TROPICS Vol. 17 (4) Issued October 15, 2008

Unforced control of fishing activities as a result of coexistence with underwater protected areas in National Park, East Africa

1＊ 2 3 4 Tetsu SATO , Naoki MAKIMOTO , Davie MWAFULIRWA and Shinji MIZOIRI

1 Nagano University, Faculty of Tourism and Environmental Studies Ueda, Nagano, Japan 2 Aichi Prefecture, Japan 3 Lake Malawi National Park, Republic of Malawi 4 Tokyo Institute of Technology, Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yokohama, Japan ＊Corresponding author; Tel: 0268-39-0001, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT We made a detailed study of fishing inappropriate law enforcement, lack of incentives for activities by artisanal fishermen using gill nets CBM, economic pressures, and other reasons (Hackel, and ecology of their target in 2000 and 1999, Newman, 2001, but see Nishizaki (2004) for 2001 in Lake Malawi National Park in east Africa, successful examples). where fishing activities seemed to coexist with the Fishes of the Great Lakes of East Africa (Lakes regulations of underwater protected areas (PAs) Malawi, Tanganyika and Victoria) are vital protein and fish stocks seemed to be maintained well. The resources for people in riparian countries. Under overall ratio of the illegal nets in the PAs was 26%. pressure of population growth and poverty, the fish Even though there was no effective law enforcement stocks in these lakes show various degree of over activity by the national park authority, fishermen exploitation (Goudswaard et al. 2002, O’Reilly et al. 2003, tended to avoid setting nets near the boarder of PAs Malawi Sustainable Development Network Programme, in the areas directly visible from the village, and 1998). Attempts have been made to manage these fish they tended to use small cryptic buoys when they resources by controlling fishing with regulation of fishing set nets inside the PAs. A large coastal area was gears and seasons, protected areas, and community relatively less exploited as a result of this unforced based management. However, under increasing demand control, probably resulting in current good stock for fishery products, inappropriate law enforcement status of catfishes. We discuss the reasons of this caused by insufficient funding and human resources, unforced control in the light of acceptance of, and and conflicts between local fishers and enforcement coexistence with the national park, interaction with authorities have often resulted in continuing degradation external scientists, and local leadership. of fish stocks and other resources (Scholtz et al. 1998) Lake Malawi National Park was established in 1980 Key words: underwater protected areas (PAs), gill to protect endemic species occurring in shallow net fishing, reserved fishing activities, acceptance rocky areas (Anonymous, 1981). It consists of underwater of regulation, indigenous knowledge, leadership, protected areas (PAs) within 100m distance from the Lake Malawi shore and land protected areas (Smith, 1993). Five fishing villages exist in the park, and Chembe village is the largest with ca. 15000 populations. Artisanal fishermen INTRODUCTION engaged in various fishing activities including gill-netting Sustainable management of natural resources is targeting large catfishes. Although the areas across the the most important environmental issue in developing boarder of underwater PAs were a good fishing ground countries where natural resources are vital to human for these catfishes, and virtually no enforcement had been livelihood. Various attempts have been made to establish made by the National Park authorities (Makimoto, 1999), effective management systems by setting protected areas stocks seemed to be maintained well and the and introducing community-based management protocols presence of the underwater protected areas (PAs) was (Anderson and Grove, 1989, Western and Wright, 1994). generally accepted by the villagers with little conflicts. However, these attempts have often been hampered by In order to understand factors affecting this 336 Tetsu SATO, Naoki MAKIMOTO, Davie MWAFULIRWA and Shinji MIZOIRI coexistence of fishing activities and regulations of the fishermen set their nets in the evening and retrieve them PAs accompanied with seemingly good stock status in the early morning of the following day. We patrolled of catfishes, we made detailed study of the fishing on the lake along the boarder of the PAs in the evening behavior of artisanal fishermen using gill nets, the catch between 1630 to 1800 hours just after the most fishermen assessment on the landing beach, and ecology of their finished setting nets (Fig. 1). When we found buoys of gill target catfishes in 2000 and 2001 at Chembe village with nets on the lake, we recorded their positions with a GPS the following assumptions. and the depth of water using a portable echo sounder. We (1) There may be some factors in fishing patterns of also recorded the size, shape and material of the buoy artisanal fishermen which may contribute to good stock for identification of the nets and their owner. In total, we status of the catfishes. made these censuses for 35 days. (2) These factors may develop through the We made censuses of the nets landed on the beach interactions between local community and the National of Chembe village in the early morning of the following Park. (3) Inflow of external scientific knowledge and local leadership may play certain roles in shaping fishermen’s attitude to the PAs regulations and their fishing patterns. In this paper, we analyze the fishing patterns and catches of catfishes in relation to PAs in the light of results of anecdotal interviews and observations of villager’s behavior, and discuss the possible indirect effect of the underwater protected areas to the fishermen’ s behavior without effective law enforcement.

