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COMPLEX POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER in THAI ELEPHANTS Prevalence and Management Implications

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COMPLEX POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER in THAI ELEPHANTS Prevalence and Management Implications Danielle Carnahan MS Conservation Medicine 2019 | Mentor: Chris Whittier COMPLEX POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER IN THAI ELEPHANTS Prevalence and Management Implications Table of Contents List of Tables and Figures ....................................................................................................... 2 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................... 3 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5 Training and Stress ................................................................................................................ 6 Common Uses of Elephants .................................................................................................... 7 Logging ..........................................................................................................................................7 Street Begging ...............................................................................................................................7 Performances ................................................................................................................................8 Elephant Camps .............................................................................................................................8 Forced Breeding .............................................................................................................................9 Implications of Working Elephants .................................................................................................9 Current Research ................................................................................................................. 10 The Brain .....................................................................................................................................10 PTSD vs. c-PTSD ........................................................................................................................... 12 Complex PTSD and PTSD as a Diagnosis ............................................................................... 14 One Health Component ....................................................................................................... 15 The Caregivers ............................................................................................................................. 15 The Environment ......................................................................................................................... 16 Manuscript .......................................................................................................................... 17 Abstract .......................................................................................................................................17 Introduction ................................................................................................................................17 Trans-Species Psychology ............................................................................................................. 20 Methods ......................................................................................................................................20 Study area and population ................................................................................................................................. 20 Data collection ................................................................................................................................................... 21 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 26 References........................................................................................................................... 27 Carnahan Case Study 1 List of Tables and Figures Table 1 PTSD Symptoms 18 Table 2 c-PTSD Behavioral Indicators 19 Figure 1 History Form Example 21 Figure 2 Behavioral Analyses Form 22 Figure 3 Symptom Distribution 22 Figure 3 Frequency of Symptoms 23 Carnahan Case Study 2 Executive Summary About 60% of the remaining Thai elephant population is living to serve as a tourist attraction; with an estimated 2,700 captive elephants and only 2,000-3,000 wild elephants remaining in Thailand (TECC, 2019). Unfortunately, the number of captive elephants continues to increase as the wild population steadily decreases due to the capture of elephants to be used in logging and tourism (IUCN, 2019). Other factors working against the Asian elephant include the fragmentation and loss of land as human development continues to expand (IUCN, 2019). The exploitation of Asian elephants in Thailand is contributing to the demise of the Thai elephant and the development of psychological trauma in those that are living for human gain. Psychological distress among captive elephants is not a new issue within elephant camps, proven through the excessive expression of stereotypical behaviors in captive elephants and the incidences of mahouts being injured and/or killed by their elephants. Due to the dominance-based training techniques and harsh management style frequently used in elephant camps, elephant psyche is often compromised, resulting in the presentation of dangerous and harmful behaviors (Rizzolo and Bradshaw, 2019). Research conducted by Hakeem et al. confirmed the high level of cognition elephants are capable of due to their large, convoluted hippocampi, putting them at risk for psychological disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (Hakeem et al., 2005). With such cognitive ability, emotional expression, and sentience, the current exploitation of elephants across Thailand in the logging and tourism industry is creating a physically and psychologically unhealthy captive elephant population (Rizzolo and Bradshaw, 2016). With the emergence of trans-species psychology research, researchers have been able to identify cases of post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (c-PTSD) in species including chimpanzees, African elephants and Asian elephants. The distinction between PTSD and c-PTSD is two-fold; first, c-PTSD is characterized by long term exposure to trauma or stress often early on in brain development causing undeveloped neuropathways to form (Rizzolo and Bradshaw, 2019). Second, c-PTSD is most often seen in captive animals while PTSD is more commonly diagnosed in wild/free-range animals. This case study focuses on the expression of symptoms consistent with c-PTSD in a group of rescued Asian elephants in Thailand. Beginning with a review of the use of Asian elephants in tourism and logging throughout Thailand, providing extensive background on training methods and how a life of work impacts both the physical and psychological health of the elephant. Next, an evaluation of the psychological health of rescued elephants at a sanctuary in Northern Thailand is reviewed. The objective of the research done in this case study is to advance knowledge around the psychological impacts of unfair working conditions to improve safety and welfare practices in sanctuaries. In achieving a better understanding of how the brain reacts to trauma and stress, identifying symptoms and triggers, and pinpointing which Carnahan Case Study 3 management methods are most efficient in reducing symptoms and removing triggers, a decline in potentially dangerous and unhealthy behaviors may be seen in captive elephants across Thailand. This study evaluates 11 elephants residing in a sanctuary in Northern Thailand where they are able to live a life of autonomy, free of cruelty. After obtaining information regarding the health, behaviors, and personal history of the elephants upon entrance to the sanctuary, behavioral observations were able to commence to track the progress of each individual. Psychological health differed greatly between elephants, this could be due to a number of reasons, such as: type of work the individual was rescued from, age at time of separation from mother/if the elephant was wild caught or captive bred, number of years residing in the sanctuary, and differences in personality which can impact the ways in which individuals are able to cope with stress and trauma. Interviews with caregivers to learn life history, paired with behavioral analysis, led to finding six of the 11 elephants with psychological disturbance consistent with behaviors of c- PTSD. Although 55% of the sample population was found to exhibit pathological trauma, all 11 sanctuary residents have shown improvement since their time of rescue. By providing the elephants with a management style that offers autonomy and self-determination, symptoms of trauma can be alleviated (Rizzolo and Bradshaw, 2016). In managing elephants with symptoms of pathological trauma, it is critical to individualize treatment; for example, if an individual elephant experiences elevated stress levels when they are put into an enclosure at night, putting them on a single leg long chain in an open space may be a better option, and vice versa. By interpreting behavioral cues as a means of communication, sanctuary owners and caregivers can better address the needs of their elephants and treat them as individuals, rather than using blanket management strategies. Carnahan Case Study 4 Introduction Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are listed as endangered and decreasing on the
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