets glimpses of gods and spirits worshipped by the common people, as also their religious practices prevalent, perhaps much before the advent of the great proselytizing religions of

Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism. The worship of local gods and the animistic worship of spirits inhabiting trees, rivers, and hills, or guardians of villages, cities, cross-roads, sea-shores, and river ports or ghats, lakes, and tanks, were similar in essence to what obtained in , where one has the classic instance of the infant Buddha being taken soon after birth to the shrine of the Yaksha Sakya Vardhana a) TREE AND ANIMAL WORSHIP :

From archaeological evidence, it would be clear that the conception of tree-worship is very ancient, dating back to the

Harrappan period. As in the south, so also in the North India there are references in early Buddhist text to their existence 12 even prior to Buddha . The worship of trees as the abode of spirits and gods was once very popular. These spirits were associated with many trees, such as the Al (Banyan), Arasu (Pipal), Iratti (Zizyphus or the Jujube), Ilanji, Kadamba, Pala (Jack),

Vakai (Albizzia), Vanni (Prosopis), Velli (Wood-apple), Vembu

(Neem), Vengai (Pterocarpus) etc. The Kadamba tree is said to be -26-

the abode of Murugam (Kartikeya) and the Al (Banyan) that of

Siva. The Ahananuru, one of the earliest Tamil works, describes that a 3anyan tree is worshipped as surrounded by a brick enclosure and to which offerings were made. This would appear to be an instance of a tree-temple or Vrikshya-chaitya that was not 13 particularly Buddhistic

Animal worship, i.e., rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bull, c kobra (snake), and cow etc. also formed part of religious beliefs in tribal religious systems and organized religious systems in ancient period. These are the legacies of the earlier religions still lingering in our society. Some animals were regarded as the vehicle (vahana) of Gods and therefore, are venerated and worshipped. The bull for example is regarded as the vehicle of lord Shiva. Throughout untold ages, the Cobra is associated in

India with several Gods. Lord Shiva has it as an ornament; his son, Ganesh used it as a girdle; Lord Vishnu had fashioned it into a mattress and so on. Even the very Earth is supposed to be resting on the hood of 'Shesha' the thousand hooded mythical

Cobra. It is no wonder, therefore, that it is an object of veneration in India. Modern writers, however, associate the snake worship with the aboriginals who, living as they did in wild

Jungles, had a constant dread of the cobra whose very 'Kiss* caused them Instant death. They, therefore, worshipped dangerous reptiles as the only way to propitiate them. The cobras and other snakes are friends of farmers and are even now worshipped by them, as they consume rats, rodents and other such burrowing -27- animals that cause severe damage to the crops in the field. b) SXY GODS :

The sky was naturally the most prominent object of worship, and as the sky assumes various aspects, various names were given to it, and the conception of various deities was formed.

Dyu, Varuna, Mitra, and Indra and Vritra were the principal sky- 14 gods of the Rig Veda

Dyu (literally the shining), the sky-god, was worshipped by

the ancestors of in their primeval abodes in Asia. After

Aryan bands descended in India he lost his place, and the sky in one of its peculiar functions usurped his place. The annual rise of rivers, fertility of land, and the luxuriance of crops depend, not on the sky which shines above us, but on the sky that rains

and Indra, which means the rain-giver, became the first among the 15 Vedic gods . Another ancient name of the sky-god was Varuna, the

Uranus of the Greeks. The word signifies to cover; and Varuna was

the sky-god which covered the earth, probably the sky without

light, the nightly sky. One finds another name for the bright sky of day, viz., Mitra, the Mithra of the Zendavesta

Worship of the sun, the moon, and the earth is also wide­ spread in Hindu religion. The sun or its deity, is one of the three chief deities in the Vedas, as the great source of light and warmth 17 . It is difficult to say when sun worship began in

India. There has been no age perhaps when man has not instinctively -28-

realised his beneficial role. Witnessing daily his leading role in Nature as creator oi day and night and producer of plants, vegetation and food, he must have realised his utility perhaps earlier than even the neolithic age, when he learnt to produce his own food, lived at a fixed place and began to domesticate 18 animals . Thus, he made the sun the centre of his gratitude, regard and worship.