METHODS We conducted field surveys at Chembe village (including adjacent Dwale village) located at the tip of Cape Maclear, Lake Malawi National Park from 2 January 2000 to 6 March 2001. We visited the village for a few days at an interval of 2 to 4weeks, and conducted census of the netting sites of the gill net fishing along the boarder of the underwater protected areas (Fig. 1) and made assessments of catches of gill netting. Gill nets (locally called Machera) are consisted of a net of 200m to 1km in length (commonly from 200 to 300m) with mesh sizes ranging from 2.5 to 15cm and a height of 1m, ropes at the both ends, and two buoys at the other ends of the ropes. Gill nets are one of the simplest and low cost fishing gears. The buoys are made from PET bottles, Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the study area and census styroform blocks, pieces of woods and other routs. Census was made each evening by following the everyday materials, and have characteristic regular observation rout by boat. Catch assessment and interviews were conducted at the landing sites along the shapes and sizes in order for the fishermen beach in the villages in the morning of the subsequent to identify their own nets on the lake. Gill net day. See text for details. Unforced control of netting by artisanal fishermen in Malawi 337 day from 0530 to 8000 hours (38 days). When we found In order to assess the effectiveness of enforcement a gill net, we recorded the sizes, shapes and materials by the National Park Office, we interviewed National of buoys at both ends of the net, mesh sizes, height of Park officers and fishermen for the frequencies of the the nets, and their owner. The pair of the buoys of each patrols on the lake. net was identified and used for matching positional data of the buoys belonging to the same nets. We recorded the species, approximate weights, numbers and prices RESULTS of fishes of each species for the nets that we found on Table 1 summarizes the numbers of gill nets in relation the lake on the previous days. Additional censuses were to the underwater protected areas (PAs). In total, we made for 18 days in order to record the characteristics of identified fishing sites of 385 gill nets (daily mean of 11.0 the buoys and assessment of the catches. We haphazardly ± 4.8SD nets) belonging to Chembe (including Dwale), made interviews of the net owners, fishermen and other and matched the buoys at both ends for 60 nets on the villagers to record length of the net, prices of fishes, their attitude towards regulations of the National Park, and important events in the village related to fishing. A large Bagrid catfish, B a g r u s meridionalis, is known locally as Kampango, and targeted by some gill net fishermen as an important commercial species. The catfish is sold on the beach for smoking with good prices, carried to large cities and consumed. This species is known to perform biparental guarding of eggs and young in shallow water during rainy seasons for up to three months until the young grow up to 100 mm in length. During the parental guarding, the female parents regularly spawn unfertilized trophic eggs to feed their young (Mackeye, 1986, LoVullo et al. 1992, Sato and Mwaflirwa, unpublished observation). As they gather at the shallow water to make nests and stay at the same place for a long period, they are a good target of the gill net and long line fishing. They are vulnerable for fishing pressure because shallow water fishing is likely to harvest breeding pairs. We therefore conducted regular underwater observations of the distribution of their breeding nests, and compared it to the distributions of netting sites. During the breeding seasons of Kampango from September 1999 to April 2000 and November 2000 to March 2001, we regularly dived along the coasts of the PAs at the depths from 0 to 40m at an interval of 2 to 4 weeks. We recorded rough positions of the Fig. 2. Distribution of buoys of gill nets set by six major nests identified by the name of the nearest fishermen during the entire study period. Each symbol beach and their depth. In total, we identified with a serial number represents a buoy belonging to the same fisherman. Two symbols connected by a line position and depths of 126 Kampango nests represent a pair of buoys from a net. Shaded areas during this study. represent underwater protected areas (PAs). 338 Tetsu SATO, Naoki MAKIMOTO, Davie MWAFULIRWA and Shinji MIZOIRI lake. Figure 2 represents an example of the distribution equal-sized buoys when they set nets outside the PAs (25 of the nets in the study area. Among these nets, 99 (26%, out of 36). On the other hand, they mainly used nets with 2.8 nets per day) were illegal as all or a part of nets were asymmetrical buoys inside the PAs (17 out of 24, χ2 test, inside the PAs. We identified the buoys at the both ends P=0.004). of 28 nets in the PAs, while we found only one buoy for As shown in Figure 2, the coast of West Thumbi remaining 71 cases. This result might underestimate Island was the most intensive fishing ground for gill net the number of nets in the PAs, because we sometimes fishermen. The Southwestern coast behind the island found one buoy outside and nearby the PAs boarders and is concealed from the village and fishermen’s activity is failed to find the other end which might be inside the invisible from the village, whereas the Northeastern coast PAs. When we assumed a part of these nets being placed faces to the village where villagers can observe fishermen inside PAs, the maximum estimate of illegal nets was 205 setting and retrieving nets. The numbers of the nets set (53%, 5.9 nets per day). inside the PAs along the Northeastern coast (visible side) Among 28 nets in the PAs in which we matched the was 14 (0-3 per diem) and it was significantly fewer than buoys at the both ends of the nets, 89% were set across those set along the Southwestern coast hidden from the the boarder of the PAs with one buoy inside and another village (51 nets, 0-6 per diem, Mann-Whitney U-test, n=35, being placed outside. The per diem number of nets set U=360.0, p < 0.003. across the boarder was significantly larger than those set The fewer number of illegal gill nets along the visible entirely inside the PAs (Table 1 a and b). coast of the island may be due to lower abundance of Among 60 nets with identified pair of buoys on the their major target, Kampango ( meridionalis). lake, 36 had equal-sized large buoys at both ends of the Therefore, we made comparisons of the number of their nets, while 24 had a pair of apparently asymmetrical breeding nests among the Southwest and Northeast buoys. The nets had one large (20 to 50 cm) and coasts of West Thumbi Island as well as Southwestern conspicuous buoy made from PET bottles, bottles coast of Domwe Island that was visible from the village of cooking oil (5 litters), styroform blocks and other with less frequency of gill netting (Fig. 2). The total materials with bright colorations, while the buoy at the numbers of breeding nests were 47 for Southwest West other end was very small (>15cm) and made from a piece Thumbi, 60 for Northeast, and 19 for Domwe, indicating of wood, a piece of styroform, a bottle of outboard engine abundance of Kampango nests around West Thumbi oil (500ml), and other materials with cryptic colorations. island even along the coast faced to the village. Figure In 25 cases where the nets were set across the boarder, 3 represents the depth distribution of the Kampango 60% used the small cryptic buoys inside the PAs and nests at these coastlines. The breeding nests along the the large conspicuous ones outside (Table 1, c). The Southeastern coast of West Thumbi (invisible from the remaining had two large buoys at the both ends (Table 1, village) distributed significantly deeper than other two d) and there was no case with the large buoy inside and coastlines that were visible from the village. This result small one outside. Fishermen tended to use nets with indicated that fishermen had to set gill net near to the

