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Charging Network Planning for Electric Bus Cities: a Case Study of Shenzhen, China

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Charging Network Planning for Electric Bus Cities: a Case Study of Shenzhen, China sustainability Article Charging Network Planning for Electric Bus Cities: A Case Study of Shenzhen, China Yuping Lin 1,2, Kai Zhang 1,3, Zuo-Jun Max Shen 2,4 and Lixin Miao 1,3,* 1 Center of Environmental Science & New Energy Technology, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China 2 Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA 3 Division of Logistics and Transportation, Graduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China 4 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 29 June 2019; Accepted: 18 August 2019; Published: 29 August 2019 Abstract: In 2017, Shenzhen replaced all its buses with battery e-buses (electric buses) and has become the first all-e-bus city in the world. Systematic planning of the supporting charging infrastructure for the electrified bus transportation system is required. Considering the number of city e-buses and the land scarcity, large-scale bus charging stations were preferred and adopted by the city. Compared with other EVs (electric vehicles), e-buses have operational tasks and different charging behavior. Since large-scale electricity-consuming stations will result in an intense burden on the power grid, it is necessary to consider both the transportation network and the power grid when planning the charging infrastructure. A cost-minimization model to jointly determine the deployment of bus charging stations and a grid connection scheme was put forward, which is essentially a three-fold assignment model. The problem was formulated as a mixed-integer second-order cone programming model, and a “No R” algorithm was proposed to improve the computational speed further. Computational studies, including a case study of Shenzhen, were implemented and the impacts of EV technology advancements on the cost and the infrastructure layout were also investigated. Keywords: charging station; electric bus; transportation network; power grid; location 1. Introduction 1.1. 100% Electric Bus City Today, problems associated with internal combustion engine vehicles have become severe and include oil shortage and vehicle emission pollution [1,2]. PM 2.5 pollution concerns many Chinese people who are living in cities. PM 2.5, which is particle matter in air with a diameter no greater than 2.5 microns, can easily absorb toxic substances that are introduced into humans’ pulmonary alveoli when we breathe them in. PM 2.5 comes from coal burning, vehicle emission, biomass burning, etc. In most cities in China, emissions from coal burning contribute the most to PM 2.5 levels. However, in big cities, such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen, vehicle emission is the biggest contributor among the sources of PM 2.5, accounting for 45.0%, 29.2%, 21.7%, and 52.1% in those cities, respectively [3]. Bus transportation is an important mode of travel, and it can mitigate city traffic congestion effectively. Public transportation, including bus transportation, is also one of the main modes of travel. For example, in the central areas of Beijing, journeys on public transportation accounted for 72% among Sustainability 2019, 11, 4713; doi:10.3390/su11174713 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability SustainabilitySustainability 20192019,, 1111,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 22 ofof 2828 Sustainability 2019, 11, 4713 2 of 27 travel.travel. ForFor example,example, inin thethe centralcentral areasareas ofof BeijingBeijing,, journeysjourneys onon publicpublic transportationtransportation accountedaccounted forfor 72% among all the journeys in 2018 [4]. The electrification of public transportation vehicles can further alleviateall the journeys the reliance in 2018 on [ 4oil]. Theand electrificationreduce the emission of public levels transportation [5,6]. Although vehicles the can volume further of alleviatebuses is smallerthesmaller reliance thanthan onprivateprivate oil and cars,cars, reduce busesbuses consumeconsume the emission considerableconsiderable levels [5 ,amountsamounts6]. Although ofof fuelfuel the becausebecause volume ofof theirtheir of buses longlong isoperationoperation smaller times.thantimes. private InIn addition,addition, cars, buses busbus consume powertrainpowertrain considerable andand workingworking amounts characteristics,characteristics, of fuel because suchsuch of asas their frequentfrequent long operation stoppingstopping times. andand startingInstarting addition, andand bus thethe powertrain heavyheavy loadsloads and transported,transported, working characteristics, resultresult inin highhigh such fuelfuel asconsumption.consumption. frequent stopping Diesel-poweredDiesel-powered and starting busesbuses and readilythereadily heavy emitemit loads moremore transported, particlesparticles thanthan result gasoline-poweredgasoline-powered in high fuel consumption. vevehicles do, Diesel-powered further aggravating buses readily the extent emit of more PM 2.5particles air pollution. than gasoline-powered For example, in vehiclesShenzhen, do, China, further diesel-powereddiesel-powered aggravating the busesbuses extent accountedaccounted of PM 2.5 forfor air 0.5%0.5% pollution. ofof thethe city’sForcity’s example, vehiclevehicle fleet, infleet, Shenzhen, butbut contributedcontributed China, diesel-powered 20%20% ofof vehiclevehicle emissions buses accounted [7]. E-buses, for 0.5% powered of the city’s by electricity vehicle fleet, and withbut contributed zero emissions, 20% ofare vehicle greatly emissions advocated [7 to]. E-buses,replace traditional powered by buses. electricity In China, and the with central zero emissions, and local governmentare greatly advocated has introduced to replace a series traditional of policies buses. with In China,massive the financial central andsubsidies local governmentto support bus has electrification.introduced a series Shenzhen, of policies a city with with massive a population financial of subsidies 12.5 million to support in Southern bus electrification. China, has become Shenzhen, the firstafirst city megacitymegacity with a population thatthat hashas achievedachieved of 12.5 millionfullfull busbus in electrificatelectrificat Southernion.ion. China, ByBy thethe has endend become ofof 2017,2017, the thethe first citycity megacity replacedreplaced that allall hasthethe previousachieved buses full bus with electrification. 16,359 pure By battery the end e-buses of 2017, and the has city the replaced largest e-bus all the fleet previous inin thethe buses worldworld with [7].[7]. 16,359EveryEvery buspure running battery e-buseson the androads has in the Shenzhen largest e-bus is an fleet electric in the busbus world [8].[8]. It [It7 ].isis Every estimatestimat bused running that an one-bus the roadsreduces in energyShenzhen consumption is an electric by bus 72.9% [8]. compared It is estimated with thata diesel an e-bus bus. reducesAccording energy to the consumption Shenzhen Transport by 72.9% Commission,compared with each a diesel year, bus. the use According of e-buses to the reduces Shenzhen fuelfuel Transportoiloil consumptionconsumption Commission, byby 345 eachthousand year, thetons, use and of thee-busesthe e-buse-bus reduces fleetfleet fuelreducesreduces oil consumption emissionsemissions by by 1.35 345 thousandmillion tons tons, of and carbon the e-bus dioxidedioxide fleet reduceslocally.locally. emissionsTheThe overalloverall by 1.35environmental million tons impact of carbon of e-bus dioxide use locally. depends The on overall the energy environmental mix. impact of e-bus use depends on the energyA large mix. number of e-bus charging stations are to be constructed to support e-bus operation. AccordingA large to number the growth of e-bus trend charging of automobiles stations an ared related to be constructed policies for to promoting support e-bus EVs [9,10], operation. the AccordingChinese government to the growth has trend estimated of automobiles that China and will related have policies more than for promoting5 million EVs EVs by [9, 10the], end the Chinese of 2020 [11].government[11]. 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