3) LOCATION OF SHRINES :

The location of shrines can be explained in the context of geographical characteristics, e.g., their occurence on hill-top and dyke (Refer photographyNos. 1-9), in saddle (Refer photographs

Nos. 10 and 11), at the end of ghats in the hills, at the confluences of rivers and streams, at the source of important rivers (Refer photographs Nos. 12 and 13), in the bed and on the banks of rivers (Refer photographs Nos. 14-19), in the centre or on the bank of lakes, facing the sea front (Refer photograph No.

20), at the gates of old forts (Refer photograph No. 21) and close to mineral hot springs (Refer photograph No.22) etc. i) ON HILL TOPS :

From ancient times higher locations such as mountain peaks, hill tops, and top of dyks have been regarded as holy sites, originally as the home of gods. Therefore, the important Hindu

Shrines e.g., the Bhimashankar, the Khandoba at Jejuri,

Jotirlinga at Parli Vaijnatha, the temple of Tulja Bhavani at -29-

Tuljapur, Jotiba near , Saptashringi Devi at Vani near

Nasik, Chatuiishringi and Paravati at Poona city are located on hill tops. Hindu temple at Prakashe (Dist. Dhule) and mosque at

Nandurbar (Dist. Dhule) are located on dykes.

In the same way the Church of Mount Mary (a Christian Shrine), Dargah of saint Malang Baba (Muslim shrine)/ and Nemgiri, at Jintoor (District Parbhani) are located on hill tops. The prefix or suffix of some names too clearly indicate hill or hill-top locations. ii) ON RIVER BANKS :

For the Hindus important rivers as the Godavari (Daxina

Ganga), the Bhima, the Krishna, the Vainganga etc. have always been features of sanctity and so the river waters acquired a religious importance. Therefore, places at their sources or on ya their banks as Mahabaleshwar, Tr^mbakeshwar, Nasik, Bhimashankar,

Narashihawadi, Dehu, Alandi, and Pandharpur have acquired religious importance. iii) NEAR HOT SPRINGS :

The hot mineral Springs are holy religious features as they represented natural miracle to man since time immemorable.

The important hot mineral springs found in Maharashtra are at Khed, Unhala, Aravali, Tural, Rajwadi, Sangameshwar and -30-

Rajapur in Ratnagiri district; Unhere, Sav and Vadavali springs in Kolaba district; Akloli and Ganeshpuri group of springs

(Vajreshwari) in Thane district; Unabdev, Sanabdev and Najhardeo

in district and only one hot spring, i.e., Salbardi in

Amravati district. The suffixes of some names mean "god", (deo) here.

4) SEASONALITY, RELIGIOUS FAIRS AND FESTIVALS :

The influence of climatic elements finds expression in many

religious activities. The agricultural crop calendar is rooted in climatic seasons and to these are tied the traditional fairs and 19 festivals, which are mostly held after the harvesting seasons The Hindus practice animal sacrifices to gods^ as Xhandoba and

Viroba and organise village-feast on the following occasions : sowing season and harvesting season. Hindu marriage ceremonies are mostly held during April, May, and June. These are the months of plenty, i.e., when crops are harvested and the farmers are free from their agricultural activities. a) RELIGIOUS FAIRS :

It is seen that maximum number of fairs are held in Maharashtra during the month of April (4604 or 40.33 %) followed by February

(1392 or 12.18 %), December (949 or 8.30 %), and May (906 or

7.92 %) out of the total 11,425 fairs. (Refer Table No. 2.1 and Figure No. 2.1.). 4800

DISTRIBUTION OF FAIRS ACCORDING TO MONTHS IN to CH < MAHARASHTRA

& 2400 -

MONTHS

>- CH LU CH LU or < i— BE R 00 CD < 3 CH LU LU m > z: > O ARC H PRI L UGU S UL Y LU < 3 EPTE M CTOB E LU ,> < 2 —> —i < LO o o Q z: FIG.2-1 -31-

It is thus, clear that the maximum number of fairs occur in the months of April followed by February, December and May. These are the months of plenty, i.e., when crops are harvested and the farmers are in a mood to rejoice and they are free from agricultural activities. The three months of February, April and May together, therefore,share 60.43 % of the total fairs. June is the month of sowing operations and the farmers are busy with their work so the least number of fairs occurs in this month.