Table 1. Summary of the positions of gill nets (N=385) in relation to the underwater protected areas (PAs). The nets were illegal when one or two buoys at both ends of the nets were found inside the PAs. When the positions of the buoys at both ends of the illegal nets were recorded (N=28), we further categorized them into (a) those set across the boarder of PAs and (b) those set entirely inside the PAs. We classified the nets set across the boarder of the PAs (N=25) into (c) those with small buoys placed inside and large ones outside the PAs and (d) with two large buoys. *: Mann-Whitney U-test, n=35, U=336.0, p < 0.0001 Legal Illegal buoy sizes inside and outside Total net positions across the boarder PAs (c) small in (a) part in PAs (b) all in PAs (d) both large PAs Total 287/385 99/385 25/28 3/28 15/25 10/25 number number/day 3-22 0-7 0-3＊ 0-1＊ 0-3 0-1 (range) Unforced control of netting by artisanal fishermen in Malawi 339

* * 30 hidden ) visible m (

h t 20 p e D

10

0 SW Thumbi NE Thumbi Domwe (47) (60) (19) Fig. 3. Depth distribution of Kampango (Bagrus meridionalis) nests along the coasts of West Thumbi and Domwe Islands. The Southwestern coast of West Thumbi Island (SW Thumbi) is concealed from the village by the island and fishing activities there is hidden from the village. The Northeast side of West Thumbi (NE Thumbi) and Southwest Domwe are visible from the village. Numbers in parenthesis on the bottom represent numbers of breeding nests observed underwater. *: Kruscal Wallis test with Dunn’s multiple comparison, H=29.18, p < 0.001

) ns (a) ns g (b)

( 15000

t e n / t n

u 10000 o m a

h

c 5000 t a c

0 inside PA outside PA SW Thumbi NE Thumbi (14) (36) (33) (18) Fig. 4. Comparison of the amount of catch from the nets which we determined the exact positions on the lake prior to the landing. (a); Catch amounts inside and outside the underwater protected area (PAs) of all nets that we found on the lake in the evening and recorded catch amount in the morning of the subsequent days. (b); catch of the nets along the Southwestern coast of West Thumbi Island (SW Thumbi) that was concealed from the village, and those along the Northeastern coast (NE Thumbi) that was visible from the village. Numbers in parenthesis represents numbers of nets observed. Mann-Whitney U-test, (a) , (b) U=197.0, p=0.24, (b) U=259.0, p=0.46 beach when they targeted nesting Kampango along the the large variance of catch amount observed among nets visible coastlines of these islands, and the illegality of the outside the PAs. When we compared catches from the fishing activities in such a close proximity to the islands nets around West Thumbi Island, we neither detected seemed obvious even when they were viewed from a long significant differences between the nets set along the distance from the village. coast hidden from the village and those along the visible Figure 4a represents the amount of catch of the coast (Figure 4b). The above exceptional nets were identified nets on the lake that were measured next set offshore the hidden Southwestern coast, thereby morning at the landing sites. There was no significant contributing again to the large variance of catch amount difference in catch between the nets set inside and along the hidden coast. outside the PAs. However, we found three exceptional The anecdotal interviews to the fishermen and cases of a large catch (mostly Kampango, 14000, 13050, observations of villager’s behavior revealed following and 11600g, respectively) at the same deep fishing site general perceptions and tendencies on the underwater (58m) outside the PAs by the same fishermen during protected areas (PAs) and their life. All fishermen clearly consecutive three days from 29th November to 1st recognized the regulations of the PAs. They shared the December, 2000. These exceptional cases contributed idea that they could catch more fishes in the PAs, but 340 Tetsu SATO, Naoki MAKIMOTO, Davie MWAFULIRWA and Shinji MIZOIRI they always denied their commitment to illegal fishing. position of the nets, and regulated the sizes of buoys One fisherman suggested that he might commit fishing according to netting positions inside and outside the in the PAs due to economic reasons (school costs for PAs. They preferred to set gill nets along the coast of his children). They neither explicitly complained for West Thumbi Island where their fishing activities were regulations of the PAs, nor for regulations of fuel wood concealed from the village, and the distribution of the collection in the land protected areas. They commonly breeding nests of their major target (Kampango) was observed decline of fish catches in recent years, and deeper and thus relatively offshore compared to the they tended to ascribe it to lowering of water levels of coasts that were visible from the village. These results the lake. They never disclosed their fishing sites during strongly suggest that the fishermen are conscious about our interviews. One fisherman mentioned that he found illegality of their netting inside the PAs and especially it difficult to find his own net on the lake in a strong care for the eyes of villagers and other fishermen. They wind. On the landing beach, fishermen generally had a seemed to avoid explicit illegal fishing being observed tendency to hide the smaller cryptic buoy by dropping by villagers, resulting in their reserved fishing inside the the nets on it or quickly removing it from the net. PAs. Villagers seemed to be conscious about the On the other hand, fishermen were not suffered worldwide value of the endemic fishes of Lake Malawi. by this fishing pattern as our comparison of catches We were often questioned by fishermen and other between nets inside and outside the PAs, as well as those villagers the reason why the lake fishes attracted interests between visible and invisible sides of the islands, showed of scientists from all over the world, and our answers no significant differences. The large coastal areas of the seemed to satisfy their curiosity and proud. islands (Northeastern West Thumbi and Southwestern The traditional authority (Chief Chembe) was said Domwe) facing the village were relatively unexploited to have a strong authority to determine tenure and because of this fishing pattern, probably resulting in residence in the village. Fishing activities near the village seemingly good stock status of large catfishes in this and landing of fishes at the beach of Chembe were open area. to the fishermen from outside the village, and entry to The anecdotal interviews to fishermen and villagers the fishing industry seemed unregulated in general. revealed that the regulations of the protected areas, both People with various jobs engaged in part-time fishing. underwater and on land, were well known and accepted However, during our study period, one young fisherman by them with less conflict. Ironically, the ineffective law was expelled from the village due to his behavior to enforcement of the national park seemed to contribute neglect local consuetude. One monofilament gill net (first upon the coexistence between the protected areas and one to the village as far as we knew) was banned by the villagers’ life, as well as fishermen’s attitude to regard the Chief because the net captured excess amount of fishes regulations as much as they