The size of fair depends also upon the success of crops, that in turn, depends upon the behaviour of Monsoon to a considerable extent. The commencement of Monsoon was delayed by about 2-3 weeks in 1983 and, therefore, the agriculturalists were mostly busy with agricultural operations at the time of

Ashadhi Ekadasi that year. As a result of it, the attendance of H 20 the devotees of Vitthala at Pandharpur was adversly affected b) RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS :

The occasion for rejoicing in the early stage of development of man corresponded with the major occurrences in nature and individual families : the commencement of spring (spring equinox), during the monsoon season (), winter solstice (Makar Sankranti) and with events in the life of men-birth and marriage. The present system of festivals is an organized form developed from this substratum. It also includes days commemorating -32-

episodes in Hindu Mythology and History. The year is divided

into a cycle of festivals celebrated in various ways (Refer

Table No. 2.2 and Figure No. 2.2).

I) HINDU RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS :

All Hindu festivals are of deep spiritual importance and j- high religious significance. All important festivals have religious,as well as, social and hygienic elements in them. Bathing in the morning before sunrise in the river or tank or well is an integral part of every festival. Every individual has also to offer some 'Japa', Prayer, 'Kirtan', or recitation of Sanskrit verses and meditation, to the god.

1) CHAITRA PRATIFADA :

The first day of Chaitra, i.e. Chaitra Sud. 1, the first

month of the Shalivahana Shaka which is mostly followed in

Maharashtra, is celebrated as Gudhi Padwa festival. The mythical

story is that the Brahma created the world on the first day of

Chaitra and named it as Pratipada.

2) SHRI RAMANAVAMI :

This historical festival falls on the 9th day of Chaitra. Shri Ramachandra, the divine hero of Ramayana, was born at noon on this day a few thousand years back and the occasion is celerabted by people on this day. HINDU RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS ACCORDING TO SEASONS TRAOlTlONAl MIHOU SCASONSj

..«.»«!>

FIG. 2 2 -33-

3) HANUMAK JAYANTI :

Hanuman is the incarnation (avatara) of Lord Siva and was

born to Anjani from Wind god. He is also known by such other names as Maruti, Pavana Suta and Pavan Kumar (Marut and Pavan means wind). The birth anniversary of Maruti falls on the full- moon day of Chaitra.

4) AKSHAY TRITTIYA :

It falls on Vaishakha Sud. 3 and marks the beginning of the warm season (Summer). Any work initiated on this auspicious day, it is believed will be successful. Therefore, the farmers commence their preparatory agricultural operations such as clearing the field of weeds and dry leaves etc., ploughing the field and manuring it and preparing seed-beds, etc., on this day.

5) NAGA PANCHAMI :

Shravan Sud. 5 is celebrated as Naga Panchami by the Hindus in Maharashtra. Cobras, either alive or in image form, are P venerated and worshipped by women on this day, for reasons mentioned earlier.

6) COCOANUT DAY (NARALI POURNIMA) :

The full-moon of Shravana (shravan Sud 15) is celebrated as cocoanut Day (Narali Pournima) in Maharashtra. The monsoon begins in Bombay generally on the seventh of June and continues -34-

v/ith all its fury till the middle of August or so and all sea

transport and fishing is temporarily paralysed. Offer of

cocoanut is made to calm the sea, and from that day onwards the

activities of seafaring and fishing in the sea are resumed.

7) SHRI KRISHNA JANMASTHAMI :

It is observed on the 8th day of the dark half of Shravana at midnight, in commemoration of the birth anniversary of Lord Krishna, the 8th incarnation of Lord Vishnu.

8) BAIL POLA OR VRISHABHGTSTAV :

This festival is observed by agriculturalists, particularly

all over Maharashtra, to honour the bullocks, that are so

indispensable in the traditional ways of agriculture. This

festival is generally observed on the new moon day of Shravana,

i.e. after the sowing operations are over.

9) GANESH CHATURTHI :

This mythological festival is observed throughout Maharashtra on Bhadrapad Sud. 4. It is of tremendous importance in Konkan at

the time when paddy crop is harvested.

10} VIJAYA DA5HAMI :

This is one of the major Hindu mythological festivals

celebrated to commemorate the return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya -35- on the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvina. Advantage is taken of the 'Muhurta' (auspicious day) for opening of new establishments, commencing movements and military campaigns in this monsoon land.