could. that was unfair to other fishermen. Village people tended The villagers seemed to develop a boast to their to forbear from cutting live trees (banned by the national own lake and its fishes in the course of interactions park regulation) because“ Chief Chembe would be with external scientists who brought in the scientific furious”. knowledge including worldwide value of the fishes of the During our study period, there was no patrol of lake (Makimoto, 1999). This interaction further affected underwater protected areas by the Lake Malawi National their value toward the fishes and food habits. Kada et Park authorities. National park officials ascribed it to lack al. (2002) found that cichlid fishes of the rocky areas of fuel and personnel for patrol boat. collectively known as Mbuna, the major conservation target of the national park, were regarded by villagers as “distasteful and unpalatable”, even though these fishes DISCUSSION were widely consumed in other areas. They interpreted The present results indicated that the ratio of illegal this as a result of changes of villagers’ perception gill net fishing remained relatively low (between 26% towards the fish group of conservation targets after the observed and 53% estimated maximum) even though establishment of the national park. Such boasts and there was no law enforcement activities during our study change of value through the interactions with external period. Fishermen deliberately used asymmetrical pair knowledge may a part be responsible for shaping the of buoys with the small cryptic buoys being placed inside attitude of the fishermen to avoid explicit illegal fishing. the underwater protected areas (PAs) to conceal the For the villagers, the regulations of the protected Unforced control of netting by artisanal fishermen in Malawi 341 areas seemed to overlap consistently with the power of to their own resources, and by effectively incorporating the traditional authority, Chief Chembe. Even though existing traditional decision making systems into Chief Chembe seemed rarely enforce PAs regulations the management systems while maintaining its own upon villagers, the villagers seemed to regard the traditional logical framework. Chief as the major power to control their activities in This unforced control system of fishing activities the protected areas including fishing and fuel wood seemed effective in managing local fishing efforts and collection. Although the traditional decision making areas, but was not regarded as sustainable as it was. It did system centered at the Chief had a logical structures not have systems to monitor and respond to deterioration different from conservation schemes, it seemed to act of stock status, mainly dependent on the personality as the unintended enforcement power of the externally of the traditional leader, and probably vulnerable to determined regulations of the national park because of external economic pressures such as changes in demand reduced conflicts and consistency between them, and and value of fishery products. Continuous production shaped fishermen’s tendency to avoid their illegal fishing of scientific knowledge on environmental and stock to be seen by others, and, as a result, to draw attention of conditions and incorporation of its outcomes into villagers the Chief. indigenous knowledge systems, organizational structures The inappropriate law enforcement and conflicts for succession of good leadership, and economic between national parks and local residents have been incentives for resource management are desperately regarded as the major factors of failures in national needed to establish community-born sustainable park management in Africa (Nishizaki, 2004). These management system of fisheries resources in this area factors also hampered the attempts of community based based on combinations of externally driven regulations, management. Lake Malawi National Park has been seen scientific and indigenous knowledge, value systems and as one of the typical example of inappropriate regulations leadership in the local community. and poor law enforcement resulting in failure to control the illegal activities by villagers (Abbot and Homewood, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was conducted 1999, Abbot and Mace, 1999). However, the present as a part of“ Lake Malawi Ecology Project”, a research results indicated that, even though there was no law cooperation between University of Malawi and Kyoto enforcement activity on the lake, the coexistence of University under Japan International Cooperation protected areas and fishing activities with less conflict Agency. We thank late Harvey Kabwazi, Aggrey Ambali would result in unforced control of fishing activities, and all other members of the project for their support thereby contributing relatively good stock status. This throughout the study period. We are indebted to many could be the result of indirect effects of the protected people of Chembe village, and especially late Chief areas that targeted conservation of endemic species of Chembe, for their kind acceptance and assistance to little commercial importance. Such indirect effects was the field research. This paper is dedicated to late Davie mediated by inflow of external scientific knowledge that Mwafulirwa, our beloved friend and dependable research stimulated the boast and affection of villagers toward the comrade, both on land and in the water. lake and its fishes, and the consistent overlap of existing local leadership and regulations of external origin. By changing fishing patterns of the artisanal fishermen of REFERENCES the community, this indirect effect would have a potential Abbot, J. I. O. & Homewood, K. 1999. 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