11) KOJAGIRI POURNIMA :

This is an important harvest festival that falls on

Ashvina full moon day (Ashvina Sud 15). It is also called

'Navanna' (New food), and from this day onwards the consumption of new grain is started after offering it to god.

12) HADAGA :

This is a festival celebrated by girls, especially, in the month of Ashvina, when the sun enters the constellation of

Hasta. As pola is celebrated by men to honour the bullocks, who help them to plough the land, Hadga is celebrated by girls to felicitate the rain god, who made cultivation of crops, possible.

13) DIVALI :

The festival proper starts with "Dhana Trayodashi" on the

13th day of the dark half of Ashvina and ends with "Yamadwitiya" or Bhau-bij on the 2nd day of the bright half of Kartika.

The Padwa day (1st day of the bright half of Kartika) marks the beginning of the Nev; Year for those who observe Vikram

Samvant and is celebrated accordingly by the trading community, in particular. -36-

Another important feature of the day is that the cow-shed is gaily decorated with Zendu flowers and Karita fruits (representing cows) are arranged in a row around a heap of cow- dung representing Mount Govardhan, The cattle, are decorated worshipped and fed with sweets.

Bahu-Bij falls on the 2nd day of the bright half of Kartika. Every married sister looks forward to a visit by her brothers on a this day for rejoicing when the sister receives present from brother.

14) MAKARSANKRANT :

This is very important religious festival of Hindus. It falls on the 13th or 14th of January (mostly latter) in the Hindu month of Pausha. Sankrant means the apparent passing of the Sun from one zodiac (Ras) to the next following. Though there are 12 Sankratis like this in a year, the one in which the Sun appears to pass from the Mithun to Karka Ras and the other in which it appears to pass from the Dhanu to Makar Ras are deemed as important, and called Karka Sankrant and Makar Sankrant, respectively. The significance lies in the fact that since the duration of the day starts increasing from Makar Sankrant onwards, it is useful for agriculture.

15) HOLI OR HOLIKOTSAV :

This is the last major festival in the Hindu calendar and falls on the full moon day of Phalguna. It marks the end of every -37-

thing that is low and rotten in the passing year by burning and

bawling it out and making way for the coming year by colour and

songs of the bewitching spring.

II) CROP CALENDAR AND TRIBAL FESTIVALS :

Most of the tribal festivals are closely related to the

field operations and protection of crops, animals, and also

villagers. Before starting any kind of the field operation they

worship the respective God and thus, celebrate a festival in his

honour. The relation between cultivation and festivals may be

identified as the "Crop Calendar and Festivals and Preventive 21 a Measures and Festivals" . The Gond festivals in Bhandra district are related to the cultivation, as discussed below (Refer Table No. 2.3). 1) BIDRI PUJA :

At the beginning of the sowing season a solemn sacrifice

is performed to obtain the blessing of "Thakur Deo" for the new

agricultural year and his protection for the whole village

community against diseases, other misfortunes and unexpected

calamities every year. This festival of sacrifice or home

offering is performed on the third moon day in the Hindu month

<^f Vaishakha (Akshaytrutiya) i.e. during harvesting season (April

or May). -38-

2) GHAILA :

On the day fixed by the headman of village, in the Hindu month of Jestha (May or June), the Ghaila festival is celebrated.

It is really a divination to find out how the monsoon of the year will turn out. On this occasion, the headman of the village,

Mokasi, calls a village virgin boy, preferably his own son, and tells him to fill an earthen pot (Ghaila) by water at the well.

The headman then takes the pot to his field. On a suitable spot in his field he puts his vessel down and then prepares five clouds of dry clay which he places in a circle. He then places the water vessel on these clods. The five clods of clay represent the five months of the rainy season viz. Jesth, Ashadh, Shravan,

Bhadrapad and Ashvin. After performing the puja and meal at

Thakurdeo temple all the men come back and inspect the pot

(Ghaila). The water seeping through the porous surface of the pot soaks and partly dissolves one or more of the clods of clay on which the vessel rests. The clod which is dissolved represents the month in which heavy rain is expected.

The Gonds have implicit faith in this divination. They believe that the Ghaila accurately foretells in which month heavy rain will fall and select accordingly what crops they should sow in their fields. If much rain is expected in Jesth, they sow paddy; if in Ashadh, they sow Kodo; if in Shravan then they sow Urda gram and Til; if in Bhadrapad, they sow Ramtil and Kutki. -39-

3) AKTIL :

In order to save the young plants and animals from the infection of rainy turbid water, Baiga (priest) on the new moon of the month of Ashadha (July), collects all the people and celebrates "Bali" and Dohara Puja, simultaneously. Cn that day, in the morning, villagers take out some seedlings of paddy from their respective fields and after the sacrifice of animal or home offering is niade^they offer these seedlings to Thakurdeo or other nearby gods. Then they commence replant these seedlings in the Khet (field) of Thakurdeo. The replantation operation of paddy seedlings starts only after celebrating Aktil.

4) GARAB PUJA :

There is a practice to protect the crop when it is in boot- stage for which the Gonds perform 'Garab Puja', on the new moon day of the month of Shravana (July-August). Their concept is that the crop can give a good yield only when it is protected at its boot-stage. So Baiga cultivators assemble on this day and worship the crop in their respective fields. Chicken or coconut and liquor are offered to god during this rite.

5) CHARU PUJA :

The ripe ears of the paddy are called "Charu". This festival is celebrated by all the cultivators in the village on the full moon-day of Ashvina (September-October). -40-

The Head of the family goes to his field and plucks a handful of paddy stems with ears. He performs the offering first in honour of Thakurdeo and other village Gods and Goddesses. Then goes home and performs a similar offering before the household gods. Harvesting operation commences following this rite. TA-769 |

6) SUNJORI :

When all the crops h&ve been harvested the Baiga calls a Panchayat (meeting) of all the cultivators. He ascertains that not a single land has standing crop on it. He then decides the date from which the process of threshing is to be started in the village. He pulls of a handful of paddy crop from paddy heap first and then only the cultivator is allowed to thresh the crop.

After threshing the crop, the grain is winnowed and heaped on the threshing floor. Then a lamp is lighted in front of the heap. The light has to burn throughout the night. On the day of carrying crops home, the cultivator has to worship his " "Sivaryadeo" , which is supposed to exist under the Mahua tree on the fringe of his field. A goat is traditionally offered to the god and its blood sprinkled on the new grain to consecrate it. Villagers enjoy a feast of meat, rice and pulses on this e occasion. It may be noted that the Bhils, Mahado Kolis and other tribes have different festivals, like this, associated with agricultural practises. T^v 7

It would be interesting to examine the aspect of diffusion of religions on this background. -42-

REFERENCES :

1. International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, Vol.5, David L. Sills (Editor), The MacMillan Company and the Free Press, 1968, p. 91.

2. The Encyclopaedia of Religion, Mircea Eliade -CEditor), Vol. 4, MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, 1987, p. 581.

3. Ibid. pp. 581-585. The author has drawn on this source profusely for this chapter.

4. Fickler Paul (1971) "Fundamental Questions in the Geography of Religions" in "Readings in Cultural Geography", Edited by V/egner Philip L., The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, p. 94.

5. Ibid. p. 94.

6. The Encyclopaedia of Religion, op. cit. p. 296.

7. Jorden T.G. (1973), The European Culture Area, "Harper and Row Publishers, New York/ London, p. 150.

8. Sopher David E. (1967) "Geography of Religions", Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi, p. 14.

9. Kosambi D.D., (1977),* The culture and Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical outline", Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi/Bombay, p. 34.

10. Ibid. p. 42-43.

11. Srinivas, K.R. (1971), "Temples in South India", National Book Trust, India, New Delhi, p. 8. -43-

Ibid. p. 9.

Ibid. p. 8.

Dutt R.C. (1891), ''Ancient India", Thackar, Spink and Co., Calcutta, p. 80.

Ibid. p. 80.

Ibid. p. 80.

Dowson J. (1957), "A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature", Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson and Co. Edinburgh and London, p. 310.

Clodd Edward (1921), "Animism, the seed of Religion", in "Sun-worship in Ancient India", by Pandey L.P., Motilal , Delhi/Varanasi, p. 1.

Deshpande CD. (1971) "Geography of Maharashtra", National Book Trust, India, New Delhi, p. 33.

Kesari, daily newspaper, , dated 21.7.1983.

D.V.S. Waghaye (1984), Crop Calendar and Festivals of Gonds of Bhandara District, Part I, Tribal Research and Training Institute, Maharashtra State, Pune, Vol. VI No. II, pp. 26